The MFL Compendium Articles On Magnetic Flux Leakage (Ebook)

The MFL Compendium:
Articles on Magnetic Flux Leakage
American Society for Nondestructive Testing

Catalog No. 212 Collected from Materials Evaluation
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-210-5 Published from 1953 through 2006
The MFL Compendium:
Collected from Materials Evaluation Published from 1953 Through 2006
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing
Copyright by ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Chandrashekhar Thiramdas, Quality Manager, 213826, 9/9/2014 11:17:02 AM EST. Single User
License only. Copying, reselling and networking prohibited.
Copyright © 2010 by The American Society for Nondestructive Testing.
The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. (ASNT) is not responsible for the authenticity or accuracy of information herein.
Published opinions and statements do not necessarily reflect the opinion of ASNT. Products or services that are advertised or mentioned
do not carry the endorsement or recommendation of ASNT.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form, by means electronic or mechanical including photocopying,
recording or otherwise, without the expressed prior written permission of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
IRRSP, NDT Handbook, The NDT Technician and www.asnt.org are trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing,
Inc. ACCP, ASNT, Level III Study Guide, Materials Evaluation, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation and
RNDE are registered trademarks of The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.
first printing 08/10

ebook 06/13
Errata if available for this printing may be obtained from ASNT’s web site, www.asnt.org
ISBN-13:978-1-57117-210-5 (print)
ISBN-13:978-1-57117-303-4 (ebook)
Printed in the United States of America
Published by: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

1711 Arlingate Lane
Columbus, OH 43228-0518
www.asnt.org
Compiled by: Joy Grimm, Desktop Publishing Assistant

Edited by: Toni Kervina, Assistant Editor, Materials Evaluation
Cynthia M. Leeman, Educational Materials Supervisor
Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications
ASNT Mission Statement:

ASNT exists to create a safer world by promoting the profession and technologies of nondestructive testing.
1 More Accurate Localized Wire Rope Testing Based on Hall
Sensor Array
by Yinni Cao, Donglai Zhang, Chao Wang and Dianguo Xu
6 Electromagnetic NDT Techniques — A 40 Year Retrospective or

Retirement for Cause
by William Lord
11 Shape Enhancement of Magnetic Flux Leakage Signals:

Industrial Implementation
by J. Etcheverry, A. Nicolini, A. Pignotti, G. Sánchez and P. Stickar
16 Use of the Finite Element Method in Simulation and

Visualization of Electromagnetic Nondestructive Testing
Applications
by David C. Carpenter
21 Monte Carlo Simulation of False Alarms and Detection

Reliability in Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection of Steel Tubes
by Eduardo Altschuler, Alberto Pignotti, and Jonas Paiuk
25 Magnetic Flux Leakage as Applied to Aboveground Storage

Tank Floor Inspections
by David M. Amos
28 Computerized Operational Control of an Electromagnetic Wire

Rope Tester
by Lorant B. Geller, K. Leung, and F. Kitzinger
32 Simple Explanation of the Theory of the Total Magnetic Flux

Method for the Measurement of Ferromagnetic Cross Sections
by Roderick K. Stanley
38 Combining Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Leakage

for Tank Floor Inspection
by Zhongqing You and David Bauer
42 Electromagnetic Inspection: Wall Loss and Flaw

Location in Oil Country
by C. Wade Eden
45 Total-Flux Magnetic Method for Inspection of Installed
Ferromagnetic Tubing
by James G. Kirkwood and Roderic K. Stanley
49 Test Rigs for Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection Tools

for Pipelines
by David D. Mackintosh, David L. Atherton, Patrick C. Porter, and
Albert Teitsma
54 History and Development of Rail Flaw Detector Cars

by Walter R. Keevil
60 Flux Leakage Testing Applied to Operational Pipelines

by R. W. E. Shannon and L. Jackson
67 Electromagnetic Wire Rope Inspection in Germany,

1925–40
by Herbert R. Weischedel
70 The Origins of Electromagnetic Testing

by Robert C. McMaster
83 SAM Inspection Systems for Oil Country Tubular Goods

by T. Shiraiwa, T. Hiroshima, T. Hirota, and T. Sakamoto
88 The Nondestructive Inspection of Tubings

for Discontinuities and Wall Thickness Using
Electromagnetic Test Methods (Part 1)
by Friedrich Forster
97 The Nondestructive Inspection of Tubings

for Discontinuities and Wall Thickness Using
Electromagnetic Test Methods (Part 2)
106 Industrial Evaluation of Search Coil Flaw Detection

Techniques
by C. H. Hastings and G. A. Darcy, Physicists
Preface
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) is a readily accepted method of nondestructive testing, but it has only become
officially recognized in the last few years as a distinct method by The American Society for Nondestructive
Testing (ASNT). Often grouped together with magnetic particle testing, MFL uses magnets and specialized
instruments in order to magnetize steel to test for corrosion and pitting. As a result, the measurable magnetic
fields “leak” from areas containing discontinuities. This method is especially useful in the pipeline and storage
tank industries, and is proven to be cost-effective in determining the integrity of structures.
This compendium is a compilation of technical articles on the MFL test method that have been published in
ASNT’s journal, Materials Evaluation, from 1953 through 2006. It was compiled at the request of the Magnetic
Flux Leakage Committee of the ASNT Technical and Education Council in order to provide additional reference
material for the development of the MFL body of knowledge that will be included in the 2011 edition of ANSI/
ASNT American National Standard CP-105, ASNT Standard Topical Outlines for Qualification of Nondestructive
Testing Personnel. The Compendium is also one of the references used in the development of the ASNT NDT
Level III examination for magnetic flux leakage. The contained research and findings offer real-world and
laboratory-tested insight into the field of MFL testing and can be useful to a diverse readership.
For the student, this guide will be an invaluable tool toward a greater understanding and overall knowledge of
MFL. For the seasoned technician, the compendium can serve as a reference book that documents past and
present articles on the method.
More Accurate Localized Wire Rope
Testing Based on Hall Sensor Array
by Yinni Cao, Donglai Zhang, Chao Wang and Dianguo Xu
Abstract have a considerable effect on wire rope’s residual

Most traditional wire rope instruments give the sum of the load-carrying capacity. Instrumentation based on Hall
circumferential magnetic leakage of magnetized wire ropes sensor arrays, which provide a map of the magnetic
and identify localized discontinuities according to it. In field over the unwrapped surface of the rope, have been
this way, the circumferential distribution of discontinuities, proposed (Nussbaum, 1999). A prototype, with Hall
which has a considerable effect on wire rope’s residual sensors uniformly distributed around the rope from
load-carrying capacity for the same number of breaks or which the three-dimensional magnetic leakage signal
other faults of the same degree, is ignored. A wire rope of the rope surface is captured, is discussed in this
testing prototype based on a Hall sensor array is developed paper. A spatial notch filter is designed to eliminate the
to acquire the three-dimensional magnetic leakage of strand-waveform component from the original signal.
the rope surface, which is sensitive to the circumferential The filtered discontinuity signal is transformed to a
distribution of wire rope discontinuities, can distinguish corresponding grayscale map, and then the technique
between concentrated broken wires and dispersive of image identification is introduced to identify
ones, and gives more accurate localized discontinuity localized discontinuities. This kind of testing obtains
identification with the method of two-dimensional the circumferential information of discontinuities, so
image processing. Experimental results show that the it will provide more comprehensive information about
discrimination of the signal processing method for typical localized discontinuities.
localized discontinuities, such as broken wires of different
degrees or raised wires, can reach 91%. Sensor Head with Hall Effect Sensor Array
Keywords: wire rope, localized discontinuity, magnetic Testing wire rope with Hall effect sensors is one
flux leakage, Hall sensor array. technique within the electromagnetic testing method.
The operational principles and effectiveness of
Introduction electromagnetic testing have been expounded and
Nondestructive testing (NDT) of wire ropes is a reviewed intensively (Haller, 1998; Stanley, 1995;
challenging task in many industries, including mining, Weischedel, 1985; Weischedel, 1987; Weischedel,
metallurgy, shipping, tourism and architecture. NDT 1990). Theoretically, an annular array of Hall sensors
devices for wire rope testing have been in use for distributed around a magnetized wire rope will capture
almost 60 years. The only truly effective method that the stray field of the rope surface when the sensors
is in current use is electromagnetic testing (Health and or the rope are moving, which provides more subtle
Safety Executive, 2000). The quantitative measurement information about wire rope discontinuities.
of loss of metallic area has been realized to a certain A schematic view of the sensor head with a Hall
extent through electromagnetic testing, though it sensor array is shown in Figure 1a and a photographic
requires a degree of interpretation, but there are more view is shown in Figure 1b; this is designed for rope
difficulties to the classification and quantitative testing of diameters between 30 and 40 mm, and there are 30
of localized discontinuities. Hall sensors in it, which respond to the radial magnetic
Most traditional instruments test for wire flux leakage surrounding the rope. A photographic view
rope discontinuities according to the sum of the of the sensors and an analog multiplexer are shown in
circumferential magnetic leakage of the magnetized Figure 2 (only half of the annular circuits are shown,
rope, so they cannot give any indication of the the other side being symmetrical). The permanent
distribution of wire breaks around the rope, which magnets are made of sintered Nd-Fe-B, which has
SEPTEMBER 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 1
are excited by the uniformly spaced pulse from the
photoelectric encoder when the sensors or rope
are moving. The field programmable gate array
controls and ensures cooperation between the analog
multiplexer and analog to digital converter, and handles
data collecting, buffering and transmitting to the digital
signal processor. Discontinuity identification can be
finished either directly in the digital signal processor or
(a) in the computer, provided the signal has been delivered
to the computer through a PCI bus or a UART. The
identification procedure described in the following
paragraph was made on the computer.
Notch Filtering of Wire Rope Signal

Wire rope signals from three broken wires obtained
from the sensor head shown in Figure 1b and the
signal acquisition system in Figure 3b are given in
Figures 4a (concentrated breaks) and 4b (dispersive
breaks). From these figures, it’s obvious that the
strand-waveform signal is more dominant than the
desired discontinuity signal and should be eliminated
for accurate testing. For a given wire rope, the axial
(b)
strand-waveform component of each channel of the
Figure 1. Sensor head with Hall sensor array: sensor array is approximately a sine wave with a stable
(a) schematic view of the basic structure; (b) photographic frequency, so it can be eliminated through a notch filter
view of the sensor head for ropes of between 30 and (Ng, 1987):
40 mm diameter.
(1)
higher remnant magnetism. The axile bush is made
of copper, which does not affect the magnetic field. A where
photoelectric encoder is used to generate a α = the parameter determining the bandwidth of the
uniformly spaced pulse, facilitating spatial domain notch filter, 0 < α < 1
sampling for wire ropes. ω0 = the spatial frequency of the strand waveform,
Signal Acquistion and Discontinuity (2)

Identification
where
Uniformly Spaced Signal Acquisition from Wire Rope Np = number of samples in one strand-waveform
In order to map the magnetic field around and along period.
a rope, a multichannel and uniformly spaced data The real discontinuity signals obtained from
acquisition system was designed. A schematic view of Figures 4a and 4b are respectively shown in Figures
the system is shown in Figure 3a and a photographic 4c and 4d, from which it’s easy to distinguish between
one in Figure 3b. All of the actions of the system concentrated breaks and dispersive breaks.
Figure 2. Circuits of Hall sensor array and analog multiplexer.
2 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | SEPTEMBER 2006
(a) (b)
Figure 3. Signal acquisition system: (a) schematic view of the signal flow; (b) photographic view of the system.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4. Notch filtering for the signal of three broken wires: (a) original signal of concentrated breaks; (b) original signal of
dispersive breaks; (c) filtered signal of concentrated breaks; (d) filtered signal of dispersive breaks.
Identification of Several Typical Localized First, standard samples of six types of localized
Discontinuities discontinuities are made: one broken wire of 12 mm
Via the procedure above, three-dimensional magnetic width; one broken wire of 3 mm width; one broken
leakage signals of localized discontinuities are wire of gap width; two concentrated broken wires
presented. Grayscale maps can be used to represent of gap width; three concentrated wires of gap width;
these signals, and then an image identification and a raised wire. The magnetic leakage signals
technique can be used to identify discontinuities, corresponding to them are acquired, stored and notch
which involves the normalization of the discontinuity filtered. These discontinuity signals are cut to uniform
signals, feature extraction through Karhunen-Loève size with the geometrical centers of the discontinuities
transformation, discontinuity identification and centered (size normalization – the normalized
classification with a neural network. dimension is 10 by 60) and scaled to the range
between 0 and 1 (amplitude normalization). They are where
then transformed to grayscale maps. Photos, original Λ = diag [λ0, λ1, λ2, … λN-1]; the vector λ is composed
signals and grayscale maps of the standard samples of of eigenvalues of C
six typical localized discontinuities are shown in μ = the mean vector of the set of x.
Figure 5. In this way the correlation among each component
Secondly, a Karhunen-Loève transformation is used of x is eliminated, so the extremely tiny eigenvalues
to extract features from the grayscale maps: which related to the minor characteristics can be
omitted without affecting the significant characteristics.
(3) In the experiments discussed in this paper, only
four dominant eigenvalues of each discontinuity
where signal are retained to be the inputs of the subsequent
x = the vector denoting the grayscale map of a certain neural network. As a result, each two-dimensional
discontinuity image signal is reduced to a one-dimensional vector.
y = the eigenvector of the covariance matrix of x, Otherwise the neural network would be more
which is given by complicated and time consuming.
Finally, a back propagation neural network
with four inputs, four hidden layer units and six
outputs is established and trained by part of these
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)

Figure 5. Photos (top), original signals (middle) and grayscale maps (bottom) of the standard samples of six typical
localized discontinuities: (a) one broken wire, gap width; (b) one broken wire, 3 mm width; (c) one broken wire, 12 mm
width; (d) two concentrated broken wires, gap width; (e) three concentrated broken wires, gap width; (f) raised wire.
one-dimensional vectors (training samples), and l The testing velocity of this prototype is too low
then is tested by others (testing samples). Once (about 1 to 2 m/s) for practical field testing, so
it is performing well, it can be used to classify electronic circuits with better performance at high
discontinuities among these six typical localized frequency should be used for the data acquisition.
discontinuities.
REFERENCES
Laboratory Test Results and Discussion Haller, August, “Wire Cable Testing Using High Resolution
Magnetic Induction,” NDT.net, Vol. 3, No. 2, February 1998,
When the transfer functions of both layers are <www.ndt.net/article/0298/haller_e/haller_e
logarithmic sigmoid functions, the discrimination of .htm>.
the back propagation network to testing samples is Health and Safety Executive, “Wire Rope Non-destructive Testing
96.7%, and the identification precision for the six types — Survey of Instrument Manufacturers,” Offshore Technology
Report OTO 2000 064, 2000.
of localized discontinuities in wire ropes of the same Ng, T.S., “Some Aspects of an Adaptive Digital Notch Filter with
structure is 91%. Constrained Poles and Zeros,” IEEE Transactions on Acoustic,
Therefore, this prototype, based on Hall sensor Speech, and Signal Processing, Vol. 35, No. 2, February 1987, pp.
arrays and the signal processing technique discussed 158-161.
above, can identify the degree and width of broken Nussbaum, J.-M., “Detection of Broken Wires Using a High
Resolution Magnetic Test Method,” OIPEEC Technical Meeting:
wires and can distinguish the circumferential The Non-destructive Testing of Rope, Kraków, 1999, pp. 129-141.
distribution of them, making it a potential technique Stanley, Roderic K., “Simple Explanation of the Theory of the Total
for quantitative testing for localized discontinuities. Magnetic Flux Method for the Measurement of Ferromagnetic
Cross Sections,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 53, 1995, pp. 72-75.
Conclusion Weischedel, Herbert R., “The Inspection of Wire Ropes in Service:
A Critical Review,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 43, 1985, pp. 1592-
Using a wire rope tester with a Hall sensor array, the 1605.
two-dimensional image processing technique can Weischedel, Herbert R., “Method and Apparatus for Magnetically
be used to analyze localized discontinuities with Inspecting Elongated Objects for Structural Defects,” US Patent 4
659 991, 1987.
higher accuracy, providing a potential approach to
Weischedel, Herbert R., “A Review of Electromagnetic Methods
quantitative testing of wire rope. However, for practical for the Inspection of Wire Ropes,” ASNT Fall Conference, Seattle,
application, the following problems need to be solved. Washington, 1990.
l The experiments in this paper have been conducted
on wire ropes of similar structure. With a different AUTHORS
type of wire rope, the resulting neural network Yinni Cao: Shenzhen Graduate School, Harbin Institute of
Technology, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China; 86 755
will change. Therefore it is necessary to prepare 26033998.
a segment of the type of rope to be tested with Donglai Zhang: Shenzhen Graduate School, Harbin Institute
the types of localized discontinuities that may of Technology, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China; 86 755
be encountered, thus facilitating neural network 26033998.
training beforehand. Chao Wang: Shenzhen Graduate School, Harbin Institute of
Technology, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China; 86 755
l Discontinuity depth information is not accounted
26033998.
for in the experiments above and should be Dianguo Xu: Electrical Engineering and Automation School,
considered in future work. Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, People’s Republic of China;
86 451 86413420.
Electromagnetic NDT Techniques —
A 40 Year Retrospective or Retirement
for Cause
by William Lord
Over the past 40 years, we have witnessed many H = magnetic field intensity (in amperes per meter)
technological revolutions, not the least of which J = current density (in amperes per square meter)
have been the development of Moore’s law and the t = time (in seconds)
integration of the transistor into computing. The latter r = charge density (in coulombs per cubic meter).
has had a profound effect not only on nondestructive
testing (NDT) instrumentation and signal Although these equations have been known in their
processing but also on our ability to model complex differential operator form for a century and predicted
electromagnetic field/discontinuity interactions the existence of electromagnetic waves before their
and our corresponding physical understanding of experimental observation by Hertz, their role as the
the underlying NDT phenomena. This paper gives very foundation of electromagnetic NDT techniques
examples of this evolution from magnetic flux leakage, is perhaps less appreciated. Indeed, despite the fact
eddy current and microwave NDT techniques in that James Clerk Maxwell will be recognized as one
aerospace, nuclear power and gas pipeline industries. of the millennium’s most important scientists, and
Comments are also given on possible future directions notwithstanding the very ubiquity of electromagnetic
for electromagnetic NDT research and education. This waves in our everyday lives, the theoretical basis of the
paper provides some of the theoretical background subject is being learned by a decreasing proportion of
for the description of the electromagnetic NDT engineering students in the US. The major reason for
phenomena discussed in my presentation. this, in the author’s opinion, is that electromagnetic
fields are vector quantities that are three dimensional
On the Nature of Electromagnetic NDT in nature and hence are only describable, in their
Techniques simplest form, by vector calculus, a subject not very
Maxwell’s equations provide the underpinning for high on an undergraduate engineer’s list of all-time
this retrospective view of electromagnetic NDT favorite subjects. In the field of NDT, this has tended
techniques: to produce a classification system for electromagnetic
NDT techniques that does not stress the unifying
∂B theme of Maxwell’s model of electromagnetic fields
(1) ∇×E = −
∂t but rather treats each modality as a separate and
distinct entity.
(2) ∇×H = J In their differential or del operator form, the four
Maxwell’s equations are disarmingly elegant and
simplistic, describing the interdependence of time
(3) ∇ ⋅B = 0 varying electric (E, D) and magnetic fields (H, B)
which had previously been unrecognized; this led, via
the new concept of displacement current, directly to
(4) ∇⋅D = ρ Hertz’s experimental work showing the existence of
electromagnetic wave propagation. The four equations
where
also clearly imply that the only two vector calculus
B = magnetic flux density (in teslas)
properties associated with all electromagnetic fields are
D = electric flux density (in coulombs per square
their curl and their divergence, resulting in only four
meter)
possible field types. This observation gives rise to the
E = electric field intensity (in volts per meter)
6 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | JUNE 2006
author’s classification system for electromagnetic NDT particularly if they have cartesian, cylindrical or
techniques in that each technique is governed by one spherical symmetry.
of the four possible field types and a corresponding For type 3 fields characterized by finite curl but
partial differential equation derived from the zero divergence, such as the direct current generated
appropriate set of Maxwell’s equations. It should be magnetostatic fields associated with magnetic particle
noted that the curl (or rotation) of a vector field is and flux leakage NDT techniques, a magnetic vector
related to the curvature of the field and the divergence potential A (related directly via the curl operator to
of a vector field is related to the nature of the sources of the magnetic flux density B) must be introduced to
the field. derive the governing vector Poisson equation. Such
It is interesting to note that over the intervening vector partial differential equations are very difficult
century since Maxwell first proposed this model of to solve analytically for anything but the simplest of
electromagnetic fields, no physical or theoretical geometries and computer based numerical techniques
evidence has been found to discredit it. Indeed, the were developed specifically for the digital solution of
major developments affecting Maxwell’s model have complex scientific and engineering problems.
not been additions or alterations to the theoretical Initially, finite difference, boundary integral and
framework but rather the inventions of the digital finite element techniques were developed for the
computer, the transistor and numerical analysis which study of electromagnetic fields in electrical machinery
have provided a mechanism for solving the underlying and the magnets used in large physics and medical
partial differential (and integral) equations which applications. After an initial flirtation with finite
describe all electromagnetic fields. As most of these difference techniques in the late 1960s, the author
breakthroughs have occurred during the author’s settled on finite element techniques as the most
lifetime, it is appropriate to look back and see how appropriate for electromagnetic field/discontinuity
these developments have affected electromagnetic interaction modeling, largely because the technique
NDT techniques and how these techniques might handled the awkward boundary shapes associated
develop in the future. with real discontinuities so easily and could also
accommodate the nonlinearities associated with
Static Electromagnetic Field NDT Types ferromagnetic materials. This code was subsequently
Electrostatic fields in charge-free regions are used in the design of a direct current variable
characterized by zero curl (the electric field lines are reluctance probe for the detection of magnetite in
straight) and zero divergence (there is no electric the crevice gap region of pressurized water reactor
charge in the region). This is a type 1 field and results steam generators and more recently for the study of
in the simplest of partial differential equations, the neural network based discontinuity characterization
scalar Laplace’s equation, describing the electric scalar algorithms for the pigging of transmission gas
potential in terms of the geometrical coordinates. It is pipelines. Figure 1 shows a typical flux plot for the
possible to describe magnetostatic fields similarly by magnetic structure associated with a pig, obtained
invoking a magnetostatic scalar potential function but using finite element analysis.
it should be remembered that there is no comparable
magnetic charge. Zatsepin and Shcherbinin postulated
the existence of such a magnetic charge to develop
expressions for the magnetic leakage fields around
simple slot shapes in steel specimens. These equations
have been used widely in industry as the basis for (a)
magnetic flux leakage discontinuity characterization
or inversion schemes. Laplace’s equation is useful
in the study of capacitive displacement sensors for
NDT applications and in the analysis of direct current
potential drop NDT techniques.
In regions where there is electric charge, the
electrostatic field is still characterized by zero curl, but
now the divergence is finite (a type 2 field) because of
(b) (c)
the presence of the electric charge, resulting in a scalar
Poisson equation very similar to Laplace’s equation Figure 1. A typical flux plot for the magnetic structure associated with a
pig, obtained using finite element analysis: (a) schematic of the pig; (b)
but with the addition of the electric charge source flux distribution in the pipe wall near outer diameter corrosion; (c) a plot of
term. The scalar Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations can the axial component of the flux density measured by the sensor array in
often be solved analytically for simple geometries, commercial tools.
JUNE 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 7
The application of finite element modeling to the “pre-Maxwellian” because they preceded Maxwell’s
static electromagnetic NDT problems mentioned discovery of the displacement current. It is interesting
in this paper took place over a span of time during to note that, historically, electrostatic fields and
which the computational capability of mainframe magnetostatic fields were considered to be two separate
computers increased dramatically. In a very real sense, subjects with independent universal constants relating
the degree of difficulty always matched the power D and E, and B and H. If the displacement current is
of the computational resources available over time. considered to be negligible in Maxwell’s time varying
This allowed a steady progression to be made in the equations, the resulting electric and magnetic fields
complexity of the NDT phenomena being modeled, are coupled. This results in the so called curl(curl)
moving from simple 2D and axisymmetric linear equation in terms of the phasor magnetic vector
representations to complex 3D nonlinear problems. potential A mimicking the low frequency alternating
This growth in computer power also allowed us to turn current conditions associated with alternating
our attention to time varying magnetic fields. current power applications and eddy current NDT
phenomena. This equation models steady state
Quasistatic Electromagnetic Field alternating current operating conditions representing
NDT Types single frequency eddy current testing conditions and
Type 1, 2 and 3 fields described by elliptic partial has been solved using axisymmetric finite element
differential equations are commonly referred to as code to model steam generator tubing testing using a
differential probe. This resulted in the first predictions
of the impedance plane trajectories (Figure 2) one
now associates with tubing testing and also led to
an interesting classification scheme based on fourier
descriptors.
The same equation can also be used to model the
remote field eddy current NDT technique as well as
multifrequency NDT techniques. Under general time
varying conditions, the result is a parabolic partial
differential equation, which has a form identical to
the thermodynamic diffusion equation. This models
(a)
the general fields associated with pulsed eddy current
techniques but, unlike the phasor partial differential
equation of single frequency eddy current techniques,
a more complex time stepping algorithm is required in
order to predict the fields.
Wave Based Electromagnetic Field Types

The full form of Maxwell’s time varying equations
including displacement current represents the most
difficult of the four field types in that, as with the
quasistatic electromagnetic field, finite curl and
divergence are present. In this case, however, the
(b) presence of displacement current results in hyperbolic
partial differential equations for both the magnetic
vector potential function A and the scalar potential
function — the electromagnetic wave equations —
with a velocity of propagation in free space equal to
the speed of light and dependent on both universal
constants, the permittivity of free space and the
permeability of free space. Given that the propagation
speeds of electromagnetic waves are so high even
(c) in solid media, the majority of work in modeling
Figure 2. Measurement of impedance plane trajectories from a differential
microwave NDT phenomena has been with regard
coil eddy current probe: (a) geometry showing d, the distance between the to steady state rather than transient behavior (Figure
support plate and an outer diameter notch; (b) model predicted impedance 3). Indeed, the very high propagation speeds dictated
plane trajectories for different values of d; (c) experimental impedance plane that the research group examine the much slower
trajectories for different values of d.
A Progress will not only occur in the computational
B power needed to model electromagnetic NDT
phenomena but also in the instrumentation associated
C
with field testing equipment. The electronics world
is now talking of “more than Moore” technologies,
including systems-on-chip and systems-in-package
concepts that will affect the way we use single
transducers and arrays of transducers for large scale
infrastructure testing and monitoring.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Figure 3. The simulated waveforms for a gaussian pulse
The author was blessed throughout his academic career in having a
at reflection from a perfectly reflecting square. A shows strong, talented group of doctoral and master’s degree candidates
where the waveform touches the corner plate. B shows who did all the work described in this paper relating to computer
where the waveform propagates along the square programming, model validation studies, signal processing and
edges. C is the X/Y projection of the situation discontinuity detection algorithm development in return for a
depicted in B. very modest stipend. Their contributions in the form of thesis and
dissertation titles are identified in the bibliography to this paper
ultrasonic wave propagation modeling rather than and their subsequent work can be found with an appropriate search
of technical papers under their names. Significant support for the
microwave NDT phenomena. Spatial and temporal work was provided by the Colorado Energy Research Institute, the
discretization is used in order to satisfy the governing Army Research Office (ARO), the Electric Power Research Institute
hyperbolic partial differential equation resulting in (EPRI), the Gas Research Institute, the American Gas Association,
the Department of Transportation and the National Aeronautics
wave propagation plots for the particular geometry and Space Administration. In particular I would like to express
under study. my gratitude to both John Hurt (ARO) and Gary Dau (EPRI)
who were both responsible for extended research support and
encouragement. Visiting scholars Runmin Li, Hiroshi Hoshikawa
Concluding Remarks and Yushi Sun also contributed to the work and provided much
The classification scheme suggested in this paper interesting discussion, which, along with input from all the
research team, contributed to the overall structure of the modeling
stresses the commonality of all electromagnetic framework described in this paper.
NDT techniques through Maxwell’s equations.
Static field techniques are governed by elliptic partial REFERENCES
differential equations, quasistatic field techniques Allen, B.L., “Finite Element Modeling of Pulsed Eddy Current
are governed by parabolic partial differential Phenomena,” MS thesis, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State
University, 1983.
equations and wave field techniques are governed
Ghorayeb, S., “SAFT Imaging for Composite Materials,” PhD
by hyperbolic partial differential equations. All such dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1992.
partial differential equation types can be solved Heath, S., “Magnetostatic Leakage Field Modeling,” MS thesis, Fort
with a variety of numerical analysis techniques for Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University, 1983.
complex geometrical shapes and incorporating Hwang, J.H., “Defect Characterization by Magnetic Leakage Fields,”
practical material nonlinearities. Such code is now PhD dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University,
1975.
available commercially and can be used to design
Ida, N., “Three Dimensional Finite Element Modeling of
electromagnetic NDT equipment, validate inversion Electromagnetic Nondestructive Testing Phenomena,” PhD
or discontinuity characterization algorithms, serve dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University,
as a test bed for operator training and assist in our 1983.
understanding of the complex electromagnetic field/ Katragadda, G., “Eddy Current Detection of Weld Defects,” MS
thesis, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1991.
discontinuity interactions at the heart of all NDT
Katragadda, G., “Applications of State-of-the-art FEM Techniques
methods. to Magnetostatic NDE,” PhD dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State
There is no doubt that the mathematics background University, 1995.
that forms the basis of this classification scheme needs Kobidze, G., “Numerical Modeling of Tight Cracks for the
to be simplified for the practicing NDT engineer Development of New Electromagnetic NDT Pipeline Tools,” PhD
dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1998.
to obtain a full understanding of it. Perhaps the
Ludwig, R., “Numerical Modeling of Ultrasonic NDT Phenomena,”
commercial codes themselves could be used in the task PhD dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University,
of simplifying the vector calculus concepts of gradient, 1986.
divergence and curl. Nath, S., “Remote Field Eddy Current Phenomena,” MS thesis, Fort
Moore’s law has had a tremendous affect in the Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University, 1988.
computer revolution of the past half century and one Nath, S., “Boundary Integral and Finite Element Modeling of
Electromagnetic NDE,” PhD dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State
can anticipate continued growth in computational University, 1992.
capability affecting the size and complexity of the Oswald, D.J., “A New Nondestructive Testing Technique,” MS
types of electromagnetic field problem we can attack. thesis, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University, 1969.
JUNE 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 9
Palanisamy (Samy), R., “Finite Element Eddy Current NDT Stucky, P.A., “Eddy Current Detection of Defects in Small Bore
Model,” PhD dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State Tubing,” MS thesis, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1991.
University, 1980. Stucky, P.A., “Finite Element Modeling of Transient Ultrasonic
Ross, S., “Imaging and Inverse Problems of Electromagnetic NDE,” Waves in Linear Viscoelastic Media,” PhD dissertation, Ames, Iowa,
PhD dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1994. Iowa State University, 1998.
Ross, S.G., “Experimental and Numerical Study of Reference Xue, T., “Finite Element Modeling of Ultrasonic Wave Propagation
Standards for Fatigue Cracks Using Eddy Current NDE,” MS thesis, with Application to Acoustic Microscopy,” PhD dissertation, Ames,
Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1992. Iowa, Iowa State University, 1996.
Satish (Udpa), S.R., “Finite Element Modeling of Residual Magnetic Yen, W.C., “Finite Element Characterization of Residual Leakage
Phenomena,” MS thesis, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State Fields,” MS thesis, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State
University, 1980. University, 1978.
Satish (Udpa), S.R., “Parametric Signal Processing for Eddy Current You, Z., “Finite Element Study of Ultrasonic Imaging,” PhD
NDT,” PhD dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1991.
University, 1983.
Shin, Y.K., “Velocity Effects in Electromagnetic NDE,” PhD AUTHOR
dissertation, Ames, Iowa, Iowa State University, 1992. William Lord: 1011 Christy Drive, Niceville, FL 32578; (850)
Srinivasan (Udpa), L., “Imaging of Electromagnetic NDT Signals,” 678-6703; e-mail <billlord@ieee.org>.
PhD dissertation, Fort Collins, Colorado, Colorado State University,
1986.
Shape Enhancement of Magnetic
Flux Leakage Signals: Industrial
Implementation
by J. Etcheverry, A. Nicolini, A. Pignotti, G. Sánchez and P. Stickar
Abstract influence the signal amplitude but are not related

Recently, a shape enhancement algorithm was proposed to discontinuity severity (Altschuler et al., 1996).
to improve the performance of magnetic flux leakage As a consequence, two kinds of detection errors are
equipment, based on the similarity between the signals generated: false negatives (actual misses), in which
produced by many natural discontinuities and those severe discontinuities are overlooked, and false
produced by the reference notches used for calibration. positives (false calls), as a consequence of which
The algorithm aims at enhancing signal patterns similar rejections are generated by acceptable imperfections
to those of the references, while at the same time reducing (Nockemann et al., 1994).
those that originate in noise. An additional cause of detection errors is the
After successful offline experiments, the algorithm has presence of noise in the signal. Even though the noise
been implemented at a digitized test line where seamless nature and features may be quite different from those
ferromagnetic steel pipes are routinely tested with the of a true discontinuity signal, a detection based on the
magnetic flux leakage technique. The evidence accumulated peak to peak amplitude may be subject to additional
over a few months of field tests shows that the algorithm errors unless the signal to noise ratio is sufficiently
provides a substantial improvement over the previous large.
practice of detecting discontinuities based on the signal
peak to peak amplitude and of discriminating between Steel Tube Testing
external and internal discontinuities based on the signal
average frequency. Approach
In this paper, we present an overview of the shape The testing of steel tubes by magnetic flux leakage
enhancement technique, followed by an analysis of is no exception to the above remarks. In this case,
the simplifications required to produce a feasible discontinuities are usually located on either the
implementation that can be executed online, a test of the external or internal pipe surface and the test is carried
trade offs involved and a summary of the results obtained. out only from one side: the internal one, in the case of
We also discuss some implementation issues related to the pipeline tests by pigs, or the external one, as is usually
development of an intuitive human interface. done in tube manufacturing plants. Because distance
Keywords: magnetic flux leakage, steel pipes, digital signal from the discontinuity to the sensing probe has an
processing. influence on the signal amplitude, the discrimination
between the two types of discontinuities is an
Introduction important additional element that has to be considered
The basis of many industrial implementations of in assessing the severity of the discontinuity.
nondestructive testing (NDT) techniques is the Assuming that this discrimination is successful, two
detection of discontinuities based on the evaluation thresholds are set, one for external and one for internal
of signals in which the severity of the discontinuity discontinuities (Perazzo et al., 2000).
is assumed to be an increasing function of the “peak
to peak” signal amplitude (Lord and Oswald, 1972). Online Processing
Acceptance or rejection of the tested part is then One final element that has to be considered is the
reduced to the comparison of this amplitude with influence of the test procedure on productivity:
a reference threshold. This simple approach has the because 100% of the plant production has to be tested
drawback that there are usually many variables that before delivery and the test procedure should not
AUGUST 2004 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 11
become a bottleneck, the test has to be carried out at a Therefore, if a signal u is to be compared to a reference
pace that is compatible with the plant production rate. discontinuity signal D, we should consider the
To improve the performance of the test lines, projection of u in the direction of discontinuity D, that
more elaborate discrimination practices have been is,
attempted, such as those based on neural networks
u, D *
(Gavarini et al., 1996; Ramuhalli et al., 2002). Even
though this technique is fairly fast at test time, it
where
requires a previous stage of network training, which
D* = D/||D|| = the normalized reference signal.
should be updated every time a new product has to be
tested. Conceptually, this is similar to the calibration In this context, the data string generated by a given
stage that is carried out with the traditional test based probe is an indefinite sequence of sampled data values:
on the peak to peak amplitude, but whereas the latter
is easily carried out, a way of accomplishing network (5) S = (… , si , si +1 , si + 2 , …)
training expeditiously has to be found before an
industrial implementation can succeed. and a signal is an N dimensional segment of this
Whatever elaborate online processing technique is indefinite string. The data string of Equation 5 can
chosen, be it neural networks, the algorithm described therefore be viewed as containing a sequence of
in the following section or any other one, a prerequisite consecutive and almost fully overlapping signals, such
to online plant implementation is the digitization of as:
the signals. This is easily said but hard to achieve if one [si−N +1 , …, si ],
(6)
wants to have a versatile, robust, user friendly system. [ si − N + 2 , … , si + 1 ]
A description of the system used as the basis for the
and so on. We are, of course, interested in the signals
development of the signal processing algorithms
that have a sizable norm, that suggest the presence of a
described below is given by Comuzzi et al. (1999).
discontinuity. Noise, however, contributes to the signal
norm and tends to blur the discontinuity detection.
Shape Enhancement
The idea behind the approach presented here is based
An innovative technique that aims to improve the
on substituting each signal by its projection in the
performance of magnetic flux leakage steel tube testing
directions that characterize reference discontinuities,
is the shape enhancement technique proposed by
thus decreasing the contribution of noise to the
Etcheverry et al. (2002). In this section, we review the
norm of the signal and favoring the detection of the
background on which it is based and in the following
discontinuity.
ones we describe some results obtained in the
We, therefore, construct a projected string SD,
implementation at a test line.
by replacing each value si by the projection of the
The basic geometrical idea behind this approach
preceding N component substring in the direction of
is to consider a digitized sampled signal as a vector
D. Thus,
u in an N dimensional space, N being the number
of sampled values ui that constitute a signal with
(7) SD = (… , SDi , SDi +1 , …)
N typically of the order of 100. Thus, a signal is
represented by the vector with
(1) u = [u1 , u2 , … , uN ] (8) SDi = [ si − N +1 , … , si ], D *
Henceforth, we adopt standard vector notation and The net result is that the signal to noise ratio for D
denote the scalar product of two vectors u and v by type discontinuities is improved when replacing string
S by SD.
(2) u , v = u1v1 + … + uN v N
Significant noise is still occasionally present in SD,
that is, there are noisy data segments that have a sizable
and define the vector norm to be
projection in the direction of D, even though they do
1 not point in the same direction and, therefore, do not
(3) u = u, u 2
qualify as discontinuities. To further dampen this kind
The cosine of the angle between two signals u and v is of noise, we multiply the ith element of SD by the factor
therefore given by
[s , …, si ], D *
2
u, v
(9) cos 2
(α i ) = i − N +1
[ si − N +1 , … , si ]
2
(4) cos (α ) =
u v
that is equal to unity if the signal is proportional to D
12 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | AUGUST 2004
and is significantly smaller for data segments unrelated Figure 2a shows on the upper side a raw data
to D. The final proposal is therefore to replace the string and on the lower one the same data string after
string element si by applying Equation 10, in which the reference notch
used was either that of Figure 1a or 1b, depending
[s , …, si ], D *
3
(10) SDi = SDi cos 2

(α i ) = i − N +1 on which projection gave rise to the highest signal.
[ si − N +1 , … , si ]
2
The significant increase in the signal to noise ratio is
apparent. Figure 2b shows a fragment of such strings
Implementation in which the time scale has been stretched in order
The amount of data to be handled in an industrial to get a clearer view of the effect of the processing
implementation is large. A typical magnetic flux algorithm on the signal shape. The fact that the filtered
leakage equipment carries 32 sensors. Each sensor signal has still more than one peak can be understood
generates an electronic signal that is sampled at 4 kHz. by the following argument: in a first approximation,
In other words, 128 000 data points must be processed both the signal near the discontinuity and the reference
every second. If the algorithm makes use of more than signal can be thought of as fragments of harmonic
50 data points to represent the reference signals, such functions, somewhat longer than one wavelength.
as shown in Figure 1, the application of Equation 10 to In the enhancement process, we perform the scalar
every single datum means that more than 10 million product of the normalized reference signal D* and the
operations must be carried out every second, only successive data segments that contain the detected
to compute the algorithm. For the system to operate signal. Whereas the vector D* in these scalar products
in real time, a nontrivial implementation is required, is always the same, the successive data segments differ
either with specialized hardware, clever coding or both. in the location of the detected signal, which is shifted
In an industrial environment, it is almost never one position from one data segment to the following
a good idea to use custom hardware, because one, as can be easily inferred from testing Equation 6.
the maintenance of ad hoc hardware is a costly The value of the scalar product is of course dependent
nuisance. Off the shelf personal computer hardware on that shift. When the reference and the actual signal
is strongly preferred because it is far less susceptible are in phase, the dot product is at a maximum. When
to obsolescence. In order to use a single personal they are displaced one quarter wavelength from
computer without custom hardware, the algorithm each other, the scalar product nearly vanishes. A half
must undergo simplification, even at the expense of
some loss of performance. Therefore, the number of
samples actually used was of the order of 20.
(a)
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Data string: (a) measured before (upper) and
after (lower) applying the shape enhancement algorithm
(b) (an offset was used to avoid the superposition of the
signals); (b) the same as (a), after stretching the horizontal
Figure 1. Signals corresponding to a calibration notch axis, exhibiting a discontinuity detected at time equal to
sampled at 4 kHz: (a) internal; (b) external. approximately 1555 ms.
wavelength displacement reverses the sign of the dot batch of pipes, two reference samples of artificial
product and a secondary peak may appear beyond that. discontinuities, one on the pipe external surface and
One such secondary peak is clearly visible to the left of the other one on the internal surface, are used to
the main peak in the lower curve in Figure 2b. Thus, the calibrate the system. A user friendly interface enables
filtered signal is some sort of distorted version of the the operator to correctly select such signal samples
original one. The idea is that when these successive dot with a quick and safe operation, not significantly more
products are made with segments that contain noise, a time consuming than ordinary calibration procedures.
cancellation rather than a replication occurs. The operator visualizes the peak to peak amplitude as a
function of time, that is close to zero when there is no
User Friendly Interface pipe under test.
In the current industrial implementation of When the pipe enters the equipment, there is
the algorithm, at the onset of the test of a new a sudden peak not associated with the presence of
a discontinuity, followed by the normal test signal.
There is often another peak when the pipe leaves the
test equipment and after that the signal amplitude
vanishes again. The intermediate peaks correspond
to the artificial discontinuities that were electrical
discharge machined in the pipe and whose dimensions
are certified to be those of the smallest unacceptable
discontinuity. Then the operator selects one
discontinuity by drawing with the mouse a rectangle
that encloses the signal, as depicted in Figure 3. The
program searches for the temporal span of the selection
in the previously stored raw data and records the
selected reference signal. The procedure is repeated for
the second reference signal.
Online Experiments
To test the effectiveness of this algorithm, which
(a) has been implemented as part of the primary test
procedure, two experiments were performed at a test
line that processes seamless ferromagnetic steel tubes.
In the first one, two batches of 460 tubes that share the
same nominal geometry and steel type were tested. The
first batch was processed without using the algorithm
and 27 alarms were triggered. At the prove up station,
two out of these 27 were found to have discontinuities.
Those 27 pipes were reprocessed along with the second
batch using the algorithm and only three (the two plus
an additional one with discontinuities) triggered the
alarm. These results are summarized in Table 1. Thus,
the rate of false calls in this example is 33%, but this
figure is highly dependent on the nature of the tested
batch of pipes.
The second experiment was to process complete
batches with the same thresholds and the shape
enhancement algorithm on and to pay attention to the
(b)
Table 1. Number of alarms triggered in the testing of
Figure 3. Two snapshots of the monitor screen viewed batches of 460 pipes, discriminating between false alarms
by the test operator in consecutive passes of the and actual discontinuities with and without the assistance
calibration notches: (a) in the raw signal, the rectangle of the shape enhancement algorithm.
depicts the selection of the outer wall discontinuity (the
initial and internal dicontinuity signals are also seen); (b)
in the processed signals, the initial one, not caused by a
discontinuity, is strongly suppressed and the noise is also
substantially reduced.
14 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | AUGUST 2004
occurrence of false negatives by checking the pipes Vol. 22B, D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, eds., Melville, New
York, American Institute of Physics, 2002, pp. 1721-1727.
again with more sensitive equipment. A total of more
Gavarini, H., R.P.J. Perazzo, S.L. Reich, E. Altschuler and A. Pignotti,
than 4000 pipes of eight different batches were tested “Neural Network Classifier of Cracks in Steel Tubes,” Insight, Vol.
in this way and no false negatives were generated. 38, 1996, pp. 108-111.
At the same time, the number of false positives was Lord, W. and D.J. Oswald, “Leakage Field Methods of Defect
monitored and found to be quite acceptable. Detection,” International Journal of Non-destructive Testing, Vol. 4,
1972, pp. 249-274.
Conclusion Nockemann, C., G.R. Tillack, H. Wessel, C. Hobbs and V.
Konchina, “Performance Demonstration in NDT by Statistical
Even though the proposed shape enhancement Methods: ROC and POD for Ultrasonic and Radiographic Testing,”
algorithm has to be subject to more thorough plant Proceedings of the 6th European Conference on Non Destructive Testing,
Nice, France, 1994, pp. 37-44.
testing in order to obtain more statistically significant
Perazzo, R., A. Pignotti, S. Reich and P. Stickar, “Feature Extraction
data, the experience obtained so far shows that it in MFL Signals of Machined Defects in Steel Tubes,” Review of
is amenable to an industrial implementation with Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 20A, D.O.
beneficial results. Perhaps the most surprising feature Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, eds., Melville, New York, American
Institute of Physics, 2000, pp. 619-626.
is that even though the algorithm has to be tuned
Ramuhalli, P., L. Udpa and S. Udpa, “Electromagnetic NDE Signal
every time a new batch of tubes is tested, this tuning Inversion by Function-approximation Neural Networks,” IEEE
can be achieved with a fairly simple process, which is Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 38, 2002, pp. 3633-3642.
not significantly more time consuming than standard
calibration procedures that are common to most test AUTHORS
lines. J. Etcheverry: Centro de Investigación Industrial, Simini 250,
Campana, 2804 Buenos Aires, Argentina; e-mail <api@siderca.
com>.
REFERENCES
A. Pignotti: Centro de Investigación Industrial, Simini 250,
Altschuler, E., A. Pignotti and J. Paiuk, “Monte Carlo Simulation of Campana, 2804 Buenos Aires, Argentina; e-mail <api@siderca.
False Alarms and Detection Reliability in MFL Inspection of Steel com>.
Tubes,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 54, No. 9, 1996, pp. 1032-1034.
G. Sánchez: Centro de Investigación Industrial, Simini 250,
Comuzzi, D., F. Monti, A. Nicolini and P. Stickar, “Digitized System Campana, 2804 Buenos Aires, Argentina; e-mail <api@siderca.
for the Inspection of Steel Pipes,” Review of Progress in Quantitative com>.
Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 19B, D.O. Thompson and D.E.
Chimenti, eds., Melville, New York, American Institute of Physics, P. Stickar: Centro de Investigación Industrial, Simini 250,
1999, pp. 2077-2084. Campana, 2804 Buenos Aires, Argentina; e-mail <api@siderca.
com>.
Etcheverry, J., A. Pignotti, G. Sánchez and P. Stickar, “Defect Signal
Enhancement in Inspection Lines by Magnetic Flux Leakage,” A. Nicolini: TenarisSiderca, Simini 250, Campana, 2804 Buenos
Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Aires, Argentina.
Use of the Finite Element Method
in Simulation and Visualization of
Electromagnetic Nondestructive
Testing Applications
by David C. Carpenter
Abstract resulting from time varying excitation or motion

This paper presents examples of applications in which of a conducting structure through a magnetic field.
commercial software has been used to gain a better Changes in the distribution of eddy currents and
understanding of the magnetic particle and eddy current associated magnetic fields are used to determine
testing methods of NDT. The software package has been whether faults are present in the structure under test.
used to carry out analyses, give simulation results, and This type of test is common in the pipeline industry.
visualize electromagnetic devices and structures relating to One of the benefits of using FEM is that accurate
NDT. The software is based on 2D and 3D finite element results are obtained, even in nonlinear magnetic
method (FEM). A brief description of the method is materials that may be magnetically saturated. Although
given. The electromagnetic fields illustrated include static the structure has to be subdivided into regions or
magnetic fields and dynamic electromagnetic field (eddy elements, these elements do not need to be uniform
current) systems. A number of applications are described or regular in size and shape. This allows for detailed
to provide an understanding of how both simulation and parts of the structure to be subdivided into a fine
visualization are achieved. The applications illustrated mesh of elements while other parts of the structure
include pipeline inspection, crack detection, and weld may be subdivided using larger elements. In addition,
inspection. In addition, tests used in the quality assurance the solutions obtained may be viewed and examined
of the magnetic particle suspension fluid widely used graphically to obtain a clear understanding of the
in NDT may be simulated to confirm that particle magnetic effects taking place in the structure.
performance is of a suitable standard.
Keywords: electromagnetic, finite element method, Electromagnetic Formulation and Finite Element
crack detection, eddy currents, magnetic fields, NDT, Method
pipeline inspection. For 2D calculations of both static and time varying
fields, a single component of magnetic vector potential
Introduction is calculated. If the Z direction is assumed to be into
The analysis and simulation of electromagnetic fields the page, with the X and Y directions in the plane of the
by finite element modeling (FEM) provides a powerful page, the formulation may be expressed as
tool to obtain accurate results and to visualize these
results graphically in both two and three dimensions. (1)
The package used in the following examples is OPERA
and runs on a PC or UNIX based system. Typically the A is the vector potential, and B is the magnetic flux
use of this technique in NDT is based on two types of density. For the 2D case this simplifies to
electromagnetic field: static and time varying (eddy
(2)
current) fields.
Static magnetic fields provide a unidirectional flux And
pattern. By using magnetic particle testing methods, an
inspector can observe the flux pattern, which provides (3)
a visual method of determining the presence of faults
in a structure. This type of testing is used extensively in Once the z component of vector potential is
the aerospace and automotive industries. determined, the gradient of this potential provides
In other fields, eddy currents are generated, the magnetic flux densities and associated magnetic
16 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | J U LY 2 0 0 0
fields. Appropriate boundary conditions may be is the vector describing the distance and direction from
imposed together with current sources and nonlinear the source conductor to any point in the model, and Ω
permeability. is the source conductor volume. Again the gradients of
The implementation of the 3D static field the scalar potentials determine the magnetic fields.
analysis is based on the well established total and A vector potential formulation may be used
reduced magnetic scalar potential formulation. This to compute the eddy current effects in the time
formulation also applies in the case where materials varying field analysis. From Maxwell’s equations, the
that have no conductivity in time varying models. For relationship between the source currents and the
eddy current regions, the formulation is extended to magnetic field strength induced by these currents is
include magnetic vector potential. The total potential
formulation used to determine the magnetic field in (9)
current free regions is
The flux density is related to the magnetic field strength
(4) by the permeability of the material under investigation
as
where
(10)
is the magnetic field and ϕ is the total magnetic From Equations 1, 9, and 10, the following the
scalar potential. The total scalar potential satisfies the vector potential equation, including material properties
nonlinear relationship and time varying effects may be derived.
(5) (11)
where μ is the permeability of the materials present and This expression is added into the formulation with
may be nonlinear. the gage
In the presence of a magnetic field source
conductor, a reduced scalar potential φ is defined as (12)
(6) In a similar way, the gradients of the vector

potential determine the fields and eddy currents in
where the solution. The gradients are calculated either in the
solution result or in the postprocessor. The method is
fully described by Binns, Lawrence, and Trowbridge
(1992).
is the magnetic field due to material magnetization. In To determine the above gradients over a 2D or
this case the total magnetic field is modified to be 3D space, the finite element method may be used.
The model space is divided into small elements, each
(7) of which describes the variation in potential as a
linear or quadratic function over that element and the
where potential variation from one element to another must
be continuous in order to obtain a physical solution. By
numerically determining the overall minimum energy
is the magnetic field due to current sources and φ is the
state of the assembly of these elements, the potential
reduced magnetic scalar potential.
distribution described above may be obtained. To
The reduced scalar potential satisfies the nonlinear
determine this minimum energy state of the system,
relationship
the equations describing the variation in potential,
together with the connection of each element to the
(8)
neighboring elements, must be solved simultaneously.
where This set of simultaneous equation may be arranged into
a matrix form of the type
(13)
is the current density in the source conductor,
where K is the matrix of coefficients describing
potential variation and element connection, Φ is the
J U LY 2 0 0 0 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 17
vector of magnetic scalar potential, and S is the vector crack fault present in the weld. The change in magnetic
of source currents. field distribution on the surface is seen clearly. This
As each element is only connected to the illustrates how the simulation of a fault in a magnetic
immediate neighboring elements, the matrix K tends to component, using this technique, provides graphical
be sparse ( Jin, 1993). The Galerkin weighted residual interpretation of the magnetic fields. It should be noted
method is used to determine the solution of unknown that the FEM simulation shows underlying fields. In
potentials and subsequently obtain the gradient the particle inspection observation, small magnetic
fields ( Jin, 1993). This is a well known technique particles are observed on the surface (Hoyt, 1996).
and well suited to electromagnetic models. As an The shapes may be more complex, as can be seen by
example, Poisson’s equation for the total magnetic the automotive suspension arm shown in Figure 3.
scalar potential, given in Equation 5 would have an In the case of the Ketos ring test of magnetic
approximate solution determined by particle suspension fluid, a large current is passed
through the center of a magnetic ring. The ring has
(14) smaller holes drilled at suitable radial positions to
give the structure shown in Figure 4. The variation
where W is the weighting function. in radial position of these smaller holes defines a
The application of this method to electromagnetic specific magnetic field distribution on the surface of
problems and the particular choices of weighting the ring. A 2D model of this is shown in Figure 5. The
function are described in detail elsewhere (Binns, flux distribution is clearly illustrated. The magnetic
1992). Satisfying this equation provides the numerical particle suspension is deposited on the ring surface.
solution for φ. The interaction of the particles and the magnetic field
gradients produce a particle distribution, allowing a
Discussion visual inspection of the magnetic particle and fluid for
quality assurance. It is usual to observe the particle map
Static Field Studies on the outer circumference of the ring and a typical
A main application of the static magnetic field analysis flux density pattern is shown in a 3D model in Figure 6.
and simulation is in magnetic particle testing. Not only
is it possible to simulate the magnetic field distribution
at a fault in a magnetic component, but FEM may also
be used to determine the field gradients generated in
the Ketos ring test, which is used for quality assurance
of the magnetic particle suspension (SAE, 1998;
Hagemaier, 1992).
To illustrate the use of FEM to visualize fault
detection in magnetic components, a simple 3D
shape representing a welded component, is shown in
Figure 1. The finite element mesh is shown and with
an applied magnetic field, the magnetic flux density
may be displayed on the surface of the structure, in the
form of contours and vectors. Figure 2 shows a close Figure 2. Distribution of magnetic flux density in the region
up display of this same component with a simulated of a simulated crack.
Figure 1. Model of the magnetic flux density distribution Figure 3. Magnetic flux density distribution over an
over a welded component. automotive suspension arm.
Time Varying (Eddy Current) Field Analysis component may or may not be magnetic. The method
There are two main areas in which FEM studies are of producing the induced currents is different in the
carried out to assist in the understanding of eddy two cases.
current NDT apparatus and results. Both applications The first case is where a DC coil (or set of coils)
rely on the effects of induced circulating currents in is used to set up a static magnetic field. The structure
a component that is a good electrical conductor. The under test is usually a pipe or flat sheet and this is
passed through the field. The resulting induced eddy
currents define part of the AC impedance seen at the
terminals of the coil. This impedance varies when a
fault is present in the structure and passes close to the
coil. This technique is used widely by pipeline services.
In the case of pipeline inspection, a set of coils is passed
down the inside of the pipe at a uniform velocity to
carry out crack detection inspection. The method is
commonly known as pigs down pipes, as the vehicle
that the coils are mounted on is called a pig (Lord,
1999).
Examples of the above are shown in Figures 7 and
8. Figure 7 shows a 2D model of a coil inside a pipe.
The pipe is assumed to be infinitely long and the model
is defined in an R-Z coordinate space, making use
of axial symmetry. For the two dimensional case of
Figure 7, an axial cross section is simulated. The pipe
is defined as having a velocity, and the eddy current
distribution in the pipe is shown for a nominal current
Figure 4. Illustration of the Ketos ring. and velocity. Figure 7 shows the result assuming no
Figure 5. Two dimensional model of the Ketos ring showing Figure 7. Two dimensional axisymmetric model of the eddy
flux density distribution. currents induced in a pipeline inspection.
Figure 6. Surface map of the flux density showing the Figure 8. Three dimensional cut away of the eddy current
typical pattern in a Ketos ring test. distribution in a pipeline inspection.
crack is present. A 2D model offers fast simulation computer hardware and graphics capabilities, the FEM
but may be limiting in terms of any three dimensional technique is likely to become even more widely used
effects. Three dimensions allow variations in the for more detailed simulation and visualization.
azimuthal direction. Figure 8 is a typical example in It should be noted that the examples given here
which the eddy current distribution is displayed in the are simulated field distribution rather than actual
pipe walls. measured responses. This means that, in the case
The second case where eddy current impedance is of magnetic particle testing, the underlying field
used to carry out crack detection relies on coils excited distribution is shown here, rather than the actual
by AC signals (Bakhtiari, 1996). In this case, the coil is particle distribution, although it is possible to model
positioned above the structure under test and the time the latter using this technique. In the same way, in the
varying current in the coil induces eddy currents in the case of eddy current testing, only the field distribution
nearby conducting structure. The impedance measured is shown here and is only part of the entire modeling
at the coil terminals varies as the coil moves across and simulation picture for these problems. However,
a crack in the conducting structure. The variation in the same simulation does provide predictions of the
this impedance defines the location and size of the changes of impedance in the instrumentation coils and
fault. A typical example is shown in Figure 9 where corresponding electrical signals on an eddy current
only one quarter of the whole geometry is shown so instrument (Turner, 1996).
that a clearer visualization of the eddy currents can be
seen. Also there are variations on this method where REFERENCES
differential pick up coils are used to detect variations Bakhtiari, S. and D.S. Kupperman, “Modeling of Eddy Current
Probe Response for Steam Generator Tubes,” 24th Water Reactor
in the magnetic field just above the structure, when Safety Information Meeting, Proceedings of the U.S. Nuclear
located near a fault. Regulatory Commission, Vol. 2, October 21-23 1996. NUREG/
CP-0157.
Binns, K.J., P.J. Lawrenson, and C.W. Trowbridge, The Analytical
and Numerical Solution of Electric and Magnetic Fields, Wiley
1992.
Hagemaier, D., “Evaluation of Steel Ring Standards for Magnetic
Particle Inspection,” 1992 ATA NDT Forum, August 25-27, 1992.
Hoyt, F.S. and B.A. Sattaformaggio, “Magnetic Particle Inspection
of Reciprocating Compressor Cylinders Using a Fixed AC Coil,”
Materials Evaluation, Vol. 54, No. 7, July 1996, pp. 792-793.
Lord, W., L. Udpa, and S.S. Udpa, “Development of ‘Smart Pigs’
for Transmission Gas Pipeline Inspection,” Smart Materials
Structures and Systems, Ed., P.D. Mangalgiri, A.R. Upadhya, and
A. Selvargfan, Allied, 1999, pp. 507-514.
Jin, J., The Finite Element Method in Electromagnetics, New
York, Wiley, 1993.
Figure 9. Cut away display of eddy currents induced in a SAE AS5282, Tool Steel Ring for Magnetic Particle Inspection,
plate containing a simulated crack path. issued March 1998.
Sun Y.S., W. Lord, L. Udpa, S.S. Udpa, S. K. Lua, K.H. Ng,
and S. Nath, “Thick-Walled Aluminum Plate Inspection Using
The FEM method illustrates the underlying Remote Field Eddy Current Techniques,” Review of Progress
in Quantitative Nondestructive Evaluation, Vol. 16, Ed., D.O.
field and eddy current distributions as well as the Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, New York, Plenum Press, 1997, pp.
changes in the equivalent electrical circuit properties 1005-1012.
of the equivalent circuit seen at the terminals of Sun Y.S., S.S. Udpa, W. Lord, and D. Cooley, “Inspection of
the instrument (Sun, 1996; Sun, 1997). When Metallic Plates Using a Novel Remote Field Eddy Current NDT
Probe,” Review of Progress in Quantitative Nondestructive
experimental observations are made, only these Evaluation, Vol. 15, Ed., D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, New
latter circuit variations may be measured. Agreement York, Plenum Press, 1996, pp. 1137-1144.
between FEM simulation results and those from Shatat, A. and David L. Atherton, “Remote Field Eddy Current
measured data have been found to be good for eddy Inspection of Support Plate Fretting Wear,” Materials Evaluation,
Vol. 55, No. 3, March 1997, pp. 361-366.
current NDT (Shatat, 1997).
Turner L.R., “Solving TEAM Problem 8 (Slot in a Plate) on a PC
with ELEKTRA ,” Proceedings of the TEAM Workshop in the
Summary Sixth Round, Okayama, Japan, 20-21 March 1996, pp. 34-37.
The use of FEM software for simulation and
AUTHOR
visualization has been illustrated. The accuracy
reported by users between simulation and David C. Carpenter: Vector Fields Inc., 1700 N. Farnsworth Ave.,
Aurora, IL 60505; (630) 851-1734; fax (630) 851-2106; e-mail
measurement is well within the experimental results david.carpenter@vectorfields.com.
errors. With the continuing rapid development of
Monte Carlo Simulation of False Alarms
and Detection Reliability in Magnetic
Flux Leakage Inspection of Steel Tubes
by Eduardo Altschuler, Alberto Pignotti, and Jonas Paiuk
Abstract widths that are equally severe from the point of view of
The same flaw gives rise to different signals when inspected the standards, give rise to two different signals. This has
by the same nondestructive testing (NDT) equipment been repeatedly pointed out by Stanley (1985).
under closely similar circumstances. A laboratory The second characteristic is the variation of other
example involving six identical cracks is shown. This is a parameters or set points which we would like to be as
consequence of unavoidable fluctuations in the parameters sharply defined as possible, but necessarily are subject
that influence the detection process and is illustrated using to fluctuations, such as the magnetization current,
a Monte Carlo simulation based on a numerical model material properties, sensor to sample distance, or pipe
of crack detection in steel pipes by magnetc flux leakage. wall thickness.
The effects of these uncertainties on the fault detection As a consequence of the variations mentioned
reliability and on the appearance of false alarms are above, successive inspections of the same part with the
analyzed. The occurrence of Type I errors (lack of same equipment give rise to a distribution of signal
detection of unacceptable defects) and Type II errors (false amplitudes that prevents a sharp determination of the
alarms) is studied as a function of the detection threshold, flaw size based solely on the amplitude of the detected
and guidelines for improving detection efficiency are signal. As an example of this indeterminacy, six
suggested. identical longitudinal notches were performed on the
Keywords: cracks, detection reliability, false alarms, external wall of a steel pipe. The location of the notches
magnetic flux leakage, Monte Carlo simulation, was chosen to coincide with local maxima and minima
nondestructive testing, piping, steel. of the wall thickness, and their depth was verified to be
1.47 ± 0.03 mm (0.058 ± 0.001 in.) using a mechanical
Introduction gage. Figure 1 shows the magnetic flux leakage signal
A recent paper (Dickens and Bray, 1994) has described recorded using a setup similar to those used in tube
the uncertainties in flaw detection originating from the manufacturing inspection lines. Even though in this
human factor. The aim of this presentation is to show case the differences in flaw size are negligible, there is
how similar uncertainties appear in connection with
two unavoidable characteristics of the physical system
formed by the part being inspected and the detection
apparatus.
The first characteristic is the variation of some
parameters that characterize the flaw even though,
in the usual treatment, they have no bearing on the
severity of the defect. In the case of detection of cracks
in steel pipes by magnetic flux leakage, the crack width
is such a parameter. This is so because, even though
it does not influence the signal strength as much as
the crack depth does, it still has an appreciable effect
on it. Only the crack depth, however, should be taken
into account to comply with the currently accepted
inspection standards (API, 1995; ISO, 1989), and as
Figure 1. Recorded magnetic flux leakage signal for six
a consequence of this fact, two cracks with different identical cracks (crack #2 is shown twice).
still a 12 percent spread in the detected amplitudes as Table 1. Distribution of the relevant parameters used in the
a consequence of the fluctuations in the magnetic field Monte Carlo calculation
due to 4 percent variations in the wall thickness.
In order to analyze these results and assess their
implications on the determination of the detection
threshold and the reliability of NDT inspection
equipment, we show in the following sections the
results of a Monte Carlo simulation using a previously
developed magnetic flux leakage numerical model
(Altschuler and Pignotti, 1994).
Magnetic Flux Leakage Model

The equations for a magnetostatic field with
appropriate boundary conditions are solved by
the finite difference method, using the following
dependence of the magnetic flux density on the
magnetic field (Förster, 1986):
(1)
where Bs is the saturation value of B and Hw is the field

intensity at which one half of this saturation is reached.
The pipe wall geometry is approximated by that
of a flat slab, and a crack of rectangular cross section
is assumed. Figure 2 shows the basic geometry used.
The detector is modeled as two flat coils wound in Figure 3. Assumed depth distribution of the notch
opposite directions, moving on a plane parallel to the population.
pipe wall at a distance d from it called lift-off. Signals Assuming a standard acceptance level (API, 1995;
similar to those in Figure 1 are thus obtained, and the ISO, 1989) a critical value for the crack depth of
peak-to-peak voltage is chosen as representative of the 12.5 percent of the nominal wall thickness was chosen.
signal strength. Figure 4 shows the frequency of occurrence of signal
strengths for cracks having the critical depth. It is
seen that, because of the indeterminacy introduced
by the reasons mentioned above, a bell shaped
distribution is obtained, with a standard deviation
that is approximately 25 percent of the mean value.
Varying one parameter at a time, we have investigated
the relative contribution of the various intervening
factors to this variability, and obtained the results
Figure 2. Notch and sensor geometry used in the model.
Monte Carlo Simulation

The assumptions used for the distribution of the
relevant parameters in the model are presented in
Table 1 (see also Figure 3). A total of 1,000 cases
selected at random with the above distributions were
generated and solved using a variance reduction
technique in order to improve the statistics in the Figure 4. Frequency of occurrence of signal strengths for
region of interest of large flaws. cracks of the critical 12.5 percent depths. Signal strengths
are relative to the mean value.
Table 2. Relative contribution of the various intervening
factors to the total variability
shown in Table 2. We see from it that the variations of

crack widths, followed by the lift-off and the pipe wall
thickness, account for 95 percent of the total variability.
The fact that the assumed variation in crack width is
the largest source of variation in signal strength should
come as no surprise. The dependence of the leakage Figure 5. Scatter plot of relative signal strength and
percentage notch depth, with indication of the critical
field on the crack width was established experimentally notch depth and a possible rejection threshold that
several years ago (Heath, as reported in Bray and partitions the plane into regions I to 4. Signal strengths are
Stanley, 1989), and is also present in the model used relative to the average 12.5 percent depth notch.
here. We should also point out that variations in the
wall thickness are enhanced by the fact that, for a given
magnetization current, the field inside the pipe wall is
stronger at locations where the wall is thinner.
Results of the Monte Carlo Simulation

Figure 5 is a plot in which each simulated event is
represented by a square in the b - s plane, b being the
crack depth and s the signal strength. The critical crack
depth and a possible rejection threshold partition this
plane into the following four quadrants shown in the
figure (Dickens and Bray, 1994; Warm, 1984):
l Type I errors (accepted tubes with unacceptable
defects).
Figure 6. Frequency of occurrence of signal strengths in
l Type II errors (rejected tubes with subcritical
the Monte Carlo simulation for flaws below and above
defects, i.e., false alarms). the critical size. A possible rejection threshold is shown.
l Rejected tubes with unacceptable defects. 1: Type I errors; 2: Type II errors (false alarms). Signal
l Accepted tubes with subcritical defects. strengths are relative to the average 12.5 percent depth
Denoting by Ql, Q2, Q3, and Q4, the numbers notch. Note that only the portion above the rejection
threshold is shown for cracks below the critical size.
of events into each one of these four quadrants,
respectively, we can define the detection reliability
as the percentage of unacceptable defects that are An alternative way to visualize this dependence
rejected, i.e., is seen in Figure 6, which shows the frequency of
occurrence of signal strengths obtained for cracks
(2) above and below the critical 12.5 percent depth notch.
The same rejection threshold than in Figure 5 is shown.
A convenient index is also the rejection percentage, It intersects both curves and determines the types of
defined as the percentage of inspected tubes that are errors defined above:
rejected. l undetected cracks deeper than 12.5 percent (Type I
errors)
(3) l rejected tubes with cracks shallower than
12.5 percent (Type II errors)
Both these indices are, of course, functions of the The dependence of the detection reliability and
rejection threshold chosen. For instance, if we want rejection percentage on the rejection threshold is
to improve the detection reliability the rejection shown in Figure 7. From it we see that, for example, if
threshold has to be lowered, thus decreasing Q1 a rejection threshold of 0.6 of the average12.5 percent
(accepted tubes with unacceptable defects), but depth notch signal is chosen, 7 percent of the inspected
increasing Q2, i.e., more false alarms occur.
they constitute a challenge for the improvement of the
reliability and efficiency of the inspection process.
In this paper we have dealt with a specific example
involving a particular NDT technique, namely, crack
detection by magnetic flux leakage. But the same
methodology can be applied to other techniques, and
similar conclusions can be reached.
REFERENCES
Altschuler, F., and A. Pignotti, “Nonlinear Model of Raw Detection
in Steel Pipes by Magnetic Flux Leakage,” NDT&E International,
Vol. 28, No. 1, 1995, pp 35-40.
API, Specification SCT for Casing and Tubing, 1995, American
Petroleum Institute.
Figure 7. Detection reliability and rejection percentage as Bray, D., and R. Stanley, Nondestructive Evaluation, 1989, p 291.
functions of the rejection threshold. McGraw-Hill.
Dickens, J.R., and D.E. Bray, “Human Performance Considerations
in Nondestructive Testing,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 52, No. 9, Sep.
1994, pp 1033-1041.
tubes are rejected and 95 percent of the unacceptable
Förster, F., “New Findings in the Field of Nondestructive Magnetic
defects are correctly detected. Still, this implies that the Leakage Field Inspection,” NDT International, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1986,
remaining 5 percent of the unacceptable defects pass pp 3-14.
the test. ISO 9402, Seamless and welded (except submerged arc-welded)
As expected, both indices defined above increase steel tubes for pressure purposes – full peripheral magnetic
transducer/flux leakage testing of ferromagnetic steel tubes for the
to 100 percent as the rejection threshold is decreased, detection of longitudinal imperfections, 1989.
which only shows the obvious conclusion: the price Stanley, R., “Basic Principles of Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection
that has to be paid to increase the detection reliability Systems for the Evaluation of Oil Country Tubular Goods,” in
is the corresponding increase in rejection percentage, Electromagnetic Methods of NDT, 1985. Gordon and Breach.
mainly due to the increase in the number of good tubes Warm, J.S., ed., Sustained Attention in Human Performance, 1984.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
being rejected. In practice, a compromise solution has
to be found. AUTHORS
Eduardo Altschuler: Fundación para el Desarrollo Tecnologico
Conclusions (Center for Industrial Research), L. Alem 1067, 1001 Buenos Aires,
The above analysis shows the origin of a limitation Argentina; 54-489-33040; fax 54-489-27928; e-mail rpapi@criba
.edu.ar.
of the detection reliability that can be traced to the
Alberto Pignotti: Fundación para el Desarrollo Tecnologico
overlap of the two curves in Figure 6. There are two (Center for Industrial Research), L. Alem 1067, 1001 Buenos Aires,
possible ways to decrease this overlap: the first is to Argentina; 54-489-33040; fax 54-489-27928; e-mail rpapi@criba
decrease the fluctuations in the parameters involved .edu.ar.
in the detection process, thus narrowing the two Jonas Paiuk: TECHINT, Ditec, L. Alem 1067, 1001 Buenos Aires,
Argentina; 54-1-318-2183.
overlapping curves. The second way is to perform
more detailed measurements and base the rejection
criteria on more than a single measured quantity.
Neither of these alternatives is easy to implement, but
Magnetic Flux Leakage as
Applied to Aboveground Storage Tank
Floor Inspections
by David M. Amos
Inspecting the floors of flat-bottom aboveground storage Magnetic Flux Leakage

tanks using magnetic flux leakage carries with it some In order to understand some of the problems
problems that don’t appear in the inspection of tubulars– associated with this particular application of magnetic
most notably that these tank floors are never really flat, flux leakage it is necessary to understand the basic
whereas tubulars are generally always round. principles of the technique. Everybody is familiar with
Frank A. Iddings, Contributing Editor the ability of a magnet to “stick” to a carbon steel plate.
This is due to the fact that magnetic lines of force (flux)
Magnetic flux leakage inspection techniques have been much prefer to travel in the carbon steel plate than in
widely used in the oil field inspection industry for the surrounding air. In fact, this flux is very reluctant
over a quarter of a century for the examination of both to travel in air unless it is forced to do so by the lack
new and used pipe, tubing, and casing. It is only in the of another suitable medium. For the purposes of this
last ten years that this inspection technique has been particular application, a magnetic bridge is used to
applied to aboveground storage tank (AST) flat bottom introduce as near a saturation of flux as is possible
floors in an attempt to provide a reliable indication of in the inspection material between the poles of the
the overall floor condition within an economical time bridge. Any significant reduction in the thickness
frame. In most cases these inspections are being carried of the plate will result in some of the magnetic flux
out by industrial inspection NDT companies who do being forced into the air around the area of reduction.
not have the depth of experience in the technique that Sensors which can detect these flux leakages are placed
most of the oil field tubular inspection companies have. between the poles of the bridge. Figure 1 illustrates this
At the same time this relatively new application of phenomenon.
magnetic flux leakage brings with it some additional
problems not evident in the inspection of tubulars, The Inspection Environment
where certain parameters can be quite closely In order to optimize the effectiveness of the inspection,
controlled. Probably the greatest of these problems it is necessary to consider the environment and
is that tank floors are never flat, whereas tubulars address the physical restrictions imposed by the actual
are generally always round. The ability to obtain conditions found when examining the majority of flat
any reasonably consistent quantitative information bottom tank floors.
is seriously impacted by this general unevenness of
most tank floors. The application of rigid accept/
reject criteria based on signal amplitude thresholds has
proved to be unreliable as regards truly quantitative
information. A more realistic approach is required in
the application of this inspection technique and in the
design of the inspection equipment to ensure that there
are fewer incidences of significant defects being missed.
This article outlines some of the major
considerations that need to be addressed in order to
achieve reliable, fast, and economical inspections of Figure 1. Sensors that can detect the magnetic flux being forced into the air
AST flat bottom tank floors. around the area of reduction are placed between the poles of the bridge.
J A N U A RY 1 9 9 6 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 25
Climatic Conditions are more than capable of introducing the required flux
Invariably the range of temperature and humidity levels into the material under test. Electromagnets,
conditions will vary enormously worldwide. The effect by comparison, are excessively bulky and heavy. They
on both operator and equipment must be taken into do have an advantage in that the magnetic flux levels
consideration. Human beings do not function well in can be easily adjusted and “turned off ” if necessary
extremes of temperature. Use of the equipment should for cleaning purposes. Permanent magnet heights can
not place too great a burden on them from either a be adjusted to alter flux levels, but the bridge requires
physical or mental point of view. In other words regular cleaning to remove ferritic debris. The buildup
the simpler, more reliable, and easier to use the of debris can have a significant impact on system
equipment is made, the more reliable will be the sensitivity.
results of the inspection.
Sensor Types
Cleanliness There are basically two types of sensors currently in
By their very nature, the majority of ASTs are dirty use: coils and Hall effect sensors. They are both capable
and sometimes dusty places to work. The conditions of detecting the flux leakage fields caused by corrosion
in this regard vary widely and depend upon how much on flat bottom tank floors. There is a fundamental
effort the tank owner/operator is willing to expend difference, however, in the way that they respond to
in cleaning the floors in preparation for magnetic flux leakage fields and generate a response.
leakage scanning. As an absolute minimum, a good Coils are passive devices and follow Faraday’s Law
water blast is necessary, and all loose debris and scale in the presence of a magnetic field. As a coil is passed
should be removed from the inspection surface. The through a magnetic field a voltage is generated in
surface does not necessarily have to be dry, but puddles the coil, and the level of this voltage depends on the
of standing water need to be removed. The cleaner the number of turns in the coil and the rate of change of
floor can be made, the better the inspection that can be the flux leakage. From this it can be seen that speed will
achieved. have some influence on the signals obtained from this
type of sensor.
Surface Condition Hall effect sensors are solid state devices which
Significant top surface corrosion and/or buckling of form part of an electrical circuit and, when passed
the floor plates represent a serious limitation to both through a magnetic field, the value of the voltage in
the achievable coverage in the areas concerned and the circuit varies dependent on the absolute value of
also the achievable sensitivity. While it is understood the flux density. It is necessary to carry out some cross
that very little can be done to improve this situation referencing and canceling with this type of sensor so
prior to inspection, it must be considered in the design that true signals can be separated from other causes
of the equipment and its effect on the sensitivity of large variations in voltage levels generated by the
of the inspection appreciated by both the owner/ inspection process.
operator of the tank as well as the person conducting There is much disagreement within the industry
the examination. Any physical disturbance of the as to which is the best type of sensor to use in this
scanning system as it traverses the floor will result application. Hall effect sensors are undeniably more
in the generation of noise. The rougher the surface, sensitive than coils. However, in this application
the greater the noise, and therefore the reduction in coils have adequate sensitivity and are more stable
achievable sensitivity. and reliable. If one draws from the experience of the
tubular inspection industry it will be seen that, for the
Equipment Design Considerations inspection of used tubing, the preferred sensor is still
It is vital that magnetic flux leakage equipment the coil. Hall effect sensors prove to be too sensitive
produced for this particular application is designed to when surface conditions are less than perfect, which
handle the environmental and practical problems that results in an unreliable inspection and the generation of
are always present. A piece of equipment designed in significant false calls.
a laboratory and proved in ideal conditions invariably
has significant shortcomings in the real world Coverage Limitations
application. Some of the major considerations are It is virtually impossible to achieve 100 percent
discussed in the following paragraphs. coverage using this technique due to the limitations
of physical access. The equipment should be designed
Electromagnets/Permanent Magnets so that it can scan as close as possible to the lap joint
Powerful rare earth permanent magnets are now and shell. There are obviously compromises to be
available and are ideally suited to this application. They made, as the wheel base of the scanner is an important
26 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | J A N U A RY 1 9 9 6
consideration on floors that are not perfectly flat. Computerized Mapping of Flux Leakage Signals
Smaller scanning heads can be used in confined spaces It is obvious from previous comments that the
to increase coverage. mapping of flux leakage signals has limited value in
computerized mapping, as it can only reliably be used
Topside/Bottom Side Differentiation to offer qualitative and not quantitative information.
Magnetic flux leakage cannot differentiate between the There is some value in a system that allows the selective
response from topside and bottom side indications. mapping of areas with the ability to manipulate the
Some attempt has been made to use the eddy current data in order to correlate the output with the accurate
signals from topside defects for the purposes of information obtained by ultrasonics. This would allow
differentiation based on frequency discrimination. the generation of selective graphical information for
This is unreliable on real tank floors due to the uneven reporting purposes should hard copy presentation of
nature and lack of cleanliness of the inspection surface. the data be required. The limited advantages of this
In most cases visual techniques are perfectly adequate type of equipment must be weighed against the risk
for this purpose. Contrary to what is expected, the associated with the use of computer equipment in this
flux leakage response from a topside indication is environment.
significantly lower in amplitude than that from an
equivalent bottom side indication. This means that, to Operator Training and Qualification Requirements
some degree, the influence of the top side indications Currently there is limited training available to users
can be “tuned out” to allow a reliable assessment of the of the equipment in regard to this application. The
underside floor condition. necessary ultrasonic prove up must be carried out by
personnel who are adequately trained and qualified.
Quantitative Assessment of Indications It must be remembered that this is not just “thickness
Magnetic flux leakage is a qualitative, not quantitative, measurement” but rather corrosion evaluation and
inspection tool and is a reliable detector of corrosion the technician must have a full understanding of the
on tank floors. Due to the environmental and physical technique that should be applied.
restrictions encountered during real inspections,
no reliable quantification of indications is possible. Conclusions
Amplitude alone is an unreliable indication of Certain conclusions can be drawn from the above if
remaining wall thickness as it is more dependent one agrees with the facts and opinions that have been
on actual volume loss. Defects exhibiting various expressed.
combinations of volume loss and through wall l Throwing technology at any given inspection
dimension can give the same amplitude signal. Add problem does not always reap the expected rewards.
to this the continually changing spatial relationship l The environment and physical restrictions must be
of magnets, sensor, and inspection surface and it addressed in the design of the equipment.
is absolutely clear that an accurate assessment of l Despite the undeniable greater sensitivity of Hall
remaining wall thickness is virtually impossible. Truly effect sensors, coils are more reliable for this
quantitative results can only be obtained using a particular application for the reasons given.
combination of ultrasonics and flux leakage. l Flux leakage is a reliable, fast, and economical
method of providing a qualitative assessment of the
The Single Level Threshold overall floor condition.
Commercial expediency has brought about the l Truly quantitative information is only possible by
implementation of accept/reject criteria using a applying ultrasonics to the areas detected by flux
single level threshold approach. The author does leakage.
not support this approach. As previously stated, the l Amplitude of flux leakage signals is an unreliable
amplitude of signals alone is not a reliable indicator indicator of remaining wall thicknesses.
of remaining wall thickness. Significant indications l The industry should consider addressing the
can be completely missed, especially in cases where training, qualification, and certification of personnel
the equipment does not incorporate some form carrying out flux leakage inspections of the flat
of real time online display. In order to carry out a bottoms of ASTs.
reliable inspection the operator must have as much
information as possible available in the form of an easy AUTHOR
to interpret real time display. David M. Amos: MFE Enterprises, Inc., North Belt Business
Center, 15116 Lee Road, Suite 521-E, Humble, TX 77396; (713)
441-8284; fax (713) 441-8386.
Computerized Operational Control of
an Electromagnetic Wire Rope Tester
by Lorant B. Geller, K. Leung, and F. Kitzinger
An extensive research and development project has l Incorrect selection of the 0 percent LMA, i.e., of the
been undertaken since 1986 in the area of NDT of wire “best” rope segment’s location.
ropes with electromagnetic instruments. A paper in the l Incorrect procedures in the case of ropes tested with
January 1992 issue of Materials Evaluation summarized multiple instrument setups (i.e. balance ropes).
results obtained by this joint Canadian/US work. To assist the instrument operators it was decided
Here, the authors review major results of the work to computerize, as far as practicable, one specific
performed since then. It was undertaken jointly by instrument’s operational functions. Apart from
the Canadian Federal Government’s laboratories of thus helping to eliminate much of the above noted
Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, and by potential for operator errors, it was also felt that a
Noranda, a major mining industry conglomerate. large, and hitherto untapped, reservoir of instrument
In particular, this article describes the progress capabilities could thereby be made readily accessible.
achieved in the computerized control of the wire rope We summarize these potential advantages in a later
test instrument’s basic operational functions. The goal report section.
was to obtain as user friendly and flexible a system as The first phase of the CANMET-Noranda work
possible, without losing sight of practical requirements concentrated on an in-depth study of the magnetic
such as the need to gather all essential test characteristics of the chosen instrument’s sensor head.
parameters and to ensure acceptable production Results of the relevant finite element analysis, as well
and maintenance costs. as an outline of the initial program written to control
The project, and the results achieved, were the dual-function tester in question, were published
described in an extensive list of previous publications. in 1993 (Hamelin et al., 1993). In the present paper
Summaries of these publications were last given in the authors discuss the extensive developments that
1992 (Geller et al., 1992) and in 1993 (Hamelin et have occurred since in the computerized operational
al., 1993). As mentioned there, principal conclusions control of this tester, commercially to be designated the
arrived at included serious concerns with mistakes Magnograph II.
that arose from improper evaluation of the test results
achieved, rather than with the performance quality Hardware Characteristics
of the commercially available Canadian, US, and The sensor head used for subject computerized
German instruments actually tested. In fact some wire rope tester project is the permanent magnets
30 percent of the reported results were considered and Hall-sensors equipped design known as the
to be unacceptable, including some particularly Magnograph. Only a few changes were effected, all of
glaring errors. This was so, even though the evaluation which can be easily retrofitted to existing equipment.
procedures in question were based on reported The cable linking the head to the new console assembly
loss-of-metallic-area (LMA) measurements, rather has also been left unaltered.
than on the much more uncertain loss-of- In Figure 1 we illustrate a laboratory setup of
breaking-strength (LBS) estimates, as specified by the computerized rope tester being discussed.
most of the relevant regulations. This computer can, if so desired, be replaced by
Frequently observed errors included: another model, provided that hardware and software
l Mistaken instrument calibration by incorrect compatibility is maintained.
potentiometer and/or recorder chart Two full size expansion boards adapt the computer
sensitivity settings. to work with the Magnograph II sensor head. One
New test run option, with data gathering and graphic
display. The program set-up parameters mentioned
above include choices between:
l Metric and imperial test units.
l Different scaling parameters for the LF display.
l A potential to obtain new test runs based either on
LMA or on TCMA (total change in metallic area)
parameters.
The third option means that the test results can
be expressed relative to, i.e. as a percentage of, either:
(a) the rope’s current, actual, kg/m condition at the
point of test departure (the LMA test), or as (b) of the
Figure 1. Laboratory setup of a computerized wire-rope
NDT instrument.
rope’s original, as manufactured condition (the TCMA
option).
controls the input and output signals to and from the We prefer to use option (b), because it provides
sensor head, while the other handles the necessary more logical and consistent test results, on the basis
analog-to-digital conversion tasks, plus a number of an unchanging, and readily available, datum level.
of other duties, by means of its own dedicated Conversely, option (a) entails a shifting datum, often
software program. only available on the basis of a more or less accurate
Further developments are currently in the process estimate. Moreover, in the latter case correct placement
of realization. These are based on both the finite of the 0 percent LMA datum level can represent an
element studies described in detail elsewhere (Hamelin additional source of uncertainty, further exacerbated if
et al., 1993), and on the extensive R&D work that the “best” rope condition is far from pristine, and/or if
has led to the results we describe in this article. These the test can not be performed with a single instrument
developments, while resulting in a smaller and lighter set-up, and/or if the rope should be fairly uniformly
sensor head, do not otherwise represent any basic worn along its entire length.
changes in the presently discussed process. As mentioned before, the software has been written
to be as user friendly as possible. It, includes a number
Software Characteristics of prompting and warning messages covering:
The Magnograph II computer program in question l Excessive rope speeds.
provides the operator with three major operating l Insufficient available disk space.
options (Figure 2), namely: l Assessment of whether or not the instrument is in
l To run a new wire rope test with a concurrent good working order.
display and storage of all newly obtained data. Moreover, a new test run can not even be started
l To play back any of the previously conducted new without first answering, within a limited permissible
test run results, including their display and/or range, some basic questions (block “A” in Figure 3).
printout. Other questions are also presented which must not
l To manage any of the existing wire rope test files, necessarily be replied to, but serve as a reminder to
namely to copy, delete, and/or display any of them, ensure that records are properly kept (block “B” in
as desired. Figure 3).
In addition the operator may choose among a range Figure 4 illustrates results of a new test run,
of different program setup parameters, or may exit obtained with a 19 mm (0.75 in.), 6 × 19 Seale IWRC
from the program in question completely. construction test rope with artificial anomalies. Testing
Figure 2. Monitor display at the control program’s initiation Figure 3. Monitor display at the initiation stage of a new
stage. test run.
Figure 4. Graphic monitor display during a new test run, Figure 5. Graphic monitor display during a new test run.
with appropriate warning messages. (Note discontinuous LMA signal display and change in
rope travel direction.)
always commences in the “forward” direction, no

matter how the instrument is installed. A later change
in rope travel direction cannot be missed, because of
changes in the color of the TCMA-LMA, as well as of
the length signal displays (Figure 5).
Playback option, with graphic display and printout.
Any test file on record can be played back. Salient
features of this program phase include:
l Playback can be obtained either with the parameters
as selected during the original new test run stage, or
else with many others, as may be specified during
Figure 6. Monitor display at the initiation stage of a
the later playback phase. This is one aspect ensuring playback.
the system’s great flexibility.
l The excursion limits of the TCMA-LMA and of the
LF screen displays are automatically adjusted so that
all originally recorded data are displayed, no matter
whether or not they were displayed during the
original new test run phase.
l Both vertical and horizontal signal scaling can be
adjusted, to permit either intensive investigation of
pre-selected rope sections, and/or compression of
those that are of less interest.
l Playback can be commenced, and stopped, at any
Figure 7. Range of options covered by the file management
pre-selected rope section. program segment.
l Single screen displays, as well as entire files, can be
printed out to obtain hard copy records. addition it was felt that several important instrument
l Error messages, as well as all other important capabilities could, thereby, be made more readily
information displayed during the new test run stage, accessible. These include:
reappear during the playback phase (Figure 6). l The TCMA test option, i.e., measurement of the
File management option. While this option is an total change in metallic area levels rather than only
important “housekeeping” facet of our computer of the more usual LMA changes.
program, current limitations of space prevent us l That all measurements are recorded, and displayed,
from discussing it in detail. However, the overall in terms of actual (i.e., true) kg/m data, rather than
range covered by this program segment is illustrated in relative terms.
in Figure 7. l That the LF display is always in phase with its
congruent TCMA-LMA signal, regardless of
Advantages of the Computerized System the direction of rope travel. Consequently, it is
As mentioned earlier, our work to computerize many always clear whether a metallic area loss, or gain, is
of the tasks previously performed manually was, involved at the relevant rope section, even should
originally, a consequence of the conclusions drawn the TCMA-LMA signal alone not provide this
from the joint Canadian/US project in subject area. In information.
A list of advantages inherent in the use of
this system has also been given. While some are
self-explanatory, others require further detailed
discussion in future reports. These include the
references to calibration and customization of both the
LF and TCMA-LMA test signals, and thereby of the
controlling computer program. Work in this area has,
in fact, already been initiated.
While our work has progressed to the stage of an
operational prototype system, field-testing remains to
be undertaken. It is planned for the near future. Results
Figure 8. Continuous playback of a discontinuous new test
will be published when available.
run screen display (note Figure 5).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
l All recorded data are played back, whether or We wish to thank M. Hamelin, scientist at the Noranda Technology
not they were displayed on the screen during Centre, for his extensive work during the instrument development
phases of this project.
the new test run phase. Note, as an example, the We also recognize C. Sobkowski’s valuable work in the project’s
missing LMA sections in the new test run display computer program development, performed on the basis of the
of Figure 5, and the corresponding continuous Canadian Federal Government’s supply arrangements with industry.
playback in Figure 8. Conversely, out-of-scale data
not properly recorded on conventional strip-charts REFERENCES
are, generally, unavailable for later review. Geller, L.B., D. Poffenroth, J.E. Udd, and D. Hutchinson, “Evaluation
of Electro-Magnetic Rope Testers: Joint Canadian /US Work,”
l The potential use of calibrated local fault Materials Evaluation, Vol. 50, No. 1, Jan. 1992, pp 56-63.
(LF) signals. Geller, L.B., K. Leung, and J.E. Udd, “A Canadian Computer
Other, perhaps somewhat more incidental, Controlled, Permanent Magnet and Hall-Sensors Equipped EM
advantages include: Wire-Rope Tester,” CANMET Div. Report MRL 94-023, Jun. 1994,
44 pp.
l An ability to maintain records without the use of
Geller, L.B., K. Leung, and J.E. Udd, “A New Canadian Dual
paper. Function, Computer Controlled EM Wire-Rope Tester: Operating
l A potential increase in test rope speeds. Details,” CANMET Div. Report MRL 94-044, Sep. 1994, 75 pp.
l The ability to closely link future advances in the Hamelin, M., F. Kitzinger, G. Rousseau, and L.B. Geller,
field of computer technology (both hardware and “Techniques to Better Exploit the Possibilities of Wire-Rope Testing
with Permanent Magnet Equipped EM Instruments,” Proceedings,
software oriented) with improvements in the NDT Mine Hoisting ‘93, pp 6.1.1-6.1.16, Second International Conference,
of wire ropes. The Royal School of Mines, London, UK, Jun. 28-30, 1993.
l The potential to customize instrument software
programs, thus allowing for the specific needs of AUTHORS
individual customers, and not only for those of a Lorant B. Geller: Mining Research Laboratories, CANMET,
Natural Resources Canada, 555 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada,
broad range of users. K1A 0G1; (613) 996-7255, fax (613) 996-2597.
K. Leung: Mining Research Laboratories, CANMET, Natural
Summary Resources Canada, 555 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A
0G1; (613) 996-7255, fax (613) 996-2597.
In this article, the authors provide an overview of the
F. Kitzinger: Noranda Technology Centre, 240 Hymus Blvd.,
salient features of the computerized wire rope test Pointe Claire, Quebec, Canada, H9R 1G5; (514) 630-9552, fax
process recently developed. Operational details are (514) 630-9379.
available elsewhere (Geller et al., 1994a and 1994b).
Simple Explanation of the Theory of
the Total Magnetic Flux Method for the
Measurement of Ferromagnetic Cross
Sections
by Roderick K. Stanley
Abstract of equipment has been replaced with an electronic

In a previous paper (Kirkwood and Stanley, 1992), we integrator. B is calculated simply from Φ = B • A,
have outlined the total magnetic flux (TMF) method for where A is the vector of the cross-sectional area of the
the inspection of elongated ferromagnetic product, such toroid that is perpendicular to the flux.
as tubing, drill pipe, sucker rods, wire rope, and piping in In order to make the physics work for typical
refineries and chemical plants. This paper is presented to nondestructive evaluation (NDE) applications, such
provide the scientific background to this nondestructive as wire rope, corroded rods and tubes, possibly with
evaluation (NDE) method, which has not previously been connections and surrounded by insulation, we must
presented, and to provide a list of references in which the open out the ring to form the part to be inspected, and
technique is known to be used. Because the method detects move the H- and B-coils away from the surface. This
wall loss in ferromagnetic steel parts, and is often used in permits the part and its appendages, such as couplings,
conjunction with other NDE methods such as magnetic to slide through the coil system. The H-field is set to
flux leakage (MFL), it represents yet another technique for magnetically saturate the material. However, this does
rapid volumetric scanning of such parts. introduce a demagnetizing field (HNd, where Nd is
Keywords: electromagnetic testing, ferromagnetics, the demagnetizing coefficient) into the part due to
magnetic flux leakage, nondestructive evaluation, piping, the poles that are created in regions such as P and Q
wire rope. (Figure 2) where the field lines enter and leave the part
(Bray and Stanley, 1989). In many applications this
The Total Magnetic Flux Method is no real limitation because the H-field required to
The method derives directly from the classic Rowland saturate the part does not appear in the equations that
Ring experiment, which was first used at the end are developed below. It does, however, also introduce
of the last century for determining the magnetic an air term into the total magnetic flux (Φtotal) detected
(B-H) properties of ferromagnetic materials (Bray by the B-coil, since there will now be a field in the air
and Stanley, 1989). In this test, a toroidal sample of (or insulation) between the boundary of the part and
material is first wound with coils that will provide both the B-coil, i.e.,
the necessary magnetic field intensity (H) in the ring
and measure changes in the resulting magnetic flux (1)
(Φ) as H is changed in a controlled manner.
Further, in the case of the inspection of hollow
A toroid is used for two reasons. First, it provides
tubes, the air term will also include the flux in the
a constant area for the flux to exist around the ring
air (or other fluid) inside the tube. If other fluid or
without encountering a boundary that would produce
insulation is present, the only restriction is that these
poles, and second, it permits H to be calculated easily
materials are not ferromagnetic.
from the geometry of the toroid and the number of
ampere-turns on the magnetizing coil. The flux density
Theory
(B) within the ring is measured simply by wrapping
a sensing coil lightly around the ring material (i.e., This section outlines the simple mathematical theory
inside the H-coil), and detecting the flux changes of the technique in terms of the example of a long part
electronically with an integration circuit (see Figure 1). being propelled through the system shown in Figure 2
In the original Rowland experiment, a ballistic and shows how sensitive the technique is to small
galvanometer was used; this rather cumbersome piece amounts of metal loss such as might be caused by wear,
B-coil. (Points C and D should be in the same
horizontal line, if the integrator does not drift.)
l EE´ - Output change when the H-coil is turned off.
l JJ´ - Output change due to wear in the tube.
Let us now investigate Figure 3 in terms of
Faraday’s Law of Induction for the B-coil:
(2)
where N is the number of turns on the B-coil, and

Figure 1. Modern version of the “Rowling Ring” experiment. NΦ is its magnetic flux linkage. The minus sign is
(a) Very low frequency AC drives the H-coil, while the B-coil the mathematical representation of Lenz’s law. Time
is connected to an electronic integrator (fluxmeter); integration of this equation, for the situation of
(b) typical B-H curve set for a ring.
Equation 1, gives:
(3)
For Equation 3, the output voltage E0 of the integrator

is given by
where K is a constant for the integration circuit, and

Φtotal is given by Equation 1, so that
(4)
At this point, if we make the assumption that the

Figure 2. “Opened out” version of Figure 1a in which the
sample has become an elongated part and there is an air magnetic fluxes in air and steel are given by the product
gap between the outer surface of the part and the inner of the respective cross-sectional areas and magnetic
surface of the B-coil. flux densities, then:
corrosion, erosion, broken wire strands, and other
metal loss mechanisms. The example of a worn tube is (5)
used. Consider a 10 m (33 ft) long piece of corroded
Equation 4 becomes the following, after performing
tubing (73 mm dia [2.875 in.], nominal wall thickness
the differentiation implied in Equation 4:
4.8 mm [0.19 in.]) passing through the system. The
internal surface of the tube has been worn by abrasion
(6)
over a 2 m (6.5 ft) interval. This wear cannot, of course,
be seen from the outside of the tube.
Figure 3 illustrates the form of the expected output Written out in full, and dropping the vector
of an electronic integrator connected to the B-coil notation, this becomes:
of Figure 2 as the tube is drawn through the system.
The explanation for the changes in voltage shown in
Figure 3 is as follows: (7)
l OA - Output prior to the entry of the pipe, and with
the power supply to the H-coil turned off. That is, the integrator output is the sum of four
l AA´ - Output change when the magnetizing coil is terms. This is because some of these terms, depending
turned on, and with the pipe (CD) well away from upon the NDE application, may not be present if the
the B-coil; this represents the change in the total flux respective differential is zero.
in the B-coil when the H-coil is energized. In the present example, we can write the subscripts
l A´C - Interval until the approaching pipe end (C) as air = a and steel = s, and, since the current through
enters the B-coil. the H-coil is set to give magnetic saturation of the steel,
l CC´ - Output change when the pipe enters the Bs also becomes the saturation flux density of the steel.
B-coil. Equation 5 then reduces to
l C´ - The integrator output value representing
Equation 1. (8)
l D´D - Output change when the pipe leaves the
of the technique. The first term AaBa is the flux in air
threading the pick-up coil. In reality, since the flux
density Ba is not a constant over the cross-section of
the B-coil, the term is actually an integral over this
cross-section, but for the purpose of this discussion
this does not really matter.
The second term is the flux in the steel at saturation,
and because Bs > Ba this term dominates the other
terms so long as Aa is not too large in comparison with
As. (Typically Bs ~2 T [20,000 G} while Ba ~0.02 T
[200 G]).
Figure 3. A 10 m (33 ft) long pipe with a 3 m (10 ft) section The third term is basically a large constant (Bs – Ba)
of internal wear, passing through a coil connected to an multiplying a small change in cross-section of the part,
integrator that measures the total magnetic flux. and illustrates the sensitivity of the method to changes
in part cross-sectional area (CSA), which is the real
focus of the total flux NDE method.
In NDE, the metal loss (wear, corrosion, erosion) is Table 1 gives relative values of these terms for
represented by a loss in cross-sectional area of the part, typical NDE situations. Flux values are computed in
with a corresponding gain in area for the air. We can microwebers, using Ba = 0.02 T (200 G), Bs = 2 T
therefore put dAa = –dAs in Equation 8 and obtain the (20,000 G) and in column 5 by taking Δ As as 1 percent
following: of As. The values obtained in a real test will obviously
be different, but the table does illustrate the orders
(9) of magnitude that are associated with each term,
and concurrently the design considerations for the
Finally, the removal of integral and differential signs associated measuring electronics.
from Equation 9 yields the following:
Table 1. Comparative magnetic flux values for some
(10) common NDE situations
where Δ As the change in cross-sectional area of the

steel due to wear, corrosion, etc. Equation 10 does
not now contain any term which involves time; this is
important in NDE, as described below.
Equation 10 can now be used to provide an
explanation of Figure 3. First, the integrator output
is zero along OA, representing the situation before
the field coil is energized. Then, the jump AA´ rep-
resents the effect of the term AaBa as the flux through
the pick-up coil increases from zero to this value when
the current is first turned on. Then, the jump CC´
represents AsBs, i.e., the intrusion of the steel part into
the coil. Finally, JJ´ represents the change in integrator
voltage due to the term (Bs – Ba) Δ A, i.e., the addition
to or subtraction of steel from the normal material
condition given by the AsBs term; in this case it is a 3 m Effect of Electronic Integration
(10 ft) long section of wear. DD´ and EE´ are caused The use of the electronic integrator makes this
by the tube leaving the system, and the current being technique possible, and brings with it certain
shut off. advantages that are not immediately apparent from
Equation 10 until it is realized that time is removed
Comments on Theory from the equation by the integration. Thus, with a
perfect integrator, if the material is stopped inside
System Sensitivity the detection coil, the integrator will hold its output
At this stage, it is advantageous to investigate the voltage E0. This independence of time permits the
relative magnitudes of the terms in Equation 10 in inspector to run the part at a variety of low speeds
order to provide some idea regarding the sensitivity through the inspection head without having to worry
occur when a part changes dimensions. In the case of
the situation shown in Figure 5, where two pipes of
different schedules are joined, the demagnetization
coefficient (Nd) of the thinner walled pipe is smaller
than that of the thicker walled pipe. As with the ends
of all products, the demagnetizing field causes changes
not only directly at the ends, but also within a certain
distance of the ends.
System Calibration
In performing NDE by this technique, one is not
Figure 4. B-H curve showing the effect of the generally interested in the information generated by
demagneztization field within the sample caused by free terms 1 and 2 of Equation 10, which merely represent
poles at P and Q. System calibration drives the material
from Z to Z´.
a constant voltage offset which can be defined as E00.
In order to remove this voltage offset in an inspection
about maintaining a constant speed. The part can be system which is based on this technique, one only
stopped, backed up through the head, and reinspected needs to consider what occurs when the current in
if necessary, and the signal will retrace its path. Under the H-coil (Figure 2) containing a part of known
these circumstances, the simple expedient of using a dimensions (i.e., an as-new, uncorroded part) is
rubber wheel which rolls along the part to drive the reversed. In this situation, ΔAs = 0 and Equation 10
horizontal axis of a chart recorder will provide a graph reduces to
of voltage vs. distance along the part as a record of the
inspection. Applications using similar techniques for (11)
tubing (Lam, 1989; Stanley et al., 1986; Stanley, 1992)
and wire rope (Weischeidel, 1985) inspections have At this point the material is at a point such as Z on its
been described. local B-H curve (Figure 4). This is not, of course, the
Rowland Ring B-H curve, but one which would be
Effect of Part Off-Centering obtained if the configuration of Figure 2 were used,
The technique shows little dependence on the so that there will be free poles where the lines of flux
off-centering of the part within the B-coil that can enter and leave the part that will cause some effect
occur in real-life inspection situations. This is because from the demagnetizing field that this situation creates
if the material is near its magnetic saturation, relatively (Bray and Stanley, 1989). Reversing the current in the
small changes in the H-field with position across the H-coil drives the material to Z´ on its B-H curve. This
opening of the pick up coil do not cause any significant procedure can be written as
change in the B-field in the inspected part. This is
because the part is operating in the relatively flat part of (12)
its B-H curve, as shown in Figure 4.
Subtraction of these two voltages gives
Effect of B-Coil Lift-Off
With the part centered in the B-coil, as an abrupt
change in cross-section is passed through the B-coil,
the output E0 does not change abruptly, but rather Thus
changes over a small distance. This is due to the
(13)
changes occurring in the magnetization of the part
on either side of the discontinuity that are caused by It can be seen from Equation 13 that simply by
the changes in the demagnetizing field (HNd) that recording the integrator voltages at Z and Z´, and
halving their difference, E00 is determined. Returning
Equation 13 to Equation 10 gives:
(14)
Equation 14 indicates that the variations in the

integrator voltage (ΔE0) from the known condition are
Figure 5. A joint in pipes having the same outside
simply proportional to changes in the cross-sectional
diameter but differing schedules. Each part has a different
demagnetizing coefficient. area of the part (ΔAs). Typical values of N = 50 turns,
K = 1, and Bs – Ba = 1.7 T illustrate the effect of the Limitations
multiplier NK(BS – Ba) on ΔA0. In reality, however, the
above theory shows that both the flux in (and therefore Part Speed
the area of) the uncorroded part, and also changes The method must be used relatively slowly, typically
in the part area due to corrosion and wear, can be at speeds less than 2 m/s (6.5 ft/s) for solid parts
measured. or tubes. Above this speed, the relative motion of
the material through the magnetic field causes eddy
Typical Examples currents to encircle the part and lower the flux density
l Wire Rope Inspection in the part, or shield the part from the full effect of
The complex nature of the windings of new wire the field. With wire rope, the relative independence of
rope is not relevant to this discussion, since as it passes the strands may well lower eddy currents so that their
through the inspection system, the CSA remains potential effect is negligible.
the same. However, in use, if the strands stretch, or
lose CSA in other ways, then this method will easily Abrupt Changes in Wall Thickness
detect the loss. Weischedel (1988) has described such As shown in Figure 3, the corners of the integrator
equipment, and an ASTM document is currently being output at C´, J´ J˝ and D´ are rounded even though the
prepared to cover the method. changes in part CSA may be quite abrupt, as is the case
Note, however, that the method is limited to the when a part enters or leaves the system. This is caused
measurement of CSA and small changes therein (or by the demagnetizing effects which occur at abrupt
loss of metallic area [LMA]). Broken strands are changes in CSA in such parts.
detected by the MFL method.
l Corroded Tubing Inspection
Flux Leakage Considerations
In oil wells, tubing suffers from internal and
The TMF method does not measure small flaws.
external surface pitting and rod wear. In one inspection
However, since the product is magnetized to
device (Lam, 1989; Stanley, 1992), as tubing is pulled
saturation, it is often used in connection with MFL
from a well, it passes through a head in which this total
(Lam, 1989; Stanley, 1992; Weischedel and Chaplin,
flux inspection is performed in order to assess the
1985; Weischedel 1988; Curtis, 1986) in order
average wall thickness from the cross-sectional area.
to ascertain the effects of pitting corrosion (in oil
The pick-up coil is set back from the tube because the
field applications) or broken strands (in wire rope
couplings must pass through it. Pitting is measured
inspection). The independence of the method from
by the MFL method. In another oilfield application,
time, which ensures that the part does not have to pass
Curtis (1986) has described a drill pipe inspection
through the inspection head at constant speed, imposes
system in which the technique is used to measure the
the limitation that the method of detection of the MFL
CSA of used drill pipe.
signals must also be time-independent. Typically Hall
l Installed Tubing Inspection
elements (Bray and Stanley, 1989) or inductive coils
For inspection of ferromagnetic tubing with the
in which the voltage output is also integrated must be
insulation remaining in place (Kirkwood, 1982), the
used. The use of inductive coils alone (without signal
magnetizing H-coil and pick up B-coil must be wound
integration) will lead to incorrect results.
through a make-and-break connector which is taken
apart when obstacles such as hot-taps, flanges, etc., are REFERENCES
encountered. For this particular inspection, the TMF Bray, D.E., and R.K. Stanley, Nondestructive Evaluation, 1989.
method has been found to detect schedule changes McGraw-Hill.
under insulation and erosion-corrosion created by Curtis, W.W., “Standard Rack Buggy Inspection With Continuous
turbulence in fluid flow on the downstream side of a Cross-sectional Area Measurement,” Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE) Drilling Conference, Feb. 1986.
weld or schedule change.
Kirkwood, J.G., and R.K. Stanley, “Total-Flux Magnetic Method for
A useful extension to the TMF method with one Inspection of Installed Ferromagnetic Tubing,” Materials Evaluation,
encircling B-coil is to use a differential coil pair. In this Vol. 50, No. 4, Apr. 1992, p 502.
configuration, where no corrosion is present a null Lam, C.C., “Electromagnetic Wellhead Tubular Inspection,”
signal is obtained, but any metal loss over a small area Proceedings of the 17th Symposium on NDE, NTIAC, San Antonio,
TX, Apr. 1989.
results in a signal from the differential pair. Under the
Stanley, R.K., “Assessment of Tubing in Oil and Gas Wells by NDE
circumstances of the inspection, the signal from the Methods, with Profiles of Tubular Damage,” Proceedings of the 13th
differential pair does not measure the wall loss but World Conference of NDT, São Paulo, Brazil, Oct. 1992. Elsevier,
merely provides the inspector with the location at 1992.
which to remove the insulation. Stanley, R.K., et al., “Magnetic Flux Method for Measuring Tubular
Wall Thickness,” US Patent 4,555,665, Nov. 1985.
Stanley, R.K., et al., “Coil Apparatus Mounted on an Axially Split Roderic Stanley was educated at the University of Manchester,
Spool for Indicating Wall Thickness Variations of a Length of England (BS), East Texas State (MS), and Florida State Universities
Ferromagnetic Pipe,” US Patent 4,611,170, Sep. 1986. (PhD, solid state physics). He worked in the R&D and technical
Weischedel, H.R., “Quantitative Inservice Inspection of Wire ser vices departments of Baker Hughes Tubular Services and NL
Ropes,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 46, No. 4, Mar. 1988, p 430. McCullough in Houston for ten years, and was quality control
manager for Lone Star Steel. For four years, he was the executive
Weischedel, H.R., and C.R. Chaplin, “Inspection of Wire Ropes for director of the International Pipe Inspectors Association. He has
Offshore Applications,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 43, No. 13, Dec. written extensively on NDT. He is a Fellow of ASNT, and currently
1985, p 1592. serves ASNT as development director of the Nondestructive Testing
Handbook and assistant technical editor of Materials Evaluation.
AUTHOR He is also a member of the electromagnetic and I&A committees.
Roderic Stanley: NDE Information Consultants, 10618 Ivy Oaks He is a member of ASTM committee E7 on NDT, the Society of
Lane, Houston, TX 77041-8601; (713) 466-529; fax (713) Petroleum Engineers, and the British Institute of NDT.
466-4961.
Combining Eddy Current and Magnetic
Flux Leakage for Tank Floor Inspection
by Zhongqing You and David Bauer
Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) test technology has Development of MFL Technique
been applied to the inspection of aboveground storage The application of MFL technique to tank floor
tank (AST) bottoms since the late 1980s, when it inspection was developed both in the United States
was demonstrated that corrosion in flat carbon steel and Europe in the late 1980s. A joint development led
tank floor plates up to 10 mm (0.4 in.) thick could to a prototype MFL tank floor inspection equipment
be detected using MFL techniques. This article will using electromagnets in 1989. It was subsequently
discuss a method that combines eddy current and MFL developed into a commercially available tank floor
methods into one test probe design. This design not tester. During this same period, a system based on
only detects discontinuities on the top and bottom permanent magnets was developed in Europe.
sides of the tank bottom, but also discriminates MFL type nondestructive methods have long
between them. been in use to inspect tube and wire products. The
method detects anomalies in normal flux patterns
Introduction created by discontinuities in ferrous material saturated
The application of MFL test technology to the by a magnetic field. The requirements for magnetic
inspection of AST floor plates has been shown to saturation depend on the specific test application. For
be a viable means of achieving up to 95 percent test example, a relatively low magnetization of about 2 to 3
coverage of the tank floor within a reasonable test times the coercivity of the material to be inspected is
time (Bauer and Brooks, 1991). Examination of tank sufficient for top surface inspection. For a subsurface
floors previously depended primarily upon ultrasonic or back surface inspection, however, a near saturation
test methods that required slow and painstaking magnetic flux field in the material is needed to produce
application. A continuous oil or water based a flux leakage significant enough for detection (Bray
couplant has to be maintained constantly between and Stanley, 1986). Since both sides of a tank floor
the transducer and the plate being inspected. A track must be inspected, a near saturation field must be
mounted inspection of a 55 m (180 ft) diameter tank, provided in the floor plate.
for example, would take about five weeks to complete. Flux density or saturation level in any given plate
Therefore, most ultrasonic inspection of ASTs has been thickness is conditioned by a number of factors: the
limited to spot testing only. With the introduction of total ampere-turns of the magnetizing coil; the effective
MFL inspection techniques, a 24 m (80 ft) diameter air gap between the pole pieces and the floor plate; the
tank could be inspected in eight hours, including setup. thickness of the floor plate; the size of the magnet core;
Once the MFL inspection identifies areas of corrosion, and the size of the pole faces. As the air gap or floor
the ultrasonic test can be used as a follow up test to plate thickness increases, the flux density will decrease.
examine these areas to determine remaining This in turn affects the flux leakage, which is directly
plate thickness. related to the amount of flux density in the floor plate
This article will focus upon further developments and the discontinuity depth (the discontinuity width
in plate inspection techniques that uniquely combine or diameter has less effect on the amplitude of the
eddy current and MFL technology to enable accurate flux leakage than the discontinuity depth) (Bray and
differentiation between topside and bottomside Stanley, 1986). In a properly saturated plate, the deeper
corrosion in the tank bottom plates. the discontinuity, the larger the flaw signal. Proper
saturation, however, is affected by the plate thickness
and coating thickness, if any. To maintain a relatively
stable signal amplitude despite variations in the plate Used alone, neither type currently has the ability to
and/or coating thickness, the use of an adjustable distinguish bottomside from topside corrosion related
magnetization power enables the operator to increase discontinuities.
the excitation and keep the floor plate near saturation. As mentioned earlier, the top surface discontinuity
During testing, it is not unusual for the actual needs only a relatively low magnetization, while the
air gap to fluctuate. This results in fluctuation in the back surface discontinuity generally requires a nearly
signal amplitude, even though there is no change total saturation field. As a result, two sets of probes at
in the discontinuity depth. Since the depth of the different locations under two different fields (weak
discontinuity is the main criterion for determining the and strong) could possibly be used to distinguish
remaining life of the plate or proper repair procedures, the top and back surface discontinuities, since the
the discontinuity signal should remain relatively probes in the weak field sense only the top surface
insensitive to air gap variations. Therefore, the effect discontinuities while the probes in the strong field
of the air gap variation on the flux leakage should be can pick up both top and back surface discontinuities
minimized. One way to achieve minimum variation (You et al., 1993). However, these two sets of probes
is to maintain a normal working air gap that is much see different conditions at the same time as the
larger than the range of air gap fluctuations that can be equipment is moved, especially if the system utilizes
anticipated in a typical testing environment, as long as rotating magnets. Complex delaying electronics would
the magnetization force is strong enough to overcome be required to line up these two displays in real time
the air gap loss. In this manner, the variations that so that synchronous chopped flux leakage signals
occur will be a much smaller percentage, and the effect appear on a dual linear sweep scope for instant visual
will be minimized. determination of whether the corrosion is topside or
By using electromagnets to provide saturation, bottomside. Furthermore, the level of the weak field
rapid adjustment can be made to accommodate varying has to be controlled perfectly so that only top side
test conditions. Electromagnets can also be turned off discontinuities produce flux leakage. Experiments
when not in operation, to facilitate disassembly for show that a fairly deep back surface discontinuity can
transporting the system, for example. easily generate detectable flux leakage even under a
“weak” field.
Limitations of MFL Technique
The applications of MFL techniques in tank floor Combining MFL and Eddy Current
inspection have been extensive ( Johnston, 1992). Instead of using a second weak trailing flux leakage
However, the MFL type system has been limited, up field and sensor, another second inspection method for
to now, by its inability to distinguish any discernible topside corrosion could be the eddy current method.
differences between topside and bottomside corrosion Eddy current technology has long been used for surface
signal indications. Although signals from topside discontinuity detection because, in highly permeable
conditions are greater in amplitude than those carbon steels, it is especially sensitive to surface and
from equivalent bottomside conditions, their signal near surface anomalies.
frequencies are virtually the same. As a result, it Therefore, by combining the eddy current method
has been almost impossible to identify bottomside with the MFL technique in a specially coupled dual
corrosion as such in those approximately 25 percent system probe, top and back surface responses could be
of tanks whose bottoms also had extensive, but separated. This method, described in the next section,
not necessarily as severe, topside corrosion. In the is innovative in combining the eddy current and MFL
presence of these top surface conditions, any back method such that both MFL and eddy current signals
surface corrosion was indistinguishable unless it was respond to topside corrosion related discontinuities
much deeper than the surrounding top side corrosion. simultaneously, whereas only MFL signals respond to
This made it very difficult to alert the operator to the bottomside corrosion related discontinuities.
presence of back side corrosion with discontinuity The key to combining eddy current and MFL is
depths of less than 50 percent of the plate thickness that both methods have to inspect the same location
when they were located under a certain degree of top at the same time. Due to the fact that the eddy current
surface corrosions. To better serve the inspection probe senses mainly the top surface conditions
process, a tank bottom tester should be able to while the MFL probe can detect conditions on both
distinguish back surface corrosion from top surfaces, the combined probe structure gives the
surface corrosion. ability to distinguish between the top and backside
The state of the art inspection probes for use discontinuities.
with the flux leakage method tank bottom testers are The number of ways to construct a combined probe
either coil type or Hall element type flux sensors. can be divided into two groups. The first group uses
only one coil (if the system operates in the absolute responses are phased in the near horizontal direction.
mode) or a pair or coils (if the system is in the null or Since the eddy current response is more sensitive to
differential mode) to deliver both eddy current and lift-off (the distance between the probe and the plate)
MFL signals. The second group uses separate coils for and a rotating headplate on a rough or curved surface
the eddy current and MFL, respectively. The principle cannot maintain a small air gap, this combined probe
behind the first method is that the eddy current signal should ride on the plate surface. This surface riding
is a modulated high frequency signal (kilohertz range) probe not only keeps a constant probe liftoff, such that
and the MFL signal is the low frequency component any corrosion discontinuity signals are more stable
of only a few hundred Hertz. The signal from the coil as the pole air gap changes during testing but it also
goes through two parallel channels such that they keeps the fixed operating lift-off small, resulting in a
can be separated into their high and low frequency much better sensitivity to MFL signals for smaller size
components. The high frequency components are discontinuities.
subject to demodulation, amplification, and filtering,
while the low frequency components are amplified Applications
and filtered in the separate second channel. Once This method has been tested in the laboratory for
processed, these two channel signals are displayed many different plates and discontinuities. Currently,
together in separate traces. The complete process is it is being used as a tank floor inspection system. The
illustrated in Figure 1. results indicate:
The signal on the top trace of the display is the l Both eddy current and MFL give clear indications
eddy current response, mainly indicating top surface for top surface discontinuities. However, unlike the
discontinuities, while the lower trace represents MFL MFL signal, eddy current responds more to the size
signals for both top and back surface discontinuities. rather than to the depth of the discontinuity. For
It should be clear that eddy current signals are not this reason, the two signals should not be subtracted
immune to the back surface discontinuities. Various (nulled) to eliminate the top surface indications.
factors can make a back surface discontinuity appear l In most cases, the eddy current method responds
on the eddy current channel, for example: to the back surface discontinuities in such a small
l Where the depth of the discontinuity is large enough scale that the signal is negligible in comparison
such that the remaining plate thickness is less than to the corresponding top surface ones. Also, the
the skin depth of the eddy current penetration; phase of the eddy current signals can be adjusted
l Where the magnetization field is not strong enough so that the linear display shows mainly the top
to saturate the plate resulting in the permeability surface discontinuity signals while the back
around a back surface discontinuity being different surface discontinuity responses and the noise are
from the surrounding properties; suppressed. An appropriate eddy current frequency
l Where the eddy current coil has a magnetic core can be chosen to maximize the phase difference
material whose permeability can be changed by the between the top and back surface signals.
flux leakage from the back surface discontinuity. l DC magnetization changes the eddy current
The presence of the back surface discontinuities signals due to the permeability changes. In a testing
in the eddy current channel creates difficulties in situation, however, the saturation level does not
determining on which side the discontinuity is located. fluctuate sufficiently to cause a large variation in the
Therefore, the probe has to be designed to be most eddy current signal.
sensitive to MFL signals and least sensitive to the basic
surface eddy current responses (You et al., 1993). In
addition, the eddy current controls provided in the
system should also help the operator to choose the best
phase setup such that the back surface discontinuity
Figure 2. A display from the combined eddy current and

Figure 1. Combined EC and MFL system block diagram. magnetic flux leakage equipment.
Figure 2 shows a typical screen display for a Summary
section of a plate where both top and back surface A method of combining eddy current and MFL
discontinuities can be seen in the same scan. It is is presented and used in an operating tank floor
clear that the eddy current channel picks up only the inspection system. This new probe design makes
top surface discontinuities while the MFL channel it possible for an operator to distinguish a back
responds to both types of flaw. The simultaneous surface discontinuity from those on the top surface.
display of both eddy current and MFL is the key Combining eddy current and MFL methods in a
to distinguishing back surface from top surface test is by no means an innovative approach, but a
corrosion. An operator can use the following rule to probe design that allows both methods to display the
determine if the display indicates back or top surface same discontinuity at the same time is unique. The
discontinuities: separation of top from back surface indication becomes
l The discontinuity is on the top side if the signal possible only because both the eddy current and MFL
shows up on both channels (traces) at the same signals can be aligned to contrast their differences.
horizontal position. The signal indicates a ground
side or back surface discontinuity if it is seen only on REFERENCES
the MFL channel. Bauer, David, and Robert Brooks, “New MFL System for Inspecting
There are a few exceptions, however. A through Tank Bottoms for Potential Leakers,” in International Petroleum
Industry Inspection Technology II Topical Conference Paper Summaries,
hole appears like a top surface discontinuity. A really Jun. 1991, pp 48-52.
deep back surface discontinuity also has an indication Bray, D.E., and R.K. Stanley, Nondestructive Evaluation – A Tool in
in the eddy current channel but at a considerably Design, Manufacturing, and Service, 1986. McGraw-Hill.
lower amplitude. Therefore, the presence of a large Johnston, Dennis, “Aboveground Storage Tank Floor Inspection
MFL signal and a small eddy current signal most likely Using Magnetic Flux Leakage,” Materials Performance, Oct. 1992,
pp 36-39.
implies a large back surface discontinuity. The operator
You, Zhongqing, Robert Brooks, Richard Colman, and Paul Bebick,
should decide in these kinds of situations. “System and Methods for Non-Destructive Plate Examination,” US
In case the back surface signal appears in the eddy Patent Pending, Apr. 1993.
current channel, creating difficulty in determining
which side the discontinuity is located, the DC AUTHORS
magnetization should be turned off so that only top Zhongqing You: Magnetic Analysis Corporation, 535 S. Fourth
Ave., Mount Vernon, NY 10550; (914) 699-9450; fax (914)
surface discontinuities can be seen in the eddy 699-9837.
current channel. No MFL signal can be observed at David Bauer: Magnetic Analysis Corporation, 535 S. Fourth Ave.,
this moment. Mount Vernon, NY 10550; (914) 699-9450; fax (914) 699-9837.
The combination of eddy current and MFL
methods provides sufficient information to determine
the existence of back surface corrosion even in the
presence of top surface conditions such as pitting,
gouges, and corrosion. Cautious UT follow ups should
be done to verify and to quantify all corrosion related
anomalies found.
Electromagnetic Inspection: Wall Loss
and Flaw Location in Oil Country
by C. Wade Edens
Oil industry inspection personnel have had to contend with pipe’s cross section; (4) coils are nonlinear in output,
outdated technology for the inspection of used drill pipes so that the leakage flux produces a gross (not specific)
and other tubular components. Electromagnetic systems rendition of the ID/OD surface condition along with
using search coils or gamma-radiation devices are bulky any suspected defect signal.
and inefficient for detecting small flaws or wall losses in the
pipes. Miniature sensors that can detect the leakage flux Performance Testing
from the defects and detect wall losses are desirable since Locating defects in used pipe is more difficult than in
they can provide complete pipe wall coverage and, at the new tubulars.
same time, provide high defect resolution. The application There are two major areas of concern. The first
of an innovative, small, solid-state Hall sensor to oil tubing is in the ability to separate nominal service-induced
is described in this month’s article. flaws from manmade test notches. It has been
G. P. Singh, Associate Technical Editor suggested that reference standards “… should be free
of discontinuities and [be] of the same nominal alloy,
Problem heat treatment and dimensions as the tubular test
Oil country tubular goods (OCTG) inspection objects.”4 In reality, the reference specimens presented
companies are hampered with inefficient electro- to pipe EMI are often not new pieces of pipe. Some
magnetic inspection techniques to locate service- of the specimens offered have been in prior service.
induced flaws, including wall loss in used drill pipe Typical search-coil systems have difficulty separating
and used tubing. The pipe inspector tries to discover the nominal service-induced flaws from the
cracks, seams and pits, formation wear, off-axis defects, manmade test notches to be located and identified
rod wear, and gradual loss of metallic area, both by the inspector.
inside diameter (ID) and outside diameter (OD). The second area of concern centers around
These defects can result in a physical separation of the wall loss, or loss of metallic area (LMA). Wall loss
tubular’s body wall during the drilling or production detection is sometimes included in used drill pipe or
process. used tubing performance test standards. Search coils
One difficulty is that the inspector is often using the are insensitive to wall losses. Several pipe inspection
same electromagnetic inspection (EMI) equipment companies have tried to examine wall losses in used
that was available 15 years ago. This equipment, drill pipe or used tubing with a four-function EMI
based on the search-coil technique,1,2 leaves much system. Unfortunately, these EMI systems use a
to be desired in both sensitivity to and resolution of rotating spool-like fixture on which is mounted a
three-dimensional (3D) flaws. The drawbacks to using gamma-radiation device that bombards the body
the search coil, an oval multiwrap of hairlike wire, for wall and calculates the wall loss. This device tests the
testing OCTG have been documented.3 pipe in a barber pole spiral helix. A small percentage
In pipe-inspection equipment used to qualify of the body wall, typically 2-35 percent, is actually
tubular products for critical applications, search coils examined—certainly not 100 percent.
have serious limitations: (1) they respond differently
for each frequency component encountered; (2) Solution
they are very sensitive to speed changes; (3) a lack An innovative approach using a solid-state, small-
of uniform sensitivity across the coil’s surface creates area detector may be used to overcome the problems
differences in signal response to the same defect on the encountered with used drill pipe inspection. The
42 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | APRIL 1992
solid-state device can greatly decrease the difficulty of
locating flaws and predict wall losses. Their increased
sensitivity to flaws provides tubular inspection
personnel with a better opportunity to locate 3D
defects.
These small-area solid-state sensor semiconductors
are packaged as integrated circuits (ICs) and provide
signal amplification at the defect location. Packaging
them as ICs also provides durability and hence
longevity for the devices. The sensors have specific
qualities that allow them to be used both as extremely
accurate flaw detectors and as indicators of wall loss.
These qualities include (1) greater sensitivity to low
levels of leakage flux, (2) higher resolution of small
defects because of the solid-state sensor’s small size,
(3) uniform sensitivity over a wide frequency range,
(4) linearity of signal output, allowing sensor use to
monitor tubular wall loss. These small-area sensors are
being incorporated into new or existing mechanical
devices, generically referred to as pipe inspection
equipment.
Semiconductor sensors used to locate wall loss
provide 100 percent coverage of the inspected tube.
The sensors are extremely sensitive to the change in Figure 1. Schematic diagram of EMI electronics.
magnetic field due to LMA. The portion of the pipe
under observation needs only to have a five percent
reduction of wall thickness to provide a significant For example, there have been instances of
signal to the chart recorder. The diameter of the defect relocating a specific tubular test specimen in which
needs only to be about the size of a quarter. Suspected the artificial defects have not been ground out after
areas of rod wear in tubing or formation wear in drill initial calibration of the electronics. Even though the
pipe may be detected from upset to upset. original inspector was not running the inspection unit,
These localized flux-sensing devices for flaw or the previously cut notches provided a rendition that
wall loss are connected to upstream electronics, which was unmistakable on the chart because the routine
processes incoming signals from the sensor arrays of calibration is the same. Even after use in three wells, the
both the flaw and wall-loss portions of the system. Both tubular test specimen’s fingerprint was recognizable.
the flaw and wall loss inspection systems locate areas of Solid-state signals, the NDT Handbook tells us, “are
suspected flaw or wall reduction, simultaneously. The directly proportional to the actual magnitudes of the
signal-processing performed by the electronics helps magnetic flux density B and have uniform sensitivity
increase the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). A graphic over a wide frequency range, including the lowest
chart recorder depicts the area, and an indicator light possible test frequency (DC).”5 Conversely, search coils
alerts the inspector to the clock position where the respond differently for each frequency component they
signal originated. Properly calibrated, both flaw and encounter.
wall loss renditions are characterized by linear outputs. These small-area, semiconductor transducers “. . .
The chart indications are interpreted by the inspector, can reveal each local portion of the distorted magnetic
and defect locations are confirmed by traditional field distribution in detail or they can resolve these
nondestructive test methods, magnetic particle testing local differences better [than search coils]. These
or ultrasonic thickness measurement. small detectors provide better resolution of small
discontinuities, as any small sensor would.”5
Repeatability With search coils, loss of sensitivity also occurs
Consistency of defect rendition is an important as portions of the winding are raised from the test
consideration for quality assurance. Because the material surface. Conversely, the semiconductor sensor
semiconductor ICs produce identical outputs, the can enhance the electromagnetic coupling of the field
suspected flaw registers the same amplitude no because of its small, thin profile which “... can be
matter where the defect encounters the active placed flat upon the test material surface, whereas the
transducer surface. larger coil pickups usually extend farther away
from the surface.”5
APRIL 1992 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 43
In the transverse and longitudinal heads of regulation expenses – not needing to provide radiation
inspection systems, using solid-state sensors instead of badges, pay annual fees, or keep current records of
seach coils has several advantages,3 as described below. individuals’ exposure to gamma-radiation – reduces
Transverse heads, R.K. Stanley says, “traditionally the cost burden on the inspecting company.
have 8 or 16 coils encircling the tube. The sensitivity
therefore goes down as the OD of the tube is increased, Closing
i.e. the longer coil used in the larger OD heads will Difficulties in flaw detection including wall-loss
have a poorer signal to noise ratio than the shorter coils location have led to state-of-the-art advancements
used in the smaller OD heads, for the same size of pit in EMI systems using sophisticated semiconductor
or fatigue crack. With [semiconductor IC] elements, sensors. Inspection companies should note that these
where there may be over 100 around the circumference sensors are available in new equipment or as a retrofit
of the tube, this problem does not exist.” for existing pipe inspection equipment.
Most rotating heads, he says, use arrays with Small-area solid-state sensors are now being
coils 0.5-0.75 in. (13-19 mm) long. Semiconductor used in inspection equipment worldwide to provide
elements, however, “are much smaller than this, and so a less costly and more efficient way to identify
two advantages arise. (i) In systems which count the specific suspected defects or wall loss – and to do so
number of sensors which detect MFL [magnetic flux electromagnetically, without the use of a radioactive
leakage], a more accurate indication of the length of device.
the defect can be obtained. (ii) The largest indication When used in a standard pipe-inspection unit,
from the array may be better related to the depth of the these sensors can reveal localized portions of a diverted
defect than is the case with a flat coil array.”3 flux field more accurately than search coils. In addition,
these small-area sensors can reveal five percent wall
Hard-to-Locate Defects loss areas the size of a quarter. This state-of-the-art
A major complaint often is heard concerning the pipe-inspection equipment aids inspectors in providing
search-coil inspection unit’s performance, especially for a pedigree for the tubular products they inspect.
defect location of off-axis cracks of up to 45 degrees. Installed in a typical EMI inspection system,
Conventional units have extreme difficulty locating these sensors replace the less efficient search coil
defects over 10 degrees off perpendicular to the and gamma-radiation tools currently used to inspect
magnetic field. When locating these defects, the DC used drill pipe and used tubing. Application of
current level on the magnetizing coil and amplifier semiconductors as flux sensors affords greater quality
settings is so high that the background noise masks the control of used tubular products. The ultimate benefit
defect and can reduce greatly the SNR, which often is is in providing increased safety at the wellhead.
no better than two-to-one at first. On the other hand,
small-area semiconductors can resolve these defects up REFERENCES
to 45 degrees in either direction at normal current and 1. Stanley, R.K., and L.C. Wong, “Magnetic Leakage Field
Measurements,” Sec. 7 in Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 2nd
amplifier settings. Ed., Vol. 6, ed. J.T. Schmidt and K. Skeie, 1989, pp 179-198. ASNT,
Another advantage for the pipe inspection Columbus, OH.
company is not having a radioactive source acting as 2. McMaster, R.C., Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 1st Ed., Vol. 2,
a wall-loss device. The elimination of radiation-safety 1959, Sec. 33. ASNT, Columbus, OH.
3. Stanley, R. K., Magnetism & Mythology Which Surrounds It,
2nd Ed. [1987], Ch. 10, p 3. International Pipe Inspectors Assn.,
Houston, TX.
4. Bailey, D., and P. McEleney, “Reference Standards for
Electromagnetic Testing,” Sec. 10 in Nondestructive Testing
Handbook, 2nd Ed., Vol. 4, ed. M. Mester and P. Mclntire, 1986,
p 252. ASNT, Columbus, OH.
5. McMaster, R. C., “Electromagnetic Tests with Hall Effect
Devices,” Sec. 12 in Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 2nd Ed., Vol. 4,
(q.v.), pp 322-323.
Figure 2. Wall-loss indications in typical 2.88 in. (73.0 mm) tubing used
in several oil wells and previously inspected. Three passes were made: AUTHOR
one when the defect was first located and two when the same area was C. Wade Edens: Oilfield Equipment Marketing, Inc., 4711 Dodge
reinspected. The defect – 20 percent body wall reduction about 1 ft (0.3 m) St., San Antonio, TX 78217; (512) 657-7607; fax -3660.
long near the center – was most likely in the tube since it was new but
was not discovered until 100 percent inspection for LMA. The linearity of
NOTE
the sensors produced a noticeable consistency in defect characterization.
(Chart courtesy of Spinco, Inc., Lafayette, LA.) A version of this paper was presented at ASNT’s Petroleum Industry
Inspection Technology II topical conference, Houston, TX, June
1991.
Total-Flux Magnetic Method for
Inspection of Installed Ferromagnetic
Tubing
by James G. Kirkwood and Roderic K. Stanley
In the inspection of long runs of piping in refineries construction errors. The presence of insulation on the
or chemical plants, a major challenge is determining tube or of product in the tube is irrelevant. Corrosion
where to look for problem areas. In many cases, on the inside or outside walls is readily apparent.
radiography is inappropriate due to costs, hazards, ROIs may be documented on a chart recorder and are
or amount of inspection time required. Ultrasonic typically marked on the tube itself for possible repair or
inspection is compromised by sampling error and often replacement later.
requires removal of insulation. Stripping insulation, Typical problems include corrosion of the external
especially asbestos, adds greatly to the time required surfaces following years of contact with rain-soaked
and to the cost. The magnetic flux technique provides insulation. Internal wall loss is common in areas of
one avenue for the rapid determination of metal loss turbulent flow downstream of flanges, butt welds,
beneath insulation. The theory and practical examples valves, bends, and diameter changes. In mild and
of the use of the technique are given in this paper. In stainless steel, tiny, deep pin holes eaten by bacteria
addition to inspecting installed tubing, the technique living in caustic chemicals at a pH of less than 12 have
is applicable to inspection of used oil well tubing, drill been found surprisingly often. In one case, a short
pipe, and wire rope. section of pressurized product line was found to have
The technique does not require invasion of been replaced with pipe thinner than required.
the tubing and eliminates the need to shut down
production and opening and purging the line as in the Principle of Operation
wire-line technique. It does permit a rapid scan of in- Ferromagnetic materials in the presence of a relatively
use insulated lines to locate potential problem areas. small applied magnetic field intensity H support a
These areas may be further evaluated with ultrasonic relatively large flux density B and exhibit hysteresis.
techniques as needed. The total-flux density found in a cylindrical testpiece
encircled by a drive coil is a function of the field
Background intensity, the fill factor of the coil, the cross-sectional
Critically located defects in process tubing lead to area of the piece, and its metallurgical properties,
downtime and disaster. Such defects are frequently particularly the magnetic permeability μ.1 If the
isolated from turbulent areas, where erosion is magnetizing force is sufficient to place the metal at or
expected. To minimize the possibility of missing near saturation, B will vary directly with H and will
a region of interest (ROI), the entire accessible also eliminate problems of magnetic history. If the
tube should be investigated. Traditional methods coil current and pipe outside diameter (OD) are held
— including radiography, ultrasonics, and acoustic constant, the total flux Φ in the pipe will vary only with
emission — have health hazards, such as radiation cross-sectional area A.
exposure and inhalation of asbestos during insulation The electromagnetic force (EMF) induced in an
stripping. A greater problem is the uncertainty inherent encircling coil of N turns is, according to Faraday’s law
in taking a sufficient number of readings for reasonable of induction, given by
assurance that a possible critical flaw has not been
missed. (1)
Using the technique described here, it is possible
to quickly scan 100 percent of the accessible tubing where dΦ/dt is the time rate of change of flux. Under
and to flag ROIs caused by erosion, corrosion, or the conditions listed above, Φ = BA, and incremental
changes in flux are given by dΦ = B dA. If this induced Description of the Device
EMF in the sensor coil is integrated electronically, the The device is comprised of five component groups:
output is given by an inspection head, a remote power source, signal-
processing electronics, a cable to connect the head to
(2) the power and electronics, and a position transducer to
locate the head.
where k and RC are design and time constants. The inspection head (Figure 1) consists of two
Combining Equations 1 and 2 gives hollow hemicylinders hinged for placement around a
tube. Rollers or skids are adjusted to center the tube
(3) and facilitate scanning. A few wraps of a drive coil
bundle completed by a large connector quickly add
The cross-sectional area function of the tool uses
over 1000 turns.
direct current. The magnitude of the total flux within
The drive and sensor coils encircle the pipe and,
the plane and confines of the detector at any location
with the position transducer, are connected to the
along the tube is compared by using flux integration
umbilical cable. The remote power source is capable of
to a known standard. This avoids such eddy current
supplying a sufficient constant current to the drive coil.
considerations as drive frequency, skin depth, lift-off,
Two sources and umbilicals are needed for drive coils
and scanning speed. Because everything ferromagnetic
of over 25 cm dia. The sources may be powered by a
within the detector coil is measured, orientation and
generator or by local power as required.
direction of scan are unimportant.
The signal processing uses integrators that measure
Even in a static situation, the output voltage (i.e.,
the change in the total magnetic flux passing through
chart recorder pen position) rests on some value
the sensor coils (Figure 2). Digital data transmission
representing the actual cross-sectional area of the
and data processing promise to eliminate many
testpiece. The voltage is referenced to the output
restrictions of the original analog systems currently
of the system with no pipe in the coils. Calibration
in use. Total average cross-sectional area and pitting
of the device correlates the pen position to known
information are displayed.
cross-sectional areas or, more usefully, average wall
thicknesses. This calibration needs to be done only
once, initially, for a given OD and metallurgy and is
determined with an ultrasonic thickness gage. Because
this is a direct current device, it is independent of
scanning speed and can give an accurate reading
without any movement at all. As a result, there are
no problems with skin depth as there are with eddy
current inspection.
Figure 2. System diagram.
The present umbilical permits scanning pipe up to

330 m from the power and electronics module. This
permits penetration into dense and complex piping
configurations and removal of the generator to a more
fire-safe location.
Finally, a position transducer pinpoints the
locations of ROIs and provides an abscissa for the chart
recorder.
Capabilities
Tubing Sizes. Although drive coil power requirements
vary with alloy and tubing cross-sectional area,
Figure 1. The inspection head encircling a tube is connected to the diameter of the drive coil is typically the determining
umbilical cable. factor, varying roughly as the square of the diameter.
permit location and visual inspection of an indicated
point of interest. Lack of external features consistent
with the indication seen demonstrate that the defect
is internal. Of course, this may be readily confirmed
ultrasonically.
Defects as small as 0.55 mm dia may be detected
by riding bare pipe with this pitting channel. It is
best suited for locating isolated defects such as small
holes or broken strands of wire rope at speeds of
30-250 cm/s. Comparisons with known standards may
be made.
Angular Resolution. The cross-sectional area
inspection has no angular resolution. Pitting channels
on the existing inspection heads may resolve 90 or
180 degrees and localize an indication to a quadrant or
half-circumference. This can be improved by rotating
the inspection head for rescanning.
Figure 3. Measurements of wall thickness in machined
sample: magnetic scan (solid line) vs. ultrasonic data (x).
Positioning. Location of indications in the
(1.000 in. = 25.40 mm.) longitudinal direction is reproducible to within 10 mm.
Alloys. Inspected material must have sufficient
ferromagnetic properties to permit the coil and current
Inspection of small-diameter materials (≤ 25 mm) may used to produce a high degree of magnetic saturation
proceed with minimal power or even using permanent in the inspected part. The tool can be used to generate
magnets. Practical considerations of weight and an appropriate B-H hysteresis plot to determine
coil current capacity currently limit the total OD of the suitability of the technique to a specific alloy.
inspected material – including welds, jacketing, and In practice, if a pocket magnet can support its own
hardware – to 33 cm. weight adhering to the underside of a tube, the tube is
Inspection heads for tubing with total ODs generally inspectable.
(including welds, jacketing, and hardware) to 33 cm Productivity. Ideally, a three-man crew could
are available. inspect 0.9-1.5 km per day. This assumes 7.5 h of
Cross-Sectional Area. The device measures wall operation, 3 mm scan cycles, 10 m runs at eye-level,
thickness averaged over 30 cm of pipe length and no obstacles or defect prove-up. Realistically,
(Figure 3). It is not affected by variations in alignment, factors that reduce productivity include problems
off-centering, adjacent pipes, or scanning speed. with accessibility, waiting for clearance from safety
Nonferrous insulation and hardware are transparent to authorities, setup time, downtime, and the need for
the device, and it has a typical accuracy of 4 mil manlifts, ladders, or other special devices.
(0.10 mm). Other Considerations. Application of the total-
Low-Resolution Pitting Detection. Regions of ID flux device is limited in several ways. (1) The tool is
or OD pitting, welds, washouts, or schedule changes designed to inspect “endless” in-place tubing. Short
are displayed. The channel is not speed-dependent or test sections produce considerable end effects that may
calibrated. It is particularly useful for flagging ROIs interfere with the pitting detection. (2) Ferromagnetic
that can be examined ultrasonically. Comparison of wire, if used to secure insulation to the tubing, will
displays with those of known samples could be the interfere with the pitting channel. (3) The tool is
basis for rejection criteria according to the client’s not designed to detect defects other than loss of wall
needs. As with the cross-sectional area inspection, the defects. Metallurgical discontinuities will not be seen.
pitting channels are transparent to nonferrous materials (4) As of Feb. 1992, the tool is not rated “intrinsically
on the pipe. The low-resolution pitting channel is less safe” in accordance with the National Electrical Code
affected by lift-off than the high-resolution and would or the National Fire Protection Assn. This may limit
be chosen for use over insulation. applications in some hazardous locations, such as may
High-Resolution Pitting Detection. Pitting be found in refineries or chemical plants.
information is measured and displayed using standard
flux leakage techniques. Flux leakage from internal Conclusions
defects produces somewhat reduced indications, Although not intended to replace other inspection
depending mainly on wall thickness and detector techniques entirely, this device is a valuable addition
lift-off. Good longitudinal positioning capabilities to the tools available to maintenance engineers.
The probability of detecting critical flaws is greatly Although designed for refineries and chemical plants,
enhanced by rapid scanning of accessible piping. In the total-flux device should be useful for inspection of
one case, a 90 s, 100 percent scan readily revealed a 25 mm workover tubing, sucker rods, wire rope, steel
nearly ruptured isolated pit in 25 ft (7.6 m) of 12.75 in. rods, and heat-exchanger tubing.
(32 cm) line pipe. The odds of finding the defect with
two minutes’ random ultrasonic inspection are less REFERENCES
than 0.01 percent. 1. Bray, D.E., and R K. Stanley, Nondestructive Evaluation, A Tool for
Design, Manufacturing, and Service, 1989, p 210. McGraw Hill Book
Advantages of the total-flux device include Co., New York, NY.
inspection by rapid scanning rather than spot
measurement; inspection of nearly 100 percent of AUTHORS
the pipe; a clamp-on feature for use on in-service James G. Kirkwood: Baker Hughes Tubular Services, Inc., 9400
lines; inspection through insulation; detection of Bamboo Rd., PO Box 7631, Houston, TX 77270-7631; (713)
744-9300/9450/9458; fax (713) 466-5155.
areas of corrosion or isolated pitting on either the ID
Roderic K. Stanley: Baker Hughes Tubular Services, Inc., 9400
or OD; location and relocation of defects because Bamboo Rd., PO Box 7631, Houston, TX 77270-7631; (713)
detection is independent of device movement; hard 744-9300/9450/9458; fax (713) 466-5155.
copy production for documentation of each ROI;
and production of absolute, calibrated wall-thickness NOTE
measurements that are not sensitive to off-centering by A version of this paper was presented at ASNT’s Fall Conference,
Boston, MA, Sep. 1991.
using the average wall (cross-sectional area) channel.
Test Rigs for Magnetic Flux Leakage
Inspection Tools for Piplines
by David D. Mackintosh, David L. Atherton, Patrick C. Porter, and Albert Teitsma
There is nothing more basic than getting the nondestructive check for corrosion. The tools are pumped through the
inspection system to the proper position with respect pipelines between compressor stations, recording data
to the specimen — whether it is the inspector’s eye or a as they move. MFL tools have proven well suited to the
sophisticated electronic package. Sometimes, this is done by detection of both internal and external corrosion. The
a human; sometimes, by a pig. This month, we are looking MFL tool magnetizes the pipe wall to near saturation
at the pig. What human could carry a 1500 lb (685 kg) flux density and records the flux leakage anomalies
package down a pipe at 10 mi/h (16 km/h) in pressures that occur inside the pipe where there is internal or
of over 700 lb/in.2 (4.8 kPa)? That is why we need pigs. external metal loss. MFL research and development
Frank A. Iddings, Contributing Editor therefore commonly focus on optimizing methods
of magnetizing the pipe wall, detecting magnetic
Oil and gas transmission lines are normally buried. anomalies, and interpreting data.
Modern pipeline owners aim to operate their lines near The relatively harsh environment inside a pipeline
peak levels of efficiency by using high pressures. To do requires a robust tool. To be dependable, a tool must
this safely, they require inspection techniques capable be thoroughly tested before use in the field. However,
of evaluating the condition of a pipeline regularly while running an inspection tool in an operating line is
in service. Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) tools have time-consuming and expensive because of the loss of
already proven their worth in this capacity and are still product throughput. It is therefore usually reserved for
in a stage of rapid evolution to raise their accuracy and the final stages of tool development. Test rigs thus form
reliability to even higher levels. Special rigs are used for a vital link between the development laboratory and
developing and testing pipeline inspection tools. These the field.
save time and money for the specialist inspection Test rigs enable newly developed MFL detectors
groups and give pipeline operators more-accurate to be run on corroded or damaged sections of
corrosion surveys. pipe to test their response and the repeatability of
We describe here some of the test rigs that we have results. In the laboratory, conditions are carefully
developed to enable extensive engineering studies controlled, and there is full access to the component
of the responses of MFL detectors to defects while through monitoring and recording devices. One
simulating the motion of inspection tools through of the key advantages of the rigs is that they test
pipelines. These allow newly developed techniques to moving assemblies: motion can dramatically affect
be thoroughly tested in the laboratory before use in the performance,1 and dynamic effects are often difficult
field. to calculate. We have also developed magnetic field-
The rigs have been used in such diverse jobs mapping devices that generate detailed surface plots
as examining the detailed performance of sensors, of the leakage field when the magnetizing assembly is
calibrating tools on different pipe samples, plotting either stationary or moving.
performance curves of magnetizing assemblies, and
measuring the effects of pipeline stress and tool Simple Test Rigs
velocity on defect-induced MFL signals. The simplest early test rigs are generally open
sections of pipe with a simple mechanical means of
Inspection-Tool Development pulling a tool through. Data from prototype tools
To maintain pipelines at efficient operating levels, can be acquired either with an on-board electronic
owners use specially developed inspection tools to unit or with a recorder via a trailing wire. Tools can
be calibrated effectively by these methods, but it is
difficult to control their speed accurately or to observe
them closely while they are inside the pipe.
We used a simple rotary test rig for developing
lightweight magnetic sensors (for detecting internal
pipeline corrosion) and caliper sensors (for detecting
pipeline dents and obstructions). In the rotary rig,
an arm driven by an electric motor sweeps around
the inner circumference of a short section of pipe.
Prototype sensors were mounted on the arm to
scan artificial defects. The rotary rig could be run
continuously until the required number of readings
was achieved. The number of sweeps could easily be
run into the thousands, enabling sensors to be tested Figure 2. Simplified schematic of the linear hydraulic
for endurance. test rig.
Another early rig consisted of a chain-driven trolley
that ran along a light aluminum beam. The trolley along the coupon with a speed-multiplying cable and
could carry a light sensor over a coupon milled with a pulley system.
series of simulated defects. Unlike the rotary rigs, the The simulated inspection data from the LHTR are
trolley had to be backed up between runs. However, recorded with a microcomputer-based data-acquisition
the linear motion of the trolley better simulated a real system. A photoelectric detector provides the start
pipeline run. signal for data acquisition, and a shaft encoder, which
gives a digital pulse every 0.3 mm of travel, sets the
Advanced Test Rigs: sampling interval. Data files are saved on disk for future
Linear Hydraulic Test Rig analysis and processing.
The more-powerful magnetizing assemblies able to Coupons cut from pipe of up to 1220 mm (48 in.)
detect external corrosion must also be large enough dia can be mounted on the LHTR. Depending on
to create a good magnetic circuit through the magnets the type of tests being run, the coupon may contain
and the pipe wall. Consequently, they are heavy and real or simulated cracks, hard spots, simulated dents,
require a specially developed rig for testing. The metal loss, or real corrosion (which can be obtained
versatile linear hydraulic test rig (LHTR), shown in from field repair operations). Great attention is also
Figures 1 and 2, can drive a 180 kg (400 lb) MFL paid to the grade of pipe used in tests because the
magnetizing assembly at constant speeds of up to pipe manufacturing process can affect the magnetic
30 mi/h (48 km/h). The assembly to be tested is properties of the steel and, hence, the leakage flux.
mounted on a trolley that moves on tracks, and the Figure 3 shows some results that illustrate the
damaged pipe coupon is mounted above the assembly. versatility of this LHTR. Figure 3a shows data from
A hydraulic piston drives the trolley and assembly a run over a series of milled defects. In Figure 3b, the
results show that a sensor mounted too far to the front
of an assembly is less effective in detecting defects. In
Figure 3c, the performance curve of a conventional
MFL assembly, which uses compliant steel brushes
to transmit flux to the pipe, is compared with that
of an experimental assembly fitted with solid metal
poles. The solid pole assembly gives large-amplitude
corrosion signals at slow speeds, but these fade out
at high speeds. Figure 3d shows measurements of
the surface eddy currents generated in the pipe by a
moving MFL assembly.
Each set of results in Figure 3 was crucial in its own
way in the development of MFL detectors: the defect
signals in Figure 3a were used to calibrate a tool, the
performance curves in Figures 3b and 3c were used to
improve MFL detector designs, and the eddy current
Figure 1. Linear hydraulic test rig, with an MFL assembly plots in Figure 3c were part of a continuing study of
set up for a test run. The pipe test section, typically 6 m how magnetic field diffuses through a pipe wall. The
long, is mounted above. A hydraulic buffer is seen above.
effects of magnetizing assembly speed on various
results can be seen in Figures 3b to 3d. This underlines
the importance of testing tools on a controlled
variable-speed rig.
Results from the LHTR are always applied with
care to the interpretation of real pipeline inspection
data. Factors such as pipeline pressure and grade of
steel can affect MFL inspection results, so the LHTR
does not totally eliminate the need to test a tool in a
live line.
Rotating-Drum Test Rig

It is well known that stress has an effect on the
magnetic properties of pipeline steel,2,3 but it is
not possible to pressurize pipe on the LHTR. The
rotating-drum test rig (RDTR), shown in Figure 4,
was developed to investigate the effects of line pressure Figure 3. Typical data from the linear hydraulic test rig: (a) MFL signals
on MFL data. The RDTR allows dynamic tests on from external defects, (b) MFL signals as functions of velocity for sensors
hydraulically pressurized pipe to be carried out in the mounted near the front and rear of the detector, (c) comparison of MFL
laboratory. 4,5 signals using solid metal pole pieces and brush assemblies, and (d) the
The RDTR consists of a capped section of pipe, surface eddy current density generated by MFL detectors passing at
different speeds.
pressurized with water and supported on a set of truck
wheels. The MFL detector is held stationary against the
outside of the drum so that the drum, which is rotated
by driving the truck wheels, moves underneath the
detector.
Experiments carried out on the RDTR suggested
that pressure affected both the signal-to-noise ratio
and the amplitude of MFL signals. As can be seen from
Figure 5a, the noise level in an MFL scan was reduced
when the pipe was pressurized. Figure 5b shows the
variation of MFL signal amplitude with pressure;
signal amplitudes from pipe pressurized to 6.9 MPa
(compared with typical operating line pressures of
700-800 lb/in.2 [gage] [4.8-5.5 MPa]) were found to
be about 50 percent larger than those from open pipe.
On the RDTR, the variation of signal amplitude
with pressure was found to be reversible and similar for
all depths of defects. These results are clearly important
from the point of view of pipeline inspection, where
the size of defects must be deduced from signal
amplitudes.
The fact that the MFL assembly is stationary
while the drum rotates gives an added advantage: the Figure 4. Simplified schematic of the rotating-drum test rig used to examine
the effects of line-pressure stress on MFL signals.
action of the mechanical components can be observed
closely while they scan the pipe. Close observation
is particularly useful in sensor testing because any Magnetic Field-Mapping Devices
tendency for the sensor to vibrate or bounce must be The field-mapping device shown in Figure 6 records
avoided. We have evaluated over 50 MFL sensors and a measurement of the magnetic field at every point
mounts using the RDTR. on a finely spaced grid, which is used to generate a
The RDTR can easily be set up to generate a detailed magnetic map of a feature.6 The device uses
continuous stream of MFL data and has been used Hall probes mounted on an arm whose position is
in this capacity for testing real-time signal-processing computer-controlled. The Hall probes are moved in
techniques. a programmed pattern over a rectangular area, taking
readings of the magnetic field at grid points. The grid
spacing can be as small as 0.1 mm. Typical surface
Figure 5. Typical data from the rotating-drum test rig showing MFL response in open and pressurized pipe and the
amplitude variation of defect signals with pressure.
Conclusion
Pipelines are the safest and most efficient method
of transportation. They have long lifetimes. The key
to maintaining and improving these standards is
inspection technology advanced enough to evaluate
and monitor the condition of in-service pipelines on
a long-term basis. MFL inspection tools are currently
the most favored. MFL technology is far from mature
and is continuing to evolve rapidly as the demand shifts
from simple defect detection to accurate measurement.
A central role in the current development is played
by test rigs. From both engineering and economic
viewpoints, advanced test rigs are essential. The cost of
test-rig design and manufacture is repaid many times
over, both to the designer and to the pipeline owner,
who benefits from better service and more accurate
surveys.
Figure 6. A portable magnetic field-mapping system in the
process of taking data from a section of corroded pipe.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following people played important roles in the development
plots of data taken by field-mapping devices are shown and use of these test rigs: David Hope-Simpson (Pipetronix),
in Figure 7. Cullen Welbourn and Poul Laursen (Queen’s University), and
Field-mapping devices have also been adapted for Corry Comello and Jeff Norman (Mecon Industries).
dynamic measurements. Representative data are shown
REFERENCES
in Figure 7b. Ongoing research involves the detailed
1. Atherton, D. L., C. Jagadish, P. Laursen, V. Storm, F. Ham, and
experimental comparison of flux leakage patterns in the B. Sharfenberger, “Pipeline Inspection-Tool Speed Alters MFL
static and dynamic cases. Signals,” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 88, No. 5, Jan. 29, 1990, pp 84-86.
Figure 7. Typical data from field-mapping devices showing detailed MFL patterns from 55 percent far-side pits with
stationary and moving detectors.
2. Atherton, D. L., and D. C. Jiles, “Effects of Stress on AUTHORS
Magnetization,” NDT International, Vol. 19, No. 1, Feb. 1986, David D. Mackintosh: Dept. of Physics, Queen’s University,
pp 15-20. Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N7, Canada; (613) 545-2701; fax -6463.
3. Atherton, D. L., C. Welbourn, D. C. Jiles, L. Reynolds, and J. David L. Atherton: Dept. of Physics, Queen’s University, Kingston,
Scott-Thomas, “Stress-Induced Magnetization Changes in Steel Ontario K7L 3N7, Canada; (613) 545-2701; fax -6463.
Pipes-Laboratory Tests, Part II,” IEEE Transactions on Magnetics,
MAG-20, Vol. 6, Nov. 1984, pp 2, 129-132, 136. Patrick C. Porter: Pipetronix, 450 Midwest Rd., Scarborough,
Ontario M1P 3A9, Canada.
4. Atherton, D. L., and C. Welbourn, “A Rotating Drum Test Rig for
the Development of Pipeline Monitoring Tools,” CSNDT Journal, Albert Teitsma: Pipetronix, 450 Midwest Rd., Scarborough,
Vol. 6, No. 8, Sep. 1985, pp 50-56. Ontario M1P 3A9, Canada.
5. Atherton, D. L., “Effect of Line Pressure on the Performance of
Magnetic Inspection Tools for Pipelines,” Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 84,
No. 3, Oct. 1986, pp 86-89.
6. Atherton, D. L., “Finite Element Calculations and Computer
Measurements of Magnetic Flux Leakage Patterns from Pits,” British
Journal of Non-Destructive Testing, Vol. 30, No. 3, May 1988,
pp 159-162.
History and Development of Rail Flaw
Detector Cars
by Walter R. Keevil
At the turn of the present century, our country All three of these defects (transverse fissures and
was a well-industrialized nation and our westward both orientations of split heads) are similar in that they
marching frontier had reached the Pacific Ocean. start inside the head of the rail and grow progressively
Railroad expansion had nearly reached its limit. All the larger until they break the rail. But what causes the
transcontinental lines of today were finished before initial defect, and why do the defects grow? Studies
1910, and as fast as they were finished, great loads of conducted by the American Railway Assn. (ARA)
goods and people flooded the terminals. In the east, (later the Assn. of American Railroads [AAR]), the
too, the railroads were busy, carrying the output of rail manufacturers, and the University of Illinois
the great factories and mines as well as millions of revealed that the initial defect was a small sliver of
passengers. Industrialization and a growing economy gas trapped in the rail as it cooled after rolling. As
let nothing stand in their way, and the railroads found the steel cooled, gas was liberated, but because the
themselves unable to handle all the business with surface cooled and hardened first, the gas could not
traditional methods and equipment. escape and was trapped in little pockets inside the rail.
The most obvious way to handle larger loads was Careful examination of other rails showed that the
to run longer, heavier trains; to do this the railroads original defect was a small inclusion of slag or scale
needed larger, more powerful locomotives. As trains from the surface of the ingot from which the rail was
grew longer and locomotives heavier, an alarming rolled. These inclusions are the main cause of vertical
situation arose. The rail, of 50-90 lb (23-41 kg) weight, and horizontal split heads and are due mainly to poor
simply would not support the extra-heavy trains being quality control at the rolling mill. Transverse fissures,
run at increased speeds. To combat the problem however, are due almost entirely to the small pockets
of weak rails, heavier rails were rolled, and track of gas.
maintenance was stepped up. These measures helped There are also several types of defects that do not
to some extent, but rails still kept breaking: something start from bad steel. One type is known as engine burn
else was wrong. fractures. These defects were made by steam engines
spinning their drivers as they started to move. When
Rail Defects the drivers spun on the rail, the friction created a great
Careful examination of the broken rails showed minute amount of heat in a very small area; the heat made the
defects, or shatter cracks, surrounded by large shiny rail soften and then reharden quickly, leaving a brittle
areas. These defects, occurring across the width of the spot as well as a slight depression at that spot. As trains
rail, were called transverse fissures. Investigation of passed over the depression, their wheels bounced
other broken rails showed that several other general and gradually caused the brittle steel at that point
types of defects were also present. There were cracks to break. Once the surface cracked, the defect grew
parallel with the length of and perpendicular to the downward and eventually broke the rail. Even now,
head of the rail, causing the head to split in two. with no steam engines on the main lines, engine burn
Because they were in the vertical plane, these defects fractures are still prevalent because diesels, too, though
were named vertical split heads. A third type of defect less frequently, lose their traction and slip their wheels.
was a crack parallel to the surface of the rail, causing the Another similar type of defect is known as a shell
surface to peel off. These defects, logically, were called fracture. This type develops when heavy loading on the
horizontal split heads. rail causes the surface of the inside edge to move on
the underlying steel, a condition known as flowing. As products had been built, and conventional cars were
the surface flows, many fine cracks develop under the being loaded more heavily all the time. As a result,
surface in a horizontal plane. If one of these fine cracks shells and shell fractures became a major concern of
turns and starts to grow perpendicular to the surface, it the railroads. An early, and partly successful, attempt
can cause the whole rail to break. to stop shelling was simply to make the rail harder.
A very disastrous defect, and one difficult to The rail is easily hardened by increasing the amount
remedy, is the head and web separation. Most of these of carbon in the steel or by using a silicon-alloy steel.
defects occur on curves, where the angular acceleration Both types of rail have been tested in service and
of the train is counteracted by the force the rails exert found to have a longer life expectancy as well as a
on the wheels. This force causes the head to bend better resistance to shelling than ordinary rail. A more
slightly on the web, eventually causing the steel to recently developed method of combating shells is to
break at the junction of the head and web. surface-harden the rail. Surface hardening can be done
The last major type of defect is the bolt-hole in two ways: by means of gas flames (flame hardening)
break. This type has only recently become a major or by means of magnetic induction (induction
contributor to rail failures, a result of the general policy hardening). In the former case, the rail is pushed slowly
of minimum track maintenance now held by most through a bank of gas jets, which heat the surface of the
railroads. When a joint is allowed to become loose, the rail. The rail is then quenched with air jets, leaving the
ends of the rails flex vertically as trains pass over them. surface covered with a hard protective layer of steel.
The major part of the resulting stress is concentrated at With this method, there is some danger of burning the
the tops and bottoms of the bolt holes. With constant steel by overheating with the gas flames. If the steel
flexing, the steel eventually fails and a crack appears, is burned, it becomes very brittle and weak, and the
quickly growing to the surface and breaking the rail. surface will flake off when the rail is put into service.
These defects start as small invisible cracks and Induction hardening involves no risk of burning
grow until they are large enough to break the rail. because no flames are used. Instead, the head of the
What caused the cracks to grow? The answer is very rail is surrounded by a large coil of wire through which
simple-continuous flexing and pounding of the rail by a heavy alternating current is passed. The magnetic
passing trains. Each train causes the rail to bend slightly fields set up by the coil induce eddy currents in the
vertically or horizontally. Cars with flat wheels exert surface of the rail. The eddy currents in turn heat the
extra stress by literally pounding the rail each time the surface to the desired temperature; the rail is then
flat spot hits. quenched as in the gas flame process. Both extra-hard
and surface-hardened rails are being used profitably,
Defect Prevention especially on curves where the traffic is heavy.
With rail failures on the increase in the 1920s and Before controlled cooling was devised and before
1930s, the railroads became very concerned about the special steel alloys were fully perfected, the railroads
rail-making process and the inherent defects found requested the ARA to investigate means of detecting
in new rail. At the urging of the ARA , and for their defects in their track before the defects broke the rail
own self interest, the steel companies started testing and wrecked a train.
methods to eliminate the gas inclusions in rail. In
1935, a primitive method of solving the problem was Early Rail Testing
introduced; in 1938, all rail makers were using an It was to this end that, in 1926, Elmer Sperry of
improved form of this process. The process, known as gyroscope fame suggested passing a heavy current
controlled cooling, is very simple and very effective. longitudinally through the rail and measuring the
After the rail has been rolled, it is reheated and put into voltage drop between two fixed points moving along
a carefully controlled oven and allowed to cool slowly. the rail. The idea was tested in the laboratory and
By keeping the rail hot throughout, extra gas is driven proved very successful. As long as the two pickup
out, because the surface is still soft, the gas can escape points were over good rail, the voltage drop between
into the atmosphere, leaving a flawless rail. This simple them was very small; however, if they bridged a defect,
process is so effective that from 1935 until 1964 only which is actually only a void in the rail, the voltage
46 transverse fissures from shatter cracks had been drop increased. For actual road use, Sperry proposed
found and verified in control-cooled rail. Transverse using three contacts on the rail, producing two equal
fissures are still found occasionally, but the main cause and opposite voltages on good rail and providing
of such fissures today is hot torn steel inside the rail, a an impulse when the contacts bridged a fissure
defect formed in the rolling process. (Figure 1). These balanced voltages were then input
Transverse fissures having been all but eliminated into an amplifier whose output drove a pen on a strip
as causes of rail failures, loads on rails continued to of moving paper, giving a visual indication of
increase. In the 1930s, extra-large cars for various the defect.
(a)
Figure 4. Magnetic field is induced around a transverse

(b) fissure by passing an electric current through the rail.
Figure 1. Induction detector car development from This method looked promising enough for the ARA
(a) contact pickup to (b) magnetic pickup. to finance the construction of the first detector car by
Sperry. By the end of 1927, the car was completed and
ready for road trials. As soon as actual operation was
attempted, it was discovered that a major difficulty had
not been foreseen or even thought of. The problem
was maintaining good electrical contact with the top
of the rail. Although well-traveled rail looks shiny and
clean, its surface actually has a very hard film of dirt
and oxide, which makes it a poor electrical conductor.
Various schemes (see, for example, Figure 2) were
tried to break through the film, but they all resulted
in disturbances in the current far exceeding the
potential differences caused by the defects. At last, the
voltage-drop method of detection was abandoned. In
place of the three balanced contacts, a pair of balanced
induction coils was placed close to the head of the rail
between the main current contacts (Figures 1b and
3). The heavy current in the rail induced a magnetic
field around the rail; any defect in the rail caused the
Figure 2. An attempt was made to scrub rail heads with current to change direction to get around it and thus
rotating wire brushes for better electronic contact.
deformed the magnetic field (Figure 4). As the pickup
moved along the rail, disturbances in the magnetic field
induced currents in the coils; the currents were then
amplified and used to operate a pen as before.
In 1928, the experimental detector car was
modified to use the new pickups, and road tests finally
began in earnest (Figure 5). The tests were a great
success (Figure 6), and the Sperry Rail Service was
immediately formed to exploit the economic potential
of the detector cars by building cars and leasing them
to various railroads.1
The Sperry-built detector car X-lO1 was run by
the ARA for several years after the ARA discontinued
its work with Sperry. The car was rebuilt several times
and continued in service as an induction car until
Figure 3. Modified scheme with inductive pickup mounted after World War II. Within a few years of the war’s
between the main current brushes on ARA X-101 end, the car was reequipped with AAR magnetic test
(Dec. 1930). equipment. The railway always supplied at least a pilot
permanent magnet and that a residual magnetic field
remained around the defect after the magnetizing force
was removed (Figure 7). This effect seemed to provide
the simple, reliable method being sought. To test the
theory, a new detector car was designed, with a large
magnet to magnetize the rail and a pickup following
behind to detect irregularities in the residual field. This
new car was put in service in 1936 and promptly failed
to find a single transverse fissure. Examination showed
that, because the magnetic field is perpendicular to the
Figure 5. The ARA #1 and Sperry tow car, Beacon, NY, pole faces of a magnet as well as to the head of the rail
1928. and therefore parallel to a transverse fissure, this shape
of magnet could never magnetize a transverse fissure.
Further experimentation revealed that it required three
L-shaped magnets to adequately magnetize the rail
(Figure 8). The magnets were shaped like Ls to force
the magnetic flux to leave the rail nearly horizontally
to keep the vertical defects magnetized as the magnet
moved by.
Because vertical split heads are parallel with the rail,
another magnet, electric or permanent, was added and
set at a right angle to the main magnets to magnetize
the vertical split heads. The field of this magnet caused
Figure 6. First fissures found by the 1928 detector car. part of the residual field in the rail to align itself on a
diagonal, thus making part of the field perpendicular
to the defect. To detect the residual fields around the
defects, special pickups were designed.
The standard pickups were built with two coils of
wire connected in a bucking arrangement. Thus, when
the pickup passed over the residual field of the defect,
the output waveform was an inverted W. By careful
design of the pickups, the center peak of the waveform
could be made two or three times as powerful as the
two side peaks. With vertical split heads, however, the
Figure 7. Residual magnetic field remains around a
pickup is only a single coil of wire and the output is
transverse fissure after an energizing magnet passes.
a very low-frequency sine wave. The outputs of both
types of pickups are fed to special amplifiers that in
turn drive the pen units, giving a visible record on
paper tape.
The amplifiers are of two basic types. The first type
amplifies the input and then applies this signal to a
tube biased well beyond cutoff. This stage eliminates
most background interference and passes only the
center pulse of the original wave. The other type of
amplifier employs a trigger circuit activated only by
Figure 8. Arrangement of residual magnetic field detector.
the center pulse of the original wave. The vertical
split head amplifiers are high-gain multistage circuits
designed to pass only the very low frequencies, about
(sometimes also a maintenance-of-way supervisor or 0.5 Hz, of the vertical split head indications. Each
others); the testing itself, however, was performed by rail is inspected by several different pickups set at
ARA personnel. slightly different positions over the head. Each pickup
The ARA started research of its own to develop a has its own amplifier and recording pen. By using a
different testing process that could be used by anyone.1 system of interlocks and by having each amplifier at a
In the course of the research, it was discovered that different sensitivity, the operator is able to gain specific
transverse fissures could be magnetized with a small information on the size and location of each defect
by watching the indications of each channel on the drawback: there is a three-day delay from the time of
written tape. Whenever the indications are of specific the test until the tape can be developed and analyzed
intensity and arrangement, a paint gun is automatically and word sent back to the railroad as to which rails are
activated, marking on the rail the exact location of the defective and should be changed. In this country, no
disturbance. railroad would allow its trains to run over a defective
To get enough room for all the complex equipment rail for three days – it would want to change the
needed for testing, a two-car unit was designed and put rail immediately. Another problem inherent in all
into service. This car worked with outstanding success. ultrasonic devices is that of coupling the crystal to the
The railroads were very pleased with the car’s results, rail. The easiest way of doing this is to supply a layer of
and several ordered cars of their own. In all, 14 cars of liquid, oil, or water between the crystal and the rail as
this type have been built, and most are in service at the a coupler. Of course, as a detector car moves down the
present time. track it is difficult to keep the water, rail, and crystal all
Over the years, Sperry Rail Service has grown in constant contact. In many parts of the USA, there is
into a fairly large concern that specializes in leasing a problem of finding water supplies along the railroad
induction-type cars to the railroads. At its peak, the to replenish the supply carried on the car. To conserve
company had 18 induction cars in its leasing service. Its water, complicated systems of suction pumps and
induction cars have been improved with the addition of filters have been devised to reclaim as much water as
new amplifiers, pickups, current brushes, and recording possible from the head of the rail.
apparatus. The advantage that outweighs all the problems
encountered with ultrasonics is its ability to test the
Ultrasonic Testing rail from end to end without being upset by joint bars.
The third and only other major type of detection Any system employing magnetic fields is restricted
method is the ultrasonic method. This method was to testing outside the joint area because the joint
first developed in Germany quite a few years ago. The bars distort the field to such an extent that any fissure
system incorporates several transmitter-receiver units, indication is lost in the distortion. Two railroads, the
which drive piezoelectric crystals. The transmitter puts Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe, built experimental
out short bursts of high-frequency (about 2 MHz) ultrasonic cars of their own, principally for joint testing.
current to the crystal, which is coupled by a fluid, The Sperry company saw the economic possibilities
usually water, to the rail. The signal enters the rail and of ultrasonics very quickly and has developed several
travels in a straight line to the nearest discontinuity, different ultrasonic cars within the past few years. Their
either the surface or a defect. Part of the signal is first use of ultrasonics was simply adding a vertical
reflected by the discontinuity and returns to the crystal, crystal to their regular induction cars for testing in
where it is converted back into an electric current. By joints. They also built a completely ultrasonic car for
observing on an oscilloscope the amount of time that use on the New York subways. Another development
elapses between the input pulse and the reflection, the was that of the small rail cars that are used only for joint
depth of the discontinuity can easily be determined. testing, completely skipping the rest of the rail. Sperry’s
In rail testing with a vertical crystal, the base most recent project has been putting a special rubber
reflection of the rail is always at a fixed distance wheel that contains vertical as well as angle crystals on
from the initial signal. But any fissures would be all their induction cars to increase their defect-finding
above the base; thus a simple method is available for ability.
finding horizontal split heads, vertical split heads,
shell fractures, head and web separations, and some Further Developments
bolt-hole breaks. By using inclined crystals at angles Concurrently with the rapid growth of ultrasonics,
between 30 and 70 degrees, transverse fissures and the AAR introduced a dramatic new type of magnetic
bolt-hole breaks can be detected. An ultrasonic car detector car. The new car was a single road/rail truck
using one vertical, two 30, and two 70 degree crystals capable of running on the highway and, by lowering its
has been in service in Germany for several years. This guide wheels, also on the track. By a complete redesign
car records photographically the oscilloscope image of all the testing equipment, it was possible to compact
on a 35 mm sensitized paper tape. By using this type everything from the two-car units into one truck.
of recording, rather than having a man watching a tape A major part of the redesigning went into new
and the rails, the car can test at speeds up to 40 mi/h magnets and amplifiers. With the older equipment,
(64 km/h) rather than the 6-8 mi/h (10-13 km/h) of three magnets 1.5 in. (3.8 cm) above the rail were
standard detector cars. needed to fully magnetize the rail; by doubling the
The system, although advantageous in terms of how power and putting the pole only 0.125 in. (3.2 mm)
much track can be tested per day, offers one serious above the rail, however, one magnet proved able to
work as well as three had previously. The second major soon to be built. Of the two-car units, 11 are in service
change was to transistorize all the amplifiers and to use and continue to give their owners good service,
a 6 V solid-state power supply or a storage battery to with improvements continuing to be made in their
run them. Transistorization drastically reduced the size equipment from time to time.
of the amplifiers and also eliminated the large power The next step may be to install ultrasonic
supplies necessary for tubes. equipment on the magnet cars. Recent developments
These new trucks proved to be a great success in all have produced miniature, solid-state ultrasonic ma-
ways but one. They were easy to operate, much more chines that are powered by 6 V storage batteries. These
economical than all rail cars, and in some respects were will make it easy to incorporate similar units into the
better at finding defects. But the transistor amplifiers new trucks or to build trucks that use ultrasonics as
refused to be the trouble-free, always-reliable servants their only method of detection.
they were supposed to be. The amplifiers changed Work is currently being carried on to design better
greatly in sensitivity with a very small change in carriers for the ultrasonic crystals, ones that will be
ambient air temperature. From one hour to the next, sturdy, will be easy to replace when they wear out or
the operator had to keep changing the sensitivity are damaged, and will also make a good contact with
adjustments on all 10 amplifiers. A great deal of time the rail.
was spent trying to design stable amplifiers, but the Some research has been carried out to find an
temperature extremes encountered by the cars in entirely new and better method of finding defects
January in Minnesota and in August in Arizona caused in rails, but no actual proposals have yet been made.
the amplifiers to drift no matter what stabilizing circuits Perhaps in the future a completely computerized
were employed. The decision was soon reluctantly and automated device will be invented to supersede
reached that transistors, although good for pocket the present detector cars. But until that time comes,
radios and computers, were just not suited for detector continued development is improving all three major
cars except in noncritical circuits. types of fissure detection methods — induction,
Consequently, a new breed of amplifier emerged, magnetic, and ultrasonics — with ultrasonics soon
one that employed the new 12 V tubes. These tubes expected to equal or better the other methods.
were designed for use in car radios and needed no
high voltage for the plates. Again, the storage battery REFERENCES
powered the amplifier, as with transistors. Transistors 1. Wickre, J. M., “Fishing for Fissures: Sources for the History of
Rail Testing Cars, 1927-60,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 43, No. 4,
were retained in the new amplifiers only as the power Mar. 1985, pp 372-379.
output to drive the recording pen relays. With the new 2. Davis, R.S., “Harcourt C. Drake, Henry W. Keevil, and the
tube amplifiers, new pickups, and the more powerful Development of Induction-Based Rail Testing,” Materials
magnets, the new trucks have proven themselves to Evaluation, Vol. 48, No. 9, Sep. 1990, pp 1165-1168, 1171.
be reliable and economical as well as good at finding
AUTHOR
defects. The railroads were impressed with the new
Walter R. Keevil: Director of Rail Equipment Engineering and
cars as much as they were when detector cars first Procurement, Chicago Transit Authority, Merchandise Mart Plaza,
appeared nearly 40 years before. At the present time, PO Box 3555, Chicago, IL 60654-0555; (312) 664-7200, X4415.
12 of the new trucks are in service, with three more
Flux Leakage Testing Applied to
Operational Pipelines
by R. W. E. Shannon and L. Jackson
Automated NDT systems designed for large-scale pipeline in which both the pipeline product and the pipeline
inspection have their own inherent problems. Such systems geometry may pose problems. The product is usually
must be rugged, flexible, and able to analyze and store vast pressurized, occasionally at high temperature, and
amounts of data. This month’s solution uses ultrasonic and sometimes is chemically aggressive by its nature
flux leakage methods to address the problems encountered or because of contaminants. Table 1 illustrates the
in the NDT of gas and oil transmission lines. general design requirement for British Gas inspection
G. P. Singh, Associate Tutorial Editor vehicles; extreme values of these operating parameters
are associated usually, but not always, with offshore
Problem pipelines, where pressure and temperature at the
In their role as transportation systems for gas and production platform are inevitably high and where the
liquid fuels, high-pressure pipelines worldwide have product has undergone little or no processing.
a unique strategic importance and immense capital Because the only practical way of quantitatively
value. It is because of this that some pipeline operators, inspecting a pipeline is from the inside, it is apparent
and indeed some legislative bodies, are becoming that the geometry of the line must be compatible with
increasingly sensitive to the fact that however well the inspection system in the sense that it must allow
designed and constructed a pipeline may be, it can the system free passage without fear of obstruction.
nevertheless be subject to some degree of degradation, Such compatibility inevitably imposes a limit on
with a potential for subsequent failure and consequent the range of pipeline fittings and geometry that
financial penalty. This growing awareness brings with can be negotiated by an inspection system. Table 2
it increased interest in pipeline maintenance and summarizes the essential design requirements for
revalidation practices, with emphasis inevitably on inspection of British Gas pipelines. The table has to
on-line condition monitoring. The awareness is also be viewed against the fundamental requirement of
reflected in the facts that new pipelines, especially
offshore, are increasingly being designed and built
with routine intelligent piggings (an operational Table 1. Inspection vehicle design: environmental factors
requirement) and that important existing lines are
being modified to allow pigging.
With the length of gas and liquid transmission
pipelines worldwide estimated to be in excess of
1,000,000 km, it is clear that the pipeline represents
a very special class of nondestructive testing (NDT)
application and one that has received intense study
by British Gas since the early 1970s. The result of this
study is the subject of this paper.
The Operational Pipeline as an NDT

Problem
When viewed as an application for NDT in the form
of online inspection, the operational pipeline is
immediately characterized as a difficult environment
60 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | NOVEMBER 1988
Table 2. Inspection vehicle design: pipeline design factors which are manufactured by a forging process. These
exhibit peculiar wall-thickness variations of significant
magnitude over quite short axial and circumferential
distances.
Clearly the problem of surface wax and particulate
debris can be alleviated to some degree by cleaning the
pipeline before any inspection is undertaken; indeed,
such operations are common in the pipeline industry.
Nevertheless, it is impossible to guarantee the state of
internal cleanliness of the line. Any inspection system
must be designed with this in mind and must be able to
accommodate significant volumes of debris, etc. Such
environmental factors are important considerations
when selecting the most appropriate NDT method as
the basis of a pipeline inspection system.
Shortcomings of Ultrasonic Inspection

Certain inspection systems, particularly those based
on ultrasonic NDT, are often insufficiently tolerant
of vehicle/pipeline eccentricity and usually require
some elaborate engineering to offset the adverse
effects on inspection performance. Notwithstanding
this, ultrasonic techniques are emerging as potential
methods of wall-thickness measurement in pipelines.
They do, however, represent a more speculative
approach in comparison with the more mature
electromagnetic technology; this is reflected both
in recent publications2,3 and by British Gas’s own
experience.
The principle of using ultrasonics to determine
material thickness is relatively simple, but its
engineering application to pipeline inspection is
maintaining the NDT system in contact with, or in
problematical. The principle is based on stress waves
close proximity to, the internal surface of the pipeline
traveling normal to the pipe surface, with the timing
while providing full circumferential coverage. This has
of the reflections from the inner and outer surfaces
to be achieved under extreme dynamic conditions that
being used to determine internal or external metal
result from an inspection system weighing anything
loss (Figure 1). Initial applications of the techniques
up to a few thousand kilograms, traveling at speeds
have been limited mostly to liquid product pipelines,
up to 5 m/s, encountering bore changes, girth welds,
thus potentially minimizing the attenuation of signal
bends, etc. A most difficult aspect of inspection in
power into and out of the pipe wall. It is well known,
these circumstances is the girth weld region. In many
however, that wax products precipitated from oil onto
respects, it is a potential weakness in the pipeline and
the pipe surface can vary enormously in consistency,
demands special attention; it also presents a physical
are not necessarily homogeneous, and can have a very
obstruction to the inspection process by virtue of the
significant attenuating effect on ultrasonic signals;
internal weld bead. The experience of British Gas has
Figure 2 shows typical results. Such conditions can
shown that the requirement for detection of defects in
be considered alongside multiphase lines or elevated
the girth weld will preclude the use of many inspection
lines with slack sections, all of which pose potential
systems.
problems insofar as there would be no indication that
Problems posed by the combination of product
the measuring system had failed to operate in these
and pipeline design are compounded by adverse
conditions and that possible defects could have been
internal surface conditions whether due to particulate
overlooked.
or liquid debris or, more significantly in oil lines,
Another major concern4 relates to the potential
due to wax deposits that may vary enormously in
for false indications caused by laminations in the pipe
composition. Another difficult surface condition1 is
steel. Although they may be structurally insignificant
associated with pipelines of seamless construction,
in an operational pipeline, laminations are nevertheless
NOVEMBER 1988 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 61
It is widely acknowledged that the ultrasonic
method has much to offer when applied to extremely
thick material. However, in terms of range of
application, the ability to cope with thick-wall pipe is
countered by an inability to cope with thin-wall pipe.
A fundamental problem is the period of insensitivity
to reflected signals, or dead zone, that exists after an
ultrasonic transducer has been excited to transmit
energy. This, combined with the fact that pitting
corrosion is generally triangular in cross section and in
thin-wall pipe has a limited diameter that reflects only
a small part of the incident signal, makes such pipe
somewhat difficult to inspect.
Clearly, these problems need not be totally
disabling, but they do point to the fact that, in common
with most applied NDT, especially in a pipeline
environment, the ultrasonic method is not ideal. At this
time, the method appears in the experience of British
Gas to be less robust than magnetic flux leakage, which
has the advantage of applying to both liquid
and gas piplines.
A Solution to the Problem: Selecting an

NDT Method
From the foregoing, it is evident that any technique for
surveying a pipeline must be capable of inspecting for
defined class(es) of defects in a potentially aggressive
Figure 1. Ultrasonic wave signals. product and pipeline environment and under unknown
conditions in terms of debris, surface deposits, and
contaminants. This demands a robustly engineered
solution calling on innovative mechanical and
electronic design and, above all else, careful thought
in selection of the inspection technique. The latter has
to be matched to the inspection mission which, in the
case of buried steel pipelines, can be classed broadly as
l loss of metal due to corrosion, mechanical damage,
etc.,
l planar defects such as cracks; i.e., fatigue cracks,
stress corrosion cracks, hydrogen-induced cracks,
etc., and
l distortion due to dents or wrinkles.
Over many years, preferred methods of detecting

defects have emerged, the limits of performance being
determined inevitably by prevailing technologies.
Having established that some means of on-line
NDT applied to its extensive pipeline network would
Figure 2. Attenuating effect of wax on ultrasonic signals –
typical results. have significant technical and economic benefits
compared with the only alternative of hydrostatic
strong reflectors of ultrasound. Indeed, British Gas’s pressure testing, British Gas embarked on a major
experience5 in successfully applying ultrasonic NDT research and development program in the early 1970s
to the detection and sizing of stress-corrosion cracking to identify practicable methods of locating and sizing
in pipelines is that pipe sections may contain many the above classes of defects, particularly loss of metal
thousands of reflectors which do not adversely affect and planar types. An in-depth study of all available
pipeline integrity but are of a size that can result in inspection techniques revealed that magnetic flux
misinterpretation of the reflected signal. leakage (MFL) testing was most capable of achieving
Figure 3. Magnet strength.
the required performance for metal-loss inspection in

a pipeline environment. A novel method of ultrasonic
inspection was required for crack inspection and
has led to a unique capability resulting from a major
program of development.5
Since the early decision to apply MFL to metal-loss
Figure 4. Metal-loss defect signals.
inspection, major innovations and refinements to the
basic technique have been implemented by British pressure vessel body, which serves to protect electronic
Gas. These, combined with developments in data instrumentation from the pipeline product. The
acquisition and storage and the mechanical design circuits are in contact with the pipe wall via flexible
of vehicle systems, have led to the introduction of bristles that allow the magnetic assemblies to conform
advanced inspection equipment: “intelligent pigs,” to varying internal diameters. The bristles also serve
programmed crawlers that can inspect pipelines from to provide a clean path for the sensing system, which
the inside. The NDT method has benefited most is carefully designed to maintain contact with the
from improvements in magnetic materials: modern internal surface. Thus, it is apparent that this particular
magnets (neodymium-iron-boron) have ten times the embodiment of the MFL inspection method has a
strength, measured in energy per unit volume, of early very high tolerance to impurities that might otherwise
AlcomaxTM magnets (Figure 3). This fact, combined affect the inspection performance. In addition, the
with new designs of magnetic circuit, brings even the system can be made tolerant of a high degree of
thickest offshore platform riser pipes within the range dynamic misalignment of the inspection vehicle with
of British Gas equipment. This is in stark contrast the pipeline axis which, of course, is inevitable as the
to the widespread belief that the MFL method is vehicle negotiates bends, river crossings, etc.
limited in wall-thickness capability and is inherently
oversensitive to the velocity of the inspection vehicle.
This latter point is true for systems that employ only
simple inductive sensing of the leakage field, but with
proper design the effect can be virtually eliminated.4
Practical results from a single sensing channel of an
inspection vehicle are reproduced in Figure 4 and show
the signal response from a defect, first at one speed and
then at almost twice the speed. The signals are almost
identical in amplitude and, when corrected for speed
(converted to distance rather than time), the axial
extent is accurate to within one percent.
The above are just some examples of how the
MFL technique has been adapted and improved by
British Gas, but it is the aspect of physical design
that provides a major advantage over other methods
(see Figure 5). Magnetic circuits are mounted on a Figure 5. Magnetic inspections vehicle for 36 in. (97 cm) dia pipelines.
Figure 6. Three sizes of data-acquisition packs.
Implementing the Solution

Successful inspection in pipeline environments
requires not just the correct choice of NDT technique
but also an ability to capture data sufficient to
Figure 7. Distribution of metal-loss features.
characterize any defect and, of course, an ability to
interpret such data. The problems of data capture are
especially acute in vehicle systems intended for small- criteria used by the pipeline operator. This can be
diameter pipelines, where volume constraints dominate especially valuable because the criteria for repair of
the design of on-board electronic systems. The number metal loss invariably depend upon the pipe wall hoop
of sensing channels needed to detect and accurately stress associated with a maximum allowable operating
quantify defects as small as 10 mm dia, combined with pressure or a predetermined test pressure. The number
the rate at which the circumference of the pipeline of defects requiring repair will increase with increasing
is scanned, can generate extremely large quantities test pressure; thus, by reporting the distribution of
of data at very high rates. This fact, in conjunction repairable features as a function of pipeline length
with the constraints on volume and environmental for various test pressures (Figure 7), it is possible for
factors, has necessitated the development of special the pipeline operator to compare the economics of
data-acquisition and -processing equipment. Similarly, repair with those of pressure reduction. The chosen
the need to store very large quantities of data on-board histogram can be further analyzed in terms of defect
the inspection vehicles for subsequent detailed analysis depth, and the distribution of defects exceeding
at the On Line Inspection Centre, Cramlington, specific depths can be presented as in Figure 8.
Northumberland, UK, has resulted in the development Selected defects in these distributions can be further
of compatible high-density digital recorders. The analyzed to give exact location and dimensions.
larger equipment shown in Figure 6 serves to cover the By this means, the structurally significant defects
pipeline size ranges 12-22 in. (30-56 cm) and 25 in. can be identified and the appropriate repair procedures
(61 cm) and above. The smaller unit is an integrated implemented. Less-significant corrosion damage,
data-processing and -recording package for 8 and 10 in. especially if it extends over long lengths of the pipe
(20 and 25 cm) systems. surface, may require some adjustment to the cathodic
The maximum data-storage capacity of the above protection system, with subsequent frequent checks by
recording equipment is 2.5 gigabytes. Although the above-ground surveys and periodic (1-2 years) on-line
equipment provides significant inspection range in inspection surveys to determine whether the corrosion
terms of pipeline length, it presents a major analysis is active, i.e., has a growth mechanism.
task. For this purpose, complementary methods This degree of selectivity can provide major
of assessing and analyzing the data, using powerful benefits, as evidenced by one pipeline operator who
computers to provide information on the location of has reported that a British Gas on-line inspection
any defect and its dimensions, have been developed. survey identified 653 defects in 268 km of 914 mm
Of special significance is the fact that such defect data gas pipeline and only two were shown to be in need
can be assessed automatically against specific failure of repair.6 This enabled a saving of $2.6 million to
however, that, by its very nature, the MFL technique is
inherently more responsive to this type of defect than
the ultrasonic technique. The latter responds mainly
to the actual through-wall profile of the corrosion and,
of course, to the position ducer/sensor is centrally
positioned over the defect or to either side and at
which points along the longitudinal axis of the defect
measurements are taken. Such adverse sensitivity is
not a feature of MFL inspection to the same extent; in
seam-welded pipe, localized pitting down to 15 percent
of wall thickness can be readily detected.
A pipeline inspection system should inspect the
entire pipeline surface, both internal and external. This
whole should include the girth weld and the associated
heat-affected zone, which tend to pose significant
problems both by the abrupt and localized change in
metallurgical and magnetic characteristics and by the
mechanical interference between the internal weld
bead and any inspection sensing system. The latter is
countered in the British Gas MFL system by a unique
sensor designed to maintain maximum contact with
the pipewall under extreme dynamic conditions. The
Figure 8. Frequency distribution of metal-loss features. result is that metal loss in the weld, whether due to
corrosion or gross changes in weld-metal deposit, is
detected, although sizing is degraded by the physical
be made in maintenance costs compared with the disturbance of the sensing system by the weld bead.
alternative of hydrostatically testing the line. Although in principle the MFL technique is not
The ability to determine the locations and suitable for the detection of cracks that are aligned
dimensions of pipeline defects is of course essential (axially) with the applied magnetic field, it is feasible
to the detection of defect growth and is a feature of for very large circumferential cracks to produce a
increasing interest to pipeline operators worldwide. sensor response. On a number of occasions in recent
Even new pipelines can be subject to a detailed years, British Gas has located gross girth-weld cracks,
inspection survey, providing a unique fingerprint both in liquid and gas pipelines. In some cases, the
of the line and describing the “as laid” condition for cracks have penetrated the wall, resulting in leakage of
comparison with subsequent surveys. pipeline product. In all cases, it is doubtful whether any
other on-line inspection technique could have detected
Practical Performance Considerations these girth-weld cracks. Subsequent investigation
A measure of the performance capability of any of many of these defects has shown them to have
pipeline inspection system is usually given in terms occurred during or shortly after construction of
of its defect location and sizing specification, a the pipeline.
defect in this case being defined as loss of metal from One of the major benefits of the British Gas MFL
the internal or external surface of the transducer/ system of inspection which has proved to be of value
sensing element relative to the defect; i.e., whether over the years is its capability for detecting ferrous
the trans-face of the pipeline. This must, of course, objects external to the pipeline. Of special significance
be the main measure of performance, but it needs is the inspection system’s response to eccentric sleeves
to be examined more closely and alongside other (or casings), which are readily detected even before
very important considerations if the various NDT contact with the carrier pipe is made. Similarly, large
techniques employed in pipeline inspection are to be objects in the backfill close to, or touching, the pipe are
more realistically assessed. When different inspection also detected, as are fittings that have been displaced
methods are compared, the following are some of the through unplanned movement of the pipeline. In
more important factors to consider: pitting corrosion, several instances, reports of such movement have led to
girth-weld defects (corrosion and cracking), and the detection of induced secondary stresses that, if left
defects external to the pipeline. to continue increasing, would have provoked failure.
Smaller-diameter localized corrosion ultimately
imposes natural limits on the detection and sizing
capability of all inspection systems. It is a fact,
Closing 3. Labrujere, J., and J. de Raad, “The RPIT – An Ultrasonic Riser
Inspection Pig,” paper presented to the Pipeline Pigging and
British Gas has extensive experience of both magnetic Integrity Monitoring Conference, organized by Pipes and Pipelines
and ultrasonic systems of pipeline inspection. For International, Feb. 1988.
general metal loss due to corrosion, mechanical 4. Braithwaite, J. C., and L. L. Morgan, “Extending the Boundaries
of Intelligent Pigging,” paper presented to the Pipeline Pigging and
damage, etc., the magnetic flux leakage method of Integrity Monitoring Conference, organized by Pipes and Pipelines
inspection has emerged as a system capable of high International, Feb. 1986.
performance under the extreme conditions imposed by 5. Shannon, R. W. E., “Buried Pipeline Monitoring – A Review
both the product and the pipeline itself. Moreover, by of British Gas Experience with On-Line Inspection and Above-
Ground Methods,” paper presented to the 7th symposium on Line
developing the full potential of MFL, British Gas has Pipe Research, organized by the American Gas Assn. Pipeline
achieved a well-tried and proven inspection capability Research Committee, Oct. 1986
unmatched by the capabilities of other systems. 6. Avrin, C., and R. I. Coote, paper presented to the Pacific Coast
The resultant performance provides full inspection Gas Assn., Transmission Conference, Salt Lake City, UT, Mar. 1987.
coverage of the pipeline surfaces and exhibits a high
AUTHORS
degree of tolerance to variations in pipeline geometry
R. W. E. Shannon: British Gas PLC, Research and Development
and the presence of debris. Div., On Line Inspection Centre, PO Box 3, Cramlington,
Northumberland NE23 9EQ, UK; phone 0670 713401.
REFERENCES
L. Jackson: British Gas PLC, Research and Development Div., On
1. Shannon, R. W. E., L. Jackson, and C. A. Adey, “British Gas Has Line Inspection Centre, PO Box 3, Cramlington, Northumberland
Seamless Pipe Inspection Program,” Oil & Gas Journal, Sep. 9, 1985. NE23 9EQ, UK; phone 0670 713401.
2. “Inspection Pig System for Off-shore Pipeline,” Nippon Kokan
Technical Report, Overseas No. 46, 1986.
Electromagnetic Wire Rope Inspection
in Germany, 1925–40
by Herbert R. Weischedel
Although electromagnetic wire rope testers had been Figure 1 shows the possibilities for magnetizing a
available as laboratory instruments since the turn rope using electromagnets similar to those used by
of the century, not until the 1930s in Germany did the pioneers of electromagnetic testing. Note that DC
engineers succeed in developing the first practical as well as AC excitation of the electromagnets was
electromagnetic rope inspection instruments that used. Sense coils were usually used in the absolute
could be used for on-site field inspections of wire coil arrangement or the differential coil arrangement
ropes. This development is a little-known but (Figures 2a and 2b).
significant part of the history of nondestructive testing.
AC Methods
Principles of Wire Rope Inspection The early inventions are easily categorized according
There are two principal deterioration modes of wire to the magnetic rope excitation and type of sense coil
rope: (a) loss of metallic cross-sectional area (LMA), used.
a mode that includes distributed defects such as ex- Note that the first and classical rope test instrument
ternal and internal corrosion and/or abrasion, and (b) was developed by the South Africans C. McCann and
localized flaws (LF), a deterioration mode consisting R. Colson in 1906.2 This LMA method uses
primarily of broken wires and corrosion pitting. AC magnetization of the solenoid arrangement
Remarkably, the early inventors developed (Figure 1a). In their instrument, the wire rope served
two different types of electromagnetic wire rope as the core of an inductance. A changing rope cross
testers, each specifically adapted for the evaluation section changes the impedance of the test arrangement,
of one of the two above-mentioned types of wire which in turn serves as a measure of the rope cross-
rope deterioration modes.1 Today, we call these two sectional area.
instrument types (1) LMA instruments, which can Numerous rope inspection devices were
measure abrasion and corrosion, and (2) LF in- subsequently developed using the same principles –
struments, which are particularly well suited for the i.e., the rope is used as the core of an inductance or
detection of broken wires. transformer with AC magnetization.3 The changing
These historic instruments are very similar to rope cross section changes the impedance, i.e., the
some of the modern instruments in their principles of mutual impedance of the test arrangement, and this
operation. A section of the steel rope is magnetically change serves as a measure of the rope cross-
saturated in the longitudinal direction by strong AC or sectional area.
DC electromagnets. Discontinuities in the rope – such Despite an overabundance of inventions, the AC
as a broken wire, a broken core, corrosion, or abrasion methods were not successful in these early years for
– distort the longitudinal magnetic flux, causing flux lack of good recording instrumentation and because
leakage from the rope into the surrounding air space. of the skin effect. Altogether, the results suffered
Sensors, close to the rope, sense the flux leakage while from poor resolution and from lack of reliability. One
the rope moves. The movement of the rope causes particularly objectionable feature was the fact that
the flux leakage to intersect the sensors: the changing coils had to be wound onto the rope – separately for
intersecting flux induces signals in the sensors. each inspection.
Because permanent magnet technology was Only the introduction of DC magnetization yielded
not sufficiently developed for these applications in early successes.
the 1930s, the early inventors used electromagnets.
M AY 1 9 8 8 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 67
axial sense coils – for obvious reasons – could not be
mounted on the rope on site. They had to be wound
onto the rope locally, usually with a special winding
apparatus. Because the sense coils required several
hundred turns, this method was very awkward for
in-service field inspections. These early instruments
remained primarily confined to the laboratory as
demonstration tools.
Breakthrough
Figure 1. Methods for magnetizing wire rope: (a) solenoid, (b) single yoke, A major breakthrough occurred when several German
and (c) double yoke.
inventors realized – simultaneously – that the axial
differential coils of Figure 2b were functionally
equivalent to the radial subdivided sense coils
of Figure 2c. The reader can easily recognize this
functional equivalence by examining Figures 2b and
2c.8 In 1937, R. Wörnle and H. Müller obtained a
patent on the subdivided radial sense coil arrangement
Figure 2. Sense coils: (a) absolute, (b) differential, and (c) hinged differential. of Figure 2c.9 Simultaneously, this subdivided sense
coil arrangement was published by Sverre Schleipp.10
Using the subdivided radial sense coil of Figure 2c,
Flux Leakage Method together with the electromagnet of Figure 1c, it was
The DC magnetization method was later called the now possible to build subdivided and hinged wire
“flux leakage method.” Note that flux leakage methods rope inspection instruments that could be easily
are inherently LF methods and allow only the mounted on the rope, making on-site field inspections
qualitative inspection of wire ropes. The quantitative of operating ropes easy and hence practical for the first
determination of LCA is not possible. Early pioneers time. The cumbersome and complicated process of
of this method were Charles W. Burrows4 and R. L. winding coils onto the rope was completely eliminated.
Sanford.5 (Sanford, incidentally, was probably the first This breakthrough enabled electromagnetic wire
to use flux leakage procedures to inspect rails.) rope inspection methods to achieve their present
In 1919, R. L. Sanford and W. B. Kouvenhoven5 significance.
inspected rifle barrels using the flux leakage method. Subsequently, Müller performed the first in-service
They used axial coils as well as differential coils, as wire rope inspections in 1940 in Stuttgart and near
shown in Figure 2a and 2b. Very soon it became clear Vienna in 1943.1
that differential coils give superior results because the
differential arrangement cancels any geometrically REFERENCES
large disturbances – for instance, those disturbances 1. Rieger, W., “Em Beitrag zur magnetinduktiven
Querschnittsmessung von Drahtseilen” (“A Contribution to the
introduced by varying magnetization of the test object. Magnet-Inductive Cross-Sectional Area Measurement of Wire
Later, R. L. Sanford applied his method to wire ropes Ropes”), Doctoral Dissertation, 1983. University of Stuttgart,
as well, with some success. Stuttgart, FRG.
A first step toward the development of a flux 2. McCann, C. E. S., and R. Colson, “Vorrichtung zum Prüfen der
Schwächung des Querschnitts von Drahtseilkabeln u. dgl.” (“Device
leakage method for wire rope inspection in Germany for the Determination of Area Loss of Wire Ropes and Cables and
was made in 1925 by H. Chappuzeau,6 who Similar Objects”), German Patent 175 895 Kl. 42b Gr. 10, 1906.
substantially developed a flux leakage method with a 3. Bohr- und Schramkronenfabrik, “Apparat zum Prüfen von
very low-frequency AC field excitation. Förderseilen” (“Device for Testing Haulage Ropes”), German Patent
257 843 Kl. 42k Gr. 21, 1913.
In 1930 in Germany, F. Wever and A. Otto
4. Burrows, C. W., “The Determination of the Magnetic Induction
inspected boiler tubes using a flux leakage method. in Straight Bars,” Bulletin of the National Bureau of Standards, Vol. 6,
Later, they extended their method to the inspection of 1909/10, pp 173-210.
wire ropes.7 For their wire rope inspection apparatus, 5. Sanford, R. L., and W. B. Kouvenhoven, “Location of Flaws in
these inventors used solenoid magnetization, as shown Rifle Barrel Steel by Magnetic Analysis,” Proceedings of the American
Society for Testing and Materials, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1919, pp 80ff.
in Figure la, together with the differential sense coil
6. Chappuzeau, H. (Neufeldt & Kuhnke),”Verfahren zum Prüfen
arrangement of Figure 2b. der Matenaleigenschaften langgestreckter magnetisierbarer Körper”
Note that the early inventors used axial sense (“Method for Testing of Material Properties of Elongated Magnetic
coils of the type shown in Figure 2a and 2b. These Objects”), German Patent 487 856 Kl. 42k Gr. 22, 1929.
68 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | M AY 1 9 8 8
7. Wever, F., and A. Otto, “Über ein magnetisches Verfahren the Magnetic Testing of Steel Wire Rope”), German Patent 758 730
zur Prüfung von Drahtseilen, insbesondere Förderseilen” Kl. 42k Gr. 4603, 1937.
(“On a Magnetic Method for Testing Wire Ropes, in Particular 10. Schleipp, S., “Elektromagnetische Drahtseilprüfung”
Haulage Ropes”), Mitteilungen aus dem Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für (“Electromagnetic Wire Rope Inspection”), Doctoral Dissertation,
Eisenforschung (Düsseldorf, Germany), Vol. 12, 1930, pp 389-390. 1937. Technische Hochschule Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
8. Wörnle, R.,”Drahtseilforschung” (“Wire Rope Research”),
Zeitschrift VDI, Vol. 76, 1932, pp 556-560. AUTHOR
9. Wörnle, R., and H. Müller, “Zweiteiige Messpule für mit Herbert R. Weischedel: P.E., President, NDT Technologies, Inc.,
Gleichstrom betriebene Vomchtung zur magnetischen PO Box 637, 1726 Ellington, South Windsor, CT 06074;
Prüfung (Feststellung von mechanischen Zerstörungen) von (203) 644-5655.
Stahldrahtseilen” (“Divided Sense Coil with DC-Driven Device for
The Origins of Electromagnetic Testing
by Robert C. McMaster
It is probable that no other form of nondestructive observed that the “electrical matter consists of particles
testing (NDT) has a history of illustrious scientific extremely subtle, since it can permeate common
creativity and practical development that compares matter, even the densest, with such freedom and ease as
with electromagnetic induction and eddy current not to receive any appreciable resistance.”1
testing. Franklin “recognized two kinds of electrification
and introduced the terms ‘positive’ and ‘negative’
to distinguish them. He arbitrarily called any body
Early Observations of Magnetic Attraction positively electrified if it was repelled by a glass rod
Electromagnetic testing (ET) has the most ancient which had been rubbed with silk, and negatively
name of all NDT methods. Thales of Miletus (6th electrified if it was repelled by sealing wax which
century B.C.) first recorded that rubbing of amber had been rubbed with cat’s fur. These are today our
would induce a state in which the amber would definitions of positive and negative electrical charges.”1
attract other light objects. The Greek word for amber
is elektron. Thales also mentioned the remarkable
powers of the lodestone (iron oxide), also known
as “magnetite” from the place where it was found:
Magnesia, in Thessaly.1
Democritus (ca. 400 B.C.) provided concepts of
an atomic structure of matter. His six principles were
listed by Tyndall and quoted by Robert A. Millikan.
The fifth principle states that the “varieties of all things
depend upon the varieties of their atoms, in number,
size, and aggregation.”1 In many of our electromagnetic
tests, we are seeking to identify the specific atoms in
materials under test and the discontinuities which
occur in structures when needed atoms are missing or
separated from their neighbors.
By 1200 A.D., the use of the magnetic compass was
reported in China. At about the same time, Alexander
Neckam, an Englishman, also reported the use of the
compass in navigation.2 In the year 1600, William
Gilbert, physician to England’s Queen Elizabeth I,
wrote in his book De Magnete a very comprehensive
description of his 18 years of experiments and his
theory of magnetism.3
Benjamin Franklin
Robert A. Millikan, in his “Early Views of Electricity,” James Clerk Maxwell, whose book in the late 19th century
detailed the contributions of Örsted, Ampère, Faraday, and
states that there were “no electrical theories of any others. (C. W. Everitt, W. W. Hansen Laboratory of Physics,
kind” before Benjamin Franklin, who ca. 1747 Stanford University, Stanford, CA.)
19th Century Development of Induced
Currents
Electromagnetic induction was not observed and
explained before the 19th century. James Clerk
Maxwell, in his remarkable two-volume work A Treatise
on Electricity and Magnetism,4 summarized the first 50
years of this development.
Örsted Discovers an Electric Current’s Magnetic Field

(1820)
Maxwell explains that “conjectures of various kinds had
been made as to the relation between magnetism and
electricity, but the laws of these phenomena, and the
form of these relations, remained entirely unknown
till Hans Christian Örsted, at a private lecture to a few
advanced students at Copenhagen, observed that a
wire connecting the ends of a voltaic battery affected
a magnet in its vicinity.” Örsted’s published account
in 1820 observes that “the current itself …was the
cause of the action, and that the ‘electric conflict acts
in a revolving manner,’ that is, that a magnet placed
André Marie Ampère. (Burndy Library, Norwalk, CT.)
near a wire transmitting an electric current tends to
set itself perpendicular to the wire, and with the same
end always pointing forwards as the magnet is moved
round the wire .... The space in which these forces
act may therefore be considered as a magnetic field.”
Örsted’s discovery meant that the “lines of magnetic
force are everywhere at right angles to planes drawn
through the wire, and are therefore circles each in a
plane perpendicular to the wire” passing through the
plane’s center.5
Ampère’s Experiments
In his first experiment, André Marie Ampère showed
that two equivalent currents close together and
flowing in opposite directions neutralize each other.
Maxwell explains that an insulated wire may be looped
back on itself so as to have no effect on the astatic
balance: “This principle is of great importance in
the construction of electric apparatus, as it affords
the means of conveying the current to and from any
galvanometer or other instrument in such a way that no
electromagnetic effect is produced by the current on
its passage to and from the instrument.”6 Techniques In the company of students in 1820, Örsted discovers an
like this are commonly used to connect instruments to electrical current’s magnetic effect on a compass when the
sensing coils or semiconductor detectors used today circuit is completed. (Burndy Library, Norwalk, CT)
to detect eddy current magnetic field test signals. At
higher frequencies, shielding by concentric conductors,
usually grounded at one end, aids in avoidance of remains very near the straight wire .... A current flowing
interfering signals from ambient electromagnetic fields through the crooked wire and back again through
or moving ferromagnetic machine parts or test objects. the straight wire, is found to be without influence on
Ampère’s second experiment concerned crooked the astatic balance. This proves that the effect of the
paths of currents. Maxwell explains that “one of the current running through any crooked part of the wire is
wires is bent and crooked with a number of small equivalent to the same current running in the straight
sinuosities, but so that in every part of its course it line joining its extremities, provided the crooked line
Maxwell’s sketch illustrating Ampère’s basic test
arrangement with a static balance coil arrangement. (From
Maxwell, Vol. 2, p 160.)
Hans Christian Örsted. (Burndy Library, Norwalk, CT)
Ampère’s third experiment demonstrated that

external currents or magnets had no tendency to move
a straight current-carrying conductor in the direction
of its length. The fourth experiment showed that the
force acting between two adjacent current-carrying
loops varies as the square of the distance between the
Örsted’s observation was that a compass needle near an two loops.6
electric circuit moves to a position perpendicular to the
direction of current. (Burndy Library, Norwalk, CT.) Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction
(1831)
In 1831, both Joseph Henry in the United States
is in no part of its course far from the straight one. and Michael Faraday in England discovered
Hence any small element of a circuit is equivalent electromagnetic induction. Maxwell notes that
to two or more component elements, the relation “Faraday, who had been for some time endeavouring
between the component elements and the resultant to produce electric currents by magnetic or electric
element being the same as that between component action, discovered the conditions of magneto-electric
and resultant displacements or velocities.”6 This basic induction. The method which Faraday employed
principle has been generally ignored with respect to in his researches consisted of a constant appeal to
its significance in detection of small discontinuities experiment as a means of testing the truth of his ideas,
that locally distort eddy current flow paths. A circular and a constant cultivation of ideas under the direct
test coil, for example, produces a mirror-image circular influence of experiment.” Because Faraday discusses
flow path of eddy currents in the adjacent test material. “his unsuccessful as well as his successful experiments,
Small diversions and excursions of eddy currents from and his crude ideas as well as his developed ones,”
a truly circular path will have very small effects upon the reader may feel “sympathy even more than
signal pickup coils coincident with the magnetizing admiration, and is tempted to believe that, if he had
coils. Local detectors of distortions of the eddy current the opportunity, he too would be a discoverer. Every
magnetic field can have far greater sensitivity to small student ... should study Faraday for the cultivation of
discontinuities than large-area pickup coils. a scientific spirit, by means of the action and reaction
which will take place between the newly discovered
facts as introduced to him by Faraday and the nascent
ideas of his own mind.”7
The method of Faraday seems to be intimately
related to the method of partial differential equations
and integrations throughout all space: “He never
considers bodies as existing with nothing between
them but their distance, and acting on one another
according to some function of that distance. He
conceives all space as a field of force, the lines of force
being in general curved, and those due to any body
extending from it on all sides, their directions being
modified by the presence of other bodies. He even
speaks of the lines of force belonging to a body as in
some sense part of itself, so that in its action on distant
bodies it cannot be said to act where it is not. This,
however, is not a dominant idea with Faraday. I think
he would rather have said that the field of space is full
of lines of force, whose arrangement depends on that
of the bodies in the field, and that the mechanical and
electrical action on each body is determined by the
lines which abut on it.”7
Maxwell describes the first form of Faraday’s law:
“The primary circuit is connected with a voltaic battery Michael Faraday, evidently holding a bar magnet.
(Burndy Library, Norwalk, CT.)
by which the primary current may be produced,
maintained, stopped, or reversed. The secondary
circuit includes a galvanometer,” which is placed so
that the primary current does not affect it. Parts of
the primary and secondary currents are straight wires
placed parallel and near to each other.
When a current is sent through the primary circuit,
Maxwell explains, “the galvanometer of the secondary
circuit indicates a current in the secondary straight
wire in the opposite direction. This is called the induced
current. If the primary current is maintained constant,
the induced current soon disappears, and the primary
current appears to produce no effect on the secondary
circuit. If now the primary current is stopped, a
secondary current is observed, which is in the same
direction as the primary current. Every variation of the Faraday working in his laboratory at the Royal Institution. (Niels Bohr
primary current produces electromotive force in the Library, American Institute of Physics, New York, NY.)
secondary circuit. When the primary current increases,
the electromotive force is in the opposite direction to surface is also shown. This translates into control
the current. When it diminishes, the electromotive of lift-off of probe coils and preference for high coil
force is in the same direction as the current .... These fill-factors with encircling coil eddy current tests. The
effects of induction are increased by bringing the need for pulsating or alternating primary current is also
two wires nearer together. They are also increased by now evident. Finally, the advantages of using ferrite or
forming them into two circular or spiral coils placed iron cores in eddy current probe coils are suggested.
close together, and still more by placing an iron rod or Present-day eddy current test systems make full use of
a bundle of iron wires inside the coils.”7 each of these principles, enunciated clearly by
This experiment demonstrates the fundamental Faraday in 1831.
principles for using magnetizing coils in eddy current
testing. The need for a time-varying primary current is Induction by Moving the Circuits
clearly indicated. The advantage of close coupling or Faraday found that, by moving the primary circuit
spacing between the magnetizing coil and test metal toward the secondary current, current could be
induced in the secondary current in a direction which influence the amplitude and distribution of the
opposite to that of the primary current. Similarly, eddy currents.
Faraday found that moving the secondary circuit Faraday also found that current could be induced
toward the primary induces a current opposite to the by the relative motion of a magnet and the secondary
primary current. Also, moving the secondary circuit circuit. Maxwell explains that “if we substitute for the
away from the primary induces a current in the same primary circuit a magnetic shell, whose edge coincides
direction as the primary current. Maxwell explains that with the circuit, whose strength is numerically equal
“the direction of the secondary current is such that to that of the current in the circuit, and whose austral
the mechanical action between the two conductors is face corresponds to the positive face of the circuit,
opposite to the direction of motion, being a repulsion then the phenomena produced by the relative motion
when the wires are approaching, and an attraction of this shell and the secondary circuit are the same
when they are receding.”7 This electromotive force was as those observed in the case of the primary circuit.”7
observed by Faraday but was given more systematic The coil of the preceding examples can be replaced
treatment by H. F. Lenz (see below). by a permanent magnet when relative motion exists
Three principles are implied by the concept of between the magnet and test material in eddy current
induction by motion of the primary circuit. The first is tests, providing adequate secondary current magnitude
that polarized and directional secondary currents can and speed of motion can be attained.
be induced by moving a straight-line primary current
over a conducting test surface. Secondly, alternating Faraday’s Legacy
current could be induced in a conducting secondary Maxwell finally states the “true law of magneto-electric
circuit or test material when a constant-current induction” in the following terms: “The total
primary coil is moved cyclically up and down or side electromotive force acting around a circuit at any
to side over a secondary coil or conducting test surface. instant is measured by the rate of decrease of the
A third concept implied by the technique of induction number of lines of magnetic force which pass through
by moving the primary circuit would be that of using it .... The time integral of the total electromotive force
dc magnetic field detectors to measure the magnitude acting round any circuit, together with the number
of secondary current or eddy currents in a conducting of lines of magnetic force which pass through the
material, under or lagging behind the moving circuit, is a constant quantity.” This quantity “may
primary coil.
A practical example of testing by moving the
secondary circuit would be the rapid movement of
conductive test material, such as sheet metal in a rolling
mill, past a stationary dc test coil, inducing a flow of
current in material both approaching and leaving the
area of this local magnetization. Detectors of the eddy
current field in either location can respond to local
discontinuities or variations in material properties
Five electromagnetic pioneers (from left to right): Faraday,

Faraday lectures at the Royal Institution in 1855. (Royal Institution of Great Huxley, Wheatstone, Brewster, and Tyndall. (Zeleny
Britain, London, U.K.) Collection, American Institute of Physics, New York, NY.)
even be called the fundamental quantity in the theory On the basis of Lenz’s law, F. E. Neumann in 1845
of electromagnetism.” Faraday recognized “in the formulated his mathematical theory of induction, in
secondary circuit, when in the electromagnetic field, effect, as Maxwell says, “completing for the induction
a ‘peculiar electrical condition of matter,’ to which he of currents the mathematical treatment which Ampère
gave the name of the Electrotonic State.”8 This quantity had applied to their mechanical action.” In Maxwell’s
appears to be similar to the concept of flux linkages, opinion, “a step of still greater scientific importance”
measured by the product of the number of winding was Helmholtz’s derivation in 1847 of the laws of
turns and the total magnetic flux enclosed in the induction from the laws of conservation of energy. He
winding. and Sir William Thompson, working independently,
Michael Faraday’s two-volume work Experimental showed “that the induction of electric currents
Researches in Electricity influenced numerous discovered by Faraday could be mathematically
investigators and inventors in Europe and the deduced from the electromagnetic actions discovered
United States from the 1830s to the end of the 19th by Örsted and Ampère by the application of the
century. This led many others to experiment with principle of the Conservation of Energy.”8
electromagnetic effects and to develop many basic
inventions such as Morse’s telegraph, Bell’s telephone, Maxwell’s Equations
and Edison’s many improvements on telegraphic, James Clerk Maxwell conceived and published
telephonic, fire alarm, and stock ticker communication the comprehensive group of relations for the
systems. In 1831, Faraday also showed before the electromagnetic field known as Maxwell’s equations,9
Royal Society a homopolar generator (a disk rotating which mathematically represent almost the entire
between the poles of a large horseshoe magnet) for present knowledge of this subject. Maxwell’s
converting mechanical energy into electric energy. remarkable achievement of integrating the available
Faraday’s influence upon inventors with little or knowledge concerning electromagnetic circuits and
no scientific training was very great, for Faraday’s fields provides the basis for analysis of all basic eddy
accounts of his experiments did not use any current and electromagnetic induction problems – and
complicated mathematical formulas. To inventors like for most of modern electromagnetic theory.
Thomas Edison, Faraday appeared to be the Master These simple equations in both integral and
Experimenter, whose laboratory notes communicated differential form were derived by the methods of
the highest intellectual excitement – and hope as Lagrange, using relationships from the calculus
well. Faraday’s explanations were simple, steeped in
the spirit of truthfulness and humility before Nature.
For Faraday, the natural laws were revealed through
experiment. To American inventors, Faraday, poor
and self-educated, indifferent to money or titles,
exemplified the ethics of a true man of science, whom
others could emulate. Thus, during the period from
1831 to about 1875, the inventions made on the basis
of Faraday’s research were often developed by trial and
error, empirically, and step-by-step.
Lenz, Neumann, Helmholtz

In 1834, Heinrich Friedrich Lenz described
electromotive force – the relationship, in Maxwell’s
words, “between the phenomena of mechanical action
of electric currents, as defined by Ampère’s formula,
and the induction of electric currents by the relative
motion of conductors.”8 More generally, Lenz’s law
states that the electromagnetic field will act so as to
oppose or resist any effort made to change its intensity
or configuration. Where mechanical motion causes the
change, mechanical force developed within the system
will oppose the change. If mechanical motion is absent,
electromotive forces will be induced which tend to
maintain the status quo, namely to maintain the total James Clerk Maxwell. (Photo originally from Telegraphic
flux linkages in the system. Journal and Electrical Review, Vol. 8, 1880, p 19.)
of variations. Solutions for alternating fields are on ferromagnetic materials that differentiated between
also available for many configurations of the fields. soft iron and hard steel. Finally, he provided curves
Simpler techniques using an “operational map” have showing the effects of varying percentages of alloying
been devised to present these equations and their elements (silver-gold, copper-tin, and tin-lead). He
derivations in simple form for use by second-year thus established the basic principles of testing and of
engineering students. Maxwell’s equations are available interpretation of eddy current and magnetic induction
in nearly all basic textbooks on the electromagnetic tests as we use them today.
field. Lord Kelvin devised the solutions of Bessel’s
equation for the cases of probe coils and provided the Early Tests for Eddy Current and Hysteresis Losses in
so-called Kelvin functions from which simple cases can Electrical Steel Sheets
be readily calculated by hand or by digital computers. Active practical interest in electromagnetic methods
For the past hundred years, physicists and for sorting metals and detecting discontinuities did not
researchers in electricity and magnetism have occupied result in many useful test devices before the beginning
themselves with applications of Maxwell’s theory. of the 20th century. However, numerous developments
However, no one has conceived any significant new (including ac electric power systems, transformers,
law to be added to Maxwell’s principles, with the and other induction machines) provided a base of
possible exception of Einstein’s theory of relativity, practical design and a need to investigate the losses
which extends the theory of the electromagnetic occurring in magnetic core materials used in these
field to a four-dimensional framework of three spatial devices. From 1890 to 1925, much effort was devoted
dimensions and the fourth dimension of time. to reducing eddy current and magnetic hysteresis losses
in laminated steel sheets, particularly by (1) addition
Development of Practical Electromagnetic of silicon and other alloying elements which lowered
Induction Test Methods their electrical conductivity and (2) the use of purer
Electromagnetic testing in the last 110 years has iron alloys with, in some cases, directional rolling to
evolved from relatively simple devices for metal attain maximum permeability and minimum hysteresis
characterization to microwave testing and sophisticated losses.
systems with quadrature phase analysis. Much of To a first approximation, in cores formed of thin
this development has been chronicled in patents and magnetic laminations, it was shown that eddy current
summarized elsewhere.11,12 losses tended to increase in proportion with the square
of the frequency and that hysteresis losses tended to
Hughes’ Eddy Current Test increase in accordance with the 1.6th power of the fre-
Alexander Graham Bell invented and patented the quency of alternation of the magnetic field intensity.
first practical telephone in 1876, and in 1879 D. E. Numerous laboratories, including those of electrical
Hughes used the telephone as a “sonometer” to detect equipment manufacturers (such as Westinghouse and
imbalance between two pairs of induction coils with the General Electric Co.) and electrical steel sheet
which he performed the first eddy current comparison manufacturers (such as Allegheny Ludlum and Armco
tests of coins. In his demonstration and report to the Steel Co.) established measurement laboratories to
Physical Society, he stated that “if we introduce into monitor properties of production steel sheets and
one pair of induction coils” two conducting bodies, ensure specified electromagnetic loss factors for
“there are set up in these bodies electric currents electrical steel sheets. The Epstein test and many others
which react both upon the primary and secondary were used for these material tests.
coils, producing extra currents whose forces will be Many improvements resulted, including (1) use
proportional to the mass and its specific conducting of thinner sheets, (2) use of oriented steel sheets,
power.” Two identical shillings “will be completely and (3) use of insulating coatings between sheets
balanced” if one is put in the center of each of the coils. to limit eddy current flow paths. Also discovered
“If, however, these shillings are in the slightest degree during these magnetic core improvements were the
worn, or a have a different temperature, we at once undesirable effects of mechanical clamping stresses
perceive this difference.” Hughes called his apparatus and stresses resulting from punching and shearing
“a rapid and perfect coin-detector” that could “test any of laminations, which tended to increase core losses
alloy, giving instantly its electrical value.”12 under ac excitation. Hydrogen annealing and other
Hughes then measured the electrical conductivity techniques, such as those developed by Trigvie
of different metals, using copper as a reference value of Yensen of Westinghouse Research Laboratories, led
100, producing a series of values similar to those given to magnetic sheet alloys with superior properties.
now by the International Annealed Copper Standard Control of other alloying elements, additions of up to
(IACS percentage conductivities). He also made tests 50 percent nickel, and orientation of grain structures
and magnetic domains were used to develop special as functions of time. Together with the technique of
steels with rectangular hysteresis loops. These steels representing impedances on a complex plane, the use
are used in magnetic switching of electrical currents, of these phasor quantities reduced the solutions for
saturable reactors, magnetic amplifiers, and many novel steady-state ac to simple algebra and trigonometry,
electromagnetic devices. rather than integral calculus.
These developments illustrated the variations After World War II, these methods of signal
in electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, analysis on the complex plane were to become widely
grain orientation, anisotropy, mechanical stresses, used in analysis of eddy current tests following
alloy contents, and impurity contents which, in their clear enunciation by Friedrich Förster.13 The
turn, influenced the electromagnetic response of corresponding impedance diagrams on the complex
ferromagnetic materials and changed the apparent plane and oscilloscope displays provide direct means
inductance and resistive losses measured by their for interpreting many of the changes observed
magnetizing coils. The use of dc bias to adjust in eddy current NDT. These two-dimensional
the apparent inductance in saturable reactors and impedance diagrams, with the inductive reactance
transductors for power control purposes also illustrated as the ordinate and resistive (energy loss) values as
a means for reducing magnetic permeability and the abscissa, permit mapping of numerous different
incremental inductance or inductive reactance. It test conditions and prediction of various effects
was also observed that many magnetic core materials observed in single-frequency ac electromagnetic tests
introduced odd harmonics into the magnetizing by technicians and test operators who do not know
currents or voltages across inductances of their calculus.
magnetizing coils (or into unloaded secondary
windings on the cores), and the high sensitivity of Early Industrial Development of Electromagnetic
the harmonic signals to material conditions and Induction Comparators
mechanical stressing were known and purposely Numerous electromagnetic induction or eddy current
avoided where possible. comparators were patented in the United States in
These various effects, well known to electrical the period from 1925 until the end of World War II
designers at the turn of the century, have since become in 1945. Innumerable examples of comparator tests
possible methods for control or readout of eddy were reported in the literature and in patents. Many
current NDT signals. In general, however, the highly provided simple comparator coils into which round
permeable electrical steel sheets now commercially bars or other test objects were placed, producing
available are not ideal for eddy current tests since simple changes in amplitudes of test signals, or
their eddy current losses are so very low. For their unbalancing simple bridge circuits. In nearly all
evaluation, electromagnetic induction tests responsive cases, particularly where ferromagnetic test materials
primarily to hysteresis effects, including higher were involved, no quantitative analyses of test object
harmonic effects, may prove more useful. dimensions, properties, or discontinuities were
possible with such instruments. Often, difficulties were
Steinmetz’s Vectors encountered in reproducing test results, for some test
In the late 19th century, the sinusoidal oscillations of ac circuits were adjusted or balanced to optimize signal
electric power system voltages and currents introduced differences between a “known good test object” and a
new complexities in analysis of circuit performance, “known defective test object,” for each group of objects
as compared with analyses for Edison’s earlier dc to be tested. Little or no correlation could then be
electric power systems. Detailed solutions of Maxwell’s obtained between various types of specimens, each
equations required integral calculus. type having been compared to an arbitrarily selected
By the 1890s, Charles Proteus Steinmetz had specimen of the same specific type.
come to the United States and begun work for General Many simple comparators operated at 60 Hz from
Electric. Steinmetz had a colorful, outspoken character 110 V ac circuits, using conventional instruments such
and was a hard-working industrial researcher in the as voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, and occasionally
modern sense. phase meters. Such meters typically absorbed energy
Steinmetz developed much simplified methods of from the test circuits and had typical accuracies
analysis using rotating line segments which he called and reproducibilities often of only 1 or 2 percent
vectors (now called sinors) to represent sinusoidal of full-scale readings. In other cases, well known
quantities. As such line segments rotated about Wheatstone bridge circuits were employed to balance
one end (at the origin of coordinates), their vertical out comparison test arrangements and to provide
projections mapped out the ordinates of the sinusoidal greater sensitivity to signal differences. For the most
waves, when these vertical projections were plotted part, many of these early comparator systems were
short-lived and received little acceptance in industry. developers of electromagnetic tests, but in many cases,
By comparison, a few such developments, sponsored their managements did not support their developments
by major industries or persistent creative inventors over a period long enough to achieve practical
who sought support and set up their own companies, applications.)
survived and are used in their modernized forms in Within the General Electric Co., an early sequence
American industry today. of inventive development was pioneered by James
A. Sams, Charles D. Moriarty, and H. D. Roop. Ross
Gunn of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory designed
a new form of probe coil magnetizing system with two
small-diameter pickup coils displaced symmetrically
along a diameter of the magnetizing coil. This was an
early example of using one size coil for magnetization
and of pickup coils of a much different size, in
non-concentric positions.
Developments in Electromagnetic Induction Tests,

1945-60
Rapid technological developments in many fields
before and during World War II(1939-45) contributed
both to the demand for NDT and to the development
of advanced test methods. Radar and sonar systems
made acceptable the viewing of test data on the screens
of cathode-ray tubes or oscilloscopes. Developments
in electronic instrumentation and in magnetic sensors
used both for degaussing ships and for actuating
magnetic mines brought a resurgence of activity.
After the war ended, developments such as Floyd
Firestone’s Supersonic Reflectoscope for ultrasonic
testing and Förster’s advanced eddy current and
magnetometer systems became available as industrial
Charles Proteus Steinmetz. (General Electric Research and NDT systems. These systems offered new dimensions
Development Center, Schenectady, NY.) for nondestructive measurement both of material
properties and of the locations and relative sizes of
American Developments of Electromagnetic Tests for discontinuities. The ten-year lag (from 1945 to about
Steel Products, 1925-45 1955) in industry’s acceptance of novel developments
Development continued for electromagnetic induction was uniquely short in the case of these instruments.
tests for round bars, tubes, billets, and products of Electronic instrumentation based upon vacuum
the steel industry in the United States. Advances at and gas-filled electron tubes was approaching the
Magnetic Analysis Corp. and Republic Steel and peak of its development. These developments
Tubes, Inc., were based on the continuing efforts of permitted easy construction of variable-frequency
a few dedicated individuals who passed their skills oscillators and power supplies for the magnetizing
and enthusiasm along to successors in the same coils of eddy current test systems. They also permitted
organizations. Charles W. Burrows, Carl Kinsley, and minute voltage or current signals to be amplified
Theodore W. Zuschlag were among the pioneers at linearly to levels adequate for display systems,
Magnetic Analysis Corp., whose test products are graphic and permanent recording systems, and for
still commercially available.14 Horace G. Knerr, Cecil operation of sorting gates, automation of scanning,
Farrow, and Alfred R. Sharples received basic patents and mechanization of materials handling during
for Republic Steel and Tubes, and their developments tests. The aerospace and nuclear power industries
were extended and continued in the Electromechanical were developing rapidly and made unique demands
Research Center of Republic Steel (now LTV Steel), for sensitivity and reliability of instruments for use
Cleveland, OH, by Cecil Farrow, William Archibald in materials evaluation and in-service reliability
Black, William C. Harmon, and I. G. Orellana to the assurance. These industries (and government agencies
large-scale, automated, production-line eddy current related to them) were the primary sponsors of research
test machines for tubes, bars, and billets in use today.14 to advance all forms of NDT. However, governmental
(Other steel companies had early inventors and support remained significantly less for eddy current
instrumentation than for other fields of NDT until government sponsored or operated independently.
Friedrich Förster’s technology was introduced to this By extensive publications (not initially in the form
country. of U.S. patents, but in the open literature), Förster
made the results of this research available to the world
Friedrich Förster of technical personnel. His contribution of almost
The introduction by Förster of sophisticated, stable the entire theory and technology of electromagnetic
quantitative test equipment and of practical methods induction and eddy current test techniques to the first
for analysis of quantitative test signals on the edition of ASNT’s Nondestructive Testing Handbook15
complex plane were by far the most important factors provided the means for educating thousands of other
contributing to the rapid development and acceptance NDT personnel in the theory, methods, equipment
of electromagnetic induction and eddy current tests and interpretation of eddy current tests. This integrated
during 1950-65 in the United States. Förster is rightly presentation was then used throughout the world to
identified as the father of modern eddy current testing. update eddy current test technology.
His experience before World War II included The unique developments in Förster’s new
advanced university education in physics and a laboratory in Reutlingen, Federal Republic of
significant introduction in German research institutes Germany, were made known in the United States not
to electromagnetic measurements related to the only by those capable of reading his publications (in
metallurgy and structure of steels and nonferrous German) before 1950, but also by missions in which
metals. During World War II, his knowledge was used American personnel were sent to Förster’s laboratory
in naval warfare, particularly with respect to magnetic for education and experience with these new forms of
mines. At the conclusion of the war, after a period of test instrumentation. Richard Hochschild, for example,
imprisonment by the French, Förster retrieved his made a visit of perhaps six months in Reutlingen.
technical reports and, “with the aid of a screwdriver Upon his return, he prepared summary reports which
and a technician,” began further development of were distributed by the Atomic Energy Commission
electromagnetic test instruments in the upper story of sponsors of his visit.16
an old inn just a few miles from Reutlingen – the place In the United States, numerous facilities
where he later established the Institut Dr. Förster. began research to test these new concepts and
By 1950, he had developed a precise theory for instrumentation, including significant efforts at Oak
many basic types of eddy current tests, including both Ridge, Hanford, and other facilities. The creative work
absolute and differential or comparator test systems of Hugo Libby14 at Hanford, WA, during the past 30
and probe or fork coil systems used with thin sheets
and extended surfaces.13 Painstaking calibration tests
were made with these coil systems and with mercury
models (in which defects could be simulated by
insertion of small pieces of insulators). Each test was
confirmed by precise solution of Maxwell’s differential
equations for the various boundary conditions
involved with coils and test objects, at least for
symmetrical cases such as round bars, tubes, and flat
sheets where such mathematical integrations were
feasible.
Further studies were made of the nonlinear
response characteristics of ferromagnetic test objects.
Methods using very low test frequencies (5 Hz),
harmonic signal analysis, comparators at various
levels of magnetization, and precise bridge circuits
were developed. In most instances, Förster replaced
measurements of the inductance or impedance of test
magnetizing coils with the more precise technique of
measuring response with unloaded secondary coils
coupled to the test materials (the secondary coil’s
coupling with the test material is almost identical to
that of the magnetizing coils).
The extent and depth of these scientific studies In 1922, Thomas Edison and Steinmetz examine porcelain insulators
were not matched by any U.S. laboratory, either broken by “lightning” from Steinmetz’s high-voltage generator. (General
Electric Research and Development Center, Schenectady, NY.)
years and that of Robert Oliver, Robert McClung, through the Budd Company, Automation Industries,
Caius V. Dodd, J. A. Deeds, and others at Oak Ridge, and Tech-Tran).
TN, may well have been sponsored in response to the Most of these instruments have been updated to
original work done by Förster. semiconductor circuit elements and more recently to
Even more significant has been the complete integrated circuits. The presently available instruments
transfer of Förster’s advanced technology to typically operate with absolute or differential probe
enterprising American firms manufacturing and coils, encircling coils, internal bobbin coils, and
distributing NDT equipment since 1952. Förster various special coil and circuit arrangements – many of
made his first presentation before an ASNT which Förster described in the Nondestructive Testing
audience early in the 1950s after learning aboard Handbook.15
ship about five words of English: “Sonny boy” Self-balancing or self-adjusting instruments,
and “I love you.” His first personal presentation which establish reference points by placing probes on
in the United States was followed by meetings standard test materials or specimens, are available in
with management of the Magnafiux Corporation, several cases, using developments by Hugo Libby and
in which the present author served as a technical other innovators. Designs of probes based on digital
advisor, explaining Förster’s designs and discussions. computer analyses of eddy current distributions in
Agreements for licensing under Förster patents were single- or multiple-layer sheet materials have been
later concluded, and the basic Förster instruments made feasible through the pioneering work at the Oak
were Americanized by use of U.S. components and Ridge National Laboratory. Special probes with split
electron tubes by the NDT staff at Battelle Memorial coils, internal magnetic shields, and other complexities
Institute in Columbus, OH. have also been developed for crack detection and
During the next few years, increasing amounts of special applications. Digital displays of test signals are
Förster’s technology were transfered to Magnaflux, also being used.
whose staff under Glenn L. McClurg became
qualified in design and production of Förster’s various Introduction of Microwave NDT
instruments and then marketed these electromagnetic At very high frequencies, electromagnetic fields
induction test systems throughout the United States. can be concentrated into beams and propagated
The collaboration between Förster and the Magnaflux through space. When such a beam pulse strikes a
Corporation lasted perhaps ten years, during which conducting metallic surface, for example, it is reflected
rapid progress was made in both the German and may return as an echo to the site of the original
laboratory and in the United States. pulse transmitter, or to other detectors, as in radar
detection. In dielectric materials, microwaves can
Proliferation of Eddy Current Equipment be subject to rotations and phase shifts, as well as
Upon termination in the 1960s of the arrangement to attenuation due to dielectric hysteresis losses. In
with Magnaflux, Förster marketed his instruments many ways, microwave NDT systems are analogous in
through the Förster-Hoover organization in Ann Arbor, performance applications to immersion ultrasonic test
MI. Rudy Hentschel,who was trained in Reutlingen at systems. By Maxwell’s theory of the electromagnetic
Institut Dr. Förster, transfered information to this new field, microwaves are reflected like light waves, by
organization. After a few years, the licensing of Förster eddy currents induced in the surface layers of highly
instruments to Automation Industries, Inc., resulted in conducting metallic materials. Thus, microwaves
further transfer of advanced technology and marketing appear to have the capacity to apply high-frequency
through a new organization. A later arrangement with eddy current tests to a metallic surface from a distance
Krautkramer Branson repeated this unique and perhaps to scan such surfaces to detect dis-
educational process. continuities which change the pulse reflection patterns.
At present, the organizations manufacturing When the Radac eddy current systems were sold
many types of NDT equipment and marketing their to the Budd Co., Richard Hochschild turned his
services widely in the United States are presenting attention to formation and development of Microwave
updated versions of Förster’s basic test instruments and Instruments Co., in Corona del Mar, CA.14 Soon a
modifications developed by their own staffs. Also in series of instrument systems had been developed, and
the market are the instruments developed by Magnetic the long task of educating industrial and scientific users
Analysis Corporation, those based upon Hugo Libby’s in the capabilities and applications of electromagnetic
research at Hanford (by Nortec), those based upon tests had to be done all over again for these new
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory research, and higher frequencies.
developments by Richard Hochschild and Donald The theory and design of microwave generators,
Erdman (which have migrated from the originators horns, antennas, detectors, and display systems had
been developed for long-distance ranging in radar. that part of the spectrum used today in conventional
Many textbooks presented the electromagnetic theory NDT with ac test coils or microwave transmitters and
of microwaves in terms readily used by electrical receivers. Other electromagnetic tests using solid-state
engineers. Microwave system components and electron semiconductor detectors have been described
tubes were commercially available. However, electrical elsewhere.18
engineers were rarely aware of the needs of NDT
engineers, and NDT engineers had little familiarity
with microwaves. In fact, many NDT personnel were The Author Discusses His Introduction to
still just beginning to use and understand eddy current Electromagnetic Theory
testing at the lower frequencies. I was a graduate student in the late 1930s at California
After several years of diligent development, Institute of Technology (CalTech), Pasadena, CA.
continued application research, and marketing CalTech provided graduate students in electrical
efforts by Richard Hochschild with the assistance engineering and physics with an ideal introduction
of Ron Botsco, the pioneer organization Microwave to the science and theories of electromagnetism. The
Instruments Co. was sold and its proprietor moved to first quarter of this physics course was given by Robert
the area of medical services. A few other organizations A Millikan, president of CalTech and a Nobel Prize
built simple microwave test systems, but the recipient for his work on measuring the charge on
development of industrial microwave NDT languished the electron. The second quarter, on modern theory,
during the 1970s. Limited research sponsored by was taught by Carl Andersen, who had discovered
government agencies resulted in various possibilities the positron a few years earlier at CalTech and later
for materials testing from a distance. received the Nobel Prize for that achievement. The
The theory of microwave antennas and of third quarter, on nuclear physics, was taught by Robert
time-domain reflectometry of microwaves in tubes, Oppenheimer, who came down from Berkeley in
passing along wires, reflecting and refracting in the spring for this purpose. (I happened to miss his
dielectric layers, offer many indications of potentially presentation because I had taken a graduate lecture
valuable NDT applications. Because microwaves can course from Enrico Fermi during the prior summer
be focused, microwave systems could potentially be quarter at the University of Michigan, where he
designed that operate in a manner analogous to optical lectured soon after his arrival from Italy.)
instruments and ultrasonic systems. The next course was a full, rigorous year of
A large-scale example of microwave exploration mathematical problems in electricity and magnetism
of test objects at great distances is occurring in radio taught by Smythe, who assigned examination problems
astronomy laboratories throughout the world. John from British universities as daily homework. Relativity,
D. Kraus of Ohio State University has constructed a Thermodynamics, and Cosmology were taught by
large radio telescope in Delaware, OH, and is using Richard C. Tolman (from his 1934 book of the same
it continuously to map radio stars and objects which name), and astronomy and spectral analysis by Ira
emit microwave signals. Many of these radio sources, S. Bowen, then director of the Mount Wilson and
billions of years old, have been confirmed by films from Palomar observatories.
optical telescopes, and the locations of others have The true miracle of these teachers was that each
been predicted. Possibilities of emissions from galaxies, of them made his subjects transparent and easily
black holes, and other astronomical features still exist. understandable, and each included personal anecdotes
Kraus has recognized this as a form of “nondestructive and observations of great scientists around the world.
testing of outer space” and has written a delightful Many of them also presented lectures for the general
biographical book, The Big Ear,17 which clearly and public, and Millikan’s monthly lectures in which he
simply summarizes a lifetime of study and applications duplicated Benjamin Franklin’s experiments with
of Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetic fields. electricity were a delight to every child as well as
the adults. I regret that every one of us who uses
Closing electromagnetic NDT cannot also have the privilege
Of course, the electromagnetic theory explains the of training by similarly experienced teachers and
propagation also of x- and gamma-rays, infrared scientists.
radiation, and ultraviolet and visible light. Maxwell’s
theory of light is an electromagnetic theory. It extends Robert C. McMaster
to all parts of the spectrum from the static electricity
of rubbed amber to the billion-year-old signals from
deep space. This article has been confined to only
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12. Hughes, D. E., “Induction-balance and Experimental Researches
Thanks are extended to the Center for the History of Electrical Therewith,” Philosophical Magazine, Series 5, Vol. 8, 1879, pp 50-57.
Engineering, IEEE, New York, NY, for providing most of this 13. Förster, F., “‘The First Picture’: A Review of the Initial Steps in
article’s illustrations from its rich archives. Thanks are also extended the Development of Eight Branches of Nondestructive Material
to R. Palanisamy, Timken Co., Canton, OH, for bringing Hughes’ Testing,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 41, No. 3, Dec. 1983, pp
paper to my attention. 1477-1488.
14. Materials Evaluation is planning an “NDT – The Yesteryears”
REFERENCES article with more information on this subject.
1. Millikan, R. A., “Early Views of Electricity,” ch. 1 in Electrons 15. Förster, F., Sections 36-42, Nondestructive Testing Handbook, 1st
(+ and –), Protons, Photons, Neutrons, and Cosmic Rays, 1935-36. edition, ed. R. C. McMaster, Vol. 2, 1959. ASNT, Columbus, OH.
University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL. 16. Hochschild, R., “Eddy Current Testing by Impedance Analysis,”
2. Holmes, U. T., Jr., Daily Living in the Twelfth Century, 1952, Nondestructive Testing, Vol. 12, No. 3, May-June 1954, pp 35-44.
pp 49-50. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI. 17. Kraus, J. D., The Big Ear, 1976. Cygnus-Quasar Books, Powell,
3. Gilbert, W., De Magnete, trans. P. F. Mottelay, 1892; rpt. 1958. OH.
Dover, New York, NY. 18. McMaster, R. C., and G. H. Smith, “Principles of the Magnetic
4. Maxwell, J. C., A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, 3rd ed., Reaction Analyzer,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 25, No. 7, July 1967,
1891; rpt. 1954. Dover, New York, NY. pp 153-163.
5. Maxwell, Vol. 2, pp 138-139.
6. Maxwell, Vol. 2, pp 159-162. AUTHOR
7. Maxwell, Vol. 2, pp 175-179. Robert C. McMaster: Professor Emeritus, Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH.
8. Maxwell, Vol. 2, pp 187-190.
9. Maxwell, Vol. 2, pp 247-262. NOTE
10. Jackson, L. R., H. M. Banta, R. C. McMaster, and T. P. Nordin, Part of this article will appear as part of the introduction to Vol. 4
“A Survey of Patents, Publications on Non-Destructive Tests: Fourth of the 2nd edition of the Nondestructive Testing Handbook, to be
Progress Report on Nondestructive Testing of Drill Pipe,” The published by ASNT.
Drilling Contractor, Apr.-June 1948.
11. McMaster, R. C., and S. A. Wenk, “A Basic Guide for
Management’s Choice of Non-Destructive Tests,” in Symposium on
the Role of Non-Destructive Testing in the Economics of Production,
STP 112, 1951. ASTM, Philadelphia, PA.
SAM Inspection Systems for Oil
Country Tubular Goods
by T. Shiraiwa, T. Hiroshima, T. Hirota, and T. Sakamoto
Abstract successfully since Feb. 1974 at Amagasaki Works of

Sumitomo Automatic Magnetic (SAM) inspection Sumitomo Metals.
systems for bars, tubes and round billets using sensors of The system consists of a scanning station which has
magnetoresistive elements were reported on previously.1,2 an ac magnet and many sensors. This system can detect
In the present paper an application of this method to the a defect of 0.3 mm depth with high signal-to-noise
inspection of oil country tubular goods (OCTG) such as ratio and has a high inspection rate of 80 pieces per
casings, tubings and line pipes is reported. hour for seamless casing of diameter range from
Pipes and tubes for casing or tubing are usually 114 mm to 220 mm, as shown in Table 1.
inspected by magnetic particle inspection according to
API standards. In the API 5AX standard, however, Table 1. Performance of SAM type S
pipes and tubes are permitted to be inspected by an
electromagnetic inspection method and Section 10 states
that the equipment shall be of sufficient sensitivity to
indicate injurious defects. SAM inspection systems have
high enough sensitivity to satisfy the requirements of this
standard. Also, various arrangements of sensors in the
SAM inspection systems are able to detect a defect of any
configuration and any dimension.
Several types of SAM inspection systems for OCTG The general view of the system is shown in Figure 1
have been developed and used in Sumitomo Metal and a typical chart recording of flaw detection is shown
Industries. Two types are capable of high sensitivity in Figure 2. In Figure 2, indications of magnetic particle
inspection for outer and inner surface defects and can be inspection are also shown and the recording chart
substituted for magnetic particle inspection. The former indicates that a lap with 20° inclination to longitudinal
(type S) has been reported previously and the latter axis and 30° inclination to radial axis is clearly detected.
(type I) is a new method which has sensor probes inside
the inspected tubes. One new type of SAM system has a
rotating head to detect longitudinal defects (type R) and
another has many fixed sensors arranged circumferentially
to detect tangential defects (type C). SAM types R and C
have a dc magnet and can detect outer and inner surface
defects. They are used for inspections on a process line.
Inspection of Outer Surface, SAM Type S

Casing pipes are usually inspected according to
API standards after heat treatment in a production
process. With this inspection, the outer surface of
pipes and inner surface of pipe ends are inspected in
order to detect surface defects such as laps, scabs and
heat cracks. Such defects on the outer surface can be Figure 1. General view of SAM type S installed in
detected by a SAM type S system.1 It has been operated Amagasaki Works of Sumitomo Metal Industries.
scanning head method uses a small detection head
which has an ac magnet for magnetizing a pipe and
a sensor holder. This detection head is attached to
the end of a moving arm. When inspecting the inner
surface of a pipe, the arm moves longitudinally into the
inside of the pipe and the pipe is rotated at a constant
speed. This method is suitable for pipe with an inner
diameter larger than 200 mm. Figure 4 shows an
example of a recording chart which indicates the signal
of a lap on the inner surface.
The inner probe method consists of a dc magnet
which is placed outside of the pipe, and a sensor on the
end of a moving arm in the pipe. The inspected area
is magnetized nearly to saturation by the dc magnet,
Figure 2. Recording chart of outer surface inspection by and sensors on the inner surface detect the leakage
SAM type S. flux from defects. A dc magnet moves along the pipe
together with an inner probe.
Inspection of Inner Surface, SAM Type I The inner probe method is suitable for pipe smaller
An inner surface nondestructive inspection of pipe than 200 mm in diameter and can scan the whole
ends is provided by the API-5AX standard. Two types inner surface because it is very small and light. These
of SAM inspection systems for inner surface inspection methods will be used in the Wakayama Works of
have been developed. These systems can detect a fine Sumitomo Metals together with SAM type S. Table 2
defect such as a heat crack with a depth of 5 percent of shows the performance of SAM type I. SAM type S
the wall thickness. Figure 3 shows an inner scanning and I have high sensitivity and can replace magnetic
head method and an inner probe method. The inner particle inspection.
Table 2. Performance of SAM type I
Simultaneous Inspection of the Outer and

Inner Surface, SAM Types R and C
SAM type R has a rotating head to detect a longitudinal
defect, and SAM type C has many sensors arranged
circumferentially to detect a tangential defect and a
very short defect, such as a pit. Dc magnetizing is used
Figure 3. Schematic illustration of SAM type I: a) inner for both types, and defects on outer and inner surfaces
detection head method; b) inner probe method. are detected at the same time.
Leakage Flux from Inner Surface Defects

In order to detect defects on both outer and inner
surfaces by a sensor which is arranged on an outer
surface, dc magnetization is adopted. The whole wall
thickness (WT) is filled by magnetic flux; leakage flux
from a defect on the inner surface strays from the pipe
and is caught by a sensor on the outer surface.
Figure 5 shows a signal from a defect of 12.5
percent WT depth on the inner surface and optimum
magnetizing current for various wall thicknesses. The
pipe of heavier WT must be magnetized more than
Figure 4. Recording chart of inner surface inspection by
SAM type I.
the pipe of thin WT. An inner surface defect whose
depth is 12.5 percent WT is detected in the same signal whose depth is 12.5 percent WT is nearly equal to the
level for wall thicknesses from 6 mm to 16 mm by signal amplitude of a defect of 5 percent WT depth
controlling the magnetizing ampere turns. on an outer surface. The relation between the depth of
Examples of leakage flux profiles from inner and inner surface defects and signal amplitude of leakage
outer surface defects are shown in Figure 6. The flux from them is approximately linear as shown in
amplitude of a signal caused by an inner surface defect Figure 7.
The leakage flux from an inner surface defect
shows a broader profile than that of an outer surface
defect. This difference is applicable to distinguishing
the position of a defect by frequency analysis of the
defect signal. Figure 8 shows examples of frequency
spectrums of detected signals from a running pipe
which has both inner and outer surface EDM notches.
In this experiment, outputs from a sensor were fed to a
wave memory and analyzed by a spectrum analyzer.
SAM Type R
The rotating detection head has a dc magnet and two
sensor holders which are arranged at the center of
magnet poles as shown in Figure 9. The sensor holder
with sensors has a specially designed following device
so that each sensor is able to follow the pipe surface
Figure 5. Signal from an inner surface defect of
12.5 percent WT depth and magnetizing current for various
wall thicknesses. Defect signal and magnetizing current are
normalized by values for wall thickness of 8 mm.
Figure 8. Result of frequency analysis.
Figure 6. Profiles of leakage flux (Hx , tangential component;

Hz, normal component).
Figure 7. Relation between leakage flux and depth

of defect. Figure 9. Schematic illustration of SAM type R.
individually. This device enables tubes with upset ends
to be inspected their whole length. The rotor has a
detection head and slip rings and the rotation speed is
from 200 to 400 rpm.
SAM Type C
The SAM type C has a pair of dc magnetizing coils and
many sensors which are arranged on the outer surface
of pipes circumferentially as shown in Figure 10. The
number of sensors is dependent on the diameter of
a pipe and length of a defect to be detected. If it is
necessary to detect a very short defect, sensors are
arranged semicontinuously. The SAM type C is able to Figure 12. General view of SAM types R and C installed in
the Sumimoto Kainan Steel Pipe Co.
inspect the whole length except 50 mm from the tube
end of both the plane end and upset end.
Combined System of Types R and C

Figure 11 shows the schematic illustration of the
system installed in Sumitomo Kainan Steel Pipe Co.
A general view of the system is shown in Figure 12. A
pipe to be inspected is kicked into a chain conveyor
from a kick-in cradle and is transferred to SAM. SAM
types C and R are connected in tandem. In the Kainan
system, a longitudinal defect longer than 15 mm is
detected by SAM type R and a circumferential defect
longer than 20 mm is detected by SAM type C. Also, a
very short and deep defect such as a pit can be detected Figure 13. Block diagram of combined system.
by a throughout coil of an eddy current inspection
method.
This system has six pairs of pinch rollers to keep
a pipe at the center of the circumferential sensors
and rotating head, and these pinch rollers can follow
the upset ends of tubings. The system has three
color marking sprays which indicate flaw location
(outer surface or inner surface), and flaw direction
(longitudinal or tangential) on the defect part. This
system adopts several automatic setting devices such as
height adjustment of inspection heads, sensor position
for changing diameter of a pipe, magnetizing current
adjustment, automatic signal correction for pipe ends,
Figure 10. Schematic illustration of SAM type C. and automatic gain control. Figure 13 shows a block
diagram of the system.
Table 3. Performance of SAM types R and C
Figure 11. Schematic illustration of combined system of

SAM types R and C.
dc magnetization can detect a defect on both outer and
inner surfaces and can inspect a pipe including upset
parts. In these SAM systems the rotary head is used for
longitudinal defects and fixed sensors are used for cir-
cumferential defects.
At Sumitomo Metals, SAM type S is working in the
Amagasaki Works and types R and C are working in
the Sumitomo Kainan Steel Pipe Co. Types S, I, and R
will be installed in the Wakayama Works.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Figure 14. Longitudinal flaw detection by SAM type R. The authors would like to express their thanks to Dr. N. Oda, a
director of the Central Research Laboratories of Sumitomo Metal
Industries, for his encouragement in developing the present systems.
61mmΦ x 6mmt REFERENCES

1. Shiraiwa, T. and Hiroshima, T. Materials Evaluation 31, no. 5
(1973): 90.
2. Shiraiwa, T.; Hiroshima, T.; and Hirota, T. Paper presented at the
1975 ASNT Fall Conference, Atlanta, GA.
AUTHORS
Toshio Shiraiwa received his BS in physics
and his PhD in Science from Osaka
University in Osaka, Japan. He studied
X-ray physics at the University and joined
Central Research Laboratories, Sumitomo
Metal Industries Ltd., in 1960, where he is
presently assistant manager. He won the
Technology Prize, Okochi Memorial Prize
for development of the automatic magnetic
inspection system. His specialties are metal
physics, X-ray physics, instrumentation and
nondestructive testing.
Tatsuo Hiroshima received his BE in

electric engineering from Fukui University
in Fukui, Japan. After graduation he
joined Sumitomo Metal Industries Ltd.
As a senior research engineer with Central
Research Laboratories of Sumitomo Metals,
his principal areas are the development
and application of automatic magnetic
Figure 15. Circumferential flaw detection by SAM type C. inspection and of electromagnetic testing
methods.
Performance of the system is shown in Table 3. It Tetsuya Hirota is an active engineer in

inspects seamless casings and tubings of diameter from the physics section of Central Research
Laboratories, Sumitomo Metals. He
40 mm to 140 mm and inspection speed is up to has been studying the development and
70 m/min. The system can detect an outer surface application of magnetic testing methods
defect of 5 percent WT and an inner surface defect since his graduation from Kobe Technical
College in Kobe, Japan, in 1968.
of 12.5 percent WT for wall thicknesses ranging from
3 mm to 16 mm. Figure 14 shows a recording chart of
longitudinal flaw detection for an upset end and Figure
Takahide Sakamoto received his masters
15 shows an example of a recording chart obtained by degree in applied physics from Tohoku
SAM type C. University in Sendai, Japan. He joined
Central Research Laboratories of Sumitomo
Metal Industries Ltd. in 1974 and has been
Conclusion studying the application of electromagnetic
Several types of SAM systems have been developed testing methods and automatic magnetic
and installed or will be installed. SAM systems which inspection.
NOTE
have ac magnetization can detect outer and inner
Presented at the National Fall Conference of the American Society
defects with high sensitivity and can replace the for Nondestructive Testing, Oct. 13-16, 1975, Atlanta, GA.
magnetic particle method. SAM systems which have Submitted for publication in March 1976.
The Nondestructive Inspection of
Tubings for Discontinuities and Wall
Thickness Using Electromagnetic Test
Methods (Part 1)
Abstract Conversely, a rotating eddy current probe detects

Dr. Forster describes the testing of the inner surface of oblique defects with increased sensitivity.
tubes with spinning eddy probes and lists experimental The eddy current method utilizing feed-through
results of magnetic stray field on tubes, according to wall or encircling coils does not show the absolute value of
thickness, diameter, magnetization field and material. a defect but the difference of its depth at the location
Also described is failure testing of tubes by measuring the of the two differential coils. When the diameter of the
magnetic flux with microprobes. Magnetic stray flux testing test piece increases, the volume of the test piece which
with inner probes for thick-walled tubes is also described. at a given time is within the feed-through coil will also
The paper also deals with the failure testing of tubes with increase. In the same way, the possibility of identifying
extremely high failure resolution as applied on cannings. a certain defect (such as an ASTM standard defect)
Finally, it discusses the combination of failure testing and will decrease with increasing dimensions of the test
measurement of wall thickness. piece, because relative to the volume the portion of the
defect within the test coil will also decrease.
Introduction The defect resolution of the method in which eddy
To a steadily increasing extent, the nondestructive current probes are used is independent of the diameter
testing of tubes is carried out by means of automatic of the test piece. The eddy current probes rotate around
test systems. The feeding of the tubes to the conveyor, the test piece, thus scanning its surface. With the probe
the transport through the test system, the paint method there is only a very small surface area of the
marking of the defects and the sorting into various test piece within the area of effectiveness of the probe.
quality groups goes without any interaction by the A certain defect will contribute much more to the
operator. The whole automatic test system normally signal of an eddy current probe than to the signals of
works in a closed loop system. Herein the test part an eddy current feed-through coil because the area on
controls the feeding of the following test part to the which the probe is effective at a given time is much
conveyor by operating a signal when it has arrived at a smaller than the effective area of a coil encircling the
certain position in the test system. whole test piece.
There is not only a trend to mechanize Eddy current encircling coils in a differential coil
nondestructive testing procedures for the testing of arrangement are specifically suitable for the detection
tubes, there is also a tendency for combining various of short defects or for defects with a great variation in
test methods. depth. For the detection of long defects such as cracks
The defects which have to be detected are of a or folds, the rotating eddy current probe is better
complex nature, due to their different shape, depth than an encircling differential coil. It is efficacious to
and location. Normally a specific test method will combine both methods.
not indicate all sorts of defects of a given depth with a Figure 1 shows a number of automatic test lines
signal of the same height. For instance, the ultrasonic for tubes operating at such high test speeds that the
method or the eddy current method using encircling combination of both eddy current methods using
coils will not be sufficiently sensitive to such defects encircling differential coil and rotating probe was
as shells or lapsa on the inner or the outer surface. advisable. For relatively small test speeds, only rotating
eddy current probes are used.
which are applicable to the outer surface of the
tube only. Furthermore, the ID inspection of tubes
is important for heavy-walled tubes which have to
undergo high pressures and high temperatures. For
very heavy-walled tubes the ultrasonic method is no
longer applicable for the detection of inside defects.
Another important application of the ID defect
inspection with eddy current probes is the detection
of defects in the root of the weld of pressure-welded
tubes. It is known that in the root of such welds there
can be more or less deep fusion cracks, if – due to
the quenching process after welding – there are high
residual pressure stresses in the tube. Such defects
cannot be detected with ultrasound. The ultrasonic
Figure 1. Fully automatic eddy current test systems for waves can penetrate such fusion cracks in the weld
tubes.
without finding any obstacle if the unfused areas are
under heavy pressure stresses.
Opposedly, the defect signals of an eddy current
probe are independent of any amount of pressure in a
nonfused area. For an eddy current probe, the junction
of two polished planes which are heavily pressed
together behaves in the same way as an extremely deep
defect. Even between heavily pressed planes there are
only relatively few electrical contacts which are free
of extra resistance. If there is no discontinuity in the
material adjacent to the probe, the resistance of the
eddy current circuit is very low.
In comparison, the resistance of the junction of
two heavily pressed planes behaves virtually like an
open crack. Of all nondestructive testing methods, the
Figure 2. Forster Circograph, with eddy current rotating
heads for diameter ranges of 2 to 8 mm Ф (Ro 0), 5 to eddy current probe method is most suitable for the
25 mm Ф (Ro I), 20 to 60 mm Ф (Ro II) and 50 to 130 mm identification of such unfused areas which are under
Ф (Ro III). high pressure stress. This could be established in several
investigations. At last, the ID inspection of tubes by
Figure 2 shows four rotating heads with spinning
means of eddy current probes is the only possibility
eddy current probes covering a diameter range between
of nondestructive testing if the tubes have ribs, fins
2 and 130 mm. These rotating heads are widely used
or grooves on their outer surface. Figure 3 shows
for inspecting the surface of tubes, provided there is
not too much scaleb on the surface. The rotating eddy
current probes operate without contacting the surface
and contain an automatic gain control system.
In addition to these OD rotating heads for the
eddy current testing of the outer surface of the tube,
ID rotating heads for the ID inspection of tubes were
developed recently. They have been approved by the
industry already. A report on these instruments will be
given below.
ID Defect Inspection of Tubes By Means of

Eddy Current Probes
The ID inspection of tubes by means of eddy current
probes is of general importance. The ID inspection
of tubes is essential if in tubes with a medium or even Figure 3. Eddy current rotating head for ID inspection of
tubes in the diameter range between 75 and 110 mm
with a heavy wall thickness very small ID defects,
with automatic adjustment of probe to diameter and to
specifically flat shells, must be detected. Such defects diameter variations.
cannot be found with other nondestructive methods
ID test systems. For the ID test heads utilizing eddy
current probes, there are extension shafts which are
used for the extension of the axis of the rotating heads.
Figure 6 shows a test system for the eddy current ID
inspection of finned tubes. The maximum length of
such tubes is 15 meters.
Some results of the ID inspection of tubes by
means of eddy current probes shall be given below. In
the ID inspection of boiler vessel tubes, it was found
that quite a length of tube showed a very small noise
level, but suddenly there were zones showing high
defect amplitudes which were spread around the
Figure 4. ID crack inspection in 3-mm bore of a tube by
means of an eddy current microprobe. Upper right: defect
signals obtained with such probes.
an eddy current ID rotating head for the diameter

range between 75 and 100 mm. As another extreme,
Fig. 4 shows an eddy current probe head for the ID
inspection of tubes with an inner diameter of 3 mm.
Besides the probe head and the test piece, Fig. 4 shows
some defect signals which were obtained from ID
defects in tubes with an inner diameter of 3 mm. As the
horizontal width of the oscilloscope trace corresponds
to the inner circumference of the tube, it is not only
possible to locate the defect exactly in the lengthwise
Figure 6. Conveyor system for the ID crack inspection of
direction of the tube but also its position on the inner finned tubes.
circumference. The depth of defect is indicated by the
amplitude of the signal.
Figure 5 shows an ID rotating head for a medium
range of the inner diameter of approximately
20 mm. The upper picture shows the drive system
for the rotating ID test head containing the rotating
transformers for supplying the feed current to the
probes and transmitting the defect signals. The lower
picture shows the rotating probe head. Guiding and
centering of the ID rotating head is maintained by
nylon brushes which also can be recognized in Fig. 5
and which have been approved for the centering of
Figure 5. a) ID rotating head with eddy current probes. Figure 7. Inner surface of a finned tube showing many
b) Test head and drive system with extension shaft. small defects.
whole circumference of the tube. Micrograph cross as they were inspected no other nondestructive test
examination showed that in all these cases there were methods are applicable for finding ID defects.
discontinuities of the material at the inner surface of The defect signals of the eddy current ID rotating
the tube. head do not depend on whether the defect is located
Figure 7 shows the high defect resolution of the ID in a zone underneath the fin or in a zone remote from
inspection of tubes by means of eddy current probes. the fin.
ID defects in the size of 0.1 mm can be easily detected In general, defects at the inner surface of a tube
with the ID rotating head. Such a depth of defect was are insignificant if they are only 0.1 mm deep. If such
only 2 percent of the wall thickness of the specific tubes are employed for very important purposes, the
tubes under test. A defect resolution like this cannot be situation is entirely different. This is specifically true if
achieved by any other nondestructive test method. In at the inner surface of the tube there is an accumulation
addition, it should be mentioned that for finned tubes of small defects. An example will show this. Figure 8
shows the surface condition of a boiler vessel tube.
This micrograph was taken in an area of the tube where
there were many fluctuating eddy current signals of the
ID rotating head when the probe was moved slightly
back and forward. In spite of the small depth of the
single defect, there is no doubt that such a rocky inner
surface shows an increased tendency for corrosion. If
such tubes are exposed to strong pressure pulsations,
there is a possibility of initiation of fatigue cracks.
It should be mentioned that the high defect
resolution at the inner surface of the tubes does not
depend at all on the wall thickness.
Figure 9 shows the defect signal of three ID defects
in a finned boiler vessel tube. The three defects have
different depths. It can be seen that ID defects having
a depth of less than 0.1 mm can be clearly identified
above the noise level. It should be kept in mind that
in eddy current testing the noise level as shown in
Fig. 8 carries information about the condition of the
inner surface. In general, the defect resolution of the
eddy current probe method is higher for the ID defect
inspection than for the OD defect inspection. The
surface of the tube which is bent around the probe has
Figure 8. ID surface of a finned tube showing a high a focusing effect on the electromagnetic field of the
fluctuation of signals. eddy current probe (this will be discussed in detail in
another publication).
For the ID inspection of tubes as described above,
the eddy current test head is rotated on the inside of
the tube while the tube is moved longitudinally. The
same result of ID inspection by means of eddy current
probes is obtained if the tube under test is rotated
around its axis while the inner eddy current probe is
moved longitudinally along the inner surface of the
tube. This principle is successfully used for the ID
inspection of ball-bearing tubes.
The trace on the oscilloscope of the Circograph
shows the eddy current signal of the inner surface of
the tube under test. Signals due to various types of
defects such as radial cracks, shells, accumulation of
many small cracks, etc., can be clearly discriminated.
Figure 10 shows an eddy current ID test head
Figure 9. Eddy current inspection of finned boiler tubes. ID which is used with rotating tubes. The eddy current
rotating probe 18 to 22 mm in diameter. probe is pressed to the inner surface of the tube by
simultaneously tested by means of OD and ID eddy
current probes. These eddy current probes detect safely
the well-known inner and outer spiral cracks which can
be easily missed by other nondestructive methods.
Figure 11 shows some micrographs of such defects
and their corresponding signals obtained with the
Circograph. (Because of the high crack depth, these
pictures were taken with the lowest sensitivity of the
instrument.) The open tube segments show the spiral
structure of the defects.
Many producers or manufacturers of tubes have
devices for putting tubes of various diameter ranges in
rotating or spiral movement. In this case, the method
to move eddy current probes along the inner and the
outer wall of the tubes is very simply applicable. The
expenditures for testing are relatively small. Therefore,
this type of nondestructive testing is very economical.
Figure 10. Eddy current probe system for the ID inspection
of tubes.
Frequently several eddy current probes are placed
side by side. By this simultaneous utilization of a larger
means of spring-loaded arms which bear hard metal number of eddy current probes, a high test speed is
rollers on their ends. By this means, the probe is achieved.
always in the same position relative to the tube, i.e.,
the spacing between probe and inner surface does not Eddy Current Test of Reactor Components
depend on the tube diameter. In order to avoid friction, By Microprobes with Extreme Defect
the test head has two hard metal rings which are Resolution
mounted on ball bearings. These rings roll on the inner For the testing of reactor components, extreme defect
circumference of the rotating tube. At this time such resolution is required. Therefore, the method with
ID rotating heads for rotating tubes are in practical use encircling coils is no longer satisfactory for larger tube
for tube diameters between 25 and 165 mm. diameters. The area of the test piece which is inspected
It is interesting that specifically in the production by an encircling eddy current test coil is so large that
of ball-bearing tubes the tubes are rotated and the noise level of an eddy current signal becomes too
high because of the local variation of the permeability,
the electrical conductivity and the dimension.
Several authors1,2 have tried to test thin-walled
tubes for cracks with encircling eddy current coils.
They report negative results, which is not surprising.
To make sure that an eddy current method will
detect extremely small defects, it is necessary to have a
test system which is effective on a very small area of the
test piece only. The dimensions of this area must be in
the magnitude of the defect to be detected.
Defect Inspection with Microprobes

By theoretic consideration and by refined techniques
of production, it has been possible to develop so-called
microprobes. Various steps of development were
necessary. As the space requirements for such probes
are very small, they can easily be arranged in various
suitable configurations. By this means, it is possible
that the effective area of such a device can be kept as
small as 0.4 mm2. It shall be shown that in thin-walled
tubes special eddy current pickup probes are capable of
obtaining a higher defect resolution than ultrasonics. In
addition, the eddy current method has the advantage
Figure 11. Spiral ID defects in tubes for ball-bearing that tubes with external ribs or fins can be inspected
manufacturing.
from the inner side of the tube.
Eddy current probes are generally utilized for the in Fig. 13. For the four visible defects, No. 2, 6, 15 and
detection of defects which are open to the surface. 17, shown in Fig. 13 the corresponding macro- and
They are applicable to nonferrous, slightly ferrous or micrographs are shown in Fig. 14.
ferrous materials. It will be shown that for thin-walled, It is interesting to compare such defect signals
stainless steel tubes eddy current probes are also with eddy current signals which are obtained from
capable of detecting subsurface and inner cracks. such standard defects for ultrasonics (see Fig. 15). For
The inspection of tubes with these eddy current
microprobes is carried out either by rotating the
test piece and moving the probes along its axis or by
rotating the probes around the test piece and moving
the test piece along its axis.
The defect signals which are under discussion here
and which were gained on thin-walled tubes were
obtained on rotating tubes with fixed probes. Only
with such a setup is it possible to locate sufficiently
accurately the spots which induce the defect signals.
Some of the defects in the thin-walled tubes
are only between 20 and 200 μ long. It is essential,
therefore, to locate very accurately the position of a
defective section in order to assess micrograph findings
to defect signals.
In Fig. 12 the exact determination of the location
of a defect on a circumference of a tube is shown.
Figure 12a shows the oscilloscope trace of a defect
in a thinwalled tube with a diameter of 9.8 mm. The
horizontal width of the trace corresponds exactly to
one circumference of the tube. The tube is rotated by
means of a turntable device. At the rear side of this
rotating device, a very small magnet is fixed and spins
around with the tube under test. Opposite to this Figure 12. Localization of a defect on the circumference of
magnet there is a small tape recorder head which acts a tube.
as an induction coil and which is mounted on a disc.
The latter can be turned 360 deg. The spinning magnet
induces an electric pulse in the tape recorder head. This
pulse is superimposed on the trace in Fig. 12b.
Test Results Obtained with Eddy Current Microprobes

by Scanning the Outer or Inner Surface of Smooth,
Thin-walled Tubes
For these tests with eddy current pickup probes,
numerous tubes were available which previously had
undergone ultrasonics inspection and been classified
as “good.” The tests were carried out while the tube was
rotating and the probe was moved in axial direction.
Quite a number of tubes showed no remarkable eddy
current signals, but some tubes were found which
showed lots of defect signals. Some examples will
show this: Fig. 13 shows a defect signal of a tube with
a length of 1 m. Four big defect signals, No. 2, 6, 15
and 17, could be assessed to such defects that were
visible from the outside. All other defects were located
underneath the surface. Defect No. 15 gave signals
which were much higher than the screen of the scope. Figure 13. Detection of surface and subsurface defects in thin-walled
stainless steel tubes by means of eddy current probes. Tubes are scanned
Therefore, defect No. 15 is shown a second time with a on the outer surface only. Defects No. 2, 6, 15, and 17 are surface defects;
gain which is only one-third of the normal gain shown others are subsurface cracks.
Figure 16. Defect signals and micrographs of surface
Figure 14. Defect signals: Macrographs and micrographs defects in stainless steel tubes showing discrepancies
of very small surface defects in stainless steel reactor between subjective visual findings and objective eddy
tubes. current findings.
Figure 17. Defect signals of micrographs of surface defects

on stainless steel tubes.
Figure 15. Comparison of the eddy current signals of a standard defect
as used for ultrasonic testing and eddy current signals of real defects in
stainless steel reactor tubes.
ultrasonic testing as a standard defect, a three-angular

notch is used. For these standard defects a depth of
10 percent of the wall thickness is prescribed.
The big eddy current signal obtained from an
ultrasonic standard defect has been standardized to a
value of 1000. The signals of natural defects obtained
with eddy current microprobes are measured with
reference to this value. Figures 15, 16 and 17 show
such a comparison of the eddy current signals obtained
from an ultrasonic standard notch (signal amplitude
= 1000) and of natural defects. It is an important
fact that in cannings natural defects having a depth
which is no longer acceptable give considerably
Figure 18. Defect indication depending on the
smaller signals than the ultrasonic standard defect. displacement of probes in longitudinal direction.
There is no doubt that this is due to the very small
longitudinal and transversal dimensions of the natural
defects. In general, the length of the ultrasonic test Figure 16 also shows very short defects with a length
defect in longitudinal or in circumferential direction is between 0.1 and 0.2 mm.
substantially greater than the focused ultrasonic beam With the ultrasonic method, defects having a
having a diameter between 1.5 and 2.5 mm. The natural dimension which is very small compared with the area
defects in cannings normally have an extremely small of the focused ultrasonic beam cannot be detected with
longitudinal and circumferential dimension. In Fig. 14 sufficient sensitivity.
the length of the longitudinal defects is 0.25 mm. Conversely, the eddy current microprobe produces
an essentially punctiform field. This is seen in Fig. 18.
There the eddy current probe was moved in
longitudinal direction over a very short defect, and
the defect amplitude as a function of the longitudinal
displacement was measured. Fig. 18 shows that a
displacement of the probe of approximately 0.3 mm
involved a decrease of about 50 percent of the defect
amplitude.
As in cannings normally natural defects have
only a very short length, it should be investigated
which ultrasonic indications are obtained from bores
going right through the wall and having such small
diameters as 0.1 or 0.2 mm. These bores correspond to
poreshaped defects going through the whole wall and
Figure 19. Comparison of the eddy current signal of a standard defect for
being unacceptable. ultrasonic testing and of the eddy current signals of small bore holes.
Figure 19 shows the defect indication of eddy
current microprobes in bores between 0.1 and 0.4 mm.
Again, the eddy current signal of the ultrasonic Below, one example will be given for each of the
standard defect is standardized to a value of 1000. above-mentioned possibilities for testing finned tubes.
Even the eddy current signal of a 0.2-min-diam hole is Figure 20 shows an S.A.P. tube with three big
only 12.5 percent, and the eddy current signal of the and 39 small fins. In this test, the frequency of the
0.1-mm hole is only 4.5 percent of the signal obtained electromagnetic probe field was so high that there
from the ultrasonic standard defect. Nevertheless, the was no signal from the ribs. The first trace shows the
eddy current microprobes show such small bores with normal noise level of an inner circumference. The
a very good signal-to-noise ratio, as seen in Fig. 19. As second trace displays the signal of six bores on one
mentioned above, with ultrasonics such small bores circumference of the tube. The bore with a diameter of
cannot be detected. 0.2 mm is indicated with a good signal-to-noise ratio.
The third trace shows a very small natural crack on the
Defect Inspection of Finned Tubes With Rotating ID circumference.
Eddy Current Probes It should be mentioned that in general artificial
For the reactor tubes, the high resolution of ID defects bores in contrast to natural cracks give relatively low
of the eddy current probe method is of high signifi- signals. This is due to the “hydrodynamic effect”
cance. This is specifically true if, as mentioned above, (stream of eddy current around a cylindric bore).
the reactor tubes have ribs, fins or grooves on their It is known that because of the inhomogeneity of
outer circumference. the oxyd distribution S.A.P. tubes give a relatively high
For ID inspection with eddy current probes, two noise level when tested with encircling eddy current
remarkable features should be noted. On the one hand, coils. In the family of holes shown in the second trace
such a high frequency of the electromagnetic field of of Fig. 20, only the two biggest holes could be found
the eddy current probe can be selected that the flux with encircling coils.
field of the ID probe will, because of its skin effect, no
longer penetrate to the outer range of the ribs or fins.
In this case, the major part of the wall will be inspected
for defects, and there is no influence of the fins, etc., on
the test result.
On the other hand, for thin-walled tubes, it is possi-
ble to suppress the influence of the outer fins, etc., on
the ID eddy current probe by three measures:
1. Selection of the optimum frequency of the
electromagnetic field of the eddy current probe.
2. Suppression of the influence of the fins by selecting
the phase setting which is vertical to the “fin
direction” in the impedance plane of the eddy
current probe.
3. Additional suppression of the remaining influence
of the ribs by selective filters which specifically Figure 20. ID inspection of S.A.P. finned tubes with eddy
suppress the “fin frequency” of the rotating probe. current probes.
an outer diameter of 100 mm and a wall thickness of
12 mm, longitudinal bores were drilled. The diameter
of these bores was 1 mm. The distance of these bores
from the surface was increased step by step. These
bores were made to simulate piping. Figure 21 shows
the amplitude and the shape of the stray flux which was
obtained on the circumference of the tube (tangential
component).
The record was made at a scale of 1:1. By this
means, a direct reading of the geometrical properties
of the stray flux is possible. In the upper record, the
distance between the stray flux microprobe and the
surface was 1 mm; in the lower record, it was 3 mm.
Figure 21. Stray flux of pipings with various locations in the
Figure 21 shows an important result: If a suitable field
wall of a tube. strength is applied and a certain distance between
probe and tube surface is maintained, the stray flux
Testing of Tubes for OD and ID Defects With the amplitude becomes practically independent of the
Magnetic Stray Flux Method distance of the defect of the surface.
Recently some further developments of nondestruc- A great number of such systematic investigations of
tive testing methods utilizing the magnetic stray flux the behavior of the magnetic stray flux have been car-
method have been introduced in the industry. These ried out. Based on these results, it is possible to make
systems shall be described in this chapter. optimum use of the magnetic stray flux method.
The behavior of the magnetic stray flux depends
NOTES
on the shape and the location of the defect (at sur- a
For many methods, the detection of defects which form a large
face or under surface); furthermore, it depends on the angle to the radial direction of tube is very difficult.
magnetic properties of the material under test and the b
If the surface is heavily scaled, it is preferable to use the magnetic
magnetizing field. leakage flux method instead of eddy currents. Further details will be
The penetration of a stray flux method is higher given in the second part of this paper.
compared with an eddy current method applied to Presented at the 28th National Fall Conference of the American
Society for Nondestructive Testing Oct. 14-17, 1968, in Detroit,
steel parts. Figure 21 shows an example. In a tube with Mich.
The Nondestructive Inspection of
Tubings for Discontinuities and Wall
Thickness Using Electromagnetic Test
Methods* (Part 2)
By Friedrich Forster
The Tubomat System 3. By the facts stated above and by further

The Tubotest, the forerunner of the Tubomat system, development of electronics (solid state design and
has been successfully used by several tube factories plug-in cards), the electronic system has become
for a number of years. Tubes within a diameter range more compact. The electronics for eight arms can be
between 100 and 1000 mm are inspected for defects. fixed in a cabinet of the same size in which formerly
Figure 22 shows the Tubotest in operation. In the there was room for the electronics of one probe
background, the electronic cabinets can be seen. arm only.
For inspection with the Tubotest, the tube is
moved over a central conductor. The circular magnetic
field due to a current flowing through the conductor
magnetizes the wall of the tube in circumferential
direction. Figure 23 shows a seamless, large-diameter
tube with a central conductor and a centering device
which positions the conductor in the center of the
tube. On the outer wall of the tube, there are stray flux
probes which are moved in longitudinal direction of
the rotating tube. Under the tube, there are drive rollers
for the longitudinal transport and for rotation of the
tubes.
In the older design of the Tubotest, Hall crystals
are used. If in one of the arms such a crystal detects a Figure 22. Industrial installation of the Tubotest by courtesy of
stray flux, the tube is stopped and the defective area is Dalmine SpA.
manually marked with chalk. Based on many years of
industrial experience, the further development of the
Tubotest instrument has led to the Tubomat system. It
contains the following improvements:
1. The width of scanning of one probe arm has been
increased by a factor 4.
2. Instead of the Hall crystals, micro Förster probes
are used which are 10,000 times more sensitive to
stray flux than Hall probes of the same size. Now,
in many cases, there is no need for an amplification
of the signals before they are fed to the electronic
processing system.
Figure 24 shows such a micro Förster probe in
comparison with the size of a finger nail. The
Figure 23. Detailed view of an industrial installation of the
dimensions are smaller than 1 mm. Tubotest.
Figure 26. Probe system of the Tubotest arm.
Figure 24. Förster microprobe as seen on a fingernail. Figure 27 shows the defect signals of the new
Tubomat system obtained from a tube with a diameter
of 323 mm and a wall thickness of 6.5 mm. In this tube
there are defects at the inner diameter and the outer
diameter. They are placed at a distance of 180 deg on
the circumference of the tube. The depths of the ID
and OD defects are 15.4, 10.8, 9.2 and 7.7 per cent of
the wall thickness.
An essential improvement of the signal-to-noise
ratio could be achieved for the Tubomat system by
detailed principle investigationsc on the magnetic
leakage field of defects. Numerous theoretical and
experimental results were applied to practice.
Figure 25. Tubotest arm containing Förster microprobes

and two spray guns for the separate paint-marking of ID
and OD defects.
4. The length of the cable connections between the

probes and the electronic cabinet can be more than
100 meters.
5. Each probe arm contains two spray guns for the
separate paint-marking of OD and ID defects,
according to Fig. 25. The paint-marks occur exactly
on the location of the defect.
6. The probe arms of the Tubomat systems are held
in place by means of casters. The probes which are
protected by hard metal shoes are gently pressed
to the surface of the tube by means of a duplex
spring-loading system. Figure 26 shows the casters
and the spring-loaded probe systems.
7. By a suitable configuration of the Förster
microprobes, the suppression of the noise level is
substantially better than it was with the Hall crystals
of the former Tubotest. With the new combination
and configuration of probes which are mounted on
the outer surface of the tubes, higher amplitudes of Figure 27. Defect signals obtained by the Tubomat. OD
and ID defects of 15.4, 10.8, 9.2, and 7.7 per cent of the
inside defects are obtained. wall thickness (6.5 mm).
98 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | M AY 1 9 7 0
Table I Table II
Tube testing with the Tubomat
Scanning time and total time for testing as a function of the tube Ф, tube length and number of test arms.
The Tubomat method is also applicable for thick- 3. The conveyor (2) moves the tube to the pair of
walled tubes up to an extremely heavy wall thickness. conveyor chains (3). On this chain, supporting rollers
In tubes with heavy wall thickness, Tubotest arms (4) are fitted. Placed on these supporting rollers (4),
are used not only on the outer surface but also on the tube moves over the central conductor and its
the inner surface. Both the OD and the ID Tubomat centering device. It is stopped on the adapter (5).
arms are fixed on the same radius, thus scanning the 4. The contact jaws (6) are closed and the test arms
same area of the tube from both sides. Depending (7) are put in place.
on the specifications for the ID defect resolution, 5. Transverse friction rollers (8) put the tube in a
simultaneous OD and ID inspection is provided for rotation while the conveyor chain (3) moves slowly
wall thicknesses of more than 12 to 20 mm. Today, the backward. By this means the tube follows a helical
simultaneous OD and ID inspection of tubes by means path with a maximum circumferential speed of
of a specific configuration of stray flux probes seems 1.5 meters/sec. The pitch of the helix is seen in
to be the optimum system for the defect inspection of Tables I or Ia (column “test speed”). Defective areas
heavy-walled tubes. of the tube are immediately paint-marked by means
The name “Tubomat” was selected because the of an automatic marking device (9).
test method which is applied with this instrument 6. After having traveled along the necessary testing
allows the fully automatic operation of the system. The length, the friction rollers (8) are withdrawn, and
automatic test procedure will be shown below. The thus the rotational movement is stopped. (When
output rate as a function of the length and the diameter four arms are used, the necessary length of testing is
of the tube is contained in Table I and Table Ia. 3/4 of the tube length, or when eight arms are used,
it is 1/8 of the tube length. If there is one arm per
Procedure for Testing Tubes with the meter, the necessary test length is 1 meter.) With the
Tubomat (Fig. 28) conveyor chain (3), the tube is discharged back to
1. The crane places bundles of tubes on the loading the conveyor (2).
table (1). 7. The tubes will be automatically unloaded from the
2. Controlled by an electronic timing system, the tubes conveyor and rolled to the discharge position (10),
are automatically transferred from the loading table where they can be taken away in axial or transverse
to the conveyor (2). direction.
Figure 28. Schematic of tube testing with the Tubomat.
This being done, a new test cycle can begin. The width of effectivity or the scanning width of
Besides the mechanical test system as described one probe arm is 32 mm. For complete scanning of the
above, other Tubotest devices have been in use in in- whole surface area of the tube (“no-gap scanning”),
dustry for several years. There the tube undergoes only the longitudinal speed in column 5 was calculated by
a rotational movement while it is tested. The test arms multiplying the scanning width with the number of
containing the stray flux probes are moved axially. rotations of the tube per second.
Table I shows the conditions with the Tubomat in In column 6 the testing time for scanning the full
automatic testing. Table I was worked out for a diame- tube length is shown. Column 7 contains the sum of
ter range of 100 to 500 mm (column 1). In column 2, the true testing time as shown in column 6 and the
three tube lengths of 8, 12 and 16 meters, respectively, time for the loading, for the transport and for the
are listed. unloading of a tube. That means that column 7 gives
Column 3 contains the number of the Tubomat the total testing time needed for one complete test
arms. Three examples are listed, one for four and one cycle of the tube.
for eight Tubomat arms which are distributed over the Column 8 shows the length of tube, and finally
full length of the tube. Finally another example is given column 9 shows the number of tubes that can be
for one Tubomat arm per meter. In the last-mentioned inspected under the conditions listed in Table I.
case, there is only a need for moving the tube on a The inspected tubes are paint-marked directly on
helical path along an axial length of 1 meter or to move the location of such defects which are deeper than
the system of the probe arms over a length of 1 meter the acceptance limit which is given, for instance, by
while the tube is rotating without moving lengthwise. the API standards. The trigger level of the instrument
As the scanning width per arm is 32 mm, the tube must can be continuously adjusted. Different colors of the
be rotated 31 times around its axis in order to test it paintmarks differentiate ID and OD defects. This is
over its full surface area. specifically important because, e.g., according to API
It is assumed that the circumferential speed of the standards, defects which are deeper than 5 per cent
rotating tube is 1.5 meters/sec. This value is based on but less deep than 12.5 per cent of the wall should be
eight years’ experience of Tubotest operation and can removed by grinding or other suitable means. After the
easily be maintained for all practical tube diameters. defects have been removed without taking off more
From this circumferential speed of 1.5 meters/sec. than 12.5 per cent of the wall, the formerly defective
the number of revolutions per second of the tube in area has to be tested again with a nondestructive
column 4 was calculated. method. The paint-mark directly on the location of
100 T H E M F L C O M P E N D I U M | M AY 1 9 7 0
the defect makes the removal of a surface defect by The Rotating Tubotest
grinding very simple. The simultaneous Tubomat In the Tubomat system, the tube under test rotates
testing with ID and OD stray flux probes is of specific around its axis while the circumferential magnetization
importance for the inspection of heavy-walled tubes. is effected by the central conductor. This circular
The paint-marks for the ID defects, too, are so accurate magnetization by means of a central conductor is
that ID defects can be removed by means of a suitable adaptable for any wall thickness because, with the
grinding device. Thus, the ID stray flux probes can be central conductor, there are no temporary variations of
used for the exact control of the inside grinding system. the circular magnetization of the tubes. Therefore, no
By means of the simultaneous OD and ID stray eddy currents can be generated.
flux testing, for the first time the possibility is given to For tubes with a wall thickness of less than 10 mm
remove defects between 5 and 12.5 per cent of the wall the rotating Tubotest can be used. With this method,
according to API standards, both on the outside and the tubes can be tested in continuous flow without
the inside of the tube. Herewith the specifications of interrupting or reversing the linear transport of the
the users of the tubes can be met, but without such a tubes. In the rotating Tubotest a magnetizing yoke is
possibility for the ID inspection the tube would have to rotating around the tube under test. Between the pole
be rejected. Up to now there was no practicable system pieces there are magnetic stray flux probes (Förster
for spotting and removing ID defects in such tubes. microprobes). Figures 29 a-c show the rotating
There is another advantage of the simultaneous Tubotest which can be used in the diameter range
stray flux testing with OD and ID probes. With such between 50 and 200 mm. There is only one hand
a system it can be determined whether a defect is on wheel with which the instrument can be continuously
the outer wall, on the inner wall or within the wall. adjusted to the tube diameter. For doing so, there is no
This is important for determining whether or not a need for exchanging any parts.
defect which has been detected can be removed by In the rotating Tubotest a suitable configuration of
grinding. If the defect is not at or immediately adjacent specially developed field sensitive probes (Fig. 24) is
to the inner or outer surface, grinding obviously is not
possible.
Various experimental and theoretical investigations
have shown that of all nondestructive methods the
magnetic leakage flux method is least sensitive to
surface conditions of the test piece (roughness, scale,
etc.). In fact, with the stray flux method, it is possible
to find defects with a depth in the magnitude of the
surface roughness providing the root of such defects
is sharply notched. For large-diameter tubes at the
present state of technique, the simultaneous defect
testing with OD and ID stray flux probes such as used
in the Tubomat system seems to be the optimum as to
defect resolution and test speed.
Irrespective of the use of OD stray flux probes
only, or of the simultaneous use of OD and ID stray
flux probes, the test speed of the Tubomat system as
shown in Table I is the same. As mentioned above,
the additional use of ID probes is most advantageous
for tubes with a relatively heavy wall thickness. In the
range of smaller wall thickness, ID defects such as
shown in Fig. 27 can be very well detected with OD
stray flux probes.
It is another remarkable advantage of the stray flux
method that defects which form a very flat angle with
the surface, e.g., overlaps and shells, give very high
signals. Other nondestructive test methods show such
defects only with low sensitivity or not at all.
Figure 29a. Rotating Tubotest for the diameter range
between 50 and 200 mm for OD and ID inspection
of tubes.
means a substantial reduction of the time gradient and
therewith of the possibility of finding such defects by
means of induction coils.
The very small dimensions of the field sensitive
probe (Fig. 24) permit a configuration of a differential
probe system which shows the leakage field of an
ID defect with an amplitude nearly as high as the
amplitude of an OD defect of the same depth.
The point-shaped field sensitive stray flux probes
which are used in the rotating Tubotest are much better
adapted for meeting the requirements of API standards
than the induction coils which are used in other tube
testers. There such coils have a length of effectiveness
of some centimeters. With such large induction coils, a
short deep defect gives approximately the same signal
as a long defect with a shallow depth. In addition, an
induction coil with a length of effectiveness of some
centimeters has a relatively small sensitivity to oblique
defects. When such an induction coil moves over the
center part of an oblique defect, the time gradient of
the leakage field in that center part can become zero.
In the rotating Tubotest, the amplitude of the leakage
flux signals does not depend on the speed of the probe.
Even if the speed is zero, i.e., even for static measure-
ments, leakage flux of the defect will be shown
its full signal.
With the rotating Tubotest several years of practical
experience could be gained. Today such instruments
are designed for three different ranges of tube diame-
ters from 20 to 273 mm. The lowest range of dimension
of the rotating Tubotest permits a maximum test speed
of 1.5 meters/sec. without any blind zones between
the subsequent scanning lines (no-gap testing). The
smallest diameter range includes, among others, the
range of the boiler vessel tubes.
Figure 29b and c. Detailed views of the rotating Tubotest.
The oscilloscope traces shown in Fig. 30 display
the magnetic leakage flux obtained from a boiler
utilized. These probes measure the absolute value of vessel tubed measuring 31.8 by 5 mm. The stray flux
the defect leakage flux and not its time gradient, this was measured by means of a micro Förster probe. In
being done by the induction coils of a tube tester built this tube there were several ID defects, each having
in the United States. The microfield probe shows ID a different depth. The ID defect with a depth of
defects much better than an induction coil. An ID 0.37 mm, i.e., 7.4 per cent of the wall thickness, gives
defect has a very flat or “smeary” pattern of the an excellent defect signal.
stray flux line on the outer surface of the tube. This
Figure 30. Inspection of boiler vessels for ID defects. Stray flux inspection on the OD.
Magnetic Methods for the Nondestructive When induction coils are used, the influence
Testing of Tubes for Transverse Defects due to the location of the defect within the wall is
Up to this date, specifically in the petroleum industry, superimposed on the above-mentioned possible error
the testing of tubes for transverse defects has been for the measurement of depth of defect. If there are two
carried out by means of induction coils. Therefore, transverse defects of the same depth, one on the inner
the tubes are magnetized in longitudinal direction. tube surface and the other on the outer tube surface,
The stray flux due to transverse defects is detected by and if the stray flux of both these defects is measured
means of two rings of coils, each consisting of four on the outer surface of the tube, the stray flux of the ID
single coils. Every one of these eight coils covers a defect will be much smaller than the stray flux of the
sector of approximately 90 deg in the circumference OD defect. In addition, the pattern of the ID defect is
of the tube. For any given tube diameter, an extra much more flat (smeary) than that of the ID defect.
system containing eight coils must be used, because, An induction coil is sensitive to the change rate of
for the detection of the stray flux, the curvature of the the stray flux. This rate decreases rapidly if a defect of a
eight-coil system must be fairly well adapted to the given depth moves away from the surface in direction
curvature of the tube surface. to the inner diameter. This is due to two reasons:
The eight-coil systems are fixed on a mobile The maximum stray flux amplitude decreases and
mounting in order to yield if the diameter varies, e.g., the stray flux pattern of the ID defect which is seen
when the tube ends pass through the system. The on the outer surface of the tube is flat and very wide.
single coils, being next to each other, have opposed There is a suitable configuration of the field sensitive
senses of winding. In order to avoid “blind zones,” the microprobes which have a preferred sensitivity to a
second coil ring is mounted in such a way that its coils stray flux pattern due to ID defects. In a separate paper
cover the gap between the four single coils of the first more details will be given.
ring. The output of each of the two coil rings consisting Figures 31 and 32 give a practical example of the
of four single coils is fed to a separate recorder system. facts stated above: Each record in Figs. 31 and 32
A setup of induction coils in which each of the shows the stray flux pattern (tangential component)
coils covers one-quarter of the circumference of the along a mantle line of the tube. Each curve
tube has the principal disadvantage that testing for corresponds to one mantle line. In the direction of
transverse defects cannot be carried out according to the circumference (Fig. 33), the mantle lines have a
API standards. distance of 1 cm from each other.
Such a coil covering a very large area cannot The records were taken in longitudinal direction of
discriminate between a transverse defect that is long the tube at a scale of 1:1. By this means the stray flux
but shallow and another that is short but deep. This pattern could be determined with an accuracy of a
shall be shown by the following example: few millimeters. From a great number of such test
In a tube with a diameter of 150 mm, each coil
covers a circular arc which is approximately 110 mm
long. The wall thickness of the tube is assumed to be
8 mm. As for defects of the same type, the stray flux
increases in proportion to the depth of defect; cracks
with a depth of 2 mm, i.e., of 25 per cent of the wall,
have a stray flux signal which is four times higher than
the signal of a crack with a depth of 0.5 mm or 6.3 per
cent of the wall.
The stray flux effect induced in the coil is given
by the product of the local stray flux amplitude
(proportionate to the local depth of defect) and the
length of the transverse defect. A transverse defect with
a length of 80 mm and a depth of 0.5 mm (6.3 percent
of the wall) will give the same signal as a transverse
crack which is 20 mm long and 2 mm deep (25 percent
of the wall). In this example, two different transverse
defects give a signal of the same height, but the first
defect is only half as deep as would be acceptable
according to API standards, and the second defect is
twice as deep as can be tolerated according to the same Figure 31. Defect signal of a short but deep transverse
defect obtained with a Förster microprobe.
standards.
50 per cent higher than the maximum amplitude of
the defect shown in Fig. 32. In this example, the larger
signal of the induction coil for the defect in Fig. 32 is
due only to the greater length.
This example proves that the induction coil method
as it has been used up to this date for testing transverse
cracks is by principle not suitable to give readings to
assess the maximum depth of a defect. In API stan-
dards, this maximum defect is the only thing that
matters.
For the testing of tubes for transverse defects by
means of micro Förster probes, there is a ring placed
around the tube. On the ring, a number of fingers are
mounted on the end on which the probes are fixed.
The probes are protected by hard metal shoes. They are
spring loaded and are gently pressed to the surface of
the tube which they surround in the shape of a wreath.
For the maximum tube diameter, the transverse
distance is 1 cm. Due to the width of effectiveness
of the probes, this is an inspection which covers the
full surface (no-gap testing). With decreasing tube
diameter, this distance gets smaller correspondingly.
With such a wreath-type arrangement of micro
Figure 32. Defect signal of a long but shallow transverse
defect obtained with a Förster microprobe.
Förster probes, the maximum defect amplitude, i.e.,
the deepest spot of the transverse crack is indicated.
This is exactly what is requested for tests according
results, the optimum configuration of the probes to API standards. For tubes with a large diameter,
was developed. a large number of Förster microprobes is needed.
The defect signal shown in Fig. 31 is due to a Nevertheless, the expenditures for the electronics
shorter but deeper transverse crack than the defect are relatively small because there is no need for an
signal in Fig. 32. extra amplification of the signal voltage of the probes
The evaluation of Figs. 31 and 32 shows that the in order to process the defect signals. Compared
maximum defect amplitude in Fig. 31 is 50 per cent with the induction coil method, costs of the Förster
higher than the amplitude in Fig. 32. According to microprobes are higher, but this is offset by the fact that
the method shown in Fig. 33, the records which were only one set of probes is needed for a wide diameter
obtained in a distance of 1 cm each indicate that the range. With the induction coil method, a system of
length of the defect shown in Fig. 32 is greater than the eight single coils adapted to the diameter is necessary
length of the defect shown in Fig. 31. Therefore, with for each tube diameter.
the above-mentioned induction coil method, the signal
Method for the Measurement of Some
for the defect shown in Fig. 32 would be approximately
Physical Properties of Cannings
For the determination of the ferrite content in can-
nings, a new method has been developed. Figure 34
shows an instrument for the measurement of the
ferrite content. The method is based on measuring
the variation of the field distribution of a permanent
magnet as a function of the quantity of magnetizable
material components in the tube. Correction diagrams
were elaborated in order to correct the readings of the
ferrite content meter for the wall thickness of the tubes.
Figure 35 shows the record of the ferrite content of
three cannings with a length of 1 meter each. It is seen
that variations in ferrite content as small as 0.01 per
Figure 33. Plan of scannings of the tube surface by an
annular set of probes. cent can be measured. This easily applicable and highly
sensitive method should definitely be recommended
for introduction in practice.
Figure 35. Distribution of the ferrite content versus the length of three
cannings.
Figure 34. Förster Magnetoscop with permeameter probe
for measuring the ferrite content of low permeability
materials.
For the quantitative measurement of the texture

of zircaloy tubes, an eddy current pickup coil is
utilized. The electrical conductivity depends on the
orientation of the grains. The variation of the electrical
conductivity around the tube circumference shows
a pronounced hexagonal multiplicity compared with
a stainless steel tube. This is shown in Fig. 36. In
zircaloys, the knowledge of the grain orientation is
important.
Figure 36. Variations of electrical conductivity on the
Summary circumference of cannings.
In the field of nondestructive testing of tubes, new
methods and instruments have been developed, and
existing instruments have been improved. By designing Finally, a new method for measuring the texture of
sensitive eddy current probes with highly focused field reactor components and similar products is outlined.
characteristics, it was possible to improve the defect
REFERENCES
resolution.
1. R.S. Sharpe and S. Aveyard, “The Inspection of Thin-Walled
As these probes are of a very small size, it was Stainless Steel Reactor Grade Tubing,” Journal of the Iron and Steel
possible to apply them not only for the OD inspection Institute, 201(1963), Oct., p. 856-862.
but also for the ID inspection of small diameter tubes. 2. G. Krohm, “Prufung von Hullrohren fur Brennstabe,”
Examples are given for the ID inspection of Materialprufung, Vol. 8, No. 6, 1966, S. 224.
finned tubes and specifically of tubes used as reactor
NOTES
components. For the inspection of thin-walled stainless c
At a later date full details on theoretical and experimental
steel tubes, a probe system is presented which is behavior of the magnetic leakage flux will be given. See also. F.
capable of finding ID defects by scanning the tubes on -Förster: “Übersicht über die theoretischen und experimentellen
the outer surface. Also a special example is given for Grundlagen der zerstorungsfreien Prüfung mit magnetischen
Streuflußlverfahren.” Lecture given at the Conference on the
scanning ball-bearing tubes by means of fixed eddy Nondestructive Testing of Materials of the Deutsche Gesellschaft
current probes, while the tubes are following a helical fur Zerstörungsfreie Prüfverfahren May 10, 1968, in Kiel, Germany.
path on a special conveyor. d
The results shown in Fig. 30 are part of a larger investigation. In
For the testing of ferrous tubes, new stray flux these experiments, the defect signals caused by a large variety of
types of defects and obtained by various nondestructive testing
microprobe systems have been designed. A new methods are compared. For this purpose Mannesmann AG in
method for ID inspection with such probes is Düsseldorf prepared a variety of artificial defects in a great number
described. Furthermore, a detailed description of two of boiler vessel tubes. The tubes were subsequently subjected to
a further drawing process in order to give to the artificial defects
advanced magnetic test systems for the inspection of properties comparable to the properties of natural defects. We wish
large-diameter and medium-diameter tubes is given. to thank Dr. H. Krächter of Mannesmann AG for providing these
Another development for continuously testing valuable standard tubes.
the tube for transverse defects is described in detail.
Industrial Evaluation of Search Coil Flaw
Detection Techniques*1
by C. H. Hastings and G. A. Darcy
Because of the fact that sensitive search coils for above date by more than a few years. Burrows filed a
magnetic flaw detection have been in use for forty or patent application,2 which was granted in 1919, and
fifty years, and also that many engineering ramifications which described what is considered by the authors
have been proposed and employed for practical as one of the two basic search coil techniques. Both
testing since their inception, it would seem advisable basic techniques function in accordance with the
to attempt to delineate those techniques which are fundamental principle that flaws in magnetized
basically different from each other. Following such a ferromagnetic materials create disturbances in the
simplification, one can, with a backlog of experience, flux paths therein. Such disturbances give rise to local
make comparisons between techniques, including leakage fields at the surface of the material which,
non-search-coil techniques, thereby arriving at an following examination, can be related to the flaws.
understanding of their relative merits and limitations
for existing testing problems. Such a clarification of The Induction Method
basic techniques is attempted herein. The induction method described in references 1 and
It is a further objective of this paper to present 2 is basically characterized by the use of a coil, either
additional experience in the use of a search coil wound on a ferromagnetic core or not, and a meter or
technique for magnetic flaw detection, beyond other circuitry used to evaluate or indicate the voltages
that available in the prior literature. This additional induced in the coil when this coil is employed to test
experience is presented as a further progress report on a magnetized material. As is well known, the voltages
the development of a technique and instrumentation induced in the coil can be established as a result of
for the detection of cracks in gun tubes and other one or more of three relative motions: i. e., the coil
Ordnance items. can be made to scan or move relative to the surface
Based on an understanding of the test methods of a stationary specimen magnetized by means of a
discussed, a philosophy which can be employed stationary d. c. field, the specimen be moved rather
for the attack and solution of future nondestructive than the search coil, or alternating or otherwise varying
flaw testing problems wherein magnetic search coil magnetic fields can be employed in conjunction
techniques are applicable is presented. It is the hope with a stationary search coil and specimen. Separate
of the authors that the philosophy or points of view electrical excitation of the search coil is not necessary
presented can be employed by others as a means of to the method. Relative motion as described above is
by-passing to a large degree the cut and try laboratory necessary, however, to achieve induction. The voltages
approach to problems of this type. indicated by the meter or other circuitry represent
the change in the strength of the leakage field and can
A Review of Search Coil Techniques be interpreted in terms of existing flaws. A schematic
It is very difficult to determine when sensitive search diagram illustrating the induction technique is shown
coils were first proposed for the detection of flaws in in Figure 1.
ferromagnetic materials and the author of the original The second of the two basic search coil techniques
proposal. The reading of a paper by C. W. Burrows, is believed first referred to in the literature in a patent
published in 1917,1 gives one the impression that the granted to Theodor Zuschlag in 1933. This method has
idea of search coil magnetic leakage detectors was not been referred to as the “A.C. Bridge method,” since the
new at that time. However, it is believed that relatively flaw signals are usually obtained from the output of an
little experimentation along this line preceded the alternating current bridge network.
of interpreting magnetic test results. It is not that
better methods for magnetic flaw testing are being
used today but that allied sciences have contributed
the means whereby methods long ago recognized as
fruitful in the laboratory have been made practical
shop tools. Magnetic methods of test have often been
criticized as being too sensitive. They are claimed to be
so because of their response to metallurgical or other
conditions of relatively little immediate significance. It
should be emphasized here that the criticism should
not be directed at the method but at the development
engineer responsible for its instrumentation and
application. Most nondestructive tests are indirect
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the Induction Method.
tests. They measure some physical quantity other
than the one of primary interest. Such tests must be
A.C. Bridge Method
adequately related to the important properties of
The A.C. bridge method described in reference 3
the material. If, in addition, the test results contain
is basically characterized by the use of a piece of
nonrelevant information, it is the test development
ferromagnetic material, usually one of the high
engineer’s responsibility to build the necessary
permeability alloys such as a nickel-iron alloy, which
intelligence into the machine or technique to eliminate
is employed as a magnetic leakage field probe.
the nonrelevant data from final results. If this part
Relative motion of the search probe and the leakage
of the development has been neglected, a confusing
field is not necessary as in the induction method.
“too sensitive” test technique results. The term “too
Since ferromagnetic permeability is not a constant of
sensitive” really implies inability to interpret correctly.
such materials, but varies with the applied field, the
It is noteworthy that the most successful magnetic
permeability of the probe material is altered when it
flaw testing equipments have been those wherein
encounters a leakage field associated with the part
the machine does the entire inspection job including
being inspected. The variation in the permeability of
acceptance or rejection. The inspector then becomes
the probe material can, when examined, be related
a machine operator with a nondestructive testing
directly to the strength of the leakage field and
engineer behind the scenes to adjust its intelligence.
hence to flaws in the magnetized part. In practice,
Unfortunately, the state of the art of correlating
the examination of probe permeability changes is
magnetic test results with important test variables
accomplished by watching the change in impedance
permits the use of the completely intelligent machine
of a test coil wound on the probe. To do this, the test
on only the simplest of testing problems. For the more
coil must be excited electrically by an auxiliary supply
involved testing operations, some of the intelligence
of alternating current. The common method for
must be supplied by the testing machine operator. In
observing changes in coil impedance employs a simple
what follows, the practical application of an equipment
A.C. impedance bridge. Because of instrumentation
which requires inspector intelligence, but at the same
problems encountered when alternating current
time presents the data in a familiar manner so that his
alone is employed for magnetizing the material being
decision can be based on past experience to a large
examined, direct current or a combination of direct and
extent, is described.
alternating current is generally used for this purpose. A
schematic diagram illustrating the A.C. bridge method
is shown in Figure 2.
It is believed that the above two methods are basic
to all search coil magnetic flaw detection techniques.
Currently used search coil techniques are devoted
to the application of one or the other of these basic
methods to various particular inspection or testing
problems and are considerably more successful than
their forerunners. The reason for the increased success
of modern techniques is believed to be associated
with the philosophy of instrumentation. Instruments
are becoming more sophisticated: i.e., they are being
constructed with additional built-in intelligence which
simplifies the long recognized and difficult problem Figure 2. Schematic diagram of the A.C. Bridge Method.
An Evaluation of the Magnetic Recording abilities and uncover its limitations. A comparison
Borscope with prior and existing bore examination techniques
The Magnetic Recording Boroscope designed for the was also planned, particularly with regard to the
automatic, nondestructive inspection of the bore of optical boroscope which the magnetic boroscope
artillery tubes has been described in detail by Kodis was developed to replace. Boroscope examination
and Shaw in a previous paper.4 Much of the philosophy is routinely accomplished during manufacture,
behind the development of this search coil technique following the rough boring operation and subsequently
was discussed in another paper by Kodis.5 In brief, the following finish machining prior to rifling of the bore.
instrumentation employs a rather novel combination A heat-treating operation is interspersed between the
of search coil and data recording device to present rough and final machining. Tubes are not examined
a permanent pictorial or map-like presentation of routinely by optical boroscope after heat treatment
magnetic discontinuities in materials examined. The because the resulting layer of scale on the bore surface
principal components of the equipment include a makes inspection very difficult, if not impossible.
magnetic tape recording type of search coil, a signal The desirability of inspecting after heat treatment is
amplifier, and a facsimile type recorder. In addition, apparent, however, as a means for early detection of
a mechanical assembly is used to impart scanning possible quenching cracks.
motion to the search coil to permit examination of For purposes of the evaluation study, the Magnetic
gun bores. By proper synchronization of search coil Recording Boroscope was set up in the shop at the
motion with facsimile recorder motion, a map-like optical inspection station, as shown in Figure 3. As a
presentation of the bore surface flaws is obtained. test of the shopworthiness of the magnetic instrument,
Direct current residual magnetization technique, using a new employee having no prior inspection or
a central conductor, is employed prior to scanning the electronic experience was given one week of training in
tube bore. the manipulation of the equipment and was assigned
Following the construction of the Magnetic the task of making all magnetic tests and interpreting
Recording Boroscope described in reference 4, it results. Optical and magnetic boroscope examinations
was deemed advisable to conduct an engineering were made independently by the operators of the
evaluation of the equipment to demonstrate its respective equipments. Specimens were selected by
Figure 3. Set-up of the ADCT Model 1 at the Boroscope Inspections Station, Watertown Arsenal.
the optical boroscope operators for magnetic testing
such that approximately one-half of the tubes were
considered rejectable on optical study, and the other
half acceptable.
A total of fifty-four tubes was examined in the
evaluation study by both the optical method and the
magnetic search coil technique. Forty-six of these
tubes, in a rough-machined, preheat-treated condition
(surface roughness 125-500 micro inches R.M.S.),
examined by each method, provided information as
follows: the optical boroscope revealed cracks in 29
of the tubes, while the magnetic records showed flaw
indications on 35 of the tubes. The remaining eight
tubes were examined magnetically, following heat
treatment. These tubes had been optically examined Figure 6. ACDT records of Tubes showing cracks.
and accepted before the heat-treating operation. As has
been stated, tubes are not optically examined after heat
from the cutting of numerous cracked tubes during the
treatment because the resulting layer of scale makes
laboratory development of the method, established
examination very difficult. Of these eight tubes, which
confidence in the reliability of the facsimile picture as a
prior to heat treatment had been declared crack-free by
crack detection means.
optical examination, two were found by the magnetic
To insure that those instances of lack of correlation
boroscope to be cracked after heat treatment.
were not assignable to a failure of the magnetic
In order to confirm the correlation between optical
method, one of the six tubes accepted on optical
and magnetic boroscope results, sections were cut from
examination, but which had five cracks as indicated
two tubes. Cut sections and records shown in Figures
by the facsimile picture, was sectioned. Figures 7 and
4 through 6 confirmed the actual existence of cracks
8 show respectively a section cut from the tube and
at the locations indicated by the magnetic recording.
the facsimile picture of the bore cracks. These existing
This shop experience, in addition to that obtained
cracks were very shallow, approximately 1/8” deep, and
were no more than 1/2” in length. The failure to detect
such small but possibly dangerous cracks by optical
boroscope is readily understandable.
In only two cases did the Magnetic Recording
Boroscope fail to detect conditions which had been
Figure 4. Section of Tube showing cracks – etched.
Figure 5. Section of Tube showing cracks – unetched. Figure 7. Section of Tube showing cracks – etched.
bore inspection techniques include the optical boro-
scope and the “Black Light” boroscope. The latter
technique, as is well known, employs fluorescent
magnetic particles* and near ultra-violet light. It is
believed desirable to discuss two instances of lack of
correlation between the Black Light Boroscope tech-
nique and the magnetic search coil technique. In one
of these instances, the Magnetic Recording Boroscope
revealed what was interpreted to be a definite crack-like
indication. Examination of the tube bore by white light
boroscope revealed a rather deep and sharp gouge,
apparently the result of tool breakage during the boring
operation. Suspecting the possibility of a crack in the
bottom of the gouge, the black light examination was
then used. The operators of the black light equipment
Figure 8. ACDT record of Tube showing cracks. were strongly convinced that no actual crack existed.
Sectioning of the tube confirmed the lack of cracking
associated with the gouge. The sharp, elongated,
interpreted as flaws as a result of optical examination. crack-like shape of the gouge was such that one would
In one of these cases, optical examination was repeated, expect it to be detectable by any magnetic technique. A
whereupon results indicated that what had been “trick of the trade” permitted the black light boroscope
interpreted as a rejectable crack was actually a piece of operators to recognize the discontinuity properly as
foreign material or a mark on the bore surface. In the a gouge. It is believed that additional sophistication
second case, the tube was scrapped on the basis of the built into the search coil instrument would permit it
original optical examination before re-examination to properly evaluate the true significance of cracks or
could be conducted. gouges based on a flaw depth calibration. Acceptance
In attempting to evaluate the above observations, it of such flaws should be based only on depth
can be stated that: considerations since their seriousness as stress raisers
1. In the case of tubes where correlation existed, cracks depends little upon the nature of their origin.
indicated at certain points on the facsimile picture The second instance of lack of correlation
were found to exist in the same relative location in illustrates rather well the weakness of inspection
the tube bore. techniques involving the human element to a
2. In the cases wherein correlation was not obtained, strong degree. This instance involved some tubes
re-examination and sectioning demonstrated which had been tentatively rejected by black light
the greater reliability of the Magnetic Recording inspection for cracks pending their review and
Boroscope. decision thereon by metallurgical and production
3. It is believed, on the basis of experience in the personnel. Reexamination by black light boroscope
examination of eight tubes discussed above, that for the purposes of the review failed to reveal the
whereas optical inspection of as-heat-treated tubes crack previously detected. A check of this tube
is impracticable, magnetic boroscope evaluation using the Magnetic Recording Boroscope definitely
of tubes in this condition can be performed with revealed the crack detected during the first black
confidence. light examination. Careful consideration of possible
4. On the basis of information presented in Figures 7 causes for this discrepancy disclosed that the
and 8, the magnetic search coil technique is superior concentration of magnetic particles employed for
in sensitivity to the optical method, i.e., smaller the black light examination had become too weak to
cracks can be detected thereby. permit satisfactory crack detection. A correction of the
Further checks of the industrial applicability of the concentration permitted the crack to be revealed again
Magnetic Recording Boroscope are being conducted by black light boroscope. Such inconsistencies are to
at Watervliet Arsenal, Watervliet, New York, and the be expected from tests which involve many human
Dickson Gun Plant of the Hughes Gun Company, operations and observations.
Houston, Texas. Little information has yet become
available from Watervliet Arsenal, where comparison A Philosophy for Applying Search Coil
is being made with conventional optical boroscope Techniques
inspection. Results at Dickson Gun Plant indicate During the Development of the Magnetic Recording
a high order of reliability. At Dickson, conventional Boroscope, many points of view were taken with regard
to the particular inspection problem involved. These 8. How closely is the product or material processing
points of view, in addition to the experiences described controlled?
above, have led to the formulation of a philosophy 9. What is the volume of production?
which is regarded as having considerable potential Referring back to the list of functions which the
value for the attack and solution of flaw detection instrumentation system must perform, the number one
problems in general to which magnetic search coil item, form of energy, is decided upon as follows:
techniques are applicable. This philosophy is presented If the problem is to detect surface flaws only,
herewith as a reference for those who may have such magnetic techniques can be considered favorably. If,
problems. however, subsurface flaws are important, other test
Briefly, the philosophy involves a definition of the methods such as ultrasonics or radiography should
problem in terms of factors of importance to magnetic be recommended. If the final surface of the material
testing. These factors are considered separately, and being tested has not been established at the time
the optimum instrumentation system based on the the inspection is to be made – that is, if subsequent
judicious combination of such considerations. machining is to be performed, the problem should be
A magnetic search coil technique, like other regarded as a subsurface flaw detection problem or a
nondestructive tests, can be regarded as being process control check for surface flaws at that stage of
embodied in a system of instrumentation which manufacture. Magnetic tests should not be regarded as
performs, with the aid of the operator of the final acceptance tests under such circumstances.
equipment, several generalized functions. These The second item concerns itself with the type
functions may be listed as follows: of search coil required and the technique for its use.
1. The establishment or propagation of some form of Search coil design could be the subject of a paper by
physical energy in the material to be tested. In the itself. Since space does not permit a more lengthy
discussion following, this energy is in the form of discussion of this subject, comment will be limited
magnetic forces or flux fields. to a few remarks. One cannot get more intelligence
2. The detection of that energy. from an inspection system than the search coil or
3. The decodification of the detected energy which has other input device can detect. If the problem requires a
been modified in some way by its association with sophisticated equipment, the inspection operation may
the material being tested. be limited in speed or the instrument may be complex
4. The presentation of the intelligence, in the form and costly. If it is only required to note the presence of
of decoded energy, to the inspector or machine magnetic discontinuities, most any coil will do the job.
operator, or the application of the intelligence to an If, however, fine flaws such as cracks, as well as coarse
accept-reject mechanism which can dispose of the flaws, are required to be detected, and their location
inspected material properly and automatically. indicated, or their magnitude measured quantitatively,
5. The handling of material in a manner consistent or their type distinguished from other types of flaws
with production and testing requirements. which may not be rejectable, then careful coil design
The decision as to what form of instrumentation is important. The authors regard the magnetic tape
can best accomplish the above functions, with regard recording type of search coil as capable of the highest
to a particular testing problem, requires that answers be resolution, adequate to more than adequate sensitivity,
obtained to questions regarding that problem. While and greatest economy of construction in the art of
the list included below is not intended to be complete, magnetic techniques today. A discussion of reasons
it serves to indicate types of questions which are for this opinion, beyond the scope of this paper, is
important where magnetic search coil techniques are invited. In addition to search coil design, sensitivity
concerned. of flaw detection is influenced to some degree by
1. What type or types of flaws are to be detected and surface roughness of the specimen, the magnitude and
evaluated? uniformity of magnetic properties in the material being
2. Is it important to distinguish one type of flaw from tested, and the geometry of the specimen. These factors
another? are all capable of contributing “noise” or nonrelevant
3. Is the problem simply one of flaw detection or also information which may limit the maximum sensitivity
one of flaw measurement? of the system to relevant flaws.
4. What is the smallest size of flaw of importance? The number three item, detected flaw-signal
5. What is the geometry of the piece to be inspected? decodification, depends again on the degree of
6. Is the test a final inspection or a process control? Has intelligence required of the instrument. Assuming
the final surface been established or is additional the selection of a suitable search coil detector,
machining yet to be accomplished? consideration can be given to the design of circuitry
7. What is the condition (metallurgical and surface capable of separating the relevant from nonrelevant
roughness) of the product or material? information, classifying flaws with respect to their
type, and evaluating relative or absolute magnitudes The means for accomplishing the fifth function
of flaws, as may be required. The decodification or are dependent on the geometry and weight of the
intelligence discrimination of the information may be specimen, and to the volume or rate of production.
accomplished either by the operator or ideally by the In considering the materials handling problem,
equipment. Justification for operator decodification methods should be chosen which exclude the
should be based only on the fact that sufficient possibility of creating extraneous signals during tests
knowledge to permit this function to be accomplished such as may be caused by magnetic writing, local cold
by the machine is not available or that the expense of working, etc.
a completely intelligent machine is not warranted. It is From consideration of the factors listed above,
believed that existing information limits the design of it will be evident that they must be considered
completely intelligent equipment for only the simplest collectively as well as individually if a successful system
of problems. An example of such a simple problem of instrumentation is to be evolved for a particular
would be an equipment for process control wherein all problem. The construction of general-purpose
material could be stated to enter a given process such as magnetic testing equipment should be regarded as an
a heat-treating operation, free from all rejectable flaws. obsolete approach, until such time as the complete
The problem might then be limited to the detection decodification of all intelligence which can be derived
and measurement of quench cracks, all other detected from search coil detectors is technically possible. In the
information being considered nonrelevant. The interim, each testing problem should be scrutinized as
recognition of cracks as distinct from other magnetic a unique problem, with the idea of designing optimum
discontinuities has been described by Kodis5 and can instrumentation therefore.
be accomplished within the circuitry.
The presentation of the intelligence, which is ACKNOWLEDGMENT
the fourth function of the inspection system, is The authors wish to acknowledge the interest and cooperation of
Mr. H. C. Dill, Chief Metallurgist, Hughes Gun Company, Dickson
dependent upon the success with which the third Gun Plant, Houston, Texas. Mr. Dill’s assistance made possible the
or decoding function has been accomplished in the correlation between the Magnetic Recording Boroscope and black
instrument proper. Lacking an electrical decoding light boroscope results.
circuit permitting the design of a fully automatic
REFERENCES
equipment pictorial presentation which presents
1. Some Applications of Magnetic Analysis to the Study of Steel
the inspection data to the equipment operator in a Products, C. W. Burrows, Proc. A.S.T.M., V. 17, Part II, 1917, pp.
realistic or familiar manner is regarded as the second 88-113.
best alternative. Such is the reasoning behind the use 2. U. S. Patent 1,322,405 – Method of and Apparatus for Testing
of a facsimile recorder in the Magnetic Recording Magnetizable Objects by Magnetic Leakage.
Boroscope. In this instrument, cracks are recorded 3. U. S. Patent 1,896,737 – Method and Apparatus for Testing Rails
or the Like.
in their proper location, size, and shape with relation
4. Crawler Detects Gun-Barrel Cracks, R. D. Kodis and R. Shaw,
to the bore surface of the gun tube much the same Electronics, V. 24, September 1951, pp. 92-95.
as if the operator were looking at magnetic particle 5. The Development of a Flaw Detector for Tubes, R. D. Kodis,
patterns of the same cracks. Stress or other non-crack- Proc. A.S.T.M., V. 50, 1950, pp. 1196-1206.
like magnetic discontinuities, which are also detected
by the search coil, appear altogether different on the NOTES
pictorial presentation and are readily distinguished by The statements or opinions expressed herein are those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the
the operator. It is visualized in the future that, as the Ordinance Corps.
electrical signals can be differentiated with respect to 1
Presented at Annual Meeting of the Society for Nondestructive
the nature of their origin, a closer approach to fully Testing, Philadelphia, Pa., October 21, 1952.
automatic instrumentation can be made for more * Trade name, “Magnaglow”. Magnaflux Corporation,
complex problems. Chicago, Illinois.
The MFL Compendium:
American Society for Nondestructive Testing

Catalog No. 212 Collected from Materials Evaluation
ISBN-13: 978-1-57117-210-5 Published from 1953 through 2006
ASNT (all rights reserved). Licensed to Mr Chandrashekhar Thiramdas, Quality Manager, 213826, 9/9/2014 11:17:02 AM EST. Single User

The MFL Compendium Articles On Magnetic Flux Leakage (Ebook)

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The MFL Compendium Articles On Magnetic Flux Leakage (Ebook)

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The MFL Compendium:

Articles on Magnetic Flux Leakage

American Society for Nondestructive Testing

The American Society for Nondestructive Testing

first printing 08/10

Printed in the United States of America

Published by: The American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc.

Compiled by: Joy Grimm, Desktop Publishing Assistant

Tim Jones, Senior Manager of Publications

ASNT Mission Statement:

6 Electromagnetic NDT Techniques — A 40 Year Retrospective or

11 Shape Enhancement of Magnetic Flux Leakage Signals:

16 Use of the Finite Element Method in Simulation and

21 Monte Carlo Simulation of False Alarms and Detection

25 Magnetic Flux Leakage as Applied to Aboveground Storage

28 Computerized Operational Control of an Electromagnetic Wire

32 Simple Explanation of the Theory of the Total Magnetic Flux

38 Combining Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux Leakage

42 Electromagnetic Inspection: Wall Loss and Flaw

49 Test Rigs for Magnetic Flux Leakage Inspection Tools

54 History and Development of Rail Flaw Detector Cars

60 Flux Leakage Testing Applied to Operational Pipelines

67 Electromagnetic Wire Rope Inspection in Germany,

70 The Origins of Electromagnetic Testing

83 SAM Inspection Systems for Oil Country Tubular Goods

88 The Nondestructive Inspection of Tubings

97 The Nondestructive Inspection of Tubings

106 Industrial Evaluation of Search Coil Flaw Detection

Abstract have a considerable effect on wire rope’s residual

SEPTEMBER 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 1

Notch Filtering of Wire Rope Signal

Signal Acquistion and Discontinuity (2)

Figure 2. Circuits of Hall sensor array and analog multiplexer.

2 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | SEPTEMBER 2006

SEPTEMBER 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 3

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

4 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | SEPTEMBER 2006

SEPTEMBER 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 5

6 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | JUNE 2006

JUNE 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 7

Wave Based Electromagnetic Field Types

8 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | JUNE 2006

JUNE 2006 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 9

10 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | JUNE 2006

Abstract influence the signal amplitude but are not related

AUGUST 2004 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 11

(10) SDi = SDi cos 2

AUGUST 2004 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 13

14 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | AUGUST 2004

AUGUST 2004 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 15

Abstract resulting from time varying excitation or motion

16 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | J U LY 2 0 0 0

(6) In a similar way, the gradients of the vector

J U LY 2 0 0 0 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 17

18 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | J U LY 2 0 0 0

J U LY 2 0 0 0 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 19

20 THE MFL COMPENDIUM | J U LY 2 0 0 0

SEPTEMBER 1996 | THE MFL COMPENDIUM 21

Magnetic Flux Leakage Model

where Bs is the saturation value of B and Hw is the field

Figure 2. Notch and sensor geometry used in the model.

Monte Carlo Simulation