Sie sind auf Seite 1von 30

Film

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about Motion pictures or Movies. For Still photography film, see Photographic film. For
Motion picture film, see Film stock.
"Movie" and "Moving picture" redirect here. For other uses, see Movie (disambiguation), Moving
Pictures (disambiguation) and Film (disambiguation).

A 16 mm spring-wound Bolex "H16" Reflex camera, a popular introductory camera in film schools

World cinema

• African cinema
• Asian cinema

East Asian cinema

South Asian cinema

Southeast Asian cinema

West Asian cinema

• European cinema
• Latin American cinema
• North American cinema
• Oceanian cinema

A film, also called a movie or motion picture, is a story conveyed with moving images. It is produced by
recording photographic images with cameras, or by creating images using animation techniques or visual
effects. The process of filmmaking has developed into an art form and industry.

Films are cultural artifacts created by specific cultures, which reflect those cultures, and, in turn, affect
them. Film is considered to be an important art form, a source of popular entertainment and a powerful
method for educating — or indoctrinating — citizens. The visual elements of cinema give motion pictures
a universal power of communication. Some films have become popular worldwide attractions by using
dubbing or subtitles that translate the dialogue into the language of the viewer.

Films are made up of a series of individual images called frames. When these images are shown rapidly in
succession, a viewer has the illusion that motion is occurring. The viewer cannot see the flickering
between frames due to an effect known as persistence of vision, whereby the eye retains a visual image for
a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Viewers perceive motion due to a psychological
effect called beta movement.

The origin of the name "film" comes from the fact that photographic film (also called film stock) has
historically been the primary medium for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms
exist for an individual motion picture, including picture, picture show, moving picture, photo-play and
flick. A common name for film in the United States is movie, while in Europe the term cinema or film is
preferred. Additional terms for the field in general include the big screen, the silver screen, the cinema
and the movies.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Theory
o 2.1 Language
o 2.2 Montage
o 2.3 Criticism
• 3 Industry
• 4 Associated fields
• 5 Terminology used
o 5.1 Preview
o 5.2 Trailer
o 5.3 Film, or other art form?
• 6 Education and Propaganda
• 7 Production
o 7.1 Crew
o 7.2 Technology
o 7.3 Independent
o 7.4 Open content film
o 7.5 Fan film
• 8 Distribution
• 9 Animation
• 10 Future state
• 11 See also
• 12 Notes
• 13 References

• 14 External links

History
Main article: History of film

A clip from the Charlie Chaplin silent film The Bond (1918)

Preceding film by thousands of years, plays and dances had elements common to film: scripts, sets,
costumes, production, direction, actors, audiences, storyboards, and scores. Much terminology later used
in film theory and criticism applied, such as mise en scene (roughly, the entire visual picture at any one
time). Moving visual and aural images were not recorded for replaying as in film.

Anthemius of Tralles used an early type of camera obscura in the 6th century[1] The camera obscura was
further described by Alhazen in his Book of Optics (1021),[2][3][4] and later near the year 1600, it was
perfected by Giambattista della Porta. Light is inverted through a small hole or lens from outside, and
projected onto a surface or screen, creating a moving image, but it is not preserved in a recording.

In the 1860s, mechanisms for producing two-dimensional drawings in motion were demonstrated with
devices such as the zoetrope, mutoscope and praxinoscope. These machines were outgrowths of simple
optical devices (such as magic lanterns) and would display sequences of still pictures at sufficient speed
for the images on the pictures to appear to be moving, a phenomenon called persistence of vision.
Naturally the images needed to be carefully designed to achieve the desired effect, and the underlying
principle became the basis for the development of film animation.
With the development of celluloid film for still photography, it became possible to directly capture objects
in motion in real time. An 1878 experiment by English photographer Eadweard Muybridge in the United
States using 24 cameras produced a series of stereoscopic images of a galloping horse, is arguably the first
"motion picture," though it was not called by this name.[5] This technology required a person to look into a
viewing machine to see the pictures which were separate paper prints attached to a drum turned by a
handcrank. The pictures were shown at a variable speed of about 5 to 10 pictures per second, depending
on how rapidly the crank was turned. Commercial versions of these machines were coin operated.

A frame from Roundhay Garden Scene, the world's earliest film produced using a motion picture camera,
by Louis Le Prince, 1888

By the 1880s the development of the motion picture camera allowed the individual component images to
be captured and stored on a single reel, and led quickly to the development of a motion picture projector to
shine light through the processed and printed film and magnify these "moving picture shows" onto a
screen for an entire audience. These reels, so exhibited, came to be known as "motion pictures". Early
motion pictures were static shots that showed an event or action with no editing or other cinematic
techniques.

Ignoring Dickson's early sound experiments (1894), commercial motion pictures were purely visual art
through the late 19th century, but these innovative silent films had gained a hold on the public
imagination. Around the turn of the 20th century, films began developing a narrative structure by stringing
scenes together to tell narratives. The scenes were later broken up into multiple shots of varying sizes and
angles. Other techniques such as camera movement were realized as effective ways to portray a story on
film. Rather than leave the audience in silence, theater owners would hire a pianist or organist or a full
orchestra to play music fitting the mood of the film at any given moment. By the early 1920s, most films
came with a prepared list of sheet music for this purpose, with complete film scores being composed for
major productions.

A shot from Georges Méliès Le Voyage dans la Lune (A Trip to the Moon) (1902), an early narrative film.
The rise of European cinema was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I when the film industry in
United States flourished with the rise of Hollywood, typified most prominently by the great innovative
work of D.W. Griffith in The Birth of a Nation (1914) and Intolerance (1916) . However in the 1920s,
European filmmakers such as Sergei Eisenstein, F. W. Murnau, and Fritz Lang,in many ways inspired by
the meteoric war-time progress of film through Griffith, along with the contributions of Charles Chaplin,
Buster Keaton and others, quickly caught up with American film-making and continued to further advance
the medium. In the 1920s, new technology allowed filmmakers to attach to each film a soundtrack of
speech, music and sound effects synchronized with the action on the screen. These sound films were
initially distinguished by calling them "talking pictures", or talkies.

The next major step in the development of cinema was the introduction of so-called "natural" color. While
the addition of sound quickly eclipsed silent film and theater musicians, color was adopted more gradually
as methods evolved making it more practical and cost effective to produce "natural color" films. The
public was relatively indifferent to color photography as opposed to black-and-white,[citation needed] but as
color processes improved and became as affordable as black-and-white film, more and more movies were
filmed in color after the end of World War II, as the industry in America came to view color as essential to
attracting audiences in its competition with television, which remained a black-and-white medium until
the mid-1960s. By the end of the 1960s, color had become the norm for film makers.

Since the decline of the studio system in the 1960s, the succeeding decades saw changes in the production
and style of film. Various New Wave movements (including the French New Wave, Indian New Wave,
Japanese New Wave and New Hollywood) and the rise of film school educated independent filmmakers
were all part of the changes the medium experienced in the latter half of the 20th century. Digital
technology has been the driving force in change throughout the 1990s and into the 2000s.

Theory
Main articles: Film theory and Philosophy of language film analysis

Film theory seeks to develop concise and systematic concepts that apply to the study of film as art. It was
started by Ricciotto Canudo's The Birth of the Sixth Art. Formalist film theory, led by Rudolf Arnheim,
Béla Balázs, and Siegfried Kracauer, emphasized how film differed from reality, and thus could be
considered a valid fine art. André Bazin reacted against this theory by arguing that film's artistic essence
lay in its ability to mechanically reproduce reality not in its differences from reality, and this gave rise to
realist theory. More recent analysis spurred by Jacques Lacan's psychoanalysis and Ferdinand de
Saussure's semiotics among other things has given rise to psychoanalytical film theory, structuralist film
theory, feminist film theory and others. On the other hand, critics from the analytical philosophy tradition,
influenced by Wittgenstein, try to clarify misconceptions used in theoretical studies and produce analysis
of a film's vocabulary and its link to a form of life.

Language

Film is considered to have its own language. James Monaco wrote a classic text on film theory titled
"How to Read a Film". Director Ingmar Bergman famously said, "[Andrei] Tarkovsky for me is the
greatest [director], the one who invented a new language, true to the nature of film, as it captures life as
a reflection, life as a dream." Examples of the language are a sequence of back and forth images of one
actor's left profile speaking, followed by another actor’s right profile speaking, then a repetition of this,
which is a language understood by the audience to indicate a conversation. Another example is zooming in
on the forehead of an actor with an expression of silent reflection, then changing to a scene of a younger
actor who vaguely resembles the first actor, indicating the first actor is having a memory of their own past.

Montage

Main article: Montage

Parallels to musical counterpoint have been developed into a theory of montage, extended from the
complex superimposition of images in early silent film[citation needed] to even more complex incorporation of
musical counterpoint together with visual counterpoint through mise en scene and editing, as in a ballet or
opera; e.g., as illustrated in the gang fight scene of director Francis Ford Coppola’s film, Rumble Fish.

Criticism

Main article: Film criticism

Film criticism is the analysis and evaluation of films. In general, these works can be divided into two
categories: academic criticism by film scholars and journalistic film criticism that appears regularly in
newspapers and other media.

Film critics working for newspapers, magazines, and broadcast media mainly review new releases.
Normally they only see any given film once and have only a day or two to formulate opinions. Despite
this, critics have an important impact on films, especially those of certain genres. Mass marketed action,
horror, and comedy films tend not to be greatly affected by a critic's overall judgment of a film. The plot
summary and description of a film that makes up the majority of any film review can still have an
important impact on whether people decide to see a film. For prestige films such as most dramas, the
influence of reviews is extremely important. Poor reviews will often doom a film to obscurity and
financial loss.

The impact of a reviewer on a given film's box office performance is a matter of debate. Some claim that
movie marketing is now so intense and well financed that reviewers cannot make an impact against it.
However, the cataclysmic failure of some heavily promoted movies which were harshly reviewed, as well
as the unexpected success of critically praised independent movies indicates that extreme critical reactions
can have considerable influence. Others note that positive film reviews have been shown to spark interest
in little-known films. Conversely, there have been several films in which film companies have so little
confidence that they refuse to give reviewers an advanced viewing to avoid widespread panning of the
film. However, this usually backfires as reviewers are wise to the tactic and warn the public that the film
may not be worth seeing and the films often do poorly as a result.

It is argued that journalist film critics should only be known as film reviewers, and true film critics are
those who take a more academic approach to films. This line of work is more often known as film theory
or film studies. These film critics attempt to come to understand how film and filming techniques work,
and what effect they have on people. Rather than having their works published in newspapers or appear on
television, their articles are published in scholarly journals, or sometimes in up-market magazines. They
also tend to be affiliated with colleges or universities.

Industry
Main article: Film industry

The making and showing of motion pictures became a source of profit almost as soon as the process was
invented. Upon seeing how successful their new invention, and its product, was in their native France, the
Lumières quickly set about touring the Continent to exhibit the first films privately to royalty and publicly
to the masses. In each country, they would normally add new, local scenes to their catalogue and, quickly
enough, found local entrepreneurs in the various countries of Europe to buy their equipment and
photograph, export, import and screen additional product commercially. The Oberammergau Passion Play
of 1898[citation needed] was the first commercial motion picture ever produced. Other pictures soon followed,
and motion pictures became a separate industry that overshadowed the vaudeville world. Dedicated
theaters and companies formed specifically to produce and distribute films, while motion picture actors
became major celebrities and commanded huge fees for their performances. Already by 1917, Charlie
Chaplin had a contract that called for an annual salary of one million dollars.

From 1931 to 1956, film was also the only image storage and playback system for television programming
until the introduction of videotape recorders.

In the United States today, much of the film industry is centered around Hollywood. Other regional
centers exist in many parts of the world, such as Mumbai-centered Bollywood, the Indian film industry's
Hindi cinema which produces the largest number of films in the world.[6] There is also another film
industry name Lollywood based in Lahore. Whether the ten thousand-plus feature length films a year
produced by the Valley pornographic film industry should qualify for this title is the source of some
debate.[citation needed] Though the expense involved in making movies has led cinema production to
concentrate under the auspices of movie studios, recent advances in affordable film making equipment
have allowed independent film productions to flourish.

Profit is a key force in the industry, due to the costly and risky nature of filmmaking; many films have
large cost overruns, a notorious example being Kevin Costner's Waterworld. Yet many filmmakers strive
to create works of lasting social significance. The Academy Awards (also known as "the Oscars") are the
most prominent film awards in the United States, providing recognition each year to films, ostensibly
based on their artistic merits.

There is also a large industry for educational and instructional films made in lieu of or in addition to
lectures and texts.

Associated fields
Further information: Film history, Film criticism, Film theory, Product placement, and Propaganda
Derivative academic Fields of study may both interact with and develop independently of filmmaking, as
in film theory and analysis. Fields of academic study have been created that are derivative or dependent on
the existence of film, such as film criticism, film history, divisions of film propaganda in authoritarian
governments, or psychological on subliminal effects of a flashing soda can during a screening. These
fields may further create derivative fields, such as a movie review section in a newspaper or a television
guide. Sub-industries can spin off from film, such as popcorn makers, and toys. Sub- industries of pre-
existing industries may deal specifically with film, such as product placement in advertising.

Terminology used
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July
2010)
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient
inline citations.
Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (July 2010)
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.
Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (December 2009)

Most people use "film" and "movie" interchangeably[citation needed]. "Film" is more often used when
considering artistic, theoretical, or technical aspects, as studies in a university class. "Movies" more often
refers to entertainment or commercial aspects, as where to go for fun on a date. For example, a book titled
"How to Read a Film" would be about the aesthetics or theory of film, while "Lets Go to the Movies"
would be about the history of entertaining movies. "Motion pictures” or "Moving pictures" are films and
movies. A "DVD", "videotape", "video" or "vid" is a digital reproduction of an analogue film, or a product
with all of the elements of an analogue film but made in an electromagnetic storage medium. "Film" refers
to the media onto which a visual art is shot, and to this end it may seem improper for a digital originating
work to be referred to as a "film" and the action of shooting as "filming," and yet these terms are still used.
"Silent films" need not be silent, but are films and movies without an audible dialogue, though they may
have a musical soundtrack. "Talkies" refers to early movies or films having audible dialogue or analogue
sound, not just a musical accompaniment. "Cinema" either broadly encompasses both films and movies, or
is roughly synonymous with “Film”, both capitalized when referring to a category of art. The "silver
screen" refers to classic black and white films before color, not to contemporary films without color.

The expression "Sight and Sound", as in the film journal of the same name, means "film". The following
icons mean film - a "candle and bell", as in the films Tarkovsky, of a segment of film stock, or a two faced
Janus image, and an image of a movie camera in profile.

"Widescreen" and "Cinemascope" refers to a larger width to height in the frame, compared to an earlier
historic aspect ratios.[7] A "feature length film", or "feature film", is of a conventional full length, usually
60 minutes or more, and can commercially stand by itself without other films in a ticketed screening.[8] A
"short" is a film that is not as long as a feature length film, usually screened with other shorts, or preceding
a feature length film. An "independent" is a film made outside of the conventional film industry.
A "screening" or "projection" is the projection of a film or video on a screen at a public or private theater,
usually but not always of a film, but of a video or DVD when of sufficient projection quality. A "double
feature" is a screening of two independent, stand-alone, feature films. A "viewing" is a watching of a film.
A "showing" is a screening or viewing on an electronic monitor. "Sales" refers to tickets sold at a theater,
or more currently, rights sold for individual showings. A "release" is the distribution and often
simultaneous screening of a film. A "preview" is a screening in advance of the main release.

"Hollywood" may be used either as a pejorative adjective, shorthand for asserting an overly commercial
rather than artistic intent or outcome, as in "too Hollywood", or as a descriptive adjective to refer to a film
originating with people who ordinarily work near Los Angeles.

Expressions for Genres of film are sometimes used interchangeably for "film" in a specific context, such
as a "porn" for a film with explicit sexual content, or "cheese" for films that are light, entertaining and not
highbrow.

Any film may also have a "sequel", which portrays events following those in the film. Bride of
Frankenstein is an early example. When there are a number of films with the same characters, we have a
"series", such as the James Bond series. A film which portrays events that occur earlier than those in
another film, but is released after that film, is sometimes called a "Prequel", an example being Butch and
Sundance: The Early Days.

Credits is a list of the people involved in making the film. Before the 1970s, credits were usually at the
beginning of a film. Since then, the credits roll at the end of most films.

A Post-credits scene is a scene shown after the end of the credits. Ferris Bueller's Day Off has a post-
credit scene in which Ferris tells the audience that the movie is over and they should go home.

Preview

A preview performance refers to a showing of a movie to a select audience, usually for the purposes of
corporate promotions, before the public film premiere itself. Previews are sometimes used to judge
audience reaction, which if unexpectedly negative, may result in recutting or even refilming certain
sections (Audience response).

Trailer

Main article: Film trailer

Trailers or previews are film advertisements for films that will be exhibited in the future at a cinema, on
whose screen they are shown. The term "trailer" comes from their having originally been shown at the end
of a film programme. That practice did not last long, because patrons tended to leave the theater after the
films ended, but the name has stuck. Trailers are now shown before the film (or the A movie in a double
feature program) begins.

Film, or other art form?


Film may be combined with performance art and still be considered or referred to as a “film”. For
example, when there is a live musical accompaniment to a silent film. Another example is audience
participation films, as at a midnight movies screening of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, where the
audience dresses up in costume from the film and loudly does a karaoke-like reenactment along with the
film. Performance art where film is incorporated as a component is usually not called film, but a film,
which could stand-alone but is accompanied by a performance may still be referred to as a film.

The act of making a film can, in and of itself, be considered a work of art, on a different level from the
film itself, as in the films of Werner Herzog.

Similarly, the playing of a film can be considered to fall within the realm of political protest art, as in the
subtleties within the films of Tarkovsky. A "road movie" can refer to a film put together from footage
from a long road trip or vacation.

Education and Propaganda


Main articles: Education and Propaganda

Film is used for education and propaganda. When the purpose is primarily educational, a film is called an
"educational film". Examples are recordings of lectures and experiments, or more marginally, a film based
on a classic novel.

Film may be propaganda, in whole or in part, such as the films made by Leni Riefenstahl in Nazi
Germany, US war film trailers during World War II, or artistic films made under Stalin by Eisenstein.
They may also be works of political protest, as in the films of Wajda, or more subtly, the films of Andrei
Tarkovsky.

The same film may be considered educational by some, and propaganda by others, such as some of the
films of Michael Moore.

Production
Main article: Filmmaking

At its core, the means to produce a film depend on the content the filmmaker wishes to show, and the
apparatus for displaying it: the zoetrope merely requires a series of images on a strip of paper. Film
production can therefore take as little as one person with a camera (or without it, such as Stan Brakhage's
1963 film Mothlight), or thousands of actors, extras and crewmembers for a live-action, feature-length
epic.

The necessary steps for almost any film can be boiled down to conception, planning, execution, revision,
and distribution. The more involved the production, the more significant each of the steps becomes. In a
typical production cycle of a Hollywood-style film, these main stages are defined as:

1. Development
2. Pre-production
3. Production
4. Post-production
5. Distribution

This production cycle usually takes three years. The first year is taken up with development. The second
year comprises preproduction and production. The third year, post-production and distribution.

The bigger the production, the more resources it takes, and the more important financing becomes; most
feature films are not only artistic works, but for-profit business entities.

Crew

Main article: Film crew

A film crew is a group of people hired by a film company, employed during the "production" or
"photography" phase, for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. Crew are distinguished from
cast, the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. The crew
interacts with but is also distinct from the production staff, consisting of producers, managers, company
representatives, their assistants, and those whose primary responsibility falls in pre-production or post-
production phases, such as writers and editors. Communication between production and crew generally
passes through the director and his/her staff of assistants. Medium-to-large crews are generally divided
into departments with well defined hierarchies and standards for interaction and cooperation between the
departments. Other than acting, the crew handles everything in the photography phase: props and
costumes, shooting, sound, electrics (i.e., lights), sets, and production special effects. Caterers (known in
the film industry as "craft services") are usually not considered part of the crew.

Technology

Film stock consists of transparent celluloid, acetate, or polyester base coated with an emulsion containing
light-sensitive chemicals. Cellulose nitrate was the first type of film base used to record motion pictures,
but due to its flammability was eventually replaced by safer materials. Stock widths and the film format
for images on the reel have had a rich history, though most large commercial films are still shot on (and
distributed to theaters) as 35 mm prints.

Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and
projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16⅔ frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed,
research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s
on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown).[9] When sound film was
introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second was
chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound quality.
Improvements since the late 19th century include the mechanization of cameras — allowing them to
record at a consistent speed, quiet camera design — allowing sound recorded on-set to be usable without
requiring large "blimps" to encase the camera, the invention of more sophisticated filmstocks and lenses,
allowing directors to film in increasingly dim conditions, and the development of synchronized sound,
allowing sound to be recorded at exactly the same speed as its corresponding action. The soundtrack can
be recorded separately from shooting the film, but for live-action pictures many parts of the soundtrack are
usually recorded simultaneously.

As a medium, film is not limited to motion pictures, since the technology developed as the basis for
photography. It can be used to present a progressive sequence of still images in the form of a slideshow.
Film has also been incorporated into multimedia presentations, and often has importance as primary
historical documentation. However, historic films have problems in terms of preservation and storage, and
the motion picture industry is exploring many alternatives. Most movies on cellulose nitrate base have
been copied onto modern safety films. Some studios save color films through the use of separation masters
— three B&W negatives each exposed through red, green, or blue filters (essentially a reverse of the
Technicolor process). Digital methods have also been used to restore films, although their continued
obsolescence cycle makes them (as of 2006) a poor choice for long-term preservation. Film preservation
of decaying film stock is a matter of concern to both film historians and archivists, and to companies
interested in preserving their existing products in order to make them available to future generations (and
thereby increase revenue). Preservation is generally a higher-concern for nitrate and single-strip color
films, due to their high decay rates; black and white films on safety bases and color films preserved on
Technicolor imbibition prints tend to keep up much better, assuming proper handling and storage.

Some films in recent decades have been recorded using analog video technology similar to that used in
television production. Modern digital video cameras and digital projectors are gaining ground as well.
These approaches are extremely beneficial to moviemakers, especially because footage can be evaluated
and edited without waiting for the film stock to be processed. Yet the migration is gradual, and as of 2005
most major motion pictures are still recorded on film.

Independent

Main article: Independent film

Independent filmmaking often takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems. An
independent film (or indie film) is a film initially produced without financing or distribution from a major
movie studio. Creative, business, and technological reasons have all contributed to the growth of the indie
film scene in the late 20th and early 21st century.
The Lumière Brothers

On the business side, the costs of big-budget studio films also leads to conservative choices in cast and
crew. There is a trend in Hollywood towards co-financing (over two-thirds of the films put out by Warner
Bros. in 2000 were joint ventures, up from 10% in 1987).[10] A hopeful director is almost never given the
opportunity to get a job on a big-budget studio film unless he or she has significant industry experience in
film or television. Also, the studios rarely produce films with unknown actors, particularly in lead roles.

Before the advent of digital alternatives, the cost of professional film equipment and stock was also a
hurdle to being able to produce, direct, or star in a traditional studio film.

But the advent of consumer camcorders in 1985, and more importantly, the arrival of high-resolution
digital video in the early 1990s, have lowered the technology barrier to movie production significantly.
Both production and post-production costs have been significantly lowered; today, the hardware and
software for post-production can be installed in a commodity-based personal computer. Technologies such
as DVDs, FireWire connections and non-linear editing system pro-level software like Adobe Premiere
Pro, Sony Vegas and Apple's Final Cut Pro, and consumer level software such as Apple's Final Cut
Express and iMovie, and Microsoft's Windows Movie Maker make movie-making relatively inexpensive.

Since the introduction of DV technology, the means of production have become more democratized.
Filmmakers can conceivably shoot and edit a movie, create and edit the sound and music, and mix the
final cut on a home computer. However, while the means of production may be democratized, financing,
distribution, and marketing remain difficult to accomplish outside the traditional system. Most
independent filmmakers rely on film festivals to get their films noticed and sold for distribution. The
arrival of internet-based video outlets such as YouTube and Veoh has further changed the film making
landscape in ways that are still to be determined.

Open content film

Main article: Open content film

An open content film is much like an independent film, but it is produced through open collaborations; its
source material is available under a license which is permissive enough to allow other parties to create fan
fiction or derivative works, than a traditional copyright. Like independent filmmaking, open source
filmmaking takes place outside of Hollywood, or other major studio systems.

Fan film

Main article: Fan film

A fan film is a film or video inspired by a film, television program, comic book or a similar source,
created by fans rather than by the source's copyright holders or creators. Fan filmmakers have traditionally
been amateurs, but some of the more notable films have actually been produced by professional
filmmakers as film school class projects or as demonstration reels. Fan films vary tremendously in length,
from short faux-teaser trailers for non-existent motion pictures to rarer full-length motion pictures.
Distribution
Main articles: Film distribution and Film release

When it is initially produced, a feature film is often shown to audiences in a movie theater or cinema. The
identity of the first theater designed specifically for cinema is a matter of debate; candidates include
Tally's Electric Theatre, established 1902 in Los Angeles,[11] and Pittsburgh's Nickelodeon, established
1905.[12] Thousands of such theaters were built or converted from existing facilities within a few years.[13]
In the United States, these theaters came to be known as nickelodeons, because admission typically cost a
nickel (five cents).

Typically, one film is the featured presentation (or feature film). Before the 1970s, there were "double
features"; typically, a high quality "A picture" rented by an independent theater for a lump sum, and a "B
picture" of lower quality rented for a percentage of the gross receipts. Today, the bulk of the material
shown before the feature film consists of previews for upcoming movies and paid advertisements (also
known as trailers or "The Twenty").

Historically, all mass marketed feature films were made to be shown in movie theaters. The development
of television has allowed films to be broadcast to larger audiences, usually after the film is no longer being
shown in theaters. Recording technology has also enabled consumers to rent or buy copies of films on
VHS or DVD (and the older formats of laserdisc, VCD and SelectaVision — see also videodisc), and
Internet downloads may be available and have started to become revenue sources for the film companies.
Some films are now made specifically for these other venues, being released as made-for-TV movies or
direct-to-video movies. The production values on these films are often considered to be of inferior quality
compared to theatrical releases in similar genres, and indeed, some films that are rejected by their own
studios upon completion are distributed through these markets.

The movie theater pays an average of about 50-55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental
fees.[14] The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a
film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However,
today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for
less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that
start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and
reviews. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide
income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28%
came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).[14]

This section requires expansion with:


optical disc distribution.

Animation
Main article: Animation
Animation is the technique in which each frame of a film is produced individually, whether generated as a
computer graphic, or by photographing a drawn image, or by repeatedly making small changes to a model
unit (see claymation and stop motion), and then photographing the result with a special animation camera.
When the frames are strung together and the resulting film is viewed at a speed of 16 or more frames per
second, there is an illusion of continuous movement (due to the persistence of vision). Generating such a
film is very labor intensive and tedious, though the development of computer animation has greatly sped
up the process.

File formats like GIF, QuickTime, Shockwave and Flash allow animation to be viewed on a computer or
over the Internet.

Because animation is very time-consuming and often very expensive to produce, the majority of animation
for TV and movies comes from professional animation studios. However, the field of independent
animation has existed at least since the 1950s, with animation being produced by independent studios (and
sometimes by a single person). Several independent animation producers have gone on to enter the
professional animation industry.

Limited animation is a way of increasing production and decreasing costs of animation by using "short
cuts" in the animation process. This method was pioneered by UPA and popularized by Hanna-Barbera,
and adapted by other studios as cartoons moved from movie theaters to television.[15]

Although most animation studios are now using digital technologies in their productions, there is a
specific style of animation that depends on film. Cameraless animation, made famous by moviemakers
like Norman McLaren, Len Lye and Stan Brakhage, is painted and drawn directly onto pieces of film, and
then run through a projector.

Future state
This section does not cite any references or sources.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
(April 2009)

While motion picture films have been around for more than a century, film is still a relative newcomer in
the pantheon of fine arts. In the 1950s, when television became widely available, industry analysts[who?]
predicted the demise of local movie theaters[citation needed]. Despite competition from television's increasing
technological sophistication over the 1960s and 1970s[citation needed]such as the development of color
television and large screens, motion picture cinemas continued. In fact with the rise of television's
predominance, film began to become more respected as an artistic medium by contrast due the low general
opinion of the quality of average television content[citation needed]In the 1980s, when the widespread
availability of inexpensive videocassette recorders enabled people to select films for home viewing,
industry analysts again wrongly predicted the death of the local cinemas.[citation needed]

In the 1990s and 2000s, the development of digital DVD players, home theater amplification systems with
surround sound and subwoofers, and large LCD or plasma screens enabled people to select and view films
at home with greatly improved audio and visual reproduction[citation needed]. These new technologies provided
audio and visual that in the past only local cinemas had been able to provide: a large, clear widescreen
presentation of a film with a full-range, high-quality multi-speaker sound system. Once again industry
analysts predicted the demise of the local cinema. Local cinemas will be changing in the 21st century and
moving towards digital screens, a new approach which will allow for easier and quicker distribution of
films (via satellite or hard disks), a development which may give local theaters a reprieve from their
predicted demise. The cinema now faces a new challenge from home video by the likes of a new High
Definition format, Blu-ray, which can provide full HD 1080p video playback at near cinema quality Video
formats are gradually catching up with the resolutions and quality that film offers, 1080p in Blu-ray offers
a pixel resolution of 1920×1080 a leap from the DVD offering of 720×480 and the paltry 330×480 offered
by the first home video standard VHS[citation needed]The maximum resolutions that film currently offers are
2485×2970 or 1420×3390, Ultra HD, a future digital video format, will offer a massive resolution of
7680×4320, surpassing all current film resolutions. The only viable competitor to these new innovations is
IMAX which can play film content at an extreme 10000×7000 resolution[citation needed].

Despite the rise of all new technologies, the development of the home video market and a surge of online
copyright infringement, 2007 was a record year in film that showed the highest ever box-office grosses.
Many expected film to suffer as a result of the effects listed above but it has flourished, strengthening film
studio expectations for the future
Television advertisement
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Commercial Break" redirects here. For the song by Chumbawamba, see Pictures of Starving Children
Sell Records.
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject.
Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (March 2010)

A television advertisement or television commercial–often just commercial or TV ad (US), or advert,


commercial, advertisement or simply just ad (UK/US), or ad-film (India)–is a span of television
programming produced and paid for by an organization that conveys a message. Advertisement revenue
provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately owned television networks. The vast
majority of television advertisements today consist of brief advertising spots, ranging in length from a few
seconds to several minutes (as well as program-length infomercials). Advertisements of this sort have
been used to promote a wide variety of goods, services and ideas since the dawn of television.

The effect of commercial advertisements upon the viewing public has been so successful and so pervasive
that in some countries, the United States in particular, it is considered[by whom?] impossible for a politician to
wage a successful election campaign without the purchase of television advertising. In other countries,
such as France, political advertising in television is heavily restricted,[1] and some, like Norway,
completely ban it

Television was still in its experimental phase in 1928, but its future potential to sell goods was already in
mind
Contents
[hide]

• 1 History
• 2 Characteristics
• 3 TV advertisements around the world
o 3.1 United States of America
 3.1.1 Frequency
 3.1.2 Popularity
 3.1.3 Restrictions
 3.1.4 Are advertisements also programming?
o 3.2 Europe
 3.2.1 United Kingdom
 3.2.2 Germany
 3.2.3 France
 3.2.4 Ireland
 3.2.5 Finland
 3.2.6 Russia
 3.2.7 Denmark
o 3.3 Asia-Pacific
 3.3.1 Malaysia
 3.3.2 The Philippines
 3.3.3 Australia
 3.3.4 New Zealand
 3.3.5 Korea, South
o 3.4 Latin America
 3.4.1 Argentina
• 4 Use of popular music
• 5 Future of TV advertisements
• 6 See also
• 7 References

• 8 External links

[edit] History
The USA's first television advertisement was broadcast July 1, 1941. The watchmaker Bulova paid $9 for
a placement on New York station WNBT before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and
Philadelphia Phillies. The 20-second spot displayed a picture of a clock superimposed on a map of the
United States, accompanied by the voice-over "America runs on Bulova time." [2][3]

The first TV ad broadcast in the UK was on ITV on 21 September 1955, advertising Gibbs S.R
Toothpaste.

[edit] Characteristics
Many television advertisements feature catchy jingles (songs or melodies) or catch-phrases(slogan) that
generate sustained ideas, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the
advertising campaign. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning
gags or "riffs" that may appear in other forms of hens , such as comedy movies or television variety
shows, or in written media, such as magazine comics or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements
may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to whom they appeared.
An example is the enduring phrase, "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should", from the eighteen-year
advertising campaign for Winston cigarettes from the 1950s to the 1970s. Variations of this catchy
dialogue and direct references to it appeared even as long as two decades after the ad campaign expired.
Another is, "Where's the Beef?", which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by
Walter Mondale. And yet another popular catch-phrase is "I've fallen and I can't get up", which still
appears occasionally, decades after its first use.

Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns. In fact, many
psychological studies have attempted to demonstrate the effects of humour and their relationship to
empowering advertising persuasion.

An animated TV advertisement

Animation is often used in advertisements. The pictures can vary from hand-drawn traditional animation
to computer animation. By using animated characters, an advertisement may have a certain appeal that is
difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. Animation also proofs the advertisement from
changes in fashion that would date it. For this reason, an animated advertisement (or a series of such
advertisements) can be very long-running, several decades in many instances. Notable examples are the
series of advertisements for Kellogg's cereals, starring Snap, Crackle and Pop and also Tony the Tiger.
The animation is often combined with real actors. Animated advertisements can achieve lasting
popularity. In any popular vote for the most memorable television advertisements in the UK (such as on
ITV [4] or Channel 4 [5]) the top positions in the list invariably include animations, such as the classic
Smash and Creature Comforts advertisements.

Other long-running ad campaigns catch people by surprise, or even tricking the viewer, such as the
Energizer Bunny advertisement series. It started in the late 1980s as a simple comparison advertisement,
where a room full of battery-operated bunnies was seen pounding their drums, all slowing down...except
one, with the Energizer battery. Years later, a revised version of this seminal advertisement had the
Energizer bunny escaping the stage and moving on (according to the announcer, he "keeps going and
going and going..."). This was followed by what appeared to be another advertisement: viewers were
oblivious to the fact that the following "advertisement" was actually a parody of other well-known
advertisements until the Energizer bunny suddenly intrudes on the situation, with the announcer saying
"Still going..." (the Energizer Battery Company's way of emphasizing that their battery lasts longer than
other leading batteries). This ad campaign lasted for nearly fifteen years. The Energizer Bunny series has
itself been imitated by others, via a Coors Light Beer advertisement, in motion pictures, and even by
current advertisements by Geico Insurance.

[edit] TV advertisements around the world


[edit] United States of America
[edit] Frequency

Television advertisements appear between shows, but also interrupt them at intervals. This method of
screening advertisements is intended to capture or grab the attention of the audience, keeping the viewers
focused on the television show so that they will not want to change the channel; instead, they will
(hopefully) watch the advertisements while waiting for the next segment of the show. However, remote
controls have now made it easier for audiences to "tune out" advertisements simply by allowing them to
turn down the volume or even switch channels when the advertisement comes on. Also people tend to do
other things while the advertisements are on, while waiting for the program to resume. Additionally,
television recording mechanisms such as DVR and TiVo have also allowed viewers to skip advertising
completely during television programming.

Entire industries exist that focus solely on the task of keeping the viewing audience interested enough to
sit through advertisements. The Nielsen ratings system exists as a way for stations to determine how
successful their television shows are, so that they can decide what rates to charge advertisers for their
advertisements.

Advertisements take airtime away from programs. Commercial breaks have also become longer. In the
1960s a typical hour-long American show would run for 51 minutes excluding advertisements. Today, a
similar program would only be 42 minutes long; a typical 30-minute block of time now includes 22
minutes [6] of programming with six minutes of national advertising and two minutes of local. Some
networks even use a 18 minutes of show/12 minutes of commercial split.[7] A television broadcast of the
101-minute film The Wizard of Oz (1939) for instance, could, in the early to mid-1960s, take two hours
even with commercials. Today, a telecast of the same film would last approximately two hours and 15
minutes including commercials.

In other words, over the course of 10 hours, American viewers will see approximately three hours of
advertisements, twice what they would have seen in the 1960s. Furthermore, if a 1960s show is rerun
today it may be cut by nine minutes to make room for the extra advertisements. In more recent years, that
number has grown by an average of two minutes.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the average advertisement's length was one minute. As the years passed, the
average length shrank to 30 seconds (and often 10 seconds, depending on the television station's purchase
of ad time), but more of them are now shown during the break, while in the '60's, only one or two
advertisements would be shown at each break. However, today a majority of advertisements run in 15-
second increments (often known as "hooks").
TV advertisements are identified by an ISCI code.

[edit] Popularity

In the United States, the TV advertisement is generally considered the most effective mass-market
advertising format, and this is reflected by the high prices TV networks charge for commercial airtime
during popular TV events. The annual Super Bowl American football game is known as much for its
commercial advertisements as for the game itself, and the average cost of a single 30-second TV spot
during this game (seen by 90 million viewers) has reached US$2.7 million (as of February 2008).

In general, advertisers covet the 18-49 age demographic; older viewers are of almost no interest to most
advertisers due to their unwillingness to change their buying habits.[8] The number of viewers within the
target demographic is more important to ad revenues than total viewers. According to Advertising Age,
during the 2007-08 season, Grey's Anatomy was able to charge $419,000 per advertisement, compared to
only $248,000 for an advertisement during CSI, despite CSI having almost five million more viewers on
average.[9] Due to its demographic strength, Friends was able to charge almost three times as much for an
advertisement as Murder, She Wrote, even though the two series had similar total viewer numbers during
the seasons they were on the air together.[8] Broadcast networks are concerned by the increasing use of
DVRs by young viewers, resulting in aging of the live viewing audience and consequently, lower ad rates.
[10]
Also TV advertisers may also target certain audiences of the population such as certain races, income
level, and gender.[8] In recent years, shows that tend to target young women tend to be more profitable for
advertisements than shows targeted to younger men, this is due to the fact that younger men are watching
TV less than their female counterparts.[11]

In the United Kingdom, television advertising is considered to be considerably cheaper than in the United
States of America. The current record for an advertising slot on British terrestrial television is quoted at
being £250,000 for a 30 second slot during the 2010 series of Britain's Got Talent.[12]

Because a single television advertisement can be broadcast repeatedly over the course of weeks, months,
and even years (the Tootsie Roll company has been broadcasting a famous advertisement that asks "How
many licks does it take to get to the tootsie center of a Tootsie Pop?" for over three decades), television
advertisement production studios often spend enormous sums of money in the production of one single
thirty-second television spot. This vast expenditure has resulted in a number of high-quality
advertisements with high production values, the latest in special effects technology, the most popular
personalities, and the best music. A number of television advertisements are so elaborately produced that
they can be considered miniature thirty-second movies; indeed, many film directors have directed
television advertisements both as a way to gain exposure and to earn a paycheck. One of film director
Ridley Scott's most famous cinematic moments was a television advertisement he directed for the Apple
Macintosh computer, that was broadcast in 1984. Even though this advertisement was broadcast only once
(aside from occasional appearances in television advertisement compilation specials and one 1 a.m. airing
a month before the Super Bowl so that the advertisement could be submitted to award ceremonies for that
year), it has become famous and well-known, to the point where it is considered a classic television
moment.

Despite the popularity of some advertisements, many consider them to be an annoyance for a number of
reasons. The main reason may be that the sound volume of advertisements tends to be higher (and in some
cases much higher) than that of regular programming. The United States Congress passed a bill on
September 30, 2010, called the CALM Act, to reduce the volume of commercials. In the UK, the
Broadcast Committee of Advertising Practice has a similar regulation. The increasing number of
advertisements, as well as overplaying of the same advertisement, are secondary annoyance factors. A
third might be that television is currently the main medium to advertise, prompting ad campaigns by
everyone from cell-phone companies, political campaigns, fast food restaurants, to local businesses, and
small businesses, prompting longer commercial breaks. Finally, another reason is that advertisements
often cut into certain parts in the regular programming that are either climaxes of the plot or a major
turning point in the show, which many people find exciting or entertaining to watch.

From a cognitive standpoint, the core reason people find advertisements annoying is that the
advertisement's offer is not of interest at that moment, or the presentation is unclear. A typical viewer has
seen enough advertisements to anticipate that most advertisements will be bothersome, prompting the
viewer to be mercilessly selective in their viewing. Conversely, if an advertisement strikes a chord with
the viewer (such as an ad for debt relief shown to a viewer who has received a late notice in the mail), or
has entertainment value beyond the basic message (such as the classic humorous spots for Wendy's
"Where's the beef?" campaign), then viewers tend to stay with the advertisement, perhaps even looking
forward to viewing it again.[citation needed]

[edit] Restrictions

Beginning on January 2, 1971, advertisements featuring cigarettes were banned from American TV.
Advertisements for alcohol products are allowed, but the consumption of any alcohol product is not
allowed in a television advertisement. Since the late 1990s TV advertisements have become far more
diverse,[citation needed] and household products and foods that are not new are no longer generally advertised as
they were in the mid to late 20th century.[citation needed]Subliminal messaging has also been banned.[citation needed]

[edit] Are advertisements also programming?

Since the 1960s, media critics have claimed that the boundaries between "programming" and
"advertisements" have been eroded to the point where the line is blurred nearly as much as it was during
the beginnings of the medium, when television shows were sponsored by corporations. For much of the
1970s, '80s, and '90s, the FCC imposed a rule requiring networks that broadcast programming on Saturday
morning and Sunday nights at 7 PM/6 PM Central air bumpers ("We'll return after these messages...",
"...now back to our programming" and variations thereof) to help younger audiences distinguish programs
from advertisements. The only programs that were exempt from this rule were news shows and
information shows relating to news (such as 60 Minutes). Conditions on children's programming have
eased a bit since the period of the 1970s and 1980s.

[edit] Europe

In many European countries television advertisements appear in longer, but less frequent advertising
breaks. For example, instead of 3 minutes every 8 minutes, there might be around 6 minutes every half
hour. European Union legislation limits the time taken by commercial breaks to 12 minutes per hour
(20%), with a minimum segment length of 20 or 30 minutes, depending on the program content.[13]
However, these are maximum limits and so specific regulations differ widely from both within and outside
the EU, and indeed from network to network. Unlike in the United States, in Europe the advertising
agency name may appear at the beginning or at the end of the advert.

[edit] United Kingdom

In the UK, the British Broadcasting Corporation is funded by a licence fee and does not screen adverts
apart from the promotion of its own future programming (either 'coming soon' or the day's later
programming features). On the commercial channels, the amount of airtime allowed by the UK
broadcasting regulator Ofcom for advertising is an overall average of 7 minutes per hour, with limits of 12
minutes for any particular clock hour (8 minutes per hour between 6pm and 11pm). With 42-minute
American exports to Britain, such as Lost, being given a one hour slot, nearly one third of the slot is taken
up by adverts or trailers for other programs. Live imported television programs such as WWE Raw show
promotional material that is shown in place of US advert breaks. Infomercials (known as "admags") were
originally a feature of the regional commercial ITV stations from launch in 1955 but were banned in 1963.

The first advert to be shown in the UK was an advert for S.R. Toothpaste on September 22, 1955 on the
ITV network (its first day).[14]

Freeview has provided a cheap entry level alternative to satellite and cable subscription services and has
taken the penetration of digital television to well over 80%.

The growth of multi-channel television has changed the face of TV advertising making the medium
effective for companies with niche products and a targeted audience. 30-second advertisements on digital
channels such as Sky News, MTV or E4 can be bought for less than £500000 and adverts on more
targeted channels like the Business Channel, Motors TV or Real Estate TV for less than £500 per 30
seconds. New TV channels are launching every week in the UK and advertising opportunities are
plentiful.

In 2008, Ofcom announced a Review of television advertising and teleshopping regulation, with a view to
possibly changing their code, Rules on the Amount and Distribution of Advertising (RADA), which
regulates the duration, frequency and restriction of adverts on television. In 2010, research conducted by
PRS for Music revealed that Light & Day by The Polyphonic Spree is the most performed song in UK TV
advertising.[15]

Television advertising specialist, Nick Illston,[12] states that ITV's £250,000 asking price for a 30 second
slot during the 2010 series of Britain's Got Talent is currently the most expensive advertising slot on
television.[12]

[edit] Germany

As in Britain, in Germany, public television stations own a major share of the market. Their programming
is funded by a licence fee as well as advertisements on specific hours of the day (5 p.m. to 8 p.m.), except
on Sundays and holidays. Private stations are allowed to show up to 12 minutes of ads per hour with a
minimum of 20 minutes of programming in between interruptions.
[edit] France

France is the only European country to not use the system clock time. The Conseil supérieur de
l'audiovisuel allows up to 9 minutes of advertising per hour on average in a day. Private channels can only
broadcast one commercial break if the show is less than an hour and two commercial break if the show is
more than an hour. For public channels, the advertising is forbidden after 8 p.m and will completely
disappear in 2012.

[edit] Ireland

In the Republic of Ireland, the Broadcasting Commission of Ireland allows up to a maximum of 10


minutes of advertising minutage per hour for all broadcasters.[16] Regarding overall advertising minutes
there is a difference between the public funded TV broadcasters and commercial TV broadcasters.
Broadcasters funded by a television licence fee, RTÉ and TG4, are permitted to allocate 10% of their
broadcast minutage to advertising. Commercial broadcasters, TV3 and 3e (formerly Channel 6) and
Setanta Ireland are permitted a maximum of 15% advertising time vs. overall broadcast time. This
effectively gives an average of either 6 minutes or 9 minutes an hour depending on the type of
broadcaster.

[edit] Finland

In Finland, there are two mainstream non-commercial channels run by the state owned broadcasting
company YLE, that run advertisements only on very infrequent occasions, such as important sport events.
The three main commercial channels MTV3, Sub (a subsidiary of MTV3), and Nelonen ("Number Four"
in Finnish), all run their advertisements during breaks approximately every 15 minutes. Since digital TV
has been introduced, the number of TV channels has grown, with YLE and the main broadcasters all
adding new channels (including some subscription channels). Analogue broadcasts ceased in August 2007
and the nation's TV services are now exclusively digital. A typical break lasts about 4 minutes. The length
of individual advertisements can vary from a few seconds (7, 10 and 15 are common), but nowadays they
are rarely over one minute in length. Many advertisements of supranational companies are dubbed from
English language advertisements. Although Swedish is the other official language of Finland, the
advertisements do not feature Swedish subtitles nor are any Swedish language advertisements shown with
the infrequent exception of some political advertisements at the time of elections. English language
advertisements are also uncommon.

[edit] Russia

The Russian advertising break consists of 2 parts: federal adverts and regional adverts. The duration for
each is 4 minutes and 15 minutes per hour respectively.

[edit] Denmark

The Danish DR-channels are funded by a television licence, so they do not show any commercials at all.
The other Danish television network, TV2 shows commercials only in blocks between the programs.
These can take from 2 minutes to 10 minutes depending on the time to the next show. In Denmark,
commercial breaks are strictly prohibited and advertising targeted to children is restricted. Channels like
Kanal 5 and TV3 are allowed to interrupt programs, as these channels are being broadcast via satellite
from the United Kingdom.

[edit] Asia-Pacific

[edit] Malaysia

All television stations and channels, whether government-owned or private, broadcast advertisements.

In Malaysia, the duration of a typical break differs between local and foreign programs, while RTM, the
nation's state broadcaster, usually has shorter commercial break. There are usually two commercial breaks
in a half-hour program and three commercial breaks in an hour-long program, with the exception of news
programs. Terrestrial television can only broadcast advertisements during the program that was currently
aired except before announcing the breaking of fast in the month of Ramadan.

In 1999, Malaysian television stations broadcast only around 15 minutes of television commercials per
hour. Now it had been increase to around 20 minutes with 10 - 15 advertisement per commercial break.

Malaysian television advertisements were at first identified by KP/YYYY/XXXX, which was first
introduced in circa 1995. The KP is the abbreviation of the Ministry of Information while the YYYY is
the year the advertisement produced and the XXXX is the number of the advert permit, and it was earlier
was shown at the beginning or end of the advert, and some of the shorter commercials (less than 15
seconds) show this code for the whole duration of the advertisement. As of 2010, advertisements that use
this code (which was broadcast prior to mid-late 2009) is still broadcasting on television. Other
advertising permits includes the KKLIU (Ministry of Health, the Medicine Advertising Authority) for
medicinal advertisements, which was has been used before 1995 and the JIRP (Pesticide Advertising
Department) for pesticide advertisements. All pesticide advertisement must show the word "INI IALAH
IKLAN RACUN PEROSAK" (This is a pesticide advertisement) and JIRP advertising code at the
beginning of the advertisement and the word "BACALAH LABEL KELUARAN SEBELUM
MENGGUNAKANNYA" (Read the label before use) at the end of the advertisement. It was also used in
advertisements on newspapers and magazines.

Since mid-late 2009, advertisements are shown with the KPKK/XXXX/YYYY, in which the KPKK is the
abbreviation of the Ministry of Information, Communications and Culture and it was shown in the
beginning of the advertisement. It is common for advertisements shown on RTM and also common for
some advertisements shown on Astro satellite television service and Media Prima-owned television
stations, such as TV3, ntv7, 8TV and TV9.

Astro is also known to delay incoming satellite feeds by two to five minutes from the actual time of the
start and the end of program (for example program aired at 1:30 pm will be started at 1:33 pm) with
broadcasting advertisements during in-between programs for its purpose of commercial replacement, as
government laws forbid advertisements produced from overseas, except those recognizing Malaysia's
brands, such as Sony, Panasonic, Nokia and LG, as well as produced from within the country itself.
Liquor advertisements shown after 10:00 pm during non-Malay programs have been banned in the country
since 1995, while cigarette advertisements have been banned from showing cigarette packaging since
1995, and complete ban since 2003. Fast-food advertisements during children's programs are also banned
in 2007. There are also restrictions on Malaysian television advertisements such as advertisement for 18-
rated movies, feminine care products and unhealthy foods, is not allowed to be broadcast during children's
programs, and lottery advertising, which is prohibited during Malay programs. Lingerie advertisements
are prohibited in Malaysian television, but allowed in non-Malay magazines published in Malaysia.

Malaysian television advertisements were broadcast in Malay, English and Chinese. On Astro, Tamil-
language advertisements are also shown. Malay or Chinese language advertisements can also be broadcast
during an English program if the advertisement is not made in English. Non-Malay, English and Chinese
programming, such as Hindi, Finnish and Korean programs for example, during commercial break, shown
commercial in Malay, English and Chinese language, respectively.

Private television stations (especially TV3) has sparked some controversies to Malaysian entertainment in
the recent years, with the excessive advertisement space, which lead to audience anger and causes many
viewers prefer to watch foreign programs than the local ones. As a result, the typical duration of a local
half-hour and hour-long programs lasts only 20 and 40 minutes of the whole program excluding
advertisements, respectively. Some advertisements were banned from RTM due to problems, but the
broadcast of these advertisements were allowed on Astro and Media Prima-owned television
advertisement breaks.

Like some other South East Asian countries, all Malaysian television stations has to remove the television
channel's logo before a commercial break. Television stations are allowed to broadcast promotion of
television programs before the end of the commercial break. RTM may not broadcast television
commercials during late at night (after 12 midnight) but private television stations (including Astro) is
allowed to broadcast television commercials anytime.

[edit] The Philippines

In the Philippines, advertising is self-regulated by individual broadcasters. The Association of


Broadcasters of the Philippines, a self-regulatory organization representing most television and radio
broadcasters in the country, limit advertising to 18 minutes per hour, a move taken to help "promote
public interest."[17][18]

[edit] Australia

Similar to the European Union, advertising on Australian commercial television is restricted to a certain
amount in a 24-hour period, but there are no restrictions on how much advertising may appear in any
particular hour.[19] Australian television has one of the highest advertising content in the world. Prime-time
can see 18 minutes or more of ads per hour. Furthermore, product ads wrapped up in informational content
are labeled "public service announcements" and not included in the time restrictions; similarly with "this
program brought to you by..." announcements, and station identifications. Consequently Australian
viewers might see less than 40 minutes of actual program time per hour. Foreign, older television
programs and movies are noticeably shortened; comedy shows often return from an ad break into laughter,
for instance. Australia is also one of the few countries in the world where advertisements may appear prior
to, and over the top of, the closing credits of a program. There are some restrictions on television
advertising in Australia, such as a complete ban on advertising for cigarettes, as well as advertising during
programs intended for young children[citation needed]. The ABC, the nation's public broadcaster, broadcasts no
external advertisements, but between programs will broadcast promotions for its own programs and
merchandise, but is restricted to approximately five minutes per hour. SBS had similar restrictions on
advertising until 2005, when it began airing external ads as per the commercial stations.

[edit] New Zealand

All major New Zealand television channels, whether state-owned or private, screen advertisements, with
adverts on average taking up 15 minutes of each hour. There are usually two advert breaks in a half-hour
program, and four advert breaks in an hour-long program.

Television adverts are banned on Christmas Day, Good Friday, Easter Sunday, and also on Sunday
mornings before midday (although TV3 did broadcast adverts on Sunday mornings during the 2007
Rugby World Cup). Also, advertising of certain products is restricted (e.g. alcohol, unhealthy foods) or
banned (e.g. tobacco).

The Advertising Standards Authority is responsible for advertisement compliance, and deals with
advertisement complaints (except for election advertising, in which the Broadcasting Standards Authority
is responsible).

[edit] Korea, South

Under the current rules, terrestrial channels cannot take in-program commercial breaks. So, the
commercials are usually put between the intro and the start of a program, and between the end credits and
the end of the program. Terrestrial channels often divide some longer-length films like The Ten
Commandments into parts and consider each part as an individual program. Terrestrial channels can take
commercial breaks during breaks in action during sporting events.

Pay-television channels can take in-program commercial breaks, although some pay channels schedule
advertisement in the same way that terrestrial channels do. Regulations for commercials on terrestrial
channels are more strict than those for pay channels. Non-South Korean channels are not subject to these
regulations. Tobacco advertisements are prohibited.

[edit] Latin America

[edit] Argentina

Since late 2010, all Argentine television channels (including cable channels operated from the country
itself), are forced to separate advertising from the rest of the programming using bumpers with the text
"Espacio publicitario" ("Advertising space"). Commercial advertising is limited to 12 minutes per hour.
In-program advertising is allowed, but counted toward the 12 minute quota. That means that if a 60 minute
show has 2 minutes of in-program advertising, the commercial breaks have to be limited to 10 minutes for
that specific hour. Otherwise the station might face a fine.
[edit] Use of popular music
Prior to the 1980s music in television advertisements was generally limited to jingles and incidental
music; on some occasions lyrics to a popular song would be changed to create a theme song or a jingle for
a particular product.[citation needed] In 1971 the converse occurred when a song written for a Coca-Cola
advertisement was re-recorded as the pop single "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing" by the New
Seekers, and became a hit. Some pop and rock songs were re-recorded by cover bands for use in
advertisements, but the cost of licensing original recordings for this purpose remained prohibitive until the
late 1980s.[citation needed]

The use of previously-recorded popular songs in television advertisements began in earnest in 1985 when
Burger King used the original recording of Aretha Franklin's song "Freeway of Love" in a television
advertisement for the restaurant. This also occurred in 1987 when Nike used the original recording of The
Beatles' song "Revolution" in an advertisement for athletic shoes. Since then, many classic popular songs
have been used in similar fashion. Songs can be used to concretely illustrate a point about the product
being sold (such as Bob Seger's "Like a Rock" used for Chevy trucks), but more often are simply used to
associate the good feelings listeners had for the song to the product on display. In some cases the original
meaning of the song can be totally irrelevant or even completely opposite to the implication of the use in
advertising; for example Iggy Pop's "Lust for Life", a song about heroin use addiction, has been used to
advertise Royal Caribbean International, a cruise ship line. Music-licensing agreements with major artists,
especially those that had not previously allowed their recordings to be used for this purpose, such as
Microsoft's use of "Start Me Up" by the Rolling Stones and Apple Inc.'s use of U2's "Vertigo" became a
source of publicity in themselves.

In early instances, songs were often used over the objections of the original artists[citation needed], who had lost
control of their music publishing, the music of Beatles being perhaps the most well-known case; more
recently artists have actively solicited use of their music in advertisements and songs have gained
popularity and sales after being used in advertisements. A famous case is Levi's company, which has used
several one hit wonders in their advertisements (songs such as "Inside", "Spaceman", and "Flat Beat").

Sometimes a controversial reaction has followed the use of some particular song on an advertisement.
Often the trouble has been that people do not like the idea of using songs that promote values important
for them in advertisements. For example Sly and the Family Stone's anti-racism song, "Everyday People",
was used in a car advertisement, which angered among people.[who?][citation needed]

Generic scores for advertisements often feature clarinets, saxophones, or various strings (such as the
acoustic/electric guitars and violins) as the primary instruments.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, electronica music was increasingly used as background scores for
television advertisements, initially for automobiles,[20] and later for other technological and business
products such as computers and financial services. Television advertising has become a popular outlet for
new artists to gain an audience for their work, with some advertisements displaying artist and song
information onscreen at the beginning or end.

[edit] Future of TV advertisements


Though advertisements for cigarettes are banned in many countries, advertisements can still occur by the
broadcast of race events.

The introduction of digital video recorders (also known as digital television recorders or DTRs), such as
TiVo, and services like Sky+, Dish Network and Astro MAX, which allow the recording of television
programs onto a hard drive, also enabled viewers to fast-forward or automatically skip through
advertisements of recorded programs.

There is speculation that television advertisements are threatened by digital video recorders as viewers
choose not to watch them. However evidence from the UK shows that this is so far not the case. At the
end of 2008 22 percent of UK households had a DTR. The majority of these households had Sky+ and
data from these homes (collected via the SkyView[21] panel of more than 33,000) shows that, once a
household gets a DTR, they watch 17 percent more television. 82 percent of their viewing is to normal,
linear, broadcast TV without fast-forwarding the ads. In the 18 percent of TV viewing that is time-shifted
(i.e. not watched as live broadcast), viewers still watch 30 percent of the ads at normal speed. Overall, the
extra viewing encouraged by owning a DTR results in viewers watching 2 percent more ads at normal
speed than they did before the DTR was installed.

The SkyView evidence is reinforced by studies on actual DTR behaviour by the Broadcasters' Audience
Research Board (BARB) and the London Business School.

Other forms of TV advertising include Product placement advertising in the TV shows themselves. For
example, Extreme Makeover: Home Edition advertises Sears, Kenmore, and Home Depot by specifically
using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Sprint Cup of NASCAR are named
after sponsors, and of course, race cars are frequently covered in advertisements. Incidentally, many major
sporting venues, in North America at least, are named for commercial companies, dating back as far as
Wrigley Field. Television programs delivered through new mediums such as streaming online video also
bring different possibilities to the traditional methods of generating revenue from television advertising.[22]

Another type of advertisement shown more and more, mostly for advertising TV shows on the same
channel, is an ad overlay at the bottom of the TV screen, which blocks out some of the picture. "Banners",
or "Logo Bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is
done in much the same way as a severe weather warning is done, only these happen more frequently. they
may sometimes take up only 5 to 10 percent of the screen, but in the extreme, they can take up as much as
25 percent of the viewing area. Subtitles that are part of the program content can be completely obscured
by banners. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example is the 2E ads for Three
Moons Over Milford, which was broadcast in the months before the TV show's premiere. A video taking
up approximately 25 percent of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into
the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television program.

Google's Eric Schmidt has announced plans to enter the television ad delivery and optimization business.
This is despite the fact that Google lacks an immediate video production and network placement foothold.
There are few details in place about how this may occur, but some have speculated that they will use a
similar model to that of their business strategy directed at radio broadcast, which included the acquisition
of operations system support provider.[23][24]

Online video directories are an emerging form of interactive advertising, which help in recalling and
responding to advertising produced primarily for television. These directories also have the potential to
offer other value-added services, such as response sheets and click-to-call, which greatly enhance the
scope of the interaction with the brand.

During the 2008-09 TV season, Fox experimented with a new strategy, which the network dubbed
"Remote-Free TV". Episodes of Fringe and Dollhouse contained approximately ten minutes of
advertisements, four to six minutes fewer than other hour-long programs. Fox stated that shorter
commercial breaks keep viewers more engaged and improve brand recall for advertisers, as well as
reducing channel surfing and fast-forwarding past the ads. However, the strategy was not as successful as
the network had hoped and it is unclear whether it will be continued into the next season.

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen