Mark Nicko E.

Paquibot June 27, 2017

Histo 53 - A

1. Who Were The First Americans?

A study of skulls excavated from the tip of Baja California in Mexico suggests that the
first Americans may not have been the ancestors of today's Amerindians, but another
people who came from Southeast Asia and the southern Pacific area.

The question of who colonized the Americas, and when, has long been hotly debated.
Traditionally, Native Americans are believed to have descended from northeast Asia,
arriving over a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska some 12,000 years ago and
then migrating across North and South America.

But recent research, including the Baja California study, indicates that the initial
settlement of the continent was instead driven by Southeast Asians who occupied
Australia 60,000 years ago and then expanded into the Americas about 13,500 years
ago, prior to Mongoloid people arriving from northeast Asia.

The skulls from Baja California, which may date back only a few hundred years, have
slender-looking faces that are different from the broad-cheeked craniums of modern
Amerindians, the descendants of the Mongoloid people.

"Our results change the traditional idea that all modern Amerindians present
morphological affinities with East Asians as a result of a single migration," said Rolando
González-José of the University of Barcelona, Spain, who led the study. "The settlement
of the New World is better explained by considering a continuous influx of people from
Asia."

The new study is reported in this week's issue of the science journal Nature, and could
further fuel the controversy surrounding the origins of the first Americans, which is a
controversial issue for American Indians in particular.

Lovgren, S. (2003, September 3). Who Were The First Americans?

Retrieved June 26, 2017, from
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/09/0903_030903_bajaskull.html
The first people who populated the Americas

Many thousands of years ago, not a single human being lived in the Americas.This
only changed during the last Ice Age. It was a time when most of North America was
covered with a thick sheet of ice, which made the Americas difficult to inhabit.

But at some point during this time, adventurous humans started their journey into a
new world.

They probably came on foot from Siberia across the Bering Land Bridge, which existed
between Alaska and Eurasia from the end of the last Ice Age until about 10,000 years
ago. The area is now submerged by water.

There is still debate about when these first Americans actually arrived and where they
came from. But we are now getting closer to uncovering the original narrative, and
finding out who these first Americans really were.
 

During the peak of the last Ice Age about 20,000 years ago, a journey from Asia into
the Americas would not have been particularly desirable. North America was covered
in icy permafrost and tall glaciers. But, paradoxically, the presence of so much ice
meant that the journey was, in a way, easier than it would be today. 

The abundance of ice meant that sea levels were much lower than they are now, and
a stretch of land emerged between Siberia and Alaska. Humans and animals could
simply walk from Asia to North America. The land bridge was called Beringia.

Hogenboom, M. (2017, March 30). The first people who populated the
Americas. Retrieved June 26, 2017, from
http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20170328-the-first-people-who-populated-the-
americas
 2. THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA

The term American Indians is defined by the indigenous peoples of the area that is now
known as the United States.

This means the people were living here for thousands of years, long before it was
conquered and settled. Over the last many hundred years, the American Indians
have formed tribes, hunted, lived, and prospered on this great land.

Although most American Indians claim to have lived on their territory since the
beginning of time, some would claim that they migrated here in prehistoric times by way
of the Bering Strait Land Bridge. Many believe that most came from Siberia.

While the American Indians had lived in solitude for much of their lives, when the
Europeans came and discovered America, things became less peaceful. Indians were
suddenly forced off of their land and made to relocate. Wars were fought and blood was
shed. While some Indians eventually sided with the white man, many others refused to
surrender to their harsh ways.

A large number of tribes migrated to the Western part of the country, mostly due to
Andrew Jackson's Indian Removal Act of 1830. After years and years of struggle,
American Indians are finally getting the much deserved respect that they should have
received a long time ago. Museums have been erected all over the country showing
tribute to this great people, and educating the public about their history and rich
heritage. While the number of American Indians still living today is much fewer than it
was centuries ago, their people still remain strong and proud of who they are and what
they have become.

THE HISTORY OF AMERICAN INDIANS OF NORTH AMERICA. (n.d.).

Retrieved June 26, 2017, from http://indians.org/articles/american-indians.html.
List of Tribes :

Absentee-Shawnee Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma

Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians of the Agua Caliente Indian Reservation,

California

Ak Chin Indian Community of Papago Indians of the Maricopa, Ak Chin Reservation,

Arizona

Alabama and Coushatta Tribes of Texas

Alabama-Quassarte Tribal Town of the Creek Nation of Oklahoma

Alturas Indian Rancheria of Pit River Indians of California

Apache Tribe of Oklahoma

Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation, Wyoming  

Aroostook Band of Micmac Indians of Maine

Assiniboine and Sioux Tribes of the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana

Augustine Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians of the Augustine Reservation, California

Bad River Band of the Lake Superior Tribe of Chippewa Indians of the Bad River
Reservation, Wisconsin

Bay Mills Indian Community of the Sault Ste. Marie Band of Chippewa Indians, Bay
Mills Reservation, Michigan

Bear River Band of the Rohnerville Rancheria of California

Berry Creek Rancheria of Maidu Indians of California

Big Lagoon Rancheria of Smith River Indians of California

Big Pine Band of Owens Valley Paiute Shoshone Indians of the Big Pine Reservation,
California

Big Sandy Rancheria of Mono Indians of California

Big Valley Rancheria of Pomo & Pit River Indians of California

Blackfeet Tribe of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation of Montana

Blue Lake Rancheria of California Bridgeport Paiute Indian Colony of California

Buena Vista Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California

Burns Paiute Tribe of the Burns Paiute Indian Colony of Oregon

Cabazon Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians of the Cabazon Reservation, California    

Cachil DeHe Band of Wintun Indians of the Colusa Indian Community of the Colusa
Rancheria, California

Caddo Indian Tribe of Oklahoma

Cahuilla Band of Mission Indians of the Cahuilla Reservation, California

Cahto Indian Tribe of the Laytonville Rancheria, California

Campo Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Camoo Indian Reservation, California

Capitan Grande Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of California:

Barona Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians of the Barona Reservation,
California.

Viejas (Baron Long) Group' of Capitart Grande Band of Mission Indians of the Viejas
Reservation, California

Catawba Tribe of South Carolina

Cayuga Nation of New York

Cedarville Rancheria of Northern Paiute Indians of California

Chemehuevi Indian Tribe of the Chemehuevi Reservation, California

Cher-Ae Heights Indian Community of the Trinidad Rancheria, California

Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma    

Cheyenne-Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma    

Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe of the Cheyenne River Reservation, South Dakota    

Chickasaw Nation of Oklahoma    

Chicken Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California

Chippewa-Cree Indians of the Rocky Boy's Reservation, Montana    

Chitimacha Tribe of Louisiana

Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma Citizen Potawatomi Nation, Oklahoma    

Cloverdale Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Coast Indian Community of Yurok Indians of the Resighini Rancheria, California    

Cocopah Tribe of Arizona

Coeur D'Alene Tribe of the Coeur D'Alene Reservation, Idaho

Cold Springs Rancheria of Mono Indians of California

Colorado River Indian Tribes of the Colorado River Indian Reservation, Arizona and
California

Comanche Indian Tribe, Oklahoma

Confederated Salish & Kootenai Tribes of the Flathead Reservation, Montana    

Confederated Tribes of the Chehalis Reservation, Washington

Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, Washington

Confederated Tribes of the Coos, Lower Umoqua and Siuslaw Indians of Oregon

Confederated Tribes of the Goshute Reservation, Nevada and Utah

Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon

Confederated Tribes of the Siletz Reservation, Oregon

Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Reservation, Oregon

Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs Reservation of Oregon

Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Indian Nation of the Yakama
Reservation, Washington

Coquille Tribe of Oregon

Cortina Indian Rancheria of Wintun Indians of California

Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana

Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Indians of Oregon

Coyote Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California

Crow Tribe of Montana

Crow Creek Sioux Tribe of the Crow Creek Reservation, South Dakota

Cuyapaipe Community of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Cuyapaipe Reservation,

California

Death Valley Timbi-Sha Shoshone Band of California

Delaware Tribe of Indians, Oklahoma

Delaware Tribe of Western Oklahoma

Devils Lake Sioux Tribe of the Devils Lake Sioux Reservation, North Dakota

Dry Creek Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Duckwater Shoshone Tribe of the Duckwater Reservation, Nevada

Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians of North Carolina    

Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Oklahoma

Elem Indian Colony of Pomo Indians of the Sulphur Bank Rancheria, California

Elk Valley Rancheria of California

Ely Shoshone Tribe of Nevada

Enterprise Rancheria of Maidu Indians of California

FIandreau Santee Sioux Tribe of South Dakota

Forest County Potawatomi Community of Wisconsin Potawatomi Indians, Wisconsin

Fort Belknap Indian Community of the Fort Belknap Reservation of Montana

Fort Bidwell Indian Community of Paiute Indians of the Fort Bidwell Reservation,

California
Fort Independence Indian Community of Paiute Indians of the Fort Independence
Reservation, California

Fort McDermitt Paiute and Shoshone Tribes of the Fort McDermitt Indian Reservation,

Nevada.

Fort McDowell Mojave-Apache Indian Community of the Fort McDowell Indian

Reservation, Arizona

Fort Mojave Indian Tribe of Arizona, CaliPornia & Nevada

Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma

Gila River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community of the Gila River Indian Reservation of

Arizona

Grand Traverse Band of Ottawa & Chippewa Indians of Michigan    

Greenville Rancheria of Maidu Indians of California

Grindtone Indian Rancheria of Wintun. Wailaki Indians of California

Guidiville Rancheria of California

Hannahville Indian Community of Wisconsin Potawatomie Indians of Michigan

Havasupai Tribe of the Havasupai Reservation, Arizona

Ho-Chunk Nation of Wisconsin (formerly known as the Wisconsin Winnebago Tribe)

Hoh Indian Tribe of the Hoh Indian Reservation, Washington

Hoopa Valley Tribe of the Hoopa Valley Reservation, California

Hopi Tribe of Arizona

Hopland Band of Pomo Indians of the Hopland Rancheria, California

Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians of Maine

Hualapai Indian Tribe of the Hualapai Indian Reservation, Arizona

Huron Potawatomi, Inc., Michigan

Inaja Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Inaja and Cosmit Reservation, California

Ione Band of Miwok Indians of California
Iowa Tribe of Kansas and Nebraska

Iowa Tribe of Oklahoma

Jackson Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California

Jamestown Klallam Tribe of Washington

Jamul Indian Village of California

Jatibonicu Taino Tribal Nation, Puerto Rico    

Jena Band of Choctaw Indians, Louisiana

Jicarilla Apache Tribe of the Jicarilla Apache Indian Reservation, New Mexico    

Kaibab Band of Paiute Indians of the Kaibab Indian Reservation, Arizona

Kalispel Indian Community of the Kalispel Reservation, Washington

Karuk Tribe of California

Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria, California

Kaw Nation, Oklahoma

Keweenaw Bay Indian Community of L'Anse and Ontonagon Bands

of Chippewa Indians of the L'Anse Reservation, Michigan

Kialegee Tribal Town of the Creek Indian Nation of Oklahoma

Kickapoo Tribe of Indians of the Kickapoo Reservation in Kansas

Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma

Kickapoo Traditional Tribe of Texas

Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma

Klamath Indian Tribe of Oregon

Kootenai Tribe of Idaho

La Jolla Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of the La Jolla Reservation, California

La Posta Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the La Posta Indian Reservation,
California

La Courte Oreilles Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of the Lac Courte Oreilles

Reservation of Wisconsin

Lac du Flambeau Band of Lake Superior Chippewa lndians of the Lac du Flambeau

Reservation of Wisconsin

Lac Vieux Desert Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of Michigan

Las Vegas Tribe of Paiute Indians of the Las Vegas Indian Colony, Nevada

Little River Band of Ottawa Indians of Michigan

Little Traverse Bay Bands of Ottawa Indians of Michigan

Los Coyotes Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians of the Los Coyotes Reservation,

California

Lovelock Paiute Tribe of the Lovelock Indian Colony, Nevada

Lower Brule Sioux Tribe of the Lower Brule Reservation, South Dakota

Lower Elwha Tribal Community of the Lower Elwha Reservation, Washington

Lower Sioux Indian Community of Minnesota

Lummi Tribe of the Lummi Reservation, Washington

Lytton Rancheria of California

Makah Indian Tribe of the Makah Indian Reservation Washington    

Manchester Band of Pomo Indians of the Manchester-Point Arena Rancheria, California

Mananita Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Manzanita Reservation, California

Mashantucket Pequot Tribe of Connecticut

Mdewakanton Sioux Indians of the Lower Sioux Reservation in Minnesota

Mechoopda Indian Tribe of Chico Rancheria, California

Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin

Mesa Grande Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Mesa Grande Reservation,
California

Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Reservation New Mexico

Miami Tribe of Oklahoma

Miccosukee Tribe of Indians of Florida

Middletown Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, Minnesota (Six component reservations:Bois Forte Band at

Nett Lake): Fond du Lac Band: Grand Portage Band: Leech Lake Band: Mille Lacs
Band: White Earth Band)

Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians, Mississippi

Moapa Band of Paiute lndians of the Moapa River Indian Reservation, Nevada

Modoc Tribe of Oklahoma

Mohegan Indian Tribe of Connecticut

Mooretown Rancheria of Maidu Indians of California

Morongo Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians of the Morongo Reservation, California

Muckleshoot Indian Tribe of the Muckleshoot Reservation, Washington

Muscogee ( Creek ) Nation of Oklahoma

Narragansett Indian Tribe of Rhode Island

Navajo Nation of Arizona, New Mexico & Utah

Nez Perce Tribe of Idaho

Nisqually Indian Tribe of the Nisqually Reservation, Washington

Nooksack Indian Tribe of Washington

Northern Cheyenne Tribe of the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation, Montana    

Northfork Rancheria of Mono Indians of California

Northwestern Band of Shoshoni Nation of Utah (Washakie)

Oglala Sioux Tribe of the Pine Ridge Reservation, South Dakota

Omaha Tribe of Nebraska

Oneida Nation of New York

Oneida Tribe of Wisconsin

Onondaga Nation of New York

Osage Nation of Oklahoma

Ottawa Tribe of Oklahoma

Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians, Oklahoma

Paiute Indian Tribe of Utah

Paiute-Shoshone lndians of the Bishop Community of the Bishop Colony,California

Paiute-Shoshone Tribe of the Fallon Reservation and Colony, Nevada

Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Lone Pine Community of the Lone Pine Reservation,

California

Pala Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of the Pala Reservation, California

Pascua Yaqui Tribe of Arizona Paskenta Band of Norrdaki Indians of California

Passamaquoddy Tribe of Maine

Pauma Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of the Pauma & Yuima Reservation, California

Pawnee Indian Tribe of Oklahoma

Pechanga Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of the Pechanga Reservation, California

Penobscot Tribe of Maine, Peoria Tribe of Oklahoma

Picayune Rancheria of Chukchansi Indians of California

Pinoleville Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Pit River Tribe of California (includes Big Bend, Lookout, Montgomery Creek & Roaring
Creek Rancherias & XL Ranch)
Poarch Band of Creek Indians of Alabama

Pokagon Band of Potawatomi Indians of Michigan

Ponca Tribe of lndians of Oklahoma

Ponca Tribe of Nebraska

Port Gamble Indian Community of the Port Gamble Reservation, Washington

Potter Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Prairie Band of Potawatomi Indians, Kansas

Prairie Island Indian Community of Minnesota

Mdewakanton Sioux Indians of the Prairie Island Reservation, Minnesota

Pueblo of Acoma, New Mexico

Pueblo of Cochiti, New Mexico

Pueblo of Jemez, New Mexico

Pueblo of Isleta, New Mexico

Pueblo of Laguna, New Mexico

Pueblo of Nambe, New Mexico

Pueblo of Picuris, New Mexico

Pueblo of Pojoaque, New Mexico

Pueblo of San Felipe, New Mexico

Pueblo of San Juan, New Mexico

Pueblo of San Ildefonso, New Mexico

Pueblo of Sandia, New Mexico

Pueblo of Santa Ana, New Mexico    

Pueblo of Santa Clara, New Mexico

Pueblo of Santo Domingo, New Mexico

Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico

Pueblo of Tesuque, New Mexico

Pueblo of Zia, New Mexico

Puyallup Tribe of the Puyallup Reservation, Washington

Pyramid Lake Paiute Tribe of the Pyramid Lake Reservation, Nevada

Quapaw Tribe of Oklahoma

Quartz Valley Indian Community of the Quartz Valley Reservation of California

Quechan Tribe of the Fort Yuma Indian Reservation, California & Arizona

Quileute Tribe of the Quileute Reservation, Washington

Quinault Tribe of the Quinault Reservation, Washington

Ramona Band or Village of Cahuilla Mission Indians of California

Red Cliff Band of Lake Superior Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin

Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians of the Red Lake Reservation, Minnesota

Redding Rancheria of California

Redwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Reno-Sparks Indian Colony, Nevada

Rincon Band of Luiseno Mission lndians of the Rincon Reservation, California

Robinson Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Rosebud Sioux Tribe of the Rosebud Indian Reservation, South Dakota     [ Links ]

Round Valley lndian Tribes of the Round Valley Reservation. California (formerly known
as the Covelo lndian Community)

Rumsey Indian Rancheria of Wintun Indians of California

Sac & Fox Tribe of the Mississippi in Iowa

Sac & Fox Nation of Missouri in Kansas and Nebraska

Sac & Fox Nation, Oklahoma

Saginaw Chippewa lndian Tribe of Michigan, Isabella Reservation    

Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community of the Salt River Reservation, Arizona

Samish Indian Tribe, San Carlos Apache Tribe of the San Carlos Reservation, Arizona

San Juan Southern Paiute Tribe of Arizona,

San Manual Band of Senano Mission Indians of the San Manual Reservation, California

San Pascual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of California

Santa Rosa lndian Community of the Santa Rosa Rancheria, California

Santa Rosa Band of Cahuiila Mission Indians of the Santa Rosa Reservation, California

Santa Ynez Band of Chumash Mission Indians of the Santa Ynez Reservation,

California

Santa Ysabel Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of the Santa Ysabel Reservation,

California

Santee Sioux Tribe of the Santee Reservation of Nebraska,

Sauk-Suiattle Indian Tribe of Washington

Sault Ste. Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians of Michigan    

Scotts Valley Band of Pomo Indians of California

Seminole Nation of Oklahoma

Seminole Tribe of Florida, Dania, Big Cypress & Brighton Reservations    

Seneca Nation of New York

Seneca-Cayuga Tribe of Oklahoma

Shakopee Mdewakanton Sioux Community of Minnesota (Prior Lake)

Sheep Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wttk Indians of California

Sherwood Valley Rancheria of Pomo Indians of California

Shingle Springs Band of Miwok Indians, Shingle Springs Rancheria (Verona Tract),

California

Shoalwater Bay Tribe of the Shoalwater Bay Indian Reservation, Washington

Shoshone Tribe of the Wind River Reservation, Wyoming

Shoshone-Bannock Tribes of the Fort Hall Reservation of Idaho

Shoshone-Paiute Tribes of the Duck Valley Reservation, Nevada

Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux Tribe of the Lake Traverse Reservation, South Dakota

Skokomish Indian Tribe of the Skokomish Reservation, Washington

Skull Valley Band of Goshute Indians of Utah

Smith River Rancheria of California

Soboba Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of the Soboba Reservation, California

Sokaogon Chippewa Community of the Mole Lake Band of Chippewa Indians,

Wisconsin

Southern Ute lndian Tribe of the Southern Ute Reservation. Colorado    

Spokane Tribe of the Spokane Reservation. Washington

Squaxin Island Tribe of the Squaxin Island Reservation, Washington

St. Croix Chippewa Indians of Wisconsin, St. Croix Reservation

St. Regis Band of Mohawk Indians of New York    

Standing Rock Sioux Tribe of North & South Dakota    

Stockbridge-Munsee Community of Mohican Indians of Wisconsin

Stillaguamish Tribe of Washington

Summit Lake Paiute Tribe of Nevada

Suquamish lndian Tribe of the Port Madison Reservation, Washington

Susanville Indian Rancheria of Paiute , Maidu , Pit River & Washoe Indians of California

Swinomish Indians of the Swinomish Reservation, Washington

Sycuan Band of Diegueno Mission Indians of California

Table Bluff Rancheria of Wiyot Indians of California

Table Mountain Rancheria of California

Te-Moak Tribes of Western Shoshone Indians of Nevada

Thlopthlocco Tribal Town of the Creek Nation of Oklahoma

Three Affiliated Tribes of the Fort Berthold Reservation, North Dakota.

Tohono O'odham Nation of Arizona (formerly known as the Papago Tribe of the Sells,

Gila Bend & San Xavier Reservation, Arizona)

Tonawanda Band of Seneca Indians of New York

Tonkawa Tribe of Indians of Oklahoma

Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona

Torres-Martinez Band of Cahuilla Mission Indians of California

Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation, California

Tulalip Tribes of the Tulalip Reservation, Washington

Tunica-Biloxi Indian Tribe of Louisiana

Tuolumne Band of Me-Wuk Indians of the Tuolumne Rancheria of California

Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa Indians of North Dakota

Tuscarora Nation of New York

Twenty-Nine Palms Band of Luiseno Mission Indians of California

United Auburn Indian Community of the Auburn Rancheria of California

United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians of Oklahoma    

Upper Lake Band of Pomo Indians of Upper Lake Rancheria of California

Upper Sioux Indian Community of the Upper Sioux Reservation, Minnesota

Upper Skagit Indian Tribe of Washington

Ute lndian Tribe of the Uintah & Ouray Reservation, Utah

Ute Mountain Tribe of the Ute Mountain Reservation, Colorado, New Mexico & Utah

Utu Utu Gwaitu Paiute Tribe of the Benton Paiute Reservation. California

Walker River Paiute Tribe of the Walker River Reservation, Nevada

Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head (Aquinnah) of Massachusetts

Washoe Tribe of Nevada & California (Carson Colony, Dresslerville & Washoe

Ranches)

White Mountain Apache Tribe of the Fort Apache Reservation, Arizona

Wichita and Affiliated Tribes ( Wichita , Keechi , Waco & Tawakonie ), Oklahoma

Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska

Winnemucca Indian Colony of Nevada

Wyandotte Tribe of Oklahoma

Yankton Sioux Tribe of South Dakota

Yavapai-Apache Nation of the Camp Verde Indian Reservation, Arizona

Yavapai-Prescott Tribe of the Yavapai Reservation, Arizona

Yerington Paiute Tribe of the Yerington Colony & Campbell Ranch, Nevada

Yomba Shoshone Tribe of the Yomba Reservation, Nevada

Ysleta Del Sur Pueblo of Texas Yurok Tribe of the Yurok Reservation, California

Zuni Tribe of the Zuni Reservation, New Mexico

(n.d.). Retrieved June 26, 2017, from http://www.healing-arts.org/tribes.htm

 3. The Viking and Spanish conquest

Viking conquest

As Leif Erikssson Day approaches, the United States commemorates the explorer
credited with the first European expedition to North America.

Nearly 500 years before the birth of Christopher Columbus, a band of European sailors
left their homeland behind in search of a new world. Their high-prowed Viking ship
sliced through the cobalt waters of the Atlantic Ocean as winds billowed the boat’s
enormous single sail. After traversing unfamiliar waters, the Norsemen aboard the
wooden ship spied a new land, dropped anchor and went ashore. Half a millennium
before Columbus “discovered” America, those Viking feet may have been the first
European ones to ever have touched North American soil.

Exploration was a family business for the expedition’s leader, Leif Eriksson (variations
of his last name include Erickson, Ericson, Erikson, Ericsson and Eiriksson). His father,
Erik the Red, founded the first European settlement of Greenland after being expelled
from Iceland around A.D. 985 for killing a neighbor. (Erik the Red’s father, himself, had
been banished from Norway for committing manslaughter.) Eriksson, who is believed to
have been born in Iceland around A.D. 970, spent his formative years in desolate
Greenland. Around A.D. 1000, Eriksson sailed east to his ancestral homeland of
Norway. There, King Olaf I Tryggvason converted him to Christianity and charged him
with proselytizing the religion to the pagan settlers of Greenland. Eriksson converted his
mother, who built Greenland’s first Christian church, but not his outlaw father.

Icelandic legends called sagas recounted Eriksson’s exploits in the New World around
A.D. 1000. These Norse stories were spread by word of mouth before becoming
recorded in the 12th and 13th centuries. Two sagas give differing accounts as to how
Eriksson arrived in North America. According to the “Saga of Erik the Red,” Eriksson
crossed the Atlantic by accident after sailing off course on his return voyage from
Norway after his conversion to Christianity. The “Saga of the Greenlanders,” however,
recounts that Eriksson’s voyage to North America was no fluke. Instead, the Viking
explorer had heard of a strange land to the west from Icelandic trader Bjarni
Herjolfsson, who more than a decade earlier had overshot Greenland and sailed by the
shores of North America without setting foot upon it. Eriksson bought the trader’s ship,
raised a crew of 35 men and retraced the route in reverse.

After crossing the Atlantic, the Vikings encountered a rocky, barren land in present-day
Canada. Eriksson bestowed upon the land a name as boring as the surroundings—
Helluland, Norwegian for “Stone Slab Land.” Researchers believe this location could
possibly have been Baffin Island. The Norsemen then voyaged south to a timber-rich
location they called Markland (Forestland), most likely in present-day Labrador, before
finally setting up a base camp likely on the northern tip of the island of Newfoundland.

The Vikings spent an entire winter there and benefitted from the milder weather
compared to their homeland. They explored the surrounding region abounding with lush
meadows, rivers teeming with salmon, and wild grapes so suitable for wine that
Eriksson called the region Vinland (Wineland).

After spending the winter in Vinland, Eriksson and his crew sailed home to windswept
Greenland with badly needed timber and plentiful portions of grapes. Eriksson, who
would succeed Erik the Red as chief of the Greenland settlement after his father’s
death, never returned to North America, but other Vikings continued to sail west to
Vinland for at least the ensuing decade. In spite of North America’s more bountiful
resources, the Viking settlers remained in desolate Greenland. This was perhaps due to
the violent encounters—including the slaying of Eriksson’s brother Thorwald–they had
with the indigenous population of North America.
Archaeologists have unearthed evidence that supports the sagas’ stories of the Norse
expeditions to America. In 1960, Norwegian explorer Helge Ingstad scoured the coasts
of Labrador and Newfoundland for signs of a possible settlement, and he found it on the
northernmost tip of Newfoundland at L’Anse aux Meadows. An international team of
archaeologists that included Ingstad’s wife, Anne, excavated artifacts of Viking origin
dating from around A.D. 1000, and the remains of the Norse village are now part of a
UNESCO World Heritage site.

While Columbus is honored with a federal holiday, the man considered to be the leader
of the first European expedition to North America has not been totally forgotten on the
calendar. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed a proclamation that declared
October 9 to be Leif Eriksson Day in honor of the Viking explorer, his crew and the
country’s Nordic-American heritage. The proximity of the days honoring Eriksson and
Columbus is coincidence. October 9 was chosen because it is the anniversary of the
1825 arrival in New York of the ship Restaruation, which carried the first organized band
of Norwegian immigrants to the United States.

(n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/news/the-viking-explorer-

who-beat-columbus-to-america

Spanish conquest

The Spanish Conquest of America. In the 15th century Christopher Columbus began
the conquest of America and was the first coming to the Americas in 1492.

In the 15th century Christopher Columbus, who was well-read in geographical and

theological literature and had extensive maritime experience, believed he could steer a
westward course across the Atlantic to Asia. Failing to gain support for his project in
Portugal, he decided to move to Spain, where politically favourable circumstances and
good fortune led the Catholic monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon,
to approve the venture.

Columbus set forth commanding three small ships, and after a long drawn-out journey
landed on the coast of a Caribbean island. Thus commenced the Spanish conquest of
America.
The widely published report of the 1492 voyage granted Christopher Columbus
widespread European recognition, and secured him the title of Admiral of the Ocean
Sea. More importantly, it enabled him to obtain further royal patronage and thus lead
three more expeditions to the Caribbean (although Columbus continued to believe that
he had reached Asia).
The Azteca and the Inca empires in Mexico were conquered by Spain in the 16th
century, while the terrotory that would eventually became the US was explored by
Hernando de Soto and Cabeza de Vaca.
The later travelled extensively through eastern and central United States, arriving at
modern day Chicago, and during three years hoped to cross the sea to China,
considered to be the finest market in the world.
His journey from Florida to the Mexican Gulf is described in the logbook Naufragios,
which also recounts his experience of shipwreck. He and other five men had been living
as natives in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Early in 1536 they came across Spanish
soldiers on a slave expedition in Northern Mexico, and by July they had arrived in
Mexico City.
Mexican territory was conquered by Hernán Cortés. The Aztec people believed Cortés
to be their white-skinned god Quetzalcoatlin, a belief which facilitated the Spanish
conquest. The Spanish fleet had landed in Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz in February 1519,
and by the month of November, commanded by Cortés, they entered Tenochtitlán and
arrested the Aztec Emperor, Moctezuma. Within two years Cortés had completely
overthrown the Aztec Empire, securing control of Tenochtitlán and its surrounding
territories, upon the ruins of which he would build Mexico City.
In 1532 the Inca Empire was conquered by Francisco Pizarro, whose men kidnapped
Emperor Atahualpa in exchange for a ransom of gold and silver; once the ransom was
paid, however, Atahualpa was murdered.

(n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.donquijote.org/culture/spain/history/spanish-conquest-of-america