GENERAL YUE FEI DEFEATS HIS OPPONENT IN A MARTIAL COMPETITION.

Illustrations provided by W. Acevedo, except where noted.

Abstract
Mixed martial arts (MMA) has become one of the fastest-growing combat sports in the twenty-
first century, drawing millions of Pay-Per-View spectators since the inception of the ultimate
Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. Popular conceptions have credited the creation of MMA
to Bruce Lee. a Chinese-American actor and martial artist who became an icon in the 1970s and
who is still considered by many as a revolutionary figure in the field. This paper will present, in
chronological order, examples of ancient Chinese martial arts concepts preceding the creation of
modern MMA.

30 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

 A Historical
Overview of
Mixed Martial
Arts in China
by William Acevedo, M.Eng.
and Mei Cheung, B.A.

M;
ixed martial arts (MMA) is an
Leclectic combat sport combining
striking and grappling techniques—
extracted mainly from Muay Thai,
Brazilian Jiu Jitsu (BJJ), western
wrestling, and boxing—which through
the Ultimate Fighting Championship
(UFC) banner has become one of the
fastest-growing sports in the world
(Trembow, 2007). It attracts an average
of 3.1 million Pay-Per-View spectators
and employs 270 fighters (Miller, 2008).
Dana White, the president of the most
popular fighting event in the west, acknowledges the importance of Bruce Lee's
training philosophy and the influence of his films to popularize Chinese martial
arts outside China's borders (Miller, 2008). Lee's background was mainly in wing
chun iyong chun), a fighting style that emphasizes short-range techniques; how-
ever, through his experience. Lee came to the realization that fighting requires
one to prepare himself in other areas that his physical frame and basic style
lacked. Hence Lee spent a great deal of effort researching different strength and
conditioning methods: hand techniques from western boxing; kicking tech-
niques derived from Muay Thai; French savate; and Korean taekwondo, take
downs from Japanese judo and wrestling, joint locks from jujutsu, and even west-
em fencing, to name a few influences (Lee, 1975).

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 31

 Moreover, Lee also criticized what he called "flowery forms and organized
despair" (Little, 1999), in reference to the routines practiced by the different
martial arts systems and the unrealistic training methods of many schools. In
Lee's opinion an excellent physical condition combined with noncooperative
practice against a resisting opponent were the keys for martial excellence (Lee &.
Uyehara, 1977). Even though Bruce Lee's ideas inspired millions to follow the
martial path, there are many examples throughout China's history indicating
that these theories were already well known, as developed in this paper.

Earlier Centuries of
Imperial China (221 BCE-1912 CE)
Many civilizations had their own
style of grappling, and China is no excep-
tion. The Chinese believed that head
butting ijiao di) was created by a god
named Chi You. He's also credited for cre-
ating metal weapons and for head butting
his enemies (Birrell, 1993). Head butting
might have developed over time from a
game to an early Chinese wrestling style.
By the Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE), HAN DYNASTY ORNAMENT (ABOVE)
Chinese grappling became an official mili- DEPICTING JUEDI, AND (BELOW) A
tary sport evolving both in technique as RUBBING DEPICTING XIANGPU.
well as terminology. Branches of grappling
arts became known as juedi during the Qin
dynasty, xiangpu during in the Tang
(618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties
(Henning, 2001), to shuai jiao in modern
China.
Parallel to the evolution of grap-
pling, striking methods were also practiced
and differentiated from grappling. The first
mention of a striking method, called bo (use of the hands to strike), was used as
early as the Warring States Period (475-221 BCE). This concept also appears in
early Qin dynasty (221-206 BCE) books to describe survival activities such as
hunting and fighting (Ma, 2000). In the Boole of Songs (Wikipedia, 2010), the
term bo shou was used to describe "fighting with animals" (Ma, 2000). The rela-
tionship between hunting and martial skills lies in the fact that hunting was con-

32 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

sidered a preparatory activity for war: not only physically demanding, but also
requiring planning and strategy in order to be successful (Lin, 1996).
In his History of the Former Han, the Chinese historian Ban Gu (32-92
CE) refers to a book titled Shou Bo as part of a series of entries on martial prac-
tices. To date, this book has not been found (Shahar, 2008). By the Three
Kingdoms period (220 CE-280 CE), military skills flourished as a consequence
of the social unrest and continuous border disputes. Skills in tbe weapons of war
as well as empty-hand methods were important for troop training, even though
empty-hand methods were considered a basic skill (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). The
methods included in the practice of shou bo were grappling and striking tech-
niques, and practicing these skills was "for real" (Ma, 2000). The concept and
practice for fighting effectiveness has been neglected by many modern Chinese
martial artists by converting their practice to nothing more than "flowery" per-
formance or self-development practices. Some traditional Chinese martial arts
have preserved the ancient practical approach by including the basic elements of
flghting, such as kicking, punching, throwing, seizing, and the use of weapons.
It is important to point out that these ancient combat skills were not for
sport or combat sports. One important commonality between the skills found in
the ancient combat arts and those in martial sports is in the mixing of comple-
mentary striking and grappling techniques. Such a mixture of techniques allows
one to prepare for any combat situation, either in the ring, as where modern
MMA matches are held, or the battlefield of ancient China. An example of the
lethality of ancient shou bo is found in the Spring and Autumn Annals in the com-
mentary by a master named Gao Gonyang. This source tells us that in "681 BCE,
Wang of Song is said to have killed Duke Min by striking him and breaking his
neck" using his skill in bo (Henning, 2001).

The Imperial Military Examinations

Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690-705 CE), the first woman to become empress
regnant of China, was responsible for instituting the imperial military examina-
tions as a way to eliminate the remaining influence of the Li family, former rulers
of the Tang dynasty (618-907 CE). The requirements for the officers applying to
take the examinations included several "mixed" martial abilities to be demon-
strated. During the Tang, military examinations included flghting skills such as
the use of spear on horse, archery, and physical strength. By the Ming dynasty
(1368-1644 CE), the examinations included more subjects as part of the evalu-
ation, including archery, long spear, saber, straight sword, close-quarters fighting,
wrestling, etc. (Ma, 2000).

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 33

 Qing dynasty (1644-1912 CE) military examinations adopted elements
from the Ming system requiring the candidates to demonstrate mastery in
archery, horse riding, saber, and stone lifting, as well as a written exam on mar-
tial theory (Ma, 2009; Miysaki, 1976). Additional to these subjects, wrestling
was also an important part of military training for the Manchu rulers, who had a
long wrestling tradition, to the point of organizing a special camp with the best
wrestlers, known as the Shanpu Ying Camp (Ma, 2009).

Outlaws of the Marsh: Literary Descriptions of Ancient Martial Skills

Evidence of martial eclecticism or "mixed martial arts" as well as critical
commentaries about "flowery" methods, can also be found in literary novels, one
of which is Outlaws of the Marsh, also known as AÍÍ Men are Bothers, or the Water
Mar^n. This novel contains the best descriptions of ancient military skills, with
such realism to be considered an encyclopedia on Chinese martial arts practices
(Ying & Yan, 2008). In chapter 2 of the novel, a military arms instructor known
by the name Wang J in is forced to seek refuge to avoid the persecution of a tyrant
marshal. As the story goes, Wang Jin and his mother make a stop at a manor,
where its kind owner takes them in. After a short stay and while Wang prepares
the horses, he witnesses a young man practicing with a staff. After watching the
young lad, Wang makes the following comment: "Not a bad style, but it has its
weaknesses. It wouldn't stop anyone who was really good" (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo,
1980).
This passage reveals the concept of practicality versus "flowery" move-
ment when training for combat, and it can be applied in the practice of martial
arts with or without weapons. A second passage about the same arms instructor
has him teaching the young man named Shi Jin, who was the son of Wang Jin's
host, the eighteen weapons of war as a sign of gratitude for the hospitality Wang
and his mother received at the manor. These weapons were the following:
"lance, mallet, long bow, crossbow, jingal, jointed bludgeon, truncheon, sword,
chain, hooks, hatchet, axe, trident, shield, staff, spear and rake" (Shapiro, Shi,
& Luo, 1980). One could argue that mastering these weapons, as the novel goes,
in less than a year is an exaggeration. However, this passage could also be taken
in a different context, indicating that the warrior should familiarize himself with
different fighting methods in order to be prepared for any situation encountered
in the unpredictable scenario of the battlefield.
The novel also describes wrestling matches on an elevated platform
(leitai), like and ancient "octagon," where fighters tested their skills in combat
under the watchful eye of a judge. The contestants had to write a waiver in case

34 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

of death or injury (Shapiro, Shi, & Luo, 1980). These competitions were a com-
mon occurrence by the Song dynasty (Kang, 1995).

OUTLAWS
OF T H E M A R S H
YAN Q I N G DEFEATS

HIS OPPONENT
ON THE LE/TAI.

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 35

The Classic of Pugilism
During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), pirates from Japan and China
among other nations, increased their incursions along China's coastlines of
Fujian, Zhejiang, and Shandong provinces. These attacks could not be stopped
by the regular army, which was focused on the northern borders. For this reason,
a special group of commanders was put in charge of organizing special Chinese
troops, civil, and even monastic militias to stop the pirates. Among the most
famous military leaders of the time was General Qi Jiguang (1528-1588 CE),
who wrote the New Book of Effective Discipline (1560). His military manual cov-
ers battle formations, weaponry, rations, empty-hand fighting, and other topics.
The section dealing with empty-hand fighting is the oldest surviving
Chinese empty-hand martial arts manual in existence, titled Classic ofPu^lism,
Chapter on Essentials. Qi combined what he considered the most practical fight-
ing styles without weapons of his time, from which Qi extracted thirty-two
movements to train his troops in empty-hand fighting. These styles are (Qi &.
Ma, 1560, 1980; Wile, 1999):

Ba Shan Fan 8 Evasive Maneuvers

Ershisi Qi Tan Ma 24 Probing Throwing Horse Techniques

Houquan « # •
Monkey Boxing

Huaquan Decoy Boxing

Li Bantian Zhi Tui Li Bantian's Shantung Leg Techniques

Liu Buquan 6 Steps Boxing

Liu Hong Ba Xia Liu Hong's Eight Throws

Mian Zhang Duan Da Zhang's Close-quarters Cotton Boxing

Qian Die Zhang Zhi Die Qian's 1.000 Falling Techniques

Sanshiliu He Suo 36-Posture Seizing Routine

Shier Dun Twelve Close-quarters Postures

Song Taizu 32 Shi Changquan Song Taizu's 32 Long Boxing Postures

Wen Jia 72 Xingquan Wen Family's 72-Posture Routine

ying Zhua Wang Zhi Na Wang's Eagle Claw Seizing Techniques

Zhang Bojin Zhi Da Zhang Bojin's Striking Techniques

36 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

 Qi's work shows an early eclectic understanding based on practical expe-
rience, requiring a thorough preparation for battle, removing the boundaries and
allegiances to any specific martial art style. This approach of "mixed martial arts"
includes long- and short-range techniques as well as grappling technique, such as
locking, seizing and falling (Qi &. Ma, 1560, 1980). Qi also emphasized practi-
cality by testing one's skills in combat. Even so, routines practice is a method
used even today in China to train a great number of soldiers because it is useful
to teach basic body mechanics. Ming military experts such as Tang Shunzhi
(1507-1560) stressed that "the reasons for postures in the martial arts is to facil-
itate transformations.... Forms contain fixed postures, but in actual practice
there are no fixed postures. When applied they become fluid, but still maintain
their structural characteristics" (Wile, 1999).
Qi also quotes an old adage that agrees with Tang's assessment: "If you lack
good posture, you will be defeated in one move, if mistakes are made, you will be
ineffective within ten moves" (Qi & Ma, 1560, 1980). The above statements
reveal that even though routines training helps to develop good posture and
body mechanics, in real practice, the martial artist does not follow a set pattern.
Nevertheless, one must maintain proper alignment in order to apply any fight-
ing technique effectively.

Republican China (1911-1949)

At the beginning of the twentieth century, China was at a crossroads
between modernization and the preservation of its traditions. Martial arts were
shunned by intellectuals educated overseas, who considered them outdated and
unfit to strengthen the bodies of China's citizenry (Brownell, 1995). Despite
these attitudes, Chinese martial arts were preserved and used for military and
civilian training. During the Warlord Period (1916-1928), Ceneral Ma Liang
(a.k.a. Ma Zizhen, 1878-1947) edited training manuals presenting aspects of
empty-hand flghting, Chinese wrestling, and the use of sword and staff. These
manuals were used for military as well as police unit training (Lin, 1996; Svinth,
1999). What concerns us about Ma's approach for this discussion is the combi-
nation of some striking styles as well as wrestling techniques to be taught as part
of this new program named New Martial Arts (xin wushu) (Lin, 1996). However,
this curriculum was short lived and disappeared from national view after the
opening of the Central National Arts Academy in 1928.
The Central Academy's curriculum was made of several empty-hand as
well as weapons styles. During its initial years, the academy required its students
to be well versed in some form of martial art, having to demonstrate it against an

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 37

 1
íS|- + «
i
i')

.ai
t
—
(«1)1
i t i ÍL ? i^
* rd
A- T -> .fí. T

PAGES FROM GENERAL M A LIANG'S CHINESE

BOXING MANUAL ( L E F T ) AND FROM HIS WRESTLING MANUAL ( R I G H T ) .

opponent before being accepted to the program (Hsu & Chang, 2010). This cur-
riculum was a "mix" of several styles, such as eight extremes boxing, mind and
intent boxing, eight trigrams palm, chopping palms, supreme ultimate boxing,
Chinese wrestling, and several weapons. In addition to practicing the above
mentioned styles, the students had to demonstrate their skill in combat against
other students. One of the main testing grounds organized by the academy was
the institution of a national exam. Two national exams were organized, in 1928
and 1933, even though some provinces organized a similar examination at local
and provincial levels. During the examinations, participants faced each other in
matches of Chinese wrestling, empty hand, long weapons, and short weapons
fighting. Empty-hand fighting allowed striking as well as wrestling techniques
and was fought on an elevated platform (Ma, 2009; Chong, 1996). The acade-
my's instructors created several routines "mixing" different martial art styles. One
example is the complete forms of eight trigrams palm. This routine combines the
old eight palms form with elements of
xingjiquan, shuai jiao, and kicking
methods (Miller, 1992).
Additionally, during this peri-
od, renowned martial artist and schol-
ar Ma Fengtu (1888-1973) created
the "Connect AH" (Tongbei) system of

1928 NATIONAL SANSHOU EXAMINATION.

Photo courteiy of Ma Lianzhen, President,
International Gnoshu Association.

38 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

martial arts, which includes long- and short-range styles, as well as weapons prac-
tice. These styles are: bajiquan, piguaquan, tumbling boxing, and poking foot.
Ma was also an expert in Chinese wrestling. Ma's inspiration came from his stud-
ies of Qi Jiguang's writings, specifically the blending of different styles in order to
be prepared for any type of confrontation (Acevedo, Cheung, &. Hood, 2008).
The following Republican Era martial artists also combined striking and grap-
pling as part of their training:

• Bu Enfu (1911-?): combined his knowledge oí shuaijiao. yi quan. and

western boxing; Bu believed that the highest levels of skill would come
through combining grappling and pugilism (Burroughs. 2006).
• Chang Dongsheng ( 1910-1986): learned taijiquan and xingyiquan at the
Central Martial Arts Academy, blending striking and throwing techniques.
• Tong Zhongyi (1879-1963): was an expert in six harmonies boxing,
techniques of catching and locking, and Mongolian-style wrestling. Tong
combined the three and created his unique fighting techniques (Chong. 1996).
• Wang Ziping (1881-1973): an expert of Long Fist, shuaijiao. bajiquan:
created a routine called Twenty Methods Fighting Form, which combines
seizing, throwing, and striking techniques (Ruggieri. 2009).

Moreover, famous martial artist Wan Laisheng (1903-1995), who partici-

pated in the first national examination, also criticized "flowery" practices over
combat effectiveness. To Wan, practicing moves without martial intention and
understanding of their practical applications was equivalent to dancing (Wan
2010). Wan also stressed the importance of testing martial arts against a resist-
ing opponent and learning from the experience no matter the outcome (Wan,
2006).

SHUAIJIAO MASTERS
IN TiANjiN CITY,
1930. LEFT TO RIGHT:
ZHANG LIANCHEN,
ZHANG HONGYU,
WANG WENHAI,
Bu ENFU,
MA WENPING,
AND
WANG HAIZHENG.

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 39

 REAR NAKED CHOKE.
ARM TRIANGLE.

Inspiration for some grappling techniques could very well have been
passed on to Japan by Chen Yuanyun (1587-1671), who is credited by the
founders of the Kito-ryu school of jujutsu as the source of some of their skills
(Henning, 1999). Kano Jigoro (1860-1938), the Japanese master that founded
judo, was a student of Kito-ryu. Moreover, many ground-fighting techniques
found in modem BJJ were introduced to Brazil by Maeda Mitsuyo (1878-1941),
a Japanese judo master credited to have taught the Gracie family, who created
BJJ. A good example of the use of grappling techniques for police units, as prac-
ticed in China during the Republican period, is the book by Liu Jinsheng and
Zhao Jiang titled Seizing Skills (1936). This book contains several techniques sim-
ilar to those being used in modern MMA, such as the use of the guard to control
an opponent, submissions such as the rear naked choke, standing guillotine, arm
triangle, the "chicken wing," ankle lock, and knee and arm bar (Liu, Zhao, &.
Cartmell, 2007).

Modern Developments
On May 23, 2009, at UFC 98 Lyoto Machida, a fighter of Brazilian-
Japanese heritage, shocked the world after winning the light heavy weight title
via a knockout. Joe Rogan, the colorful commentator of the UFC, announced
Machida's victory as a "new era" in MMA. What made Machida's victory more
surprising is the fact that his martial background is a traditional version of
Shotokan karate or Machida karate. Up until that point, MMA was dominated
by fighters with a background in Muay Thai, BJJ, western boxing, and college
wrestling. However, Machida was able to climb the ranks using his karate, sumo,
and BJJ, combined with a short stint in Muay Thai to prepare himself against the
competition during his meteoric career in the UFC (Machida, 2009).

40 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

 An important point in the development of Shotokan karate is that its cre-
ator Funakoshi Gichin (1868-1957), a native of Okinawa, borrowed elements
from Chinese boxing. His book. Karate Do Kyohan, contains references to the
Chinese book Wubei Zhi or Bubishi in Japanese (Manual of Military Preparedness).
There are two versions of the Wubei Zhi. The original treatise was edited by Ming
military expert Mao Yuanyi (1594-1640). Mao's encyclopedia contains 240 vol-
umes dealing with famous battles, strategy, military formations, troop training,
etc. The version used by Funakoshi and other Okinawa masters during the same
period is a volume made out of notes from martial traditions in Fujian province
—mainly white crane and monk boxing (McCarthy, 1995).
Hence, Machida's success raises awareness of the effectiveness of tradi-
tional martial arts in MMA, specifically Chinese martial arts. There is a wealth
of techniques that has yet to be explored, even though MMA has started to grow
in China, sponsored by the Art of War^" promotion. One of the areas tradition-
al Chinese martial arts lacks is ground fighting, a must in modern MMA; how-
ever a few BJJ instructors started teaching this art back in 1998 and are being
sought by the new wave of Chinese MMA fighters (Brundage, 2008). Most of the
Chinese MMA athletes have a background in modern freestyle sanshou, sanda
(an independent fighting style, not related to a particular traditional Chinese
martial art) (Acevedo, Cheung, & Hood, 2008); therefore traditional martial
arts are yet to be represented in the octagon. Despite the proven record of mod-
ern sanshou, there is much to benefit from traditional systems and methods. In
time we may witness the application of traditional Chinese martial arts in MMA
competitions.

Conclusions
We have presented several examples from early sources, as well as literary
examples of an early eclecticism and cross-training mind-set in the practice of
Chinese martial arts. Ancient Chinese warriors were also aware of the need to
practice these methods in realistic ways in order to apply them correctly when
needed. These concepts preceded the creation of modern MMA and the theo-
ries made popular in the west by Bruce Lee in the seventies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank Stanley E. Henning
for his valuable insights and Tim Cartmell as well.

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 41

• baguazhang eight trigrams palm

• bajiquan eight extremes boxing

• baida close quarters fighting

• baihequan white crane boxing

• bian whip (jointed bludgeon?)

• bo striking with hands

• bo shou striking beast

• chang bing qi long weapon

• chang quan long boxing -S:*-

• chong jingal

• chui hammer

• chuo jiao poking foot

•da hit

• die fall down

• dao knife (saber) 71

• duan bing qi short weapon

• duanda short hitting

• er shi faquan Twenty Fighting Methods

• fanziquan tumbling boxing

•fu ax

• ge trident; dagger-axe
• gong bow
• gou hook

• gun stick/staff
m,
• gun shue ke stick/staff training course

• guo kao national examination

• he suo locking

• jian sword
• jian truncheon -151

• jian shu ke sword training course

• jiao di head butting

42 Mixed Martial Arts in China • W. Acevedo & M. Cheung

• lao ba zhang old eight palms

• lei tai competition platform •it*

• lian chain

• ma bu jian horse stance (archery)

• mao lance

• na capture/seizing

• nu crossbow

• pa rake

• pai shield

• piquaquan chopping boxing

• qiang spear

• qinna fa seizing methods

• quan jiao ke fists feet discipline

• quan shi baguazhang complete baquazhang style

• rou dao (judo) gentle way

• rou shu (jujutsu) gentle art

• sanda free fighting

• sanshou free sparring

• shanpu ying Expert Devoted Battalion

• sheng shi kao provincial examination

• shou bo hand fight

• shuai throw/fall

• shuai jiao ke throw/fall fighting discipline

• taijiquan supreme ultimate boxing

•ti kick

• tui fa leg methods

• xian kao local examination

• xiangpu (sumo) mutual striking

• xin wushu new martial arts

• xingyiquan mind and intent boxing

• yong chun/wing chun spring chant boxing

Journal of Asian Martial Arts • Vol. 19 No. 3 • 2010 43

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