MCE Skripta PDF

March 2015
LABORATORY OF
MEASURING AND CONTROL
Dušan Kopecký, Ph. D., Iva Nachtigalová, Ph. D., assoc. prof. Karel Kadlec,
assoc. prof. Martin Vrňata
Title:
Laboratory of Measuring and Control
Authors (alphabetically):
Ladislav Fišer, Ph. D.
assoc. prof. Karel Kadlec, Ph. D.
Dušan Kopecký, Ph. D.
Iva Nachtigalová, Ph. D.
assoc. prof. Dr. Martin Vrňata
English translation:
MSc. Pavel Langer
Dušan Kopecký, Ph. D.
assoc. prof. Dr. Martin Vrňata
Graphical design:
Published by the University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague

Technická 5
166 28 Praha 6
Czech Republic
Supported by PIGA 2014/023
Copyright © 2015 by Dušan Kopecký, Iva Nachtigalová, Karel Kadlec, Martin Vrňata
ISBN 978-80-7080-919-8
List of Laboratories
Non-contact Temperature Measurement (NTM)
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Measurement of Electrolytic Conductivity (MEC)
Virtual Instrumentation (VI)
Wireless Sensors (WS)
Semiconductor Gas Sensor (SGS)
Continuous Level Sensors (CLS)
Process Simulation and Control (PSC)

NON-CONTACT TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
Preparing for Laboratory Work
NTM January 2015

Author: assoc. prof. Karel Kadlec, Ph. D.
Laboratory Task: Non-contact Temperature Measurement
Filename: MCE.BMT.Preparing.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 23
Last modification: 14.1.2015
Introduction ................................................................................................... 5
Non-contact Temperature Measurement ....................................................... 6
1 Theoretical Basics of Non-Contact Temperature Measurement ................ 7
2 Arrangement of IT Thermometer and Thermal Imaging Camera ..............12
3 Optical System of a Non-contact Thermometer .......................................14
4 Factors Acting at Measuring by Non-contact Thermometers ...................15
5 Thermographic Measurements................................................................17
6 Calibration Check of Non-contact Thermometers ....................................20
References ....................................................................................................21
Introduction
For proper understanding of the principles of non-contact temperature measurement and correct
evaluation of the results of measurement with an IR thermometer and a thermal imaging camera, it
is vital to master basic theoretical knowledge on this area. This instructional text comprises both
basic theoretical relation and description and features of state-of-the-art measuring instruments for
non-contact temperature measurement. In case that you can with no problems answer the following
questions, than you do not need to read this text any further; you will for certain manage the trial
test in the laboratory and during the laboratory work you will be well aware what is going on.
 Which sort of radiation of the spectrum can be used for non-contact temperature
measurement?
 What expresses Planck’s law of thermal radiation (not necessary to know its explicit wording),
which are its consequences?
 What expresses Wien’s displacement law?
 What expresses Stefan-Boltzmann law (it would be good to know its exact wording too)?
 What is black body and which are its features?
 What is emissivity and which values it may have?
 What is grey body and spectral emitter?
 What is absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity? Which values may they have and what
are their mutual relations? Which relations are valid with regards to emissivity?
 What is the principle of non-contact temperature measurement?
 What is the principle of function of an IR thermometer and what basic features does it have?
 What is the principle of function of a thermal imaging camera and what basic features does it
have?
 How is calibration of non-contact thermometers being carried out?
 Which are the application possibilities of non-contact thermometers?
If you do not know the answers to these questions, read the instructional text and find all you need.
Non-contact Temperature Measurement 5/23

Non-contact Temperature Measurement

At non-contact measurement, temperature is being evaluated from intensity of infrared radiation
emitted by the measured object. Such radiation is focused onto a suitable detector by means of
optical system; electrical signal from the detector is further being processed in electronic circuits. For
non-contact measurement, both non-contact thermometers (also called as IR thermometers,
pyrometers) and thermal imaging cameras (also called as thermographic camera, infrared camera, IR
thermocameras, thermovision cameras) are used. The thermal imaging cameras provide output in
the form of a thermogram (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 - Measurement of temperature with IR thermometer and thermal imaging camera

To understand properly the main principles of non-contact temperature measurement, function of
the non-contact thermometers and thermal imaging cameras and their application possibilities, it is
important to have the basic theoretical knowledge on this area.

1 Theoretical Basics of Non-Contact Temperature Measurement

All objects, whose temperature is above absolute zero, emit electromagnetic radiation in certain part
of the spectrum. That is caused by thermic motion of atomic and sub-atomic particles.
Electromagnetic radiation emerges dues to thermic motion of the particles and sometimes it is
referred to as thermal radiation. That is radiation of wavelengths 0.4 to 15 µm, which partially falls
to the visible area, partially to the infrared part of spectrum. For detection of infrared radiation on
wavelengths above 15 µm, there are currently no suitable detectors available, which could be used in
commercially available non-contact thermometers.
All bodies radiate (emit) electromagnetic radiation, while maximum of intensity of the emitted
radiation depends on the body temperature and it is distinguished by the wavelength (it lies in
different part of the spectrum). Idealized body, which is used at theoretical description of processes
taking part at emitting, is called black body. This is a theoretical object, which at given temperature
emits the highest possible quantity of energy and on the contrary is absorbs all energy, which falls
upon it. Quantities, which relate to black body, are marked with the 0 index further in the text.
Irradiance M (W.m-2) is given by quotient of radiant flux  (W) and surface area S (m2) of the source
of radiation.
d
𝑀= (1)
d𝑆
where (W) is radiant flux, S (m2) is surface area of the source of radiation.
Emitted thermal radiation consists of various wavelengths, intensity of radiation is of integral
character and it consists of contributions of the individual wavelengths according to the formula
∞
𝑀 = ∫0 𝑀 d (2)
where M (W.m-3) is spectral density of irradiation,  (m) is wavelength.
Note: Spectral density of irradiation expresses intensity radiated in a unit interval of
wavelengths (quotient of irradiation in a small interval of wavelengths and such interval).
Dependence of spectral density of irradiation on wavelength and on temperature for black body is
given by Planck’s law of radiation:
2𝜋ℎ𝑐 2 C1
𝑀0 = ℎ𝑐 = C2 (3)
5 5
 (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)  (𝑒 𝑘𝑇 −1)
where h is Planck constant, k is Boltzmann constant, c is speed of light in vacuum; the first and the
second radiation constant are C1 = 3.7413.10-16 (W·m2) and C2 = 1.4388.10-2 (K·m) respectively.
Dependence of spectra intensity of irradiation on wavelength for various temperatures of black body
is graphically expressed at Figure 2. Irradiation substantially decreases with decreasing temperature.
By derivation of the relation (3) according to Planck’s law it is possible to set up the maximum of
spectral density of radiation for a given temperature. Such maximum is shifting with increasing
temperature towards shorter wavelengths according to Wien’s displacement law:
2 898
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇
(4)
where max (µm) is wavelength corresponding to maximum of the dependence M0 = f (). Position of
the maximum is marked with dashed line at Figure 2.

visible
Figure 2 - Radiation by black body according to the Planck’s law

By integrating the relation (3) according to Planck’s law over all wavelengths, Stefan-Boltzmann law
is obtained; according to this law the total intensity of black body radiation is proportional to fourth
power of the thermodynamic temperature:
𝑀0 = 𝜎𝑇 4 (5)
where  = 5.67·10 W·m ·K .
-8 -2 -4
Intensity of radiation Mo is graphically expressed by area under the curve created according to the
Planck’s law for given temperature.
A real body radiates (and absorbs) less than black body. Its spectral density of irradiance M is given
by the formula:
𝑀 = 𝜀 𝑀0 (6)
where  is spectral emissivity for wavelength ,  < 1, (index  being used for spectral quantities). As
obvious from the formula (6), the spectral emissivity is defined as the quotient of real body
irradiance and black body irradiance M/M0 at given wavelength and temperature. Spectral
emissivity of black body is equal to 1.0.
Spectral emissivity is generally dependent on wavelength and on temperature  = f (, T), further
also on material, surface quality and angle of observation. Bodies, which have different spectral
emissivity , for various wavelengths and which thus show various differences from black body
radiation, are called selective (spectral) emitters. There are, however, also so-called grey bodies,
whose emissivity can be taken for constant in sufficiently wide range of wavelengths (see Figure 3).
The grey bodies have emissivity  < 1; such bodies are most suitable for non-contact measurement.

black body grey body

selective emitter
Figure 3 - Radiation and emissivity of three types of emitters

Informative values of emissivity  for selected surfaces are given in Table 1. Detailed tables of
emissivities of various materials, wavelengths and temperatures can be found in literature, i.e. [1], or
on the internet. Proper table should always contain the values of temperature and wavelength.
Emissivity is an important factor of the IR-thermography and its influence should always be taken in
consideration.
Table 1 - Informative values of emissivities for chosen surfaces at  = 7 to 14 µm.

Surface characteristics Temperature (°C) Emissivity
Black paint, matt 40 - 100 0,96 – 0,98
Human skin 32 0,98
Water 20 0,96
Brick (red, normal) 20 0,93
Paper (white, matt) 20 0,93
Wood (planed) 20 0,8 – 0,9
Iron, oxided 100 0,74
Iron, bright 150 0,16
Copper, polished 100 0,03
For radiation of grey body the Stefan-Boltzmann law is valid in the form:
𝑀 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 (7)
where  is emissivity of grey body.
Emissivity of grey body is defined as the quotient of irradiance of the object at given temperature
and irradiance of black body at the same temperature.
For radiant flux emitted by the body of area S we get:
𝜙 = 𝑆𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 (8)
That means, that at the same temperature of grey and black bodies, the resulting energy emitted by
the grey emitter compared to that emitted with the black one, lower proportionally to the emissivity
of the grey body.
In case that the object is in the state of thermal equilibrium, no heating or cooling is taking place. The
energy, which is being radiated, must be equal to the absorbed energy, therefore emissivity  is
equal to absorptivity  and according to the Kirchhoff´s law, for spectral quantities is valid:
 (, 𝑇) = 𝛼 (, 𝑇) (9)

Black body maximally radiates as well as maximally absorbs radiation. Emissivity as well as
absorptivity of black body is  =  = 1. If the temperature of the body is above the ambient
temperature, emitted energy prevails above the absorbed and vice versa. Irradiance of black body Mo
depends on its thermodynamical temperature T only. For grey body, emissivity and absorptivity are
always lower than 1.
There are three phenomena, which manifest itself at real objects (Figure 4):
 part of the incident radiation may be absorbed (in the state of equilibrium that part is equal to
radiation);
 part of the radiation may be reflected; and
 part my pass through the body.
incident radiation
transmitted
radiation
reflected radiation
emitted radiation absorbed radiation
Figure 4 - Interaction of radiation with an object

Besides of absorptivity  () and emissivity  (), there is further defined also reflectivity  () as
a measure of the ability to reflect radiation and transmissivity  () as a measure of the ability to let
the radiation through. All these quantities are generally dependent on wavelength and they are
always spectral quantities. Let’s summarize definitions of these quantities, which are for non-contact
temperature measurement highly important:
Emissivity  is the quotient of radiant flux of a body and that of black body;
Absorptivity  is the quotient of absorbed and incident radiant flux;
Reflectivity  is the quotient of reflected and incident radiant flux;
Transmissivity  is the quotient of passing-through and incident radiant flux.
The sum of all three factors for each wavelength is always equal to one:
𝛼 +  +  = 1 (10)
Analogical formula is valid for emissivity
 +  +  = 1 (11)
For grey body, it is valid:
++ =1 (12)
For impermeable materials, the transmittance  = 0; then, it is valid:
 +  = 1 resp.  +  = 1 (13)
From the known emissivity it is possible to calculate the reflectivity of impermeable body:
=1− (14)

The higher is the reflectivity, the lower is the emissivity. For highly gloss materials, emissivity is
nearing zero, i.e. for perfectly polished material, so called perfect mirror with high reflectivity, it is
valid, that reflectivity  = 1.
At measuring by means of the non-contact thermometers, it is important to have knowledge of
transmissivity of used optical materials (Figure 5) as well as transmissivity of atmosphere between
the object and the thermometer. At Figure 6, transmissivity of atmosphere at the distance of 10 m is
shown. At the graph, there are seen areas, where absorption of IR radiation by carbon dioxide and
water vapor takes place, as well as areas of high transmissivity, which are used for non-contact
temperature measurement. These are bands of wavelengths 3 to 5 µm and 8 to 14 µm. These bands
are known as atmospheric windows. Transmissivity is further dependent on thickness of the layer,
for example at the distance of 1000 m it drop about to 0.8 at the area of 8 to 14 µm.
sklo sapphire
germanium
quartz
CaF2
Figure 5 - Transmissivity of optical materials in dependence on wavelength
transmissivity τ
T = 300 K, RH = 50 %, CO2 concentration 300 ppm,

layer thickness 10 m
Figure 6 - Transmissivity of atmosphere

2 Arrangement of IT Thermometer and Thermal Imaging Camera

Simplified block scheme of the arrangement of IR thermometer and thermal imaging camera is
shown at Figure 7. Thermal radiation emitted by the measured object is focused by an optical system
onto a detector of IR radiation in the measuring instrument. The optical system mostly functions also
as a filter, as it has to transmit radiation of the required wavelengths. The thermal imaging camera
works on the principle of non-contact temperature measurement and the principle of its function is
thus the same as that of the IR thermometers. The basic difference is, that while the IR thermometer
evaluates temperature in a single point (more precisely, it evaluates average temperature in a certain
area), the thermal imaging camera evaluates thermal field at the whole surface of an object (see
Figure 1). Most of the nowadays type of thermal imaging cameras utilize so-called matrix (mosaic)
detectors. The difference is such, that the pyrometer uses a single sensor of IR radiation, while the
thermal imaging camera uses a matrix detector, containing a large number of individual sensors of
thermal radiation.
IR thermometer
radiation
detector
matrix of
detectors entering of
emissivity
thermal imaging camera according to measured
surface of irradiance, the microprocessor
measured will calculate temperature
object optical detector of electronic
system radiation circuits
Figure 7 - Block scheme of pyrometer and thermal imaging camera

As sensors of infrared radiation, either thermal sensors are used, where IR radiation cause a change
of temperature, which is then being evaluated. An example of such sensor is for example the
microbolometer (miniature resistance thermometer), which changes its electrical resistance on the
basis of intensity of incident radiation. Thermal sensors work within a wide range of wavelengths and
do not require cooling of the detection system. Further, quantum photon sensors (photodiodes,
photoresistors) are used, which upon incidence of IR radiation provide electric signal (change in
voltage or electrical conductance). Quantum detectors are of higher sensitivity than thermal
detectors, however mostly they require cooling and they detect radiation in a narrow part of
spectrum only. The microbolometric matrix detectors are a version of thermal detector; currently
they are the most widespread type in thermal imaging cameras. Resolution of a matrix detector is
given by number of its elements (pixels), which are arranged into a matrix. Matrix of detectors for
low-class thermal imaging cameras reach for example 100 × 100 elements, the middle class utilizes
detectors with 320 × 240 elements (i.e. 76 800 elements) and the top-class cameras employ
detectors of resolution of 640 × 480 elements or more.
The entry optical part of thermal imaging camera is quite similar to a digital photo camera. The lens
of thermal imaging camera, however, must transmit IR radiation of the required wavelengths, and
therefore it is made of special material. For thermal imaging cameras working in the wavelength
range from 8 to 14 µm – which is currently the most frequent type of thermal imaging cameras –
lenses are made of germanium coated with anti-reflex layer. The lens projects the incident thermal
radiation onto a matrix detector, on which an IR picture of the surface of the measured object is
formed. Temperature of the matrix detector is kept on a constant value (usually 30°C) by a circuit

with Peltier heat pump. Modern microbolometric detectors contain the necessary electronic circuits
for analogue or digital modification of signal right on the chip. The control logic ensures sequential
reading of signal from the individual elements. Signals from the individual sensors of the matrix
detector, which correspond to the radiant flux of IR radiation at the individual measured points are
further processes in electronic circuits, whose output is finally a visible image – thermogram – on the
camera monitor.

3 Optical System of a Non-contact Thermometer

Optical system of a non-contact thermometer usually has fixed focal length (fix-focus). By choosing
focal length of the lens one can determine size of the scanned (measured) area, which is “seen” by
the detector and thus it defines the field of view of the instrument. Field of view of an IR
thermometer defines the size of the measured object in given distance from the instrument and
there are several methods how it can be expresses (a chart, table, ratio of object distance to target
diameter, angle). To characterize optical resolution of the system, ratio between the measured
object distance and target diameter (D:S) are often used. For explanation see Figure 8.
target diameter
IR thermometer
distance D
D – Distance S –diameter of measured Spot
Figure 8 - Optical resolution

Angle of view should be such, that the image of the measured object fills the whole field of vision of
the instrument. Should the measured object not fill up the field of vision, the resulting measured
temperature would be average of temperature of the object and that of the background.
An usual part of a non-contact thermometer is an aiming system, which makes possible to aim the
instrument onto the required part of the measured object. Among the aiming systems, there are
open sights, which are the simplest but little precise, optical viewfinders similar to those of
photographic cameras, but currently the most used are laser sights, which show a visible mark on the
measured object (see Figure 9):
a) point-type laser sight (marks approximately the centre of the measured target);
b) double laser sight (delimits diameter of the measured target);
c) cross-type laser sight (delimits approximately the area of the measured target);
d) circle-type laser sight (delimits the area of the measured target).
Figure 9 - Laser aiming systems

4 Factors Acting at Measuring by Non-contact Thermometers

The prerequisite of proper function of IR thermometers is maintaining of correct size of the targeted
area on the body, whose temperature is to be measured. Size of this area depends on the aiming
angle, on parameters of the optical part of the IR thermometer (focal length), on size of effective
area of the detector and on the aiming distance. The relation between the aiming distance and size
of the measured area is generally provided by the manufacturer in a form of a graph or a table. The
area of the measured object should completely fill-up the field of view of the pyrometer. If this
condition is met, then the result of measurement does not depend on the distance from the
instrument to the measured object. Failure to meet this condition leads to misreading, since the
instrument records average temperature of the observed area, i.e. that of the measured object and
its background. Size of the recorded area increases with square of distance between the pyrometer
and the measured object. The relation between size of the field of view of an IR thermometer and
the area of the detected object is seen at Figure 10. The manufacturers of the instruments
recommend that the measured object should exceed the field of vision by at least 50%, in order to
achieve proper measurement.
correct still correct wrong

IR thermometer
measured object is measured object measured object is

larger than the is equal to the smaller than the
measured area measured area measured area
Figure 10 - Field of view of an IR thermometer and aiming at the measured object
2) disturbing source of IR
radiation
IR thermometer
3) disturbing source of IR
radiation behind the object 5) window
4) gasses absorbing IR radiation
1) measured object
(water vapors, smoke)
Figure 11 - Main sources of errors at non-contact temperature measurement

The main sources of errors at measurement by non-contact thermometers are schematically
illustrated at Figure 11:
1) The surface of the measured object may be of varying character (matt, gloss, rough, colour,
black or transparent). IR thermometers are calibrated for measuring the temperature of black
body. A real object, however, is seldom nearing with its featured to black body and therefore
it is important to determine emissivity of the measured surface and enter the value of this
correction factor.
2) An important source of disturbance may be reflection of radiation coming from disturbing
sources of IR radiation (i.e. radiation from hot objects, incident sun rays); such errors may be

compensated by setting so called apparent reflected temperature (this subject is described

more closely in the section dedicated to thermal imaging cameras).
3) A source of disturbing thermal radiation may by located behind the object transparent for IR
radiation.
4) The environment between the measured surface and the IR thermometer may be of varying
transmittance for IR radiation. In case the atmosphere contains constituents absorbing IR
radiation (i.e. carbon dioxide, water vapour or other gasses and vapours), the resulting value
would be affected. For band pyrometers it is possible by choosing a suitable sensor to
measure in such a matter, that absorbtion of radiation by gasses does not disturb the
measurement. Also, smoke and dust particles absorb thermal radiation and the measured
value will appear lower.
5) In case the measurement is done through a window transparent for IR radiation, radiation will
be partially absorbed (this influence can be corrected by setting of emissivity).

5 Thermographic Measurements
At thermographic measurements, thermal imaging camera (as well as IR thermometer) scans not
only the object itself, but also radiation from its neighbourhood, which is reflecting from the surface
into the camera. Both radiations are in certain extent weakened by the atmosphere between the
camera and the object. Besides, sometimes it is necessary to take into consideration the radiation of
atmosphere. This situation is schematically illustrated at Figure 12.
Meaning of symbols at Figure 12:  - object emissivity,  - atmosphere transmissivity,  – radiant flux,
T – temperature, indexes: obj – object, atm – atmosphere, odr – reflected.
measured
atmosphere
object
thermocamera
ambient
Figure 12 - Situation at thermographic measurement

The individual components of the radiant flux received by the thermal imaging camera detector are:
 Radiant flux from the object weakened by passing through atmosphere:   obj (object
temperature Tobj).
 Reflected radiant flux from other sources: (1-)  odr, where (1-) expresses reflectance of
the object. (Let’s assume that radiation incident from neighbourhood represents radiation
from surfaces within an imaginary hemisphere, which have emissivity = 1 and equal
temperature Todr).
Apparent reflected temperature Todr is apparent temperature of other objects, whose
radiation is reflected from the surface of the measured object into the thermal imaging
camera.
 Radiant flux emitted by atmosphere: (1-)  odr, where (1-) expresses emissivity of
atmosphere, whose temperature is Tatm.
 Full transparency of thermal imaging camera optics is assumed; radiant flux of optical
components is considered to be negligible.
Now we can compile equation for overall radiant flux incident on the thermal imaging camera
detector. This equation is sometimes referred to as equation of thermal imaging camera
measurement:
𝜙 = 𝜀𝜏𝜙obj + (1 − 𝜀)𝜏𝜙odr + (1 − 𝜏)𝜙atm (15)
When using the Stephan-Boltzmann law for grey body, it is possible to derive a formula, according to
which the thermal imaging camera microprocessor calculates temperature if the individual parts of
the measured surface on the basis of signals from the sensors of the matrix detector.

When neglecting radiation of atmosphere, the formula (15) gets simplified:

𝜙 = 𝜀𝜏𝜙obj + (1 − 𝜀)𝜏𝜙odr (16)
The expression   obj represents radiant flux from the object, whose surface temperature is being
measured, while the expression (1 - )  odr represents parasitic radiant flux incident on the
detector; its influence is to be corrected.
Therefore the user of the thermal imaging camera has to enter the parameters of the measurement:
object emissivity , apparent reflected temperature Todr, temperature of atmosphere Tatm and
transmissivity of atmosphere  (instead of atmosphere transmissivity, relative humidity and distance
from the thermal imaging camera to the object is usually entered). Parameters of measurement are
preset to certain values; however for proper evaluation of the measured temperature, these
parameters have to be corrected according to the actual situation. Every measuring (radiometric)
thermal imaging camera is equipped with the possibility of correction of these parameters.
Information on the object and its ambience, which surrounds it (i.e. the background and ambient
atmosphere) is being displayed as a thermal image (thermal imaging camera picture) in the form of
thermogram by the thermal imaging camera system. The thermal imaging camera can be either
observed on the thermal imaging camera monitor, or transferred into a PC and displayed on the PC
monitor.
As infrared radiation is invisible for human eye, thermal images are being visualized using visible
color palette, which are assigned to various temperatures. The same picture can be therefore
displayed in different color palettes, and thus it is possible to make visible or emphasize other places.
Standardized palettes are used for thermograms, such as: iron, rainbow, degrees of grey, etc. At
Figure 13, there is a picture of calibration black body and thermograms in various color palettes.
Besides of the thermogram there is shown also the respective scale with assigned colour and
temperatures.
Photography Thermograms
Color palette: iron medical grey

Figure 13 - Color palettes of thermograms
Thermograms may be both radiometric and non-radiometric (illustrative only). Radiometric
thermograms enable calculating temperature of individual points on the surface of the measured
object. The basis for the calculation is quantity of received infrared radiant flux. In fully radiometric
thermogram, it is possible to carry out temperature measurement and to modify image parameters
even after it is recorded. Determination of temperature is however not easy at all, since low value of
emissivity of the body mostly means also lower accuracy of the measurement. Further, so called
apparent reflected temperature may influence the measured radiant flux and this may significantly
affect the result of the measurement. The pixel size also affects the measured value in the specific
point.
Another important factor is thermal sensitivity, which may reach up to 50 mK for good cameras (that
is, they distinguish temperature differences from 0.05 °C).

For evaluation of measured thermograms, there is the respective software available. The software
can be used for proceeding the measurement reports as well. The evaluation software offer
extensive possibilities of thermogram evaluation, using numerous measurement functions. Some
programs enable to change parameters of the thermogram (object emissivity and atmosphere
transmittance) for all used measurement functions. During the laboratory work, all students will get
acquainted with the Flir Quick Report software.
Application of IR thermometers and thermocameras may be very wide; they are used namely for:
 on the surface of technological equipment;
 detection of heat leaks on hot-water lines;
 search for heat leaks from buildings;
 monitoring of electrical lines and their possible damage;
 determination of failures by searching for nonhomogenities of thermal field;
 non-invasive detection of under-skin inflammations;
 measuring of temperature distribution for purposes of science and research;
 process automation;
 detection of movement of persons within secured objects;
 night vision devices.

6 Calibration Check of Non-contact Thermometers

Non-contact thermometers have to be regularly inspected; for such inspection, a device with black
body of defined emissivity is used. The calibration black body is realized as an isothermically heated
hollow with matt surface and with an opening, to which the IR thermometer or a thermal imaging
camera is being focused. The calibrators are generally based on a metallic hollow, with surface
treated by black paint. The emissivity of the hollow bottom is known and it ranges from 0.98 to
0.995. Temperature of the hollow bottom is maintained at the required level by means of a suitable
temperature controller (see Figure 14a). For instruments of higher precision, the hollow temperature
is being additionally measured by means of a contact thermometer of higher precision (see
Figure 14b).
temperature
temperature
controller
indicator
IR thermometer
calibration IR thermometer
temperature
black body
controller
calibration black body
Figure 14 - Calibration black body

At calibration check, the non-contact thermometer or the thermal imaging camera are to be aimed
to the bottom surface of the black body hollow (see Figure 15), taking into account the size of the
field of vision. Then, it is to be waiter till the measured value gets stabilized.
Figure 15 - Calibration check of an IR thermometer and a thermal imaging camera

References
1. Kreidl M.: Měření teploty – senzory a měřicí obvody. BEN Praha 2005 (Temperature
Measurement – Sensors and Measuring Circuits)
2. Vollmer M., Möllmann K. P.: Infrared Thermal Imaging. Wiley-VCH 2010
3. Kadlec K.: Učební texty k přednáškám z Měřicí a řídicí techniky. VŠCHT Praha 2014.
http://www.vscht.cz/ufmt/kadleck.html (červen 2014) (Instructional Texts to Lectures from
Measurement and Control Instruments)

Lector’s Notes to the Document
Date Notes Lector

NON-CONTACT TEMPERATURE
MEASUREMENT
Instructions for Laboratory Work
NTM January 2015

Author: assoc. prof. Karel Kadlec, Ph.D.
Laboratory Task: Non-contact Temperature Measurement
Filename: MCE.NMT.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 41
About Laboratory Work
Non-contact temperature measurement includes an extensive group of thermometers that work on

the principle of detection of objects’ thermal radiation. Laboratory task Non-contact Temperature
Measurement introduces representatives of two main directions in non-contact temperature
measurement - infrared thermometers and thermal imaging cameras. The aim of the task is to show
the benefits of using non-contact thermometers, but also to be familiar with the pitfalls that
accompany this measurement. Although the measurement is generally simple, accurate and precise
measurement results cannot be achieved without deeper theoretical knowledge, especially without
knowing emissivity of the measured object, and the effect of the presence of other influencing
variables. From this reason, the task is complemented with an extensive theoretical introduction and
learning text.
Students should take, in addition to the joy of a well done work, the ability to distinguish differences
in the quality of commercially available non-contact thermometers, learn how to calibrate, and also
to deal with a software for processing thermograms. During such a short time, which is reserved for
this task, it is, of course, not possible to learn with thermometers perfectly. For those interested in
further exploring the mysteries of contactless measurement, a separate subject N444030
Thermography and thermodiagnostics is therefore designed.
Study Materials for Laboratory Work
Attendance to the laboratory work Non-contact Temperature Measurement as well as the

instructions for this work assumes a certain level of knowledge in the area of non-contact
temperature measurement. The competent learning text, which is called Non-contact Temperature
Measurement: Preparing for Laboratory Work includes both basic theoretical knowledge and
description of the principles and characteristics of modern instrumentation for non-contact
temperature measurement. Before commencing the lab work, students will be tested from all topics
included in this learning text.
The document Non-contact Temperature Measurement: Instructions for Laboratory Work contain
information that need not be necessarily studied in advance. This text should be used as a guide
when working in the laboratory; it contains the specified work instructions for accomplishing the
work and processing the report and also a description of the used laboratory equipment,
apparatuses and software.
All mentioned documents are available in printed form in the laboratory room and in PDF format on
webpages of Department of Measurement and Physics.
1 Initial Values and Creation of Working Folder........................................... 9

1.1 Specification of Initial Values for Tasks .................................................................................... 9
1.2 Creation of a Working Folder on the Disk L: in Computer ....................................................... 9
2 Handheld IR Thermometer ......................................................................10

2.1 Getting Familiar with the Devices and Software.................................................................... 10
2.1.1 Measured Object: Termostated Board ......................................................................... 10
2.1.2 Black Body ..................................................................................................................... 11
2.1.3 Handheld Non-contact Thermometer........................................................................... 13
2.2 Checking Accuracy of the IR Thermometer Using the Black Body ......................................... 18
2.3 Measurement of Temperature Distribution on the Surface of the Tempered Board ........... 21
3 Thermal Imager .......................................................................................25

3.1 The Thermal Imager FLIR i7 .................................................................................................... 25
3.2 Making the Thermographic Image of the Termostated Board .............................................. 29
3.3 FLIR QuickReport Software and Evaluation of the Thermograms ......................................... 31
4 Processing of the Measurement Record ..................................................35

4.1 Checking Files on Disk L .......................................................................................................... 35
4.2 Report on Laboratory Work BMT (Thermographic Measurement) ....................................... 35
5 Completion of Lab Work ..........................................................................37
List of annexes available in the laboratory ....................................................38
References ....................................................................................................39
1 Initial Values and Creation of Working Folder

1.1 Specification of Initial Values for Tasks
 Based on task specification from teacher, please note yourself:
– identification number of the measured object (termostated board),
– actual function of Peltier elements on termostated board,
– identification numbers of all devices you use (IR thermometer and thermal imaging
camera),
– temperatures of the black body when checking the accuracy (unless specified
otherwise, set first 20 °C and then 40 °C).
1.2 Creation of a Working Folder on the Disk L: in Computer

 Log in to the ICT computer network:
– textbooks and manuals for laboratory work are stored in the folder "Manuals"
– each working group will create own working folder labeled NAME_ddmm
(surname_day month), e.g.: L:\Lab BMT\Students\Doe_0503 in the folder "Students",
– create the folder before the laboratory work starts.
– you will store all the data files obtained from the measurement in this folder.
– after the measurement ends, copy the files for subsequent laboratory report
processing.

2 Handheld IR Thermometer
2.1 Getting Familiar with the Devices and Software
 Gradually familiarize yourself with all devices; - test their function, pay a special attention to
their connection to the computer; learn the software.
2.1.1 Measured Object: Termostated Board

The basis of the apparatus is the thermostated board (Figure 1a), which represents a model object,
whose surface temperature distribution is measured. The board can be heated or cooled by one, two
or three Peltier elements.
The temperature distribution on the board surface can be measured in non-contact mode by IR
thermometer or thermal imaging camera and optionally also by thermocouple.
The thermostated board with the size of working area 38 × 38 cm is made from 1 mm thick iron
plate. The grid is marked on the board surface; it serves for focusing the non-contact thermometer
on the desired location. The grid divides the board into 8 × 8 identical squares. The surface of the
board is covered with matte gray paint. The emissivity of the surface of board ε = 0.96.
From the opposite side of the board (Figure 1b), there are placed three Peltier elements, whose
function (heating or cooling) can be set using the control unit (Figure 2). On the left side of the
control unit front panel there is the main power button and an indicator. Actual function of an
individual Peltier element (heating or cooling) can be set by two- position switches, which are placed
on the right side of the front panel. If de sired, it is possible to switch each element individually
ON/OFF, using the designated buttons, which are placed under the corresponding polarity switch.
a) b)
Peltier
Active element
cooler
Figure 1 – a) Thermostated board with the control unit, b) Peltier elements

with active coolers
 Set the switches of the control unit in accordance to the assignment from the teacher and
allow temperature of the tempered board to stabilize.
 The thermal equilibrium stabilization of the termostated board requires a certain period.
During this time you can continue fulfilling other tasks.

Figure 2 - Front panel of the control unit
2.1.2 Black Body

Black body calibration source HYPERION R (produced by company ISOTECH) serves for calibration
and checking the accuracy of handheld IR thermometer measurements [3] (Figure 3). The basic part
of the calibration device is a black cylindrical cavity located on the front panel. Dimensions of the
cavity are shown in Figure 4a. The emissivity of the cavity is 0.995.
The closed isothermal environment of the black body comprises an aluminum block, which is heated
or cooled by the Peltier element. The temperature of the block is maintained at the desired value by
the PID controller with accuracy of ± 0.1 °C. There are electrically driven fans that cool the heat sink
of the Peltier elements and also the electronics of the device.
Temperature setpoint can be set in the range of temperatures, starting at the value of about 30 °C
below ambient (i.e. approx. -10 °C) up to 80 °C. Temperature of the black body block can be
measured by accurate resistance thermometer; the value being shown at a digital indicator. Stability
of the black body temperature is ± 0.1 °C. A view of the front panel of the device showing the
control, indication and the connecting elements is presented in Figure 4b.
Temperature
controller
Temperature
indicator Black body
cavity
Precise
resistance
thermometer
Figures 3 - Calibration device with the black body

Printer
a) b) connector
Insert for
resistance
RS232 thermometer
connector Black body
cavity
Temperature Temperature
PID controller indicator
Figure 4 – a) Cavity of black body, b) Front panel of black body

Setpoint temperature, which appears at the bottom of the display controller, is adjusted using the
arrow buttons UP ▲ and DOWN ▼ on the panel of the controller (Figure 5). The device allows
programming not just the constant set point, but also a linear heating or cooling.
Current
temperature
Required
temperature
Figure 5 - Temperature controller

For measurements that do not require great precision, it is sufficient to read the current temperature
of the controller panel. Precision resistance thermometer with temperature indicator is at the
disposal for accurate temperature measurements using a black body (Figure 3).
The device is activated by a switch, which is located on the upper left side of instrument case.
Further details concerning the calibration device are given in the instruction manual of the device
(annex A1).
Note: The black body is a costly and highly precise instrument with defined properties. Never touch
the surface of the cavity of black body by hands or by any objects. Take in mind that temperature of
the cavity reaches high values during operation.
 The temperature controller (Figure 5) sets the value according to the assignment (20 °C).
 Any manipulation with the controls of the black body is to be agree with your colleagues in
the laboratory, so that the black body can also used by other students, who are working
simultaneously with you in the lab.
 Stabilization of temperature of the black body requires a certain period. Keep carrying out
other tasks in the meantime.
 IR-thermometer can be used to continuously monitor temperature stabilization in the cavity.

2.1.3 Handheld Non-contact Thermometer

Description of an IR thermometer
For non-contact temperature measurements, portable IR thermometer (type OPTRIS-LS or Dual focus
infrared PROSCAN 530) [1, 2] is being used. The thermometer belongs to the group of band pass
pyrometers; its appearance is shown in Figure 6. The device is equipped with double optics 1,
controlled optical switch 2. The device is attached to the tripod via screw terminals 3. Basic control of
the thermometer is ensured by activation button (trigger) 4. Below the display 5, which will be
further described, there are located the middle two buttons 6 (up and down) and moreover, on the
sides two buttons 7 (mode I right and mode II left). A space for battery power supply (2 pieces of
batteries type AA) is provided in the handle 8 and in the lower part of the handle there are two types
of connectors 9 (USB-interface) and 10 (for the thermocouple connection).
Figure 6 - Handheld non-contact thermometer

The digital LCD-display (Figure 7) shows actual value of measured temperature in addition to other
information, such as emissivity setting, maximum-, minimum- and average temperature during the
measurement interval, status information and information related to storage of measured data into
memory.
Measured temperature is displayed on the main display 1. The upper display 2 shows associated
maximum temperature and the lower display 3 shows emissivity setting. The bar graph display 4 on
the right shows temperatures trend. The mark at the top left indicates that laser has been turned on.
After releasing the activation button (trigger), temperature is displayed for a period of 7 s. The text
"HOLD" is displayed next to the information on emissivity.
The unit will automatically turn off is the buttons are not pressed in within a certain time. Summary
of symbols on the display is shown in Figure 7.
The device uses spectral range (8 - 14) µm, operates in the temperature range (-30 to 900) °C, with
resolution of 0.1 °C and accuracy of ± 0.75 °C. The response time for achieving 95 % of the steady-
state signal is 150 ms.
Detailed description and full specs are listed in the manual for the device, which is at disposal in the
laboratory (Annex A2).

Status information: Alarm activation
Upper /lower alarm limit

Battery status indication
Mode of data recording
Locking indicator
Beeper indication
Backlight indication
Laser indication
Values and marks on the
display:
1 Status information
Top display:
2
measurement functions (indication MIN-, MAX-, DIF-, AVG- ), position of data in Data logger
3 Main display: IR-temperature and units (°C/ °F)
4 Bottom display: HOLD, emissivity, temperature of probe,
5 Button marks: Mode II II , up a down , Mode II II .
6 Bargraph
7 Buttons „up“ and „down“
8 Mode buttons (Mode II a Mode I)
Figure 7 - Indications and symbols on the display

IR thermometer is an accurate measuring system containing sensitive infrared detector and a high-
quality lens. Never touch the lens by hand or by any object. If a contamination appears of the lens,
never clean it yourself but notify the teacher. Never use detergents containing solvents to clean the
lens or the cover.
CAUTION: The device is equipped with a laser pointer. Never point the laser beam directly into eyes!
Do not look into the laser beam. Avoid also reflection from shiny surfaces.
Measurement by IR thermometer
When measuring, hold the device as shown in Figure 8 left and aim it at the target. Press the
activation button (trigger) 1 and hold it down. If the laser is activated, it will show the laser spot on
the surface of measured object. The temperature of the object can be read on the display 2. The
laser pointer can be switched ON or OFF (when shutter button is pressed) by pressing the "Mode II"
button.
a) b)
Figure 8 - Measuring with the IR thermometer

The device can also be used in vertical position (measuring downwards). This way, it can be easily
directed onto small objects such as electronic components in order to measure their temperature. In
this case, hold the device as depicted in Figure 8, right. The "Mode I" button will automatically start
function 1 (i.e. switching on) and data on the screen will be turned by 180 °C. When using the device
in vertical position with turned display, functions assigned to the Mode Selection "Mode I and II"
with change automatically.
During calibration of the thermometer by the black body and during measurement of temperature
distribution on the tempered board, you will work in configuration with the IR thermometer
mounted on a tripod. Leave the fixing plate still screwed to the IR thermometer. When inserting a
screw terminal with the IR thermometer to the tripod head, open the lever on the head, then insert
the plate and slide the lever back home (Figure 9). Proceed in reverse order to remove the plate with
the IR thermometer from the tripod head.
Figure 9 - Attaching the IR thermometer to the tripod head

The device is equipped with double optics; the first mode is designated as „SF“ (Standard Focus), the
second mode as „CF“ (Close Focus). Switching between SF and the CF is done by moving the slide
switch located on the left side of the device (to the left of the screen - see position 2 in Figure 6).
In standard SF operating mode circular part of a surface with diameter 16 mm can be measured. The
measured area is marked with the laser cross hair. The actual size and location of the scanned area
on the measured object is seen irrespective of the distance and without parallax.
In the CF, it is possible to measure a surface of diameter ≥ 1 mm (e.g. electronic components). In this
operating mode two pointing lasers show the measured area. Both beams intersect at the focal
length (62 mm from the front edge of the cover) and indicate the minimum size of the pad (of 1 mm
diameter) at this distance.
SF - laser with cross hair
D:S = 75:1 (focal length)

S = 16 mm at D = 1200 mm
D:S = 36:1 (far field)
D is the distance from the front edge

of the device to the object
S the diameter of the scanned area

CF – two point laser
D:S = 62 :1 (focal length) S = 1 mm at

D = 62 mm
D:S = 4:1 (far field)
Figure 10 - Aiming system of IR thermometer

Properties of the aiming system of the IR thermometer in both SF and CF modes are illustrated in
Figure 13. The measured area of the object ("point size") is dependent on the distance. For accurate
measurement it is necessary to ensure that the diameter of the scanned area is less than- or at most
equal to- the corresponding dimension of the object.
 When operating the device, do not change setting of the thermometer (Do not press buttons
randomly). If you change the setting of the thermometer, ask the assistant for the device
manual, so that you can restore the original settings.
 Try to measure temperature of any object in the laboratory - when operating, use the trigger
4 and the aiming optics switch 2 (Figure 6).
Caution: Never aim laser beam to eyes! Never aim the IR thermometer to the sun - it would
destroy the detector!
Connecting the IR thermometer with a computer
IR thermometer can be connected to a computer via the USB. The connector is located at the bottom
of the handle (position 9 in Figure 6).
Ask the teacher how to connect the IR thermometer with a computer.
Note: For connection to a computer only special USB cable can be used, otherwise the
communication will not work. The interface cable used for this purpose is not a standard USB cable.
Optris Connect Software
For communication between the IR thermometer and a computer, the Optris Connect or IR-Connect
software installed on your computer is used.
This software allows to:
 display and the record the time course of temperature measured by the IR thermometer,
 load data from the IR thermometer,
 set parameters of the IR thermometer from your computer.
 Run the program using the icon (Optris Connect), placed on the desktop; or by
[Start]:\Programy\Optris Connect.

After starting the software and establishing the communication, the status bar at the bottom of the
window displays a message concerning the communication port, the communication system and
selected optics - i.e. SF or CF (Figure 11).
Figure 11 - Communication with computer

During the period of connection your device to the computer, the device is powered from the USB
interface. In this case, it is possible to use the device, even with no internal batteries. During digital
communication the device continuously measures and the measured values are sent via the interface
to the computer.
During the connection of the device to the computer the actual temperature TObj (Figure 12 - blue
right arrow) is displayed in the monitor window (top right). You can also add additional displays for
temperature measured with a thermocouple probe TExt (left) and optionally also internal
temperature of the device TInt (middle). [Menu: View\ Digital displays].
Figure 12 - Record of the temperature time course from the IR thermometer

Recording time course of measured temperature
 Start measurement by pressing the Start button on the toolbar (Figure 12 – left red arrow) or
by sequences [Menu: Measurement\ Start].
Control buttons on the timeline (Figure 13):
1 Scroll bar
2 Zoom in
3 Zoom out
4 Whole range
5 H/C: Hold/Continue

Figure 13 - Control buttons on the timeline

Activation of any control elements on the timeline stops updating of graph measurement, but the
measurement process itself will continue in the background. To return to the current measurement
graph, press Pause or button „C“.
Figure 14 – Buttons on temperature axis

Controls on the temperature axis (Figure 14):
1 Global auto scaling (temperature range chart is automatically aligned with the corresponding
maximum values). 2 Local, automatic scaling (temperature range corresponding graph will
dynamically adapt to maximum values). 3 Scroll bar. 4 Zoom in. 5 Zoom out. 6 Whole range.
Recording of the measurement will be terminated after pressing Stop.

Disconnecting the device from the computer will cause end of the recording as well.
Record of measurements can be stored in the selected folder with the specified name "*. Data" after
pressing the button Save.
2.2 Checking Accuracy of the IR Thermometer Using the Black Body

As the calibration device has been switched on and set already in point 2.1.2, the temperature in the
cavity should be stabilized at the desired value (20 °C).
 Attach the IR thermometer to a tripod placed near the black body (Figure 15). Agree a
schedule of measurements with colleagues from other workgroups.

Figure 15 - Mounting of the IR thermometer to the tripod

 Measure temperature of the black body by the IR thermometer, using the laser cross-hair
pointer. Measure it from such a distance, from which the condition of the relationship
between object size and the field of view of the thermometer can be met (Figure 16).
Figure 16 - Calibration of IR thermometer using the black body

 Connect USB interface of the IR thermometer to a computer or USB hub using a special
cable.
 On the computer, launch the Optris Connect program by clicking on the program icon. In
the menu Setup/Interface then set the connection to the thermometer, according to
assistant´s instructions.
 The device is powered from the USB-port while connected to the computer. The screen
displays the current temperature TObj. in the top right window.
 Record the measurement in the program Optris Connect by pressing the Start button.
 The emissivity value of the HYPERION black body is declared by the manufacturer. Set this
value on the display of the IR Thermometer - i.e. ε = 0.995.
 To set the emissivity (Figure 17): Press "Mode II" (on the left below the display
thermometer), then "ε" flashes and by the arrows adjust the emissivity value. Confirm it by
pressing the thermometer shutter.

Figure 17 - Emissivity setting

 After temperature stabilization (check on during the recording) carry out the temperature
readings. Take the readings five times and calculate average values (round them to tenths
of °C).
 Check the accuracy of the measurement in the same manner also at 40 °C.
 Analyse the results and compare the data with deviations, which are reported in the
technical documentation of the device.
– precision of the IR thermometer is ± 0.8 °C.
– temperature stability of the black body is ± 0.1 °C.
 Compare the intervals of correct values of measured temperatures (hereinafter "the
interval").
In general, comparison can be performed numerically. For illustration, however, the appropriate
method is graphical depiction of resulting temperature intervals for both devices on the
temperature number axis. We carry out comparison of the intervals as the sets of points. If the
interval of the black body data is within the range of the IR thermometer interval, the control
measurement showed correspondence of the data obtained from the apparatus with declared
properties. If there is no intersection between the two intervals (the above mentioned two
intervals have not common part), then the data from the IR thermometer do not correspond to
the declared properties. If both intervals have some common intersection (but, moreover, each
of them includes also parts outside this intersection), then one cannot simply decide on the
conformity or non-conformity. In the last two cases, it is necessary to propose certain
procedures, such as calibration, adjustment and investigation of other reasons of disagreement.
An example of interval proper values:
The average value of temperatures of the black body: (40.0 ± 0.1) °C, i.e. 39.9 to 40.1 °C.
The average value of the data from IR thermometer: (40.5 ± 0.8) °C, i.e. 39.8 to 41.3 °C.
Measurements showed agreement (Figure 18).
39 40 41 42
blacktěleso
černé body
IČ-teploměr
IR thermometer
Figure 21 - Measurement of temperature distribution on the surface of the tempered board

2.3 Measurement of Temperature Distribution on the Surface of the

Tempered Board
Measurement using the IR thermometer and data storage
 Attach the IR thermometer to a small tripod (Figure 19).
Figure 19 - Measurements on the board by the IR thermometer

 Emissivity of the painted board surface is 0.96. Set this value ε = 0.96 on the display of the
IR thermometer.
 Place the tripod with the thermometer in a distance of 40 - 50 cm from the board.
 Set screws on the tripod so that you are able to change the position and focus of the
thermometer on the selected fields of the tempered plate.
 Use cross hair laser pointer for aiming.
 The device has its own internal data logger with a maximum capacity of 100 measurement
reports. Each report contains the following values: „ number of positions [P 00 up to P 99],
object temperature, values MAX-, MIN-, AVG- and DIF, emissivity, temperature of sensor
probe (if connected), material name and location“.
 Reset the memory of the IR thermometer using the OptrisConnect program. Press the
button Logger on the toolbar and then press Clear Logger (Figure 20). Clearing the memory
may take several seconds; during this time the display shows "clr".
Figure 20 - Resetting the IR thermometer

 Try the data storage in memory.

 Focus on the field, then momentarily press the "down arrow" on the IR thermometer (a
beep will be heard and location number will appear in the memory), then press the right
button "I" (double beep will be heard) and then press the shutter button of the
thermometer. Figure 24 depicts how to control the button. Then point the thermometer to
a new location and repeat the process.
3 - trigger
Figure 21 - Storage of data into the memory

 Convert data stored in the IR thermometer to the computer using the Optris Connect
program, after pressing Logger. Make sure that you save the measured data.
 If you have mastered the algorithm of data storage, you can proceed with the
measurements.
 Measure temperature of each field and store the measured data into memory of the
thermometer. Start scanning of the field (A1) and proceed systematically from top to down
and from left to right (Figure 22).
A B C D E F G H
1
2
Figure 22 - Procedure of temperature scanning
 Store temperature in the field (A1) into the memory location P 00 and once more in P 01,
and then proceed to A2 and store it in the P 02; A3 in P 03 etc.
 During the measurement, save gradually values measured at 64 squares of the board to
memory locations P 01 to P 64.
 Save data from the device to the computer recorder by pressing Logger or by the sequence
[Menu: Measurement\ Download logger data].
 Recorded temperature values that exceed the upper limit for alarm activation „High
Alarm“ appear in the table in red and bold font. Recorded temperature values that exceed
the lower limit for alarm activation „Low Alarm“ are shown in blue and bold (Figure 23).

Save as… A browser window opens to save data from the record into the computer as [*.lgg]
Open File… Opens Windows Explorer to open existing files records
Clear Logger… After confirming the checking question, all data in memory of the IR
thermometer are deleted [the unit display: CLR]
 Store recorded data after pressing Save as .. with a name *.lgg in your folder. The file
name should include the designation of your group - e.g. „Doe_deska.lgg“.
Columns in the table record:

Index Date Time TObj TObj TObj TObj TObj TInt TExt Hi Lo Alarm Eps Name
Min Max Avg Diff Alarm
Numbe Date Time Object Min. Max. Avg. Temp. diff Interna Termoco Maximum Minimum Emissivi Material
r temperat object object object Min and l uple alarm alarm ty and
ure temperatu tempera- tempera- Max temper temperat position
re ture ture ature ure name
Figure 26 Loading data from the IR thermometer to PC

Figure 23 - Loading data from the IR thermometer to PC
Further details of the Optris Connect program are listed in the manual (annex A2).
Computer Data Processing

Convert the measured data from the Optris Connect program to Excel.
 Start Excel, select File - Open - locate the file *. LGG in your folder and open your file *.lgg.
 In the text import wizard (1/3) select option "separator", beginning on the first file line and
select file type „1250 Středoevropské jazyky Windows“. On page (2/3) select delimiter
"Tab" and on page (3/3) select data format "generic".

 From the data, select only columns containing label location (Name) and data related to
the measured temperature (TObj.). Copy these data to another sheet. These data will be
further processed.
 Then the selected table will have 1 column and 64 rows. Convert this table into a table with
8 columns and 8 rows, as marked by the grid on the tempered board.
 The measured values can be visualized within 3D-graph (surface chart type).
 Save the file to your folder named as "Doe_deska.xls".
 An example of data processing for the plate divided into 5 × 5 fields is shown in Figure 24.
Figure 24 - Example of data processing in Excel

On the left, there is a table containing column with 25 measured temperature values. These data
were copied to the table containing 5 rows and 5 columns; from this table, 3D graph of temperature
distribution on the board surface has been created; right is the temperature distribution when
viewed from above.

3 Thermal Imager
3.1 The Thermal Imager FLIR i7
Portable thermal imaging camera FLIR i7 (Figure 25) is equipped with uncooled matrix of
microbolometric detectors with a resolution of 140 × 140 pixels (19,600 pixels). The camera uses
spectral range (7.5 to 13) µm, corresponding to the temperature range (0 to 250) ºC, resolution of
0.1 ºC and accuracy of ± 2 °C. The emissivity is adjustable from 0.1 to 1.0. Built in-optics work with a
field of view of 25° × 25°, with minimum focal length of 60 cm and with resolution of 3.71 mrad. The
camera works without focusing. The camera can be operated with one hand only. Battery power
ensures operation for 5 h. The camera is fitted with a touch-sensitive LCD screen 2.8 inches, (140 ×
140) pixels [4, 5].
Note: The thermal imager is a complex and expensive machine that requires qualified and trained
personnel as well as sensitive handling. You will be able to work with the thermal imager after the
training, during which you will become familiar with the controls of the camera and its measurement
functions. When working, follow the basic instructions for operating the imager; in case of doubt,
contact the teacher assistant for help without hesitation. Teacher will demonstrate acquisition of
thermal images of distinct objects and how to transfer them to a computer for processing, using the
appropriate program.
Figure 25 - Thermal Imager FLIR i7

Detailed description of the thermal imager operation is in the manual, the selected parts are at
disposal in the laboratory (Appendix A8). The following text provides a basic description of the
camera and its functional buttons. In Figure 26, basic components of the thermal imager are shown.
Figure 27 depicts indicated buttons.

infrared thermal imager

lens display
control lever
for lens cover control panel
trigger for
thermogram storing
connector
cover
Figure 26 - Basic components of the imager FLIR i7

 Thermal imager turns on by momentarily pressing the On / Off button; then it opens the
infrared lens cover. After switching on, the thermal imagers will run the automatic test of
functionality, and then an infrared image of the object will be shown on the display, in the
appropriate color palette. The display of the thermal imager is shown in Figure 28.
move up in a list, move to the right in a

increase values menu, browse the
archive
LH context button RH context button
move to the left in a

menu, browse the ON/OFF button
archive
move down in a list,
archive button decrease value
Figure 27 - Buttons of the thermal imager

power indicator date and time
measured value
menu
limiting value of the
temperature scale
temperature colour
palette
adjusted emissivity
actual function of the LH and RH

context button
Figure 28 - Display of the thermal imager

Note: The thermal imager is switched off by prolonged pressing the On / Off button.
 Set the emissivity of the measured object according to the procedure shown in Figure 29
When measuring the termostatted board, set the value of emissivity to ε = 0.96.
Figure 29 - Emissivity setting

During the measurement, you can change the color palette that thermal imager uses to display the
image. Another color palette may (in some cases) facilitate image analysis. Figure 30 presents how to
set the color palette. Try changing the color palette.

Figure 30 - Color palette setting

Thermal imagers can measure temperature at a specific point-location using the spot meter. The
procedure is indicated in Figure 31.
Figure 31 - Measurements with the spot meter

Using the cursor with continuous movement you can watch the highest and lowest temperatures
in the selected area. The whole procedure is indicated in Figure 32.
¨
Figure 32 - Watching the maximum and minimum temperatures
If you want to save the thermogram into memory, press the shutter button. The image is saved with
a unique naming IR_xxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique number assigned to the counter. If you want to
see the picture again, recall it as described in Figure 33.

Figure 33 - Retrieving the image from memory

If you want to look at thumbnails of all images that are stored in the imager, open the archive
according to Figure 34.
Figure 34 - Browsing the archives

 Test the measurement and data storage on random objects in the laboratory.
 During measuring with the thermal imager you can sometimes hear the sound of a "click"
inside the imager. It means that the detector signal is automatically checked. As the
temperature of the matrix detector - which is cooled by a Peltier element - is not
completely homogeneous throughout its surface, a special plate is inserted for a moment
before detector. It simulates a black body and subsequently the signals of each
microbolometer are adjusted to the same value. In this moment, the display will show
"calibrating".
Caution: Never aim the thermal imager on the sun - the array detector would be destroyed
3.2 Making the Thermographic Image of the Termostated Board

 Turn the termostated board to the position perpendicular to the thermal imager. (Figure
35). Select the distance of the camera from the object so that the display measures whole
board.

Figure 35 - Measurement by the thermal imager

 Save some thermal images to the thermal imager memory. You may choose them to
evaluate the optimal thermogram.
 Save several thermograms of various objects in the laboratory the thermal imager
memory.
 After the measurement ends, close the thermal imager lens. Leave the thermal imager
switched on; you will turn it off only after transmitting the thermal images to your PC.
 To evaluate the thermogram, you need data concerning the distance between the imager
and the measured object and also temperature and humidity in the laboratory.
 Tape measure will be at disposal for measuring the distance. Measure with accuracy of
tenth of a meter.
 In order to determine temperature and humidity, use Commeter THZ1 device with
temperature and humidity probe (Figure 36).
 The unit is activated by pressing the ON / OFF switch. The automatic testing of the device
appears on the display; the top line is the temperature in °C and the bottom line is an
indication of the relative humidity in %. Wait for stabilization and note the temperature
and humidity. Turn the unit off by pressing the ON/OFF switch. Detailed instructions for
Commeters THZ1 will be at disposal in the laboratory (Annex A6).
Figure 36 - Thermometer and hygrometer Commeter

3.3 FLIR QuickReport Software and Evaluation of the Thermograms

 To evaluate thermal images, use the FLIR QuickReport software, which can be run by
double-clicking on the program icon using any computer in the lab.
In the further text, only basic instructions for the FLIR Quick Report software are given, a detailed
description is provided in the manual (Annex A4).
 Locate your working folder on the "Organize" card (Figure 37) in the folder panel.
sub-window directory
sub-window images
Figure 37 - Selection of thermogram for evaluation

 Select "Transfer Images" from the toolbar.
 Thermograms from the imager can be transferred to the computer by connecting your
thermal imager to the computer with an USB cable. When connecting the imager with the
computer, ask the assistant for help. Open the connector cover on the thermal imager
handle (Figure 26 left) and then make a connection with the computer by the USB cable
(Figure 38).
USB connector
miniSD memory card
Figure 38 - Linking the thermal imager with a computer

 After connecting the imager, message "Camera is now controlled by computer" is
displayed on its screen. On the computer screen, a window opens for transmission of
thermal images (Figure 39). In this window, select the "Copy all pictures" folder as the
destination and enter your working folder on the L.

Figure 39 - The transfer of thermal images

 After transferring thermal images to your computer, disconnect thermal imager from the
computer and turn it off by long pressing the On / Off switch. Make sure, that the IR lens
cover is closed and store the thermal imager in a briefcase.
 When transferring the thermograms to your computer (folder), the subfolder "images" and
"DirA" are formed. In the subfolder "DirA" you can find transferred thermograms from the
thermal imager.
 Select a thermogram, which you will be evaluating and then double-click the picture to
open the "Analyze" card (Figure 40). On the "Analyze" you can now add measuring tools
(measuring point, area, and profile), you can also add text comments and change the
object parameters.
 Using the „Analyze“ card, process the data measured by the thermal imager.
 On the toolbar, using the "palette", select the appropriate color palette, which will
represent the temperature distribution.
 Use the "Test Point" ("SP") tool to find a place with maximum temperature.
 Use the "Test Area" ("Ar") tool for the designation of the entire area of tempered plate.
 Use the "Measuring Profile" ("Li") tool, mark the two diagonals and also an abscissa leading
by the column or row in which two Peltier elements are located.
 Place the labels of measuring tools so as they do not overlap.
 On the "Object parameters" card adjust parameter values according to measurement
conditions:
– the object's emissivity set,
– distance of measurement,
– both the reflected- and the atmospheric- temperature and relative humidity (see the
specific values in the laboratory).

export into Excel

tools
measuring point measuring area measuring profile picture

informations
picture
description
object
parametres
table of
measurement
s results
infrared image
Figure 40 - Evaluation of the thermogram

 To the "Image Description" type:
– brief characterization of the measured object,
– mark labeling of heated and cooled fields
– used color palette
– any other notes.
 In the "Measurements" section you can find:
– measured minimum and maximum temperatures on the thermogram,
– measured minimum and maximum temperatures in the area shown Ar1 and profiles
Li1, Li2 and the Li3.
 Store the evaluated thermogram called IR_xxxx_evaluated (xxxx is the original number of
the thermogram).
You will need to insert a screenshot of the evaluated thermogram from the FLIR Quick Report into
laboratory report.
 Remove the entire screen using the "PrtScr” key, active window is to be removed by
pressing "Alt + PrtScr". To save and edit any image, open the "PAINT" software and then
save the image in the JPG format and name it e.g. Doe_termogram.jpg,
 Convert the data obtained by the thermal imager to Excel by pressing the transfer to Excel
toolbar (Figure 43).
 In the next window, select "Export area Ar1“ (Figure 41).
 After pressing "OK", open Excel with temperature tables. Table size is related to the size of
the selected area and also to the resolution of the camera. Number of measured values for
the entire image resolution is equivalent to 140 × 140.
 Process the measured values in Excel into a 3D-graph analogous to that in Section 2.3 B.
 Save the file in Excel to your folder, named as "Doe_Ar1.xls".
 Similarly, convert Excel data on the temperature profile Li1, Li2 and Li3. Then create a
graph of the temperature distribution for all profiles in Excel. Save the relevant files to your
folders with names such as "Doe_Li1.xls", "Doe_yy_Li2.xls" and "Doe_Li3.xls".

 When describing the graphs in Excel, indicate data related to pixels and mm. To do this,
you need to know the dimensions of tempered board (380 × 380 mm).
Figure 41 - Export into Excel

4 Processing of the Measurement Record

4.1 Checking Files on Disk L
In your folder L:\Laboratoř BMT\Studenti\Name_ddmm the following files should be saved
(optionally with alternative names):
 „Name_board.lgg“ according to point 2.3 b
 „Name_board.xls“ according to point 2.3 b (semi-finished or finished),
 one or more thermograms from the thermal imager (IR_xxxx) and evaluated image
(IR_xxxx_evaluated),
 „Name_Ar1.xls“, „Name_Li1.xls“, „Name_Li2.xls“ and „Name_Li3.xls“ (semi-finished or
finished),
 screenshot (assessment of the thermogram) „Name_termogram.jpg“
 „name_report.doc“ according to point 4.2 (semi-finished or finished),
 any other files *.lgg or *.dat.
Do not forget to copy all the files for subsequent protocol processing.
4.2 Report on Laboratory Work BMT (Thermographic Measurement)

The written report will include:
 list and specification of used devices,
 identification number of tempered board and settings of switches on the control unit,
 results of the measuring accuracy check of IR thermometer when measuring with a black
body (comparison of intervals of correct measurement values),
 the setting of emissivity value of the measured object,
 table of temperature values measured by IR thermometer for thermostated board (file
"name_board.xls" referred to in point 2.3 b)
 3D-graph and optionally 2D-graph of temperature distribution of thermostated board
measured by IR thermometer,
 minimum and maximum values of temperature measured by the IR thermometer on the
thermostated board,
 evaluation of thermal imager measurements (a copy of the program FLIR QuickReport
screen)
 conditions for measuring with the thermal imager (distance, ambient temperature,
humidity)
 determined minimum and maximum temperature of the thermogram,
 D-graph of the temperature distribution on the termostated board (both spatial view and
top view),
 temperature profiles of the diagonals of the board and one column together with the
maximum and minimum temperature on the profile (in the graph indicate the relationship
which was applied for the conversion of pixels to mm),
 evaluation comment on the results of measurements,
 comparison of the results obtained with a thermal imager and IR thermometer.
Submission of report:

 Report in DOC, DOCX or PDF format is to be sent by email to the address of assistant and
simultaneously to the address labmrt13@gmail.com. Together with the protocol, the files
with graphs (XLSX, XLS) are to be sent.

5 Completion of Lab Work

 Hand-over to the assistant:
– the thermal imager in switch-off status with IR lens covered by the lid, stored in a brief-
case,
– IR thermometer.
 Log off the computer.

List of annexes available in the laboratory

Annex A1 –Black body HYPERION R manual
Annex A2 – IR thermometer OPTRIS-LS manual + IR thermometer Dual focus infrared - DOSTMANN
POSCAN 530 manual
Annex A3 – Selected parts from the manual for thermal imager FLIR T400
Annex A4 – Manual for the FLIR QuickReport software, v.1.2, Publ. 1558625, September 2008
Annex A5 – Checking the accuracy of the measurement and calibration of non-contact thermometers
Annex A6 – Operating instructions Commeter THZ1 with temperature and humidity probe.
Annex A7 – Example of preparation of the report of thermographic measurement.
Annex A8 – Selected parts from the manual for thermal imager FLIRi7

References
1. Manual OPTRIS-LS. Optris GmbH Berlin, E 2006-01-A-(2006)
2. Manual DOSTMANN PROSCAN 530. MEPDFI-MA-2007-04-A (2007)
3. Manual for black body HYPERION R Model 982. Isothermal Technology Limited, South-port,
England, Ed. 05 04/01 (2005)
4. Manual for thermal imager FLIR i7. Publ. No. T559576. November 2010
5. www.flir.com/thermography/apac/au/view/?id=54662 (August 2012)
6. Manual for software FLIR QuickReport, v.1.2, Publ. 1558625, September 2008

Date Notes Lector

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC
CONTROLLER
PLC January 2015

Author: Dušan Kopecký, Ph.D.
Laboratory Task: Programmable Logic Controller
Filename: MCE.PLC.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 35
Programmable logic controllers are an important group of automation technique. Working with them
requires considerable experience from many areas of measurement and control technique, but at
present, it is still financially rewarded above standards. Laboratory task Programmable Logic
Controller is a fundamental and very simplified introduction to work with these devices. It presents
them using a graphical language Function block diagrams only as a simple device performing cyclic
program consisting of basic logical functions and several functions for analog signal processing. The
task is conceived as a step by step guide to build a program for controlling the physical device and
seek to show programmable logic controllers rather as a whole, without the need for long and
demanding solutions of the sub-problems. Therefore, the task can easily handle even a beginner in a
few hours. For those interested in a deeper study of programmable logic controllers there are
specialized subjects in the branch Sensor and Cybernetics in Chemistry.
Attendance at laboratory work PLC and text instructions for this work assume a certain level of
knowledge about logic circuits. Required textbook is available on the webpages of the Department of
Physics and Measurements.
Prior to beginning the work in the lab, students must complete a test on the following topics:
 Logical variables and logic functions.
 The truth tables and Boolean expressions.
 Converting the truth table on the Boolean expression using Full Disjunct Normal Form and
Full Conjunct Normal Form.
 The graphic symbols for logic functions.
 Basic laws of formal logic.
 Characteristics of combinational and sequential logic control.
 General information on PLC and programming (not exceeding the content of this text).
Instructions for laboratory Work contain the information that is not necessary to study in details in
advance. It is sufficient to read chapter 1. Other chapters serve as a guide when working in the
laboratory and they include work assignment, instructions for performing the work and the
processing of work report.
the webpages of the Department of Physics and Measurements.
1 Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers ...................................... 9

1.1 Structure of PLC........................................................................................................................ 9
1.2 Software for PLC Programming .............................................................................................. 10
1.3 Function Block Diagram (FBD) ................................................................................................ 10
2 Description of the Lab Stations Equipped with the LOGO! .......................12
3 Safety instructions...................................................................................15
4 Before starting the work..........................................................................16

4.1 Folders for saving project data files ....................................................................................... 16
5 Tasks .......................................................................................................17
6 The procedure for tasks solving ...............................................................18

6.1 Solving Task 1 ......................................................................................................................... 18
6.2 Solving Task 2 ......................................................................................................................... 19
6.2.1 Starting the programming environment Soft Comfort ................................................. 19
6.2.2 Changing the display language ...................................................................................... 19
6.2.3 Creating a new project .................................................................................................. 20
6.2.4 Export of developed program into JPG format ............................................................. 20
6.3 Solving Task 3: ........................................................................................................................ 21
6.3.1 Simulation ..................................................................................................................... 21
6.3.2 Physical connection of sockets on the test panel ......................................................... 22
6.3.3 Transferring the program into PLC ................................................................................ 22
6.4 Solving Task 4 ......................................................................................................................... 23
6.5 Solving Task 5 ......................................................................................................................... 27
7 Guidelines for elaboration of the report ..................................................32
References ....................................................................................................33
1 Introduction to Programmable Logic Controllers

Programmable logic controllers (PLC) are electronic devices important for automation of
technological processes, production lines and machinery. In industry they often replace several
components of automation hardware (control computers, minicomputers, controllers or relay logic).
They are used for example in the automation of small manufacturing, assembly and packaging lines
in food and chemical industry and other sectors, in control systems for agriculture (irrigation and
pumping equipment) in the automation of entry gates or entrances to the garage, automation
systems, lighting, etc.
PLC allows, like PC, to program logic functions, which makes it different from the currently underused
relay logic where the logic function is solved as the physical interconnection of logic gates.
Preferably, there is also used their high reliability, easier debugging of programs, including rapid
reprogramming of tasks, modular construction, flexible expansion options, efficiency, and high
stability of their simple operating system. As a result of simple programming, PLCs have in general
lower qualification requirements on design and engineering staff and overall lower costs for project
implementation and commissioning.
In contrast, there are limitations such as lower level of programmer comfort, problems with
communication buses standardized on various levels, less flexibility compared to Industrial PC, or the
necessity of employing hierarchical architecture when linking into larger units [1].
1.1 Structure of PLC

The main feature of PLC is the cyclic program execution (however, there exists also the interruption
when time-critical operations are serviced). A typical cycle begins by sampling the input data,
continues by program processing and ends by changing the settings of PLC outputs. PCL cycle time is
defined as the time that the PLC needs to retrieve data, send data to the outputs and to process of
1000 instructions. Usual time of cycle execution is in units of ms.
Block diagram of a standard modular PLC is depicted in the Figure 1. The base consists of internal 16
or 32 bit bus; the whole PLC is modularly designed around this bus. On the bus there is connected a
microprocessor, processing individual instructions, a memory and input and output subsystems. The
last part is a communication interface that allows PLC to connect to other external devices (e.g. to a
PC).
Process
Inputs Outputs
Bus
Microprocesor Memory Interface
Connection to an
external instrument
Figure 1 - Block diagram of a standard modular PLC
Programmable Logic Controller 9/35

Input and output subsystems are generally composed of digital and analog inputs / outputs. Digital
inputs are mostly universal for AC and DC voltage and, moreover, they could be electrically isolated
and also equipped with a filter for filtering out the error signals and with diodes against reverse
polarity and voltage spikes. Digital outputs are either in non-power design up to hundreds of mA
(transistor), power design (with a thyristor) or as relay outputs for switching of large AC and DC
currents.
Analog inputs are of voltage type for DC voltage with varying accuracy of analog-digital transducers
(12 - 16 bit) or of current type (0 ... 20, 4 ... 20 mA) or of current type for connection of platinum
resistance thermometers.
The IO subsystem can often be extended with additional modules, thereby increasing the total
number of inputs / outputs and their types. Many specialized modules, which can expand PLC, are
available: modules for specialized communication interface, displays, units for control of proportional
valves, etc. Such dedicated modules are however often very expensive.
1.2 Software for PLC Programming

For programming of the PLCs, a variety of languages is used, from simple assembler-like ones to
higher programming languages such as C language. The main advantage of PLC is the existence of
simple and intuitive graphical languages: (i) Function Block Diagram (FBD) and (ii) Ladder Diagram
(LD). They both allow solving logic functions in a similar manner, as it is done by schemes in Boolean
algebra.
1.3 Function Block Diagram (FBD)

FBD is defined by IEC 61131-3 standard as a graphical programming language for process control. In
FBD, data flows from left to right through function blocks. These function blocks can have the
character of logical blocks (AND, NOR, etc.) or instructions (e.g. set text box of display, retrieve data
from the input, adds two values, etc.).
A simple example of a function block instruction is summation (ADD). For example, two input values
IN1 and IN2 with values of 2 or 3 are summed and the output quantity Q then reaches 5 (Figure 2).
ADD
2 IN1 1
Q 5
3 IN2
Figure 2 - Example of a function block - summations of input values

Number 1 inside the rectangle (situated under the name of the ADD instruction) indicates the order
in which the function is carried out in the project. In the simplest case, FBD enables the following
functions:
• retrieves inputs from variables, constants, or wires, the last case can be output of another
function block;
• carries out instructions given by the function block;
• preserves value of the result of the executed instruction as an output variable for input
into other function blocks.
The input to a function block can be only:
• variables;
• wires of other functional blocks;

• constants.
The output of a function block can be only:
• variables;
• wires of other functional blocks.
Figure 3 - Example of a more complex program programmed in FBD language

Figure 3 shows an example of a more complex program in FBD language. This program monitors the
value of the input 3 (INPUT_VALUE) according to a set of values (HIGH_THRESHOLD,
LOW_THRESHOLD) and triggers maximum and minimum alarm (HIGH_ALARM, LOW_ALARM).
If the switch Switch_1 is in position On (i.e. input IN1 of instruction OR has log. value 1) as well as a
maximum alarm is exceeded (i.e. input IN2 of instruction OR has log. value 1) then the auxiliary valve
Relief_valve is turned on (i.e. output Q has log. value 1).
If the minimum alarm is exceeded (input IN1 instruction AND has log. value 1) as well as the switch
Switch_2 is in position On and switch Switch_3 is in position Off (negation of entry), timer is activated
(instruction TP), that opens bypass circuit after 10 s.
FBD language is implemented at different levels in different PLCs. You will learn about simpler FBD
language implementation in this laboratory work.

2 Description of the Lab Stations Equipped with the LOGO!

Laboratory station, which is used in this laboratory task, is equipped with a modular system LOGO!
(Siemens) with the basic 0BA6 series module complemented by 3 extension and 1 power module
(Figure 4).
The basic module of the 0BA6 series is here in 12/24 RC version, which means that it is powered by
12/24 V DC, it has 8 digital inputs and 4 relay outputs, through which current of maximum size 10 A
can pass. The basic module also allows communication with expansion modules, simple operation
and basic programming (via integrated control panel with six buttons) and recording a program from
the PC to the internal memory and vice versa.
The expansion module AM 2 AQ system enables to add 2 analog outputs, 0-10 V DC or 0/4 to 20 mA.
The second expansion module AM 2 RTD is equipped with inputs for platinum resistance
thermometer with a range of -50 to +200 °C. At last, the third expansion module DM 16 24R adds 8
digital inputs and 8 relay outputs with a maximum transmitted current of 5 A. The entire modular
system is powered from a single module with the output power up to 24 W / 4 A.
Figure 4 - Modular LOGO!: 1) Power module LOGO! Power, 2) basic module series 0BA6 LOGO!
12/24 RC 3) USB converter connecting the base module and PC 4) expansion module LOGO! AM 2
AQ, 5) expansion module LOGO! AM 2 RTD, 6) expansion module LOGO! DM 16 24R
The expansion module AM 2 AQ system enables to add 2 analog outputs, 0-10 V DC or 0/4 to 20 mA.
The second expansion module AM 2 RTD is equipped with inputs for platinum resistance
thermometer with a range of -50 to +200 °C. At last, the third expansion module DM 16 24R adds 8
digital inputs and 8 relay outputs with a maximum transmitted current of 5 A. The entire modular
system is powered from a single module with the output power up to 24 W / 4 A.
The modular system is connected and fixed to the frame of the apparatus. The terminals are
connected to the test panel, the basic module is connected to the PC and the equipment is
complemented with a furnace model with Pt100 resistance thermometer and a fan, see Figure 5.
The test panel is a special terminal that allows connection of LOGO! with a technological devices
using cables fitted with banana plugs. This terminal is extended by testing input signals from buttons
and switches and output indicators in the form of LEDs (Figures 6 and 7). Switches, buttons and LEDs
are not the parts of the PLC and serve as inputs or outputs / alarm systems for verifying the function
currently exercised by the program. All these elements have interconnected negative pole and
therefore only positive pole is to be connected; this design has been chosen because of the smaller
number of necessary slots used at the same time. This mode of wiring is also instructive.

Figure 5 - Laboratory station: 1) the main switch button, 2) LOGO! modular system, 3) test panel, 4)
model of furnace with resistance thermometer and fan, 5) computer
Figure 6 - Test panel: 1) position switches SA1 - SA4 2) buttons SB1 - SB4, 3) LED HL1 - HL4, 4) the
DC 24 V power connector with jacks marked + and - 5) digital inputs I3 to I12, 6) relay outputs Q1 -
Q4, maximum current of 10 A, 7) relay outputs Q5 - Q8, 8) inputs for resistance thermometer in a
three-wire connection PT1 - PT2, 9) analog inputs AI1 - AI4, 10), analog outputs AO1 - AO2.

Figure 7 - Types of jacks on the test panel (red area marks controls that are not connected to the
PLC and serve as inputs and outputs / alarm switches and indicators for verifying the function
currently exercised by the program)
In the apparatus, there is also included a model of furnace with resistance thermometer Pt100 and a
separately switched fan serving as the simulation of system disturbance.

3 Safety instructions
The purpose of safety instructions is to avoid injury of the operator or damage of the laboratory
station. These instructions must imperatively be studied before beginning the work! Ignoring the
safety instructions can be penalized by the assistant (termination of the laboratory work and
classification "F").
When working with laboratory station, simple rules are applied:
 any perceived defects must be reported immediately to the assistant;
 prior to turning on the PLC, it is necessary to have an assistant's approve for any physical
connection on the terminal (exceptions are explicitly mentioned in the text).
On the laboratory station it is explicitly prohibited:
 to touch screw terminals by electrically conductive objects (pens, screwdrivers, wires,
fingers, etc.), there is a risk of electric shock;
 to screw or pull wires from the PLC; only terminals designated for banana plugs may be used;
 to connect red jack labeled + and blue jack labeled - without a load, there is a risk of short
circuits and damage of the equipment;
 to recklessly manipulate with buttons and switches on the terminal;
 to activate the device without having it previously checked by the assistant.

4 Before starting the work

4.1 Folders for saving project data files
The project data files must be stored continually:
• On a disc L (444mrt $), folder "PLC" is created there.
• Textbooks and manuals for laboratory work are stored in the directory "Guides".
• Each working group will create working folder in the directory "Students", labelling it
NAME_ddmm (surname_day month). For example: L: \ PLC \ Students \ Doe_0509.
• Create your working folder before starting the lab work.
• Store all data files obtained during the measurement in this folder.
• After measurement, copy the files for processing your laboratory report.

5 Tasks
1) Getting acquainted with Soft Comfort software.
2) Simulate basic logic functions using the FBD program. Record the created programs to the
control unit and then test them on terminal.
3) Create a program that will retrieve the temperature of the heated metal block of furnace
model and list its current value on the display.
4) Create a simple program that will cyclically perform the following functions: By turning the
lever SA1 the program starts → the heating is switched on → after reaching a temperature of
47 °C, the heating is shut down → the heater is let to cool spontaneously to a temperature of
36 °C, and then the fan is switched on and the temperature of heater is forcibly cooled to 26
°C → then the cycle is closed and it will start again.

6 The procedure for tasks solving

6.1 Solving Task 1
Getting acquainted with PLC Siemens Logo! apparatus
The objective of this task is to study in detail the laboratory station and its control and prepare it for
subsequent tasks solving. Elements of the basic module are summarized on the Figure 8.
Figure 8 - Description of the basic module

You will receive the station disconnected from power and PC. During the initial setting up of the
station proceed as follows:
a) turn on the PC and log into the system;
b) visually inspect the station, if you find any apparent defects or damages, report them to the
assistant;
c) check that the main power switch of the station is in the OFF position, if not, put it in this
position;
d) make sure that no cables with banana plugs are on the test panel. If they are there,
disconnect them;
e) make sure that the basic module has the cover to the USB socket removed. If not, ask the
assistant to remove it - never try to remove it yourself, it may cause damage to the station;
f) insert the USB converter cable to the socket of the basic module, the jack works as a lock -
key. Never try to plug cable forcefully;
g) insert the other end of cable into a free USB socket on the PC;
h) only then plug the power cable to the 230 V socket;
i) start the main station by turning the power switch to the ON position (this can be done
without permission of the assistant, assuming that the test panel is without cables);
j) Check the LED RUN / STOP illumination on all the three extension modules;
 If the date and time flashes on the display of basic module, or any value is displayed except
of the text "No Program Press Esc ', a previous program is running in memory; this
program must be shut down and PLD reset using the six buttons on the basic module of
the PLC;
 Stop the running program as follows:
o In the event that display shows the date and time, press ESC → by means of keys
▲ and ▼ move the cursor in the menu onto the item Stop and press the OK
button; to confirm the order move by the cursor using the ▼ key on Yes, and
confirm it by the OK button;

o if it is displayed e.g. temperature or other value: first, it is necessary to press ▼,

and then proceed according to point (i.);
 Erase the device configuration by moving the cursor using the ▲ and ▼ keys onto the
item Program, then press the OK button, move the cursor using the ▲ and ▼ keys, click
Clear Prg, press the OK button; to confirm the order move the cursor by means of the ▼
key onto Yes, and confirm it by the OK button.
k) turn the apparatus off by putting the main switch into the OFF position;
l) after completing the above steps, PLC is ready for use.
Note: COM port selection

When interconnecting a PC and the PLC, or when uploading the program to the PLC, you may be
prompted to select a communication port. This happens usually when PCs, which are used for other
laboratory tasks, are used; in such a case automatic detection may fail. The solution is to select the
port in the menu - usually the highest port number is the right one. Alernatively ask the assistant for
help.
6.2 Solving Task 2

Introduction to the SoftComfort software
SoftComfort programming environment is designed to create programs for PLC LOGO!, further
for simulation and testing of the created programs and for their recording to the memory of PLC.
The environment allows writing a program in two graphic languages:
1. in Function Block Diagram – the FBD language
2. in Ladder Diagram – the LAD language
For the sake of clarity and simplicity, we will continue to use the FBD language only, which is
similar to schemes of logic functions of Boolean algebra. The LAD language will not be used in the
work.
6.2.1 Starting the programming environment Soft Comfort

After logging into ICT domain account, run the SoftComfort software. In Windows Press Start →
All Programs → Siemens Logo! Soft → LOGO! Soft Comfort.
6.2.2 Changing the display language

After start, the programming environment can be set to English. For better orientation in the
laboratory manual, switch to the English environment. Press Tools → Options → Language → and
select English here. In order to change the language properly, it is necessary to restart the
programming environment.

6.2.3 Creating a new project

Creating a new project is possible by pressing the key sequence File → New → Function Block
Diagram (FBD). After start, blank panel of user's interface is launched, see Figure 9.
In the bar menu, there are commands for editing and administration of programs, functions for
defining the default settings, and transfer tools for transferring programs to the PLC. Standard
toolbar provides direct access to basic functions LOGO! Soft Comfort. Here you can create a new
program or (alternatively) load, save or print the current one. There are also icons for cutting,
copying, and pasting objects, for starting transfer of data into the LOGO! or to your computer. The
panel of programming tools is used for switching to other modes of for editing. It serves also for
quick and easy creation and editing of programs.
Information window at the bottom of the programming area displays information and notes. Status
bar displays the currently active tool, the status of the program, enables to set the zoom factor,
shows page number of scheme and the selected LOGO! device.
Figure 9 - User interface of LOGO! Soft Comfort

The actual programming is then carried out in the programming interface in which, using mouse,
function blocks are dragged from the window of constants and connectors, basic functions and
special functions.
The subject of the second part of laboratory work is to carry out programming of a simple task.
6.2.4 Export of developed program into JPG format

Export of developed program into JPG format can be easily carried out using File → Save as → select
the JPG format, file name, then select a path to save and store it by the Save button.
Note: JPG images are to be included in the final report. Make sure you always save old program and
export the images before starting a new task.

6.3 Solving Task 3:

Simulate basic logic functions using the FBD program.
Example:
Program the logical AND function with two inputs and one output. Simulate the function, and then
implement it on laboratory apparatus.
1) From the window Constants and connectors ... select the subtree Basic functions and the
function AND and drag it into the window of the programming interface.
2) Place the blocks of the two inputs to the left from the AND block. Inputs can be found in the
box Constants and connectors ... → Constants → Digital → Input block. Right-click on it,
select Block Properties, and then configure them the values I3 and I4 on the card Parameter.
3) From the window Constants and connectors ... select subtree Constants → Digital → Output
block and drag it to the programming interface to the right of the AND function block. Using
this way, you have created output that should be associated with the physical output of PLC -
to do so, click on it by the right mouse button and select properties of the block. On the
Parameters tab, select the number of output Q1.
4) Finally, connect all blocks using mouse by dragging the ends of the output of the block and
pulling the connecting "wire" to the ends of each input. The result should match the
following picture - Figure 10
Figure 10 - The logical AND function written in FBD

This simple procedure creates a program performing logical AND function written in FBD. Two
unconnected inputs of block B001 are set automatically by SoftComfort so that the block is
functional.
6.3.1 Simulation
Before uploading the program to the PLC it is necessary to check it by simulation. The following steps
show you how to easily simulate the program. Keep the program of logical AND function open and
then press Tools → Simulation on the menu bar. The panel of simulation appears (Figure 11) under
the programming interface.
Figure 11 - Simulation Panel

In this panel, you can start, stop, or temporarily suspend the simulation. Inputs can be activated by I3
and I4 buttons, output status can be visually indicated by the indicator light Q1. The logical output is

at status 1 if both inputs are at log value 1. Try (by switching the status of the switches I3 and I4)
whether the program is working correctly. Always close the simulation function after verification.
6.3.2 Physical connection of sockets on the test panel

Testing the program directly on a physical device can be performed on the test panel (Figure 12).
During this procedure PLC must be OFF. Connect the SA1 and SA2 switches to the I03 and I04 inputs
respectively by cables with banana plugs. This procedure creates input signals. It is also necessary to
create an electrical circuit interrupted by output relay Q1. Thus, connect any socket (marked +) of 24
V DC power supply with one socket of relay Q1 and simultaneously the other socked connect to
diode HL1. This procedure creates a simple testing circuit.
Figure 12 - Connecting the AND function on the test panel
6.3.3 Transferring the program into PLC

After successful testing, the program may be loaded into the PLC. The inputs of the program are
associated with physical inputs (I3 program is input I03 on the panel, etc.).
Switch the PLC ON. Then, on the standard toolbar, press the button with the red arrow PC → LOGO!,
or press the Ctrl + D on the keyboard (see Figure 13). The program will be uploaded to the PLC
memory.
Figure 13 - Position button PC → LOGO!

If prompted, select the COM port to which the PLC is connected (note - it is always the highest one)
and then confirm. Then repeat uploading of the program to the PLC.
Another message that may be shown when uploading the program is “The device is in RUN state.
Change it to STOP”. This means that the PLC program is still running. Press YES to exit the running
program and upload a new one.
The last warning message that may be shown when uploading a program is a warning about the
number of currently used analog inputs AI that does not correspond to the currently selected
number of analog inputs AI in the PLC. Press YES - it sets the PLC according to setting of the uploading
program.
In the menu of the basic module select the Start item using arrows ▲ and ▼ and press the OK
button on the panel. The program will be initiated and executed, the date and time will be flashing
on the display. Now set inputs I03 and I04 to log 1 by switching both switches SA1 and SA2 to the
upper position. If everything is connected according to the instructions, the relay Q1 will switch and
the diode HL1 will get illuminated.
End of the program is executed by pressing the sequence ESC → Stop → confirm by OK button → and
reconfirm. After that the display shows the basic menu. Erase program from PLC memory and switch
the device off.
Comment the elements used in the program using the Insert comment from the Toolbox panel. Do
not forget to save the program into your folder and export it at the same time as a JPG file.
This example has demonstrated application of the simple graphical programming language FBD.
Note: Program logic function according to specification given by the assistant with two or more
inputs and outputs. Simulate the function, and then implement it on the laboratory apparatus.
Comment the elements used in the program, save the created program as JPG file and use it in the
report. Save the program to your folder on the disk L. Each turning on of the apparatus and changing
in wiring must be checked by the assistant!
6.4 Solving Task 4

Create a program that will read the temperature of the heated metal block and display its current
value on the display
Display of the basic module LOGO! allows displaying short text messages. Hence a simple
thermometer with display (from the basic module and Pt100 resistance thermometer built in the
furnace model) can be created. For its construction, blocks of analog inputs, amplifiers and block text
messages will be used.
When compiling the thermometer, proceed as follows:
a) First, create a simple operation, which will switch heating and the fan of the furnace model;
this will be also your basic tool for future testing of the thermometer. Use the function
reading from the logical input Digital inputs and connect it with the digital relay output
Digital output. For subsequent testing two such pairs will be necessary, first controlling the
fan, second controlling the heater. Then associate inputs and outputs with real switches and
perform the simulation of the program.

control of heating
control of fan
Figure 14 - Control of heater and fan of the furnace model

b) At this stage, the equipment must be turned off! Connect power supply 24 V to the heating
source through the relay Q1, also connect the fan to an auxiliary power source 24 V through
the relay Q2 (blue / black cable is to be connected to the minus "-" socket). Relays Q1 and Q2
are controlled by switches SA1 and SA2 respectively, which are connected to inputs I03 and
I04, see Figure 15. Signalization of heating or cooling by LED diodes is then to be realized by
linking the relays Q1 and Q2 with diodes HL1 and HL2 respectively.
c) Resistance thermometer Pt100 from the furnace model is to be connected to the test panel.
Connection of the thermometer should be made using three three-wires. To do so, plug the
separated wire with one banana plug into the socket M1- it is situated in the group of
sockets designed for resistance thermometers PT1. The second wire with two plugs connect
into the sockets M1 + and IC1 (in any order). The assistant must check the wiring!
d) You can now proceed to the construction of the thermometer; continue on the same project!
First, check setting of the number of analog inputs AI of your PLC. Unit 0BA6 allows using of
standard inputs AI1 and AI2; digital inputs DI7 and DI8 can be set in the software so that they
capture analog signal. In this case, these inputs will be marked as AI3 and AI4 in the software
and input of the thermometer PT1 will be automatically set as AI5. In this task, a simpler
variant will be chosen, in which inputs AI3 and AI4 are not configured, and then input of the
thermometer PT1 will be automatically set as the analog input AI3. Please check the current
settings of the analog inputs of your project so that the thermometer PT1 is set as analog
input AI3. Then set two analog inputs in the software Soft Comfort File → Properties →
Parameter on the bottom of the tab, here is Set AI3 and AI4 position. In the menu select the
Options tab 2AI. (This setting should be the default for each new project.)
Figure 15 – Connection of the heater and the fan to the test panel
e) Drag the Analog Input block to the previous blocks that control heating and the fan, right-
click on the Properties and set the analog input AI3. Connect the Analogue amplifier, which
adjusts the input signal according to the parameters of the resistance thermometer, right
click on the block Amplifiers and in the Properties tab, select the Parameter tab and here set
Sensor Pt100, a unit of Celsius, resolution × 1, the decimal point in a text message leave with

value 0. The output from the Analog amplifier is to be connected to Analog flag AM1. In this
step, you have created a simple system of data acquisition from the thermometer Pt100
(Figure 16).
Figure 16 - Data acquisition from Pt100 using the Analog amplifier block
f) To view the data on the display of the main unit, it will be necessary to configure the Text
message function. To do so, drag Status 1, Message text, and a Flag (marker) functions into
the programming interface.
g) Connect Status 1 with the input of the Message text function. This ensures that the display
automatically turns into the mode displaying text messages when the program is turned on.
Connect the output of the Flag (marker) M, and set his property value into M25; this value is
reserved for automatic execution of display backlight, see Figure 17.
h) Now you can set the Text Message function, see Figure 18. In the left column Block you will
see the functions; their outputs can be displayed on the screen.Only the Analog amplifier
function is enabled. Click on it; then the values of the analog amplifiers that can be displayed
appear in the right column. Click on Ax amplification and drag it to the Message box that
serves as a preview of display. Fill, as the output value, units of °C by selecting the check box
in the preview (in the place where you want to display it) and then by clicking on the
appropriate menu °C in the Message Text.
i) Then check the finished thermometer by simulation. After running the simulation, a new
screen Message text appears; try to change the value of AI3 on the simulation panel and see
how the value of the temperature in the Message text window changes. Switch the
simulation off.
j) Upload the finished and tested program into the PLC.
Figure 17 - Adding of the "Message text" block

Figure 18 – Properties of the "Message text" function
control of heating
control of fan
function for acquiring the actual temperature from the Pt100

thermometer
function for visualizing the actual temperature on the display
Figure 19 - The final program of the thermometer

k) Now follows testing of the thermometer. For this purpose, use the diagram that you have
created in point b). Run the program in the PLC memory. Switch SA1 to the top position in
order to start the heating by heater (notified by LED HL1). The basic module displays the
current temperature of the furnace model; it will be increased over time. If so, test cooling of
the furnace model. Turn the switch of heating SA1 off to the lower position and
simultaneously switch SA2 to the upper position; the LED diode HL2 will indicate cooling and
temperature on the display of PLC will decrease over time. If everything works, you have
successfully fulfilled the task.
l) Comment the program using the Insert Comments function. Save your project to the disk L
into your previously created folder and make sure to export it into JPG as well.
6.5 Solving Task 5

Create a simple program that will cyclically perform the following function: The program is started
by turning the lever SA1 → heating will start → the heater will be turned off after reaching
temperature of 47°C → the heater will get spontaneously cooled down to temperature of 36 °C,
and then the fan will start and the heater will be forcibly cooled down to 26 °C → then the cycle
ends and a new cycle will start again by turning the heater on.
This program is a simple example of cyclical performance of the specified program using PLC.
The behavior of the apparatus, which is to be achieved, is shown in the graph of the temperature
dependence on time, see Figure 20
Figure 20 - Cycles of the program

a) Use the program "thermometer” programmed in the previous task. Open it and save it as a
copy in which you will work.
b) The program itself is not complicated, but it requires an understanding of the Analog
Comparator function block. The block compares the value of the Analog Comparator input
with internal input values and adjusts the output to logic 0 or 1 (More detailed information
about this block can be obtained using the help).
c) Move the Analog Comparator block into the program, right-click on it and select Block
Properties. Note the values marked as Threshold. These values inform us at which value of
the input the comparator sends the output to log 1 value (marked as On) or log 0 value
(marked as Off). We use one switch to turn the heater On when the temperature is below 26
°C and Off, if it is higher than 47 °C, and the other one to indicate when the temperature
exceeds 36 °C.
d) Move one more Analogue Comparator block to the program. As the Ax input of both
comparators will serve the output of the Analog input block.
e) Set Block properties of both comparators - Pt100 sensor, Celsius units, resolution of × 1.

f) Comparator A will evaluate the current value of the Analog input and will decide about
exceeding of levels determined at 26 °C and 47 °C in such a way that at a temperature lower
than 26 °C it sends the log 0 signal and in excess of 47 °C sends the log 1 value. Adjust
accordingly the right temperatures into comparator A. Think about what will happen in the
temperature range 26-47 °C?
g) In the temperature range 26-47 °C the comparator will hold the value, which it has had
during the last excesion of decision-making levels (temperatures). As a result this means that
the switch has a memory in this range. It will be therefore easy to decide whether the
apparatus is in state when it is necessary to heat, output from the comparator is in the logic
state 0 for the temperature range (-50 °C to 26 °C) and (26 °C to 47 °C) or, conversely, when
cooling is required (whether with or without forced cooling) output is in log 1 for intervals
(26 °C to 47 °C) and (47 °C to 200 °C), for more details see Figure 21.
Figure 21 - Decision-levels of the comparator A

h) Figure 21 is an illustration showing how the comparator A will decide when exceeding the
specified values. A) We start at a room temperature, e.g. at 22 °C. This temperature is lower
than 26 °C and the comparator output is therefore at log 0; log 0 can be easily processed, for
example by the NOT function, which will convert it to log 1 to turn on the heater. This log 0 is
memorized by comparator even when the temperature increases within the interval 26-47
°C, see area B). After exceeding 47°C (indicated by the dashed line), area C) the comparator
sends signal log 1 (similarly, it can be further processed by NOT function, to obtain
instruction “disable the heater”). The comparator remembers log 1 until it reaches the
temperature of 26 °C - the area D) and then switches to log 0 - Area E), which is an order to
turn the heater on and the whole cycle is repeated.
i) Switch B is needed for decision-making level at 36 °C, i.e. an area, separating slow
spontaneous cooling (fan off) or forced fast cooling (fan is turned on). Here, the setup is
already easy, because we do not need the memory of comparator. Just enter the value 36 °C
as both parameters into the properties on/off of the comparator. You need to set the type of
sensor - Pt100. The signal from the switch will be following, see Figure 22.

Figure 22 - Decision-levels of the switch B

j) Figure 22 illustrates the decision-making levels of the comparator B. If the temperature is
higher than 36 °C, the fan is turned off - log 1 (slow cooling – the area A), if the temperature
is below 36 °C, the fan is turned on (forced cooling - the area B).
k) Connect both switches to block Analog input (still continuing the program from the previous
task), see Figure 23.
switch A
switch B
Figure 23 - Switches A and B connected to the Analog output block

l) The hardest part has been done. Now it is possible to interconnect comparators with simple
logic functions, which will treat the remaining events.
m) We start by turning the program ON by lever of switch SA1. It is necessary to avoid earlier
turning the heating on, i.e. before the entire program is executed, by switching the lever to
its upper position SA1 - log 1. The start can, therefore, occur only if the output of the switch
is the instruction "turn the heating on" and, simultaneously, lever SA1 is switched into
position log 1. These features provide a logical AND function. Try to write the truth table.
There is a small trick, switch output is in inverted logic, and thus starting of the heater is
initiated by log 0. The solution is simple - just insert NOT function between the switch output
and input to logic functions AND. Block of lever I3 input use from heater control functions,

which was left in the program from the previous work. Similarly, carry out analogical
procedure with the Q1 block, which controls the heater relay.
switch SA1
(run the program)
control of heating
Figure 24 – Turning on the program using switch SA1

n) The final task is to switch the fan at the right time. The fan has to be started when furnace
temperature falls below 36°C, and simultaneously the heater will be turned off. Therefore,
the logical AND function can be again used there. Now the advantage of the memory switch
becomes obvious. As the output of the comparator A will be at the level of log 1 only when
the furnace is in cooling phase (if you do not understand now, read the passage g) and h)
again). And like in the point m), start of the fan by the comparator B is controlled by log 0, so
it is necessary to use NOT function at the output from the switch. The final program including
temperature display is shown in Figure 24.
o) Remove the note block Digital input I4, which remained in the program from the previous
work, and use only digital output Q2.
p) As slow cooling of the heating element leads to inaccuracies in the measuring with
thermometer and occasionally threshold temperature of 36 °C jumps back to 37 °C, it is
necessary to protect the relay in the device to avoid its switching too soon, but only after
temperature stabilization. Therefore, load the function Delay into the program and set Block
Properties to 10:00 seconds.
q) Simulate the program and test its behavior on increasing and decreasing temperature. If it
works correctly, load it into the PLC.
r) Test the program in two consecutive cycles.
s) If everything works correctly, comment the program using the Insert Comments and export it
into JPG format. Both save on disk L.
t) The laboratory tasks end by exit off the program, clearing the memory PLC, turning off the
apparatus and disconnect attached cables with banana plugs.

switch SA1
(run the program)
control of heating
delayed start
control of fan
function for displaying actual temperature
Figure 25 – Program for controlling the furnace temperature

7 Guidelines for elaboration of the report

a) The report must meet the formal requirements specified at the beginning of the laboratory.
b) Name of the folder where your files are stored.
c) Always indicate the name of the task and as the solution put all the JPG pictures of prepared
programs, including short comments of the blocks and their functions.
d) You can add explanations and notes directly into the images and graphs.
e) Send the report in format DOC, DOCX, PDF via e-mail to the assistant.

References
1 Zezulka F., Bradáč Z., Fiedler P., Kučera P., Štohl R., Programovatelné automaty, Skripta VUT
Brno, Brno 200
2 Kadlec K., Kmínek M.: Měřicí a řídicí technika. http://uprt.vscht.cz/ucebnice/MRT/, (únor
2005)

Date Notes Lector

MEASUREMENT OF
ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTIVITY
MEC January 2015

Author: Dušan Kopecký, Ph.D, assoc. prof. Karel Kadlec, Ph. D.
Laboratory Task: Measurement of Electrolytic Conductivity
Filename: MCE.EV.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 25
Measurement of electrolytic conductivity can be applied everywhere where the liquids contain
electrically conductive ions such as in quality controls of water, milk, chemicals, etc. The technicians
who perform such measurement, are often comes into contact with very simple, maintenance free,
devices for measuring the electrolytic conductivity. The probe is simply immersed into the liquid and
the display will show the number, including unit. The aim of the laboratory work Measurement of
Electrolytic Conductivity is to have insight into such a "black box" and try to explain the theoretical
and practical aspects of measuring the electrical conductivity of liquids.
Laboratory station is a simple non-flow system for measuring the electrical conductivity of liquids by
two or four-electrode method, which can be assembled with different geometrical parameters,
altering its sensitivity. On the apparatus it can be practically test the differences between the two
and four-electrode method, determine the thermal dependence of electrical conductivity, or
explained the consequences of polarization of the electrodes at low power frequency.
Taking part in the laboratory work Measurement of Electrolytic Conductivity as well as the
instructional text to this work assumes certain level of knowledge on the theory of electrolytic
conductivity, namely on two- and four-electrode sensors. The necessary educational text is to be
found within this Instructions for Laboratory Work.
Before commencing the work in the laboratory, students have to pass through a test, consisting of:
• basic formulas for electrical conductance and specific electrical conductivity;
• difference between the two- and four-electrode sensors;
• general possibilities of utilization of the sensors of electrolytic conductivity, including their
limitations.
This manual for carrying out the laboratory work contains information, which need not to be fully
studied ahead. It is enough to read the Chapter 1. The remaining text serves as a guide for the
laboratory work, contains the work assignment, instructions for carrying out the work and for
processing the protocol.
the webpages of the Department of Physics and Measurements.
1 Sensors of Electrolytic Conductivity of Liquids .................................................. 9

1.1 Theoretical Background ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Constant of Measuring Cell of the Sensor........................................................................................ 11
1.3 Measuring Methods and Design of the Sensors .............................................................................. 11
2 Description of the Laboratory Station ............................................................. 14
3 Safety Instructions.......................................................................................... 15
4 Before Commencing the Work........................................................................ 16

4.1 Preparation of Tables ....................................................................................................................... 16
5 Tasks .............................................................................................................. 19
6 Procedure of Solving the Tasks ....................................................................... 20

6.1 Solving Task 1 ................................................................................................................................... 20
6.2 Solving Task 2 ................................................................................................................................... 21
6.3 Solving Task 3 ................................................................................................................................... 21
6.4 Solving Task 4. .................................................................................................................................. 22
7 Instruction for Laboratory Report ................................................................... 23
References ........................................................................................................... 24
1 Sensors of Electrolytic Conductivity of Liquids

Sensors of electrolytic conductivity of liquids are based on utilization of conductometry, i.e.
measurement of electrical conductance of solutions. They are highly sensitive and enable measuring
of the content of various agents, from very small to very high concentrations. The conductivity
sensors are used for controlling of the drinking water quality, for checking natural or wastewater, for
checking of boiler supply water and for controlling of a wide range of industrial processes.
1.1 Theoretical Background

Electrical conductance of liquids is dependent on concentration of ions of diluted agents. Usually it is
measured by two electrodes, which are immersed into the solution. Electrical conductance G is then
inversely proportional to the distance of electrodes L and directly proportional to their area S and to
specific electrical conductivity γ according to the formula:
𝑆
𝐺 = 𝛾𝐿 (1)
The value of specific conductivity is a measure for concentration of ions of measured solution.
Conductivity of electrolyte is dependent on migration of ions that are present in the solution to
electrodes and the value of passing current is given by the charge transferred by the ions per time
unit. This charge – and thus the conductivity – is dependent mainly on number of the ions in a
volume unit, i.e. on concentration of ions in the solution. The more of salt, acids or bases is
dissociated in the measured solution, the higher is the conductivity. In natural and waste waters,
mainly ions of dissolved salts are concerned. Conductivity depends also on the mobility of ions.
Smaller ions are more mobile, that means that the H3O+, OH-, K+ a Cl- ions contribute to the
conductivity of the solution more than the others. If the ion is surrounded with water molecules
(hydration), then it contributes to overall conductivity less. Conductivity is dependent on the solvent,
too. Polar solvents mean higher ionization of the compounds, which are dissolved in them. From this
point of view, ideal solvent is water. In alcohols, ionization decreases with lengthening carbon chain.
In non-polar solvents, there is practically no ionization. Conductivity is dependent also on viscosity of
the solution, as more viscous liquid prevents the ions to move freely.
Specific electrical conductivity γ is expressed in the units Siemens per centimeter (S/cm) and it is a
function of activity of dissolved constituents, temperature and degree of dissociation. Concentration
can be expressed from the measured conductivity by means of calibration graphs. As obvious from
Figure 1, the highest conductivities are shown for strong acids, then follow strong bases and finally
follow salts. Some curves have an extreme; therefore measurement is possible either in areas of
small concentrations on the ascending part of the curve, or in the area of high concentrations on the
descending part of the curve. Broken line is used to mark the areas, where measurement of
concentrations by means of electrical conductivity is not suitable. For small concentrations of diluted
agents, electrical conductivity is linear dependent on concentration for most substances, which is
advantageous for the measurement.
Conductivity γ is a function of temperature. For solutions of lower concentrations, such dependence
can be expressed by the following formula:
𝛾𝑡 = 𝛾𝑡0 ∙ [1 + 𝛽1 ∙ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 ) + 𝛽2 ∙ (𝑡 − 𝑡0 )2 ] (2)
where β1, β2 are temperature coefficients of conductivity, γt, γt0 are conductivities at temperature t,
or t0 respectively.
Measurement of Electrolytic Conductivity 9/25

Figure 1 – Dependence of conductivity γ on mass concentration w for chosen substances

For example, for aqueous solution of NaCl it is valid that β1 = 0.0226 K-1, β2 = 0.085.10-2 K-2. For
smaller temperature intervals, the member of the second order is insignificant and can be neglected.
Temperature coefficients β1 do not differ too much for various groups of electrolytes (the following
values are valid for t = 20 °C): 0.016 K-1 for acids, 0.019 K-1 for bases, 0.024 K-1 for salts. With
increasing temperature, the value of the coefficient β1 rapidly decreases. In diluted aqueous
solutions conductivity increases with temperature by 2 to 2.5 % per Kelvin.
Specific conductivity of a solution containing i types of ion particles is given by sum of conductivity
contributions of all these ion particles:
𝛾 = ∑𝑖|𝑧𝑖 | ∙ 𝑐𝑖 ∙ 𝜆𝑖 (3)
where zi is the charge of a ion particle of concentration ci, and ion conductivity λi.
On the basis of measurement of electrical conductivity, it is possible to determine concentration of a
dissolved substance only for binary mixtures. Sensors of electrical conductivity to not show any
selectivity towards certain substance in multi-constituent mixtures, and therefore they belong to
non-selective sensors. For mixtures with more than two constituents, concentration can be
determined by measurement of conductivity only if the ratio of the constituents within the mixture is
knows and constant (so called pseudobinary mixtures). In solutions containing only one diluted
substance, it is possible to determine its concentration in wide range of values, where linear
dependence of conductivity on concentration is valid. At calibration of the sensor, dependence of
output signal for solutions of known concentration is measured. Calibration is often carried out with
sodium chloride, which lies with its conductivity approximately in the middle of technically significant
substances.
Simple Ohm’s law, according to which current is directly proportional to the system conductance, is
no more valid at galvanic contact of the solution with electrodes after bringing of direct voltage onto
the electrode, but rather the formula:
1
𝐼 = 𝑅 ∙ (𝑈 − 𝑃) (4)
where P is polarization voltage at the boundary between the solution and electrodes. To have the
Ohm’s law, which is valid for metal conductors, valid for electrolyte solutions as well, current has to
be measured at condition, that polarisation P is zero. Therefore it is necessary to use alternate
voltage instead of direct one.

1.2 Constant of Measuring Cell of the Sensor

The ratio of electrodes distances L and their area S represents the resistance constant of the
measuring cell.
𝐿
𝐾= (5)
𝑆
The value of the constant K (cm-1) is practically determined for a given measuring cell in such a way,
that resistance of electrolyte solution is measured on that given cell for electrolyte of precisely
known conductivity. The value of the constant K is changing with change of dimensions of the
measuring cell. For solutions of low conductivity (from 0.05 to 200 µS·cm-1), the electrodes are close
to each other and the constant acquires values 0.1 to 0.01 cm-1. Analogically, for solutions of higher
conductivity (from 10 to 20 000 µS·cm-1), sensors of higher distance of electrodes are used and the
constant acquires values 1 cm-1, 10 cm-1 and sometimes even 100 cm-1.
From the formulas for electrical conductance and for the measuring cell constant, the following
formula can be derived:
𝛾 =𝐺∙𝐾 (6)
1.3 Measuring Methods and Design of the Sensors

Measuring of composition of solutions by means of electrolytic conductivity is in industrial practice
highly widespread for its simplicity and reliability of the sensors used. There are three types of
sensors used for industrial measurement of electrical conductivity. These are either contact sensors
with two or four electrodes, or electrodeless sensors based on induction principle.
Alternate current is used for measurement, since in case of direct current the result would be
affected by electrolytic processes on the electrodes. At sufficiently fast alternating of current
direction, thicker polarization layer would not get formed and at the inverse current direction the
expelled agents dissolve again. For measuring, alternating current with frequency of 50 to 5000 Hz is
used. Low frequencies are suitable for measuring solutions of low conductivity, as polarization is
negligible due to high resistance between the electrodes. On the other hand, higher frequencies
diminish the influence of polarization at the electrode surface in cases, when there is high
conductivity of the solution. From experience arises that frequency 300 Hz suits for lower
conductivities and frequency 2.4 kHz suits for higher conductivities.
Contact sensors are either of submersible or of flow-through type. The electrodes are most often
made of stainless steel, titan-palladium alloy or graphite. Selection of material depends on the sensor
application. Electrodes of special stainless steel are used for measuring of conductivity of pure and
ultra-pure water. Graphite electrodes are most often used for measuring of concentration of strong
bases and acids. Dimensions of the electrodes and their distance determine the electrode constant of
the sensor, which needs to be chosen in relation to the measuring range.
Two-electrode sensors (Figure 2) are suitable for measuring of clean samples. In case of
contaminated samples, dirt sediments on the electrode surface, which causes diminishing of
electrode surface, occurrence of transition resistances and occurrence of measurement errors. With
diminishing of conductivity of the solution, polarization of electrode decreases. Supply voltage is
usually of sinusoidal waveform, of frequency 100 to 1000 Hz with small amplitude in order to avoid
electrolysis of the solution. The two-electrode sensors are used i.e. for checking of ultra-pure water
at production of semiconductors, in gas-turbine applications and at nuclear reactors.
Four-electrode sensors are suitable for measuring of solutions of high conductivity, when there is a
danger of electrode contamination. Schematic arrangement of the measuring circuit is shown at
Figure 3.

Figure 2 – Two-electrode sensors a) principle, b) scheme of a sensor with cylindrical electrodes c)

sensor Condumax CLS16 (www.cz.endress.com), d) sensor JUMO tecLine Lf-GT with graphite
electrode (www.jumo.cz)
Current
source
Measuring
amplifier
4-terminal probe JUMO tecLINE Lf-4P

(www.jumo.cz)
Current Measuring
electrodes electrodes
Figure 3 – Four-electrode conductivity sensor

Supply current passes through the solution from two current electrodes, potential drop at the
electrolyte being sensed between two measuring voltage electrodes. Voltage at the measuring
electrodes is processed by an amplifier of high input impedance, which is minimizing the passing
current and thus polarization of the electrodes. Polarization, which takes place at the current
electrodes, does not interfere with measurement. In case the supply current is regulated, than
voltage increases with contamination of these electrodes, which might be used for diagnostic
purposes (i.e. for signalization of the necessity to clean the electrodes).
The four-electrode sensors are suitable for measurement of concentration of acids, bases and salts in
processes, where the measured media contains various other constituents (solids, oils or other
materials), which might stick on the electrodes and form insulating coatings there.
Industrial sensors of two- as well as four-electrode type are equipped with built-in resistance
thermometer for compensation of temperature dependence. The flow-through sensors have a fitting
for supply and outlet of the sample. The submersible sensors are designated for conductivity
measurement in open or closed tanks and usually they are fitted with a fastening bracket.
For evaluation of changes in conductivity, measuring converters are used at the modern measuring
systems, which utilize all advantages of state-of-the-art microprocessor technology. These converters
enable simultaneous measuring of conductivity and temperature, automatic or manual selection of
measuring range, automatically compensate the temperature influence by means of linear or non-

linear function, setting of the constant of measuring cell of the sensor and/or other diagnostic
functions. Make of these industrial measuring systems must quite often meet requirements related
to their installation even in tough conditions.
As stated above, the contact electrolytic sensors show some drawbacks in industrial applications,
namely related to the fact that measurement often takes place in the medium, which causes
contamination of electrodes by expelled or sedimented substances. It is also difficult to adjust the
sensor to conductivity of the given measured solution. For example, it is necessary to use sensors of
high constant for measuring of solutions of high conductivity. Such sensors have small surface of the
electrodes and therefore they are very sensitive to polarization of electrodes, which causes
measurement errors. Such problems can be removed by using the electrodeless inductive sensors.

2 Description of the Laboratory Station

The laboratory station for measuring of electrical conductivity of liquids consists of a simple
electrode cell and electronics for evaluation of the obtained data. The apparatus consists of:
 glass vessel with spacers for location of electrodes;
 four large-area stainless steel electrodes, which can be positioned into exactly defined
distances of each other and which enable to make two- or four-electrode arrangement;
 generator of sinusoidal signal with adjustable frequency;
 two precise multimeters, which are used in the modes of alternate current or voltage;
 small water thermostat;
 meter of electrical conductivity Greisinger GMH 3430.
The small thermostat is available for the additional task of measuring the dependence of electrical
conductivity on temperature.
Figure 4 - Apparatus for measuring electrical conductivity of liquids

3 Safety Instructions
The purpose of these safety instructions is to prevent injury or damage to the laboratory station. It is
of utmost importance to study these instructions carefully before commencing the work with the
station. Failure to adhere to these safety instructions may be penalized by the assistant by premature
termination of the lab work with rating “F”.
When working with the laboratory station, simple rules are to be kept:
 any failure is to be immediately reported to the assistant;
 before turning on the apparatus, have the physical connection checked by the assistant;
When working with the laboratory station, never:
 touch generator electrodes with conductive items (such as pens, screwdrivers, wires, fingers,
etc.) or handle the measured conductive solutions right above the instruments – there is a
danger of electric shock;
 short-circuit electrodes, there is a danger of damage to the instrument;
 mindlessly manipulate with buttons or switches on the multimeters or the generator;
 turn the instruments on without having then checked by the assistant.

4 Before Commencing the Work
4.1 Preparation of Tables

Draw the tables in your exercise book or print them on a paper; the tables will be used for recording
the measured values.
Task 1
measurement I U G K
no.
mA mV mS cm-1
10
avarage - - -
Task 2
measurement I U G K
no.
mA mV mS cm-1

10
average - - -
Task 3
measurement I U γ
no.
mA mV mS·cm-1
10
average - -

Task 4
measurement T I U γ
no.
°C mA mV mS·cm-1
10
average - - -

5 Tasks
1) Calculate constant of electrode cell on the basis of the measurement of solution of known
concentration by means of two-electrode connection.
2) Calculate constant of electrode cell on the basis of the measurement of solution of known
concentration by means of four-electrode connection.
3) Calculate specific electrical conductivity of unknown solution from knowledge of the
constant of electrode cell. Verify your result by means of the Greisinger instrument and
discuss possible differences in the measured values.
Additional task:
4) Measure temperature dependence of electrical conductivity of solution of known
concentration by means of the electrode cell of four-electrode connection.

6 Procedure of Solving the Tasks
6.1 Solving Task 1

Calculate constant of electrode cell on the basis of the measurement of solution of known
concentration by means of two-electrode connection.
At the beginning, it is necessary to prepare the reference solution of potassium chloride KCl of
concentration cKCl = 0.1 M. Specific electrical conductivity of such solution is tabled for certain
temperatures. In order to avoid right at the beginning lengthy thermostating of the solution, we will
use the meter of the solution electrical conductivity Greisinger GMH 3430 instead of tabelled values.
Using this meter, we will measure electrical conductivity of the solution at actual temperature. Next,
the electrode cell is to be connected into the two-electrode connection and voltage and current
passing through the electrodes is to be read. From the knowledge of voltage, current and specific
electrical conductivity we can easily calculate the constant of electrode cell in the two-electrode
connection.
1. For this and subsequent tasks, prepare 500 ml of aqueous solution of KCl of
concentration 0.1M.
2. About 50 ml of the solution pour into a beaker and let its temperature to stabilize. Then,
measure specific electrical conductivity of this solution using the meter of specific
electrical conductivity Greisinger GMH 3430. From the meter, write down also the
temperature. Hereinafter we will assume the solution temperature to be constant, even
though we are causing measuring errors.
3. Connect the apparatus according to the scheme shown at Figure 5. Use the generator
GW Instek as a source of sinusoidal signal. Use one of the multimeters as the ammeter
for measuring of alternate current passing through the electrode cell, the other is to be
used to measuring of voltage on the electrodes.
Figure 5 - Scheme of connection of the solution in two-electrode arrangement

4. At the generator of sinusoidal signal, set the frequency to 5 kHz, which would suppress
polarization of the electrodes; set the amplitude in the open circuit (i.e. with
disconnected electrodes) using a voltmeter connected in parallel. The amplitude should
be no more than 200 mV.
5. Pour the solution of KCl into the electrode cell.
6. Connect the electrodes and carry out 10 readings of voltage and current in the intervals
of 30 seconds. From each reading calculate the constant of the electrode cell, average
the values in the end.

6.2 Solving Task 2

Calculate constant of electrode cell on the basis of the measurement of solution of known
concentration by means of four-electrode connection.
This task is very similar to that in the task 1. We will use the four-electrode arrangement now instead
to the two-electrode one.
1. Use the aqueous solution of KCl of concentration 0.1M prepared in advance.
2. Connect the apparatus according to the scheme shown at Figure 6. Use the generator GW
Instek as a source of sinusoidal signal. Use one of the multimeters as the ammeter for
measuring of alternate current passing through the current electrodes, the other is to be
used to measuring of voltage on the voltage electrodes.
Figure 6 - Scheme of connection of the solution in four-electrode arrangement

3. At the generator of sinusoidal signal, set the frequency to 1 kHz; set the amplitude in the
open circuit (i.e. with disconnected electrodes) using an voltmeter connected in parallel. The
amplitude should be no more than 300 mV.
4. Pour the solution of KCl into the electrode cell.
5. Connect the electrodes and carry out 10 readings of voltage and current in the intervals of
30 seconds. From each reading calculate the constant of the electrode cell, average the
values in the end.
6.3 Solving Task 3

From the knowledge of the electrode cell constant in four-electrode arrangement, calculate
specific electrical conductivity of unknown solution. Verify your result by means of a precise meter
and discuss possible discrepancies in measured values.
In the previous task, we were finding the electrode cell constant of the four-electrode arrangement.
Now the obtained result can be used for measuring concentration of unknown solution.
1. After the previous measurement, wash the cell repeatedly with distilled water. Do not,
however, modify the geometry, and leave also the original setting of the instruments.
2. Pour a solution of KCl of unknown concentration into the cell and carry out 30
measurements of voltage and current in the intervals of 30 seconds.
3. From each measurement, calculate specific electrical conductivity of the unknown
solution and make an average at the end.
4. Finally, measure specific electrical conductivity using the meter of electrical conductivity
Greisinger GMH 3430. Discuss eventual deviation in both results.

6.4 Solving Task 4.

Using the electrode cell in four-electrode arrangement measure temperature dependence of
electrical conductivity of a solution of known concentration.
In this task, dependence of specific electrical conductivity on temperature is to be measured. Besides
of the apparatus from the tasks 2 and 3, a small water thermostat will be necessary.
1. Use the rest of the aqueous solution of KCl of concentration 0.1 M.
2. Use the same connection as in the task 2, maintain the same setting of all instruments.
3. Put the electrode cell into the thermostat and gradually thermostat the solution by 5 °C.
After stabilization, read voltage and current. From the knowledge of the electrode
constant calculate the specific electrical conductivity.
4. Make a graph of dependence of specific electrical conductivity on temperature from the
obtained data. Intersperse the graph with a regression line. Calculate the equation of
dependence of specific electrical conductivity on temperature.

7 Instruction for Laboratory Report

1. The protocol has to fulfil formal requirements as set by the laboratory master at the
beginning.
2. State all tables of measured values and the graph of dependence of specific electrical
conductivity on temperature in the protocol.
3. Discuss the measured values and their eventual discrepancies.
4. Send the protocol in format DOC, DOCX or PDF to the e-mail address of the teaching
assistant.

References
1. Kadlec K., Kmínek M. Kadlec P., Měření elektrické Měření a řízení v potravinářských a
biotechnologických výrobách, Key Publishing 2015
2. Mašláň S., Měření vodivosti kapalin, Diplomová práce, VUT Brno, 2010

Date Notes Lector

VIRTUAL INSTRUMENTATION
VI January 2015
Laboratory Task: Virtual Instrumentation
Filename: MCE.TM.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 33
LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench) is a programming and

development environment, sometimes called the G-language (graphic language), used for measuring
and signal analysis, controlling and visualization of technological processes. In contrast to scripting
programming languages, the commands are not written into lines one under another, but they are
entered by means of interconnecting of graphic blocks of defined function. The simplicity and clarity
of the graphic notation enables even the „non-programmers“ to get quickly accustomed to the
environment and to create simple programs.
The goal of this task is to create a simple program (a virtual instrument), which will read data from a
device (a microprocessor-controlled thermometer / temperature and process governor) via serial
line, display them in a graph and save them into a file. This task is quite frequent at experimental
work in laboratories. Despite the simplicity of LabVIEW, for time reasons it is not possible to learn the
environment perfectly and it is also not feasible for a beginner to create a failure-free program within
two hours of the laboratory work. Making the said program is therefore to be done step by step
according to this manual, with the aim to present the basic philosophy of the G-language
programming and the simplicity of solving some matters. Some information shown in the text are
intentionally simplified, as it is assume that they will be used by student, who come to touch with
this subject for the first time at all.
Completing the laboratory work as well as the text of the manual assumes certain level of knowledge
on temperature measurement and digital communication. The necessary theory can be found on the
webpages of the Department of Physics and Measurements
The Instructions for Laboratory Work contains information, which needs not to be studied in
advance in the full extent. It is enough to read the chapters 1, 2 and 3. The remaining text serves as a
guide for the work in the lab, contains the task assignment and instructions for carrying out the work
and for processing the protocol.
1 Introduction into Digital Communication ................................................. 9

1.1 Definitions and Terms .............................................................................................................. 9
2 Description of Laboratory Station and its Components ............................10

2.1 Microprocessor-controlled Measuring Instrument ............................................................... 11
2.2 iSeries Temperature and Process Controller ......................................................................... 12
3 Brief Introduction to Programming in the LabVIEW Language .................14
4 Safety Instructions...................................................................................16
5 Before Commencing the Work.................................................................17
6 Tasks .......................................................................................................18
7 Procedure of Solving the Tasks ................................................................19

7.1 Solving Task 1: ........................................................................................................................ 19
7.2 Solving Task 2: ........................................................................................................................ 22
7.3 Solving Task 3: ........................................................................................................................ 27
7.4 Solving Task 4: ........................................................................................................................ 28
8 Instructions for Laboratory Report ..........................................................31
References ....................................................................................................32
Instructions for Laboratory Work TM
1 Introduction into Digital Communication
1.1 Definitions and Terms

Serial transmission is a process of data transfer sequentially by individual bits, via a communication
channel or a bus. Another type of transmission is parallel transmission, where several bits are sent
simultaneously (through a line consisting of several transmission channels).
Serial bus uses for data transmission and bus control generally just a single wire (precisely a pair of
signal-neutral wires). Physically, the data information is transmitted either by changing electrical
voltage, or by changing current. Bus control is based either by independent signal wires, or by means
of a signal that is transmitted together with data. Format of transmitted data, transmission timing,
etc., are described by the bus protocol.
Bit is a basic unit of information; it can acquire the values 0 or 1.
Byte is a chain of seven or eight bits, which represent one character.
ASCII (abbreviation of American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a code table, which
defines the characters of English alphabet and other characters used in informatics. The table
contains 128 characters – printable characters: letters, digits, other signs (parenthesis, mathematic
marks (+ - * / % etc.), punctuation marks (, . : ; etc.), special characters (@ $ ~ etc..)), as well as
control (non-printable) codes, which were originally designated for controlling the peripherals (as
printers or telex). The table can be represented by 7-bit binary code (27 = 128) or by numbers of
hexadecimal numeral system.
Hexadecimal numeral system is a numeral system with base of 16. Hexadecimal numbers are
written by means of digits '0', '1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8' and '9' and letters 'A', 'B', 'C', 'D', 'E' a 'F',
while the letters 'A'–'F' represent numbers of values 10-15.
Start and stop bit define the beginning and end of every byte, which is sent over a bus. The start bit
indicates, where the given byte begins and where it ends.
Parity bit is a bit added to a byte and it contains parity information (indicates whether the number of
bits in the string with the value one is even or odd) and it serves for simple error detection. In data
communication, the odd as well as even parity bits are used.
Modulation speed (Baud rate) is the number of changes of status of the transmission medium per
second. For example, baud rate of 9600 means that up to 9600 bit can be transmitted through a bus
per second.
Standard RS232 (serial port, serial link) is used as a communication interface of personal computers
and other electronic devices. RS232 enables interconnection and mutual communication of two
devices. The simplest connection is using three wires – one common earth wire and two cables, Rx
(Receive Data) and Tx (Transmit Data).
Virtual Instrumentation 9/33

2 Description of Laboratory Station and its Components

The laboratory apparatus consists of a panel, on which there is the microprocessor-controlled
thermometer iSeries (Newport Electronic), equipped either with resistor thermometer RTD in four-
wire connection, or a K-type thermocouple (it is not possible to connect both at the same time), and
a simple body heated by a resistor heater (see Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Scheme of the microprocessor-controlled thermometer station
Figure 2 – Laboratory station

Setting of the iSeries thermometer can be done locally by means of four push-buttons at the front
panel, or remotely via a computer, using commands of the iSeries or Modbus communication

protocol, via the RS232 or Ethernet ports. In this task, we will be using setting via the push-buttons
and by means of commands of the iSeries communication protocol via RS232.
2.1 Microprocessor-controlled Measuring Instrument

Application of microprocessors and microcomputers in measurement equipment allows construction
of measuring devices of completely new features. The microprocessor-controlled instruments are
capable of automating data gathering, carrying out linearization of static characteristic or of
statistically processing the measured results. They enable i.e. automatic resetting or automatic
calibration of measuring range, correction of influences affecting the result of correction of
dynamical errors. Configuration of such instruments may be user adjustable. Instruments of that kind
excel by increased accuracy, higher reliability, higher speed of measuring and more complex
recording of data and displaying of the measured results.
This instrument may be linked to a PC via a communication bus, so that is it possible to use further
possibilities of data processing, using the respective software, such as spreadsheets.
Figure 3 – Block diagram of microprocessor-controlled measuring instrument

Block diagram of a microprocessor-controlled measuring instrument is shown at Figure 3. The
microprocessor controls operation of input/output circuits, transmission of addresses, data and
control signals among the individual function blocks. The analog part of the instrument comprises a
sensor and an analog converter, incl. circuits for signal modification. The interface between the
analog and digital part consists of an A/D converter. Data in digital form are processed by the
microprocessor according to a program, which is saved in the ROM memory. The operator
communicates with the instrument by means of functional buttons of the controlling keyboard.
Measuring results and other necessary data, such as information on the connected sensor,
measuring range, setting of limiting values, etc. are to be displayed on a display. The instrument
responds to pressing a functional button on the keyboard and carries out the related activity
according to the setting (i.e. setting of the measuring range, calibration, measuring, statistical
processing of the results, etc.).

Via the D/A converters, the unified analog output i.e. for a plotter is obtained. The instrument may
be connected to a PC through the RS232 interface. The computer then enables to control the
instrument via a program and to carry out data gathering and processing.
Every character used in a computer (letter or digit) is expressed in the ASCII code (American Standard
Code for Information Interchange) as a group of 7 bits (or 8 bits). For example, the letter A is
expressed on the binary form as 1000001, similarly the digit 3 has the binary equivalent 0110011.
These bits are transmitted in a series within a certain frame – see Figure 4. At transmission of a
certain character, first goes the start bit, then continue the semantic bits of the respective character,
follows the parity bit (ensured correctness of the transmission) and the stop bit(s). The protocol of
serial transmission RS232 is flexible enough so that it is possible to choose number of semantic bits,
one or two stop bits, the meaning of the parity bit and the baud rate as well. In our case, the baud
rate is 9600 Bd, which means that altogether 9600 bits are transmitted per second. The transmission
speed (i.e. the number of semantic bits per second) is naturally lower. Some combinations of bit have
the character of a control signal and they are not assigned to any character of the keyboard or a
printer (as for example the termination character Carriage Return).
Figure 4 – Format of transmission via the protocol RS232
2.2 iSeries Temperature and Process Controller

iSERIES temperature and process controller (model i8) is a digital panel meter, designated namely for
measuring temperature and PID temperature regulation, or regulation of other values on the basis of
temperature (see Figure 5). It is a product of the Newport company. To the input of the input of the
instrument may be connected a thermocouple (one of 10 types), resistance thermometer or a
process input, i.e. voltage or current signal suitable for measuring of other values. The output from
the instrument may be in the form of analog voltage or current signal, relay output (SPDT, SSR relays)
or a pulse output.
The visualization display is of a four-segment type and it is programmable in the extent of three
colors: green, amber and red. This way for example exceeding of ranges may be signalized. Besides of
the numeric value, the display signalizes units of temperature in °C or °F, and with small digits 1 and 2
it indicates active status of both outputs (in the output, controller or alarm modes). Under the
display, four push-buttons are located on the front panel; these push-button enable moving in the
instrument’s internal menu.
Figure 5 – iSeries (i8) temperature and process controller

An interesting feature of this model is the ability to communicate via Ethernet (10base-T) with the
TCP/IP protocol. The instrument acts as a web server, so that the actual measured value can be read
or the instrument can be configured through a web browser. The wall socket and terminal board for
connection of inputs and output and for power supply are situated at the instrument’s back panel.
The instrument supports numerous other functions, which can be configured within the environment
by many logically interconnected parameters, which are specified in the User’s Manual. For this
particular task it is important namely the ability to communicate via the serial interface RS232 using
the iSeries protocol, which is based on sending text commands into the instrument’s memory.

3 Brief Introduction to Programming in the LabVIEW Language

The core of each instrument consists of two windows of a virtual instrument (VI), which are displayed
after starting the LabVIEW. The first one is Front Panel, the other is Block Diagram (see Figure 6).
Figure 6 – Front panel and Block diagram of the program

The individual control or displaying items of an virtual instrument (such as buttons, switches, LED
diodes, graphs, bargraph displays, etc.) are inserted onto the front panel and in the block diagram,
their representations are being displayed in the form of nodes, together with nodes of functions
(plus, minus, etc.) or commands. Each of the nodes is equipped with input and output terminals,
which can be interconnected with links to create a functional program. As soon as a program is
compiles, it can be executed at once and tested right in the programming environment, after
pressing the Run button located on the instrument bar in both windows (see Figure 7).
Run Run continuously Abort
Figure 7 - Instrument bar of the front panel

An illustrative example of using both panels will be explained on a simple program for manual
controlling of an indicator needle.
Open the new virtual instrument (VI). In the folder Start -> Program start the LabVIEW. The
introductory screen of LabVIEW will appear. Here, use the menu item File -> New VI to open a new
virtual instrument that is a new program. Two windows – the front panel and the block diagram –
will appear. Click onto the front panel window, the Controls library with control items and indicators
(see Figure 8) will appear. When clicking onto the block diagram window, a similar library (Functions)
will appear. Here, the available nodes are located.

Figure 8 – The „Controls“ library

Choose the element Knob from the offer Controls – Modern – Numeric and draw it into the front
panel window. From the same offer draw the element Gauge into the front panel window as well.
Both elements of the front panel at the same time inserted their nodes into the block diagram.
Both elements can be simple interconnected in such a manner, that they form a functional program.
Place the mouse indicator onto the small triangle in the block diagram – the output terminal of the
Knob element and click to create a connection, which can be lead to the triangle – the input terminal
– of the element Gauge in the block diagram. Click here again to connect the link. The resulting
program is shown at Figure 9.
Figure 9 – Example of a simple program

Now press the Run Continuously button to run the program. Using the mouse turn the Knob, which
will control the Gauge element. Terminate the program pressing the Abort Execution button. For the
elements, it is possible to set their labels, color, ranges, appearance, etc. by right-clicking on the
element and choosing the Properties selection. The program can be even compiled to run as a
standalone, without the development environment. That is however beyond the frame of this task;
in the following tasks you will always use the programming environment to run and test the
programs.

4 Safety Instructions
The purpose of these safety instructions is to prevent injury or damage to the laboratory station. It is
of utmost importance to study these instructions carefully before commencing the work with the
station. Failure to adhere to these safety instructions may be penalized by the assistant by premature
termination of the lab work with rating “F”.
When working with the laboratory station, simple rules are to be kept:
 any failure is to be immediately reported to the assistant;
When working with the laboratory station, never:
 touch the screw terminal at the back of the instrument and the power supply with conductive
items (such as pens, screwdrivers, wires, fingers, etc.) – there is a danger of electric shock;
 unscrew or tear wires from the instrument; the RS232/USB converter with standardized
connectors is used for interconnecting the instrument and the PC;
 mindlessly manipulate with buttons on the front panel of the temperature and process
controller.

5 Before Commencing the Work

The project is to be regularly saved:
 On the disc L (444mrt$), there is a folder named „TM“.
 In the folder „Návody“ (Instructions), there are stored educational texts and instructions
related to the laboratory work.
 In the folder „Studenti“ (Students), each workgroup should create its own working folder
named JMENO_ddmm (surname_day month), i.e. L:\TM\Studenti\Novak_0509.
 Create the folder before commencing the laboratory work.
 In this folder, all files obtained by gathering data are to be saved.
 After termination of measuring, copy the files for processing the protocol.

6 Tasks
1) Get acquainted with the laboratory station, connect it to the PC, check setting of the
communication parameters and carry out the initial testing of the serial link communication.
2) Create a simple programme, which will be sending commands into the temperature and
process controller and read its answers.
3) Modify the programme from the task 2) in such a manner, that it continuously displays the
measured values in a graph.
4) Modify the programme from the task 3) in such a manner, that it continuously saves the
measured data as well.

7 Procedure of Solving the Tasks
7.1 Solving Task 1:

Get acquainted with the laboratory station, connect it to the PC, check setting of the
communication parameters and carry out the initial testing of the serial link communication.
Serial interface RS232 belongs to very simple interfaces, outstanding with easy configurability and
programmability, very widespread at instruments. It is a part of almost all platforms on the Industrial
PC basis and thus it is almost ideal for demonstration purposes and education. On the other hand, it
is quite outdated, and nowadays PCs are usually not equipped with chips and connectors for this
interface. On the market, however, there are numerous inexpensive RS232/USB converters, which
are easy to install and can smoothly supplement the missing interface.
1) Use the RS232/USB converter for connecting the laboratory station to the PC. At the PC side,
connect the converter into the USB connector; the laboratory station is to be connected to
the CANON 9 connector.
2) Check, if a new communication port COM has been installed in the PC. Get to Control Panels,
find the Device Manager and check the item Ports (COM and LPT), whether the USB Serial
port (COM X) has shown here. Remember the number of this port.
For the port testing itself, there is Measurement & Automation Explorer (NI MAX) as a part of the
LabVIEW pack.
3) From the Start offer, open NI MAX. In the My System item, there is sub-item Devices and
Interfaces. Click on it to display the list of COM ports, choose the port to which the apparatus
is connected (ASRL::INSTR “COM X“), see Fig. 10.
4) Check or set the communication parameters as follows: Baud rate 9600; Data bits 8; Parity
None; Stop bits 1; Flow control None. This is a simple communication with no parity check
and no flow control. The data frame for representation of one character will be 8 bits long,
then 1 Stop bit will follow, communication with be taking place at speed of 9600 bauds.
Generally there is a rule that with longer cable or a cable without shielding, lower
communication speed is necessary, and vice versa.
5) Further, it is necessary to verify, whether the temperature and process controller is set in the
same manner. Read the page 14 of the enclosed manual Temperature & Process Controller –
Operators Manual, where is described the method of controlling the temperature and
process controller using the four front panel buttons, and look at the diagram at page 49 of
the same manual. Then, together with the assistant, go through the COMM menu of the
temperature and process controller and check, if all parameters are in compliance with the
setting of the NI MAX panel.
6) Consequently, click on the VISA Test Panel icon at the upper bar in the right part of the NI
MAX window. The testing panel will get open (see Fig. 11) and choose the I/O Settings folder.
7) Engage the check mark Enable Termination Character and choose in the Termination
Character roll-up menu the Carriage Return -\r item. This way, you have entered, which of
the symbols will be understood as the end of a command. The instrument is set to this
symbol and will know, when the entered command end, then it will execute the command
and wait for another.
8) Then click on the Input/output item on the upper bar, which will switch over into the
command mode. Now you can test functionality of the communication by entering a simple
command.

Figure 10 - Measurement & Automation Explorer
Figure 11 – VISA Test Panel

9) Have a look into the Monitor/Controller – Communication Manual. From page 13 on, there is
the description of the iSeries communication protocol. It is described here, which way the
commands, which are then transmitted via the communication link into the instrument, are
compiled. Simply said, a command consists of an initial character, which says to the
instrument, that a command begins. In this case it is the asterisk (*) mark, but the instrument

can be set up to another character as well. Follows the command itself, which consists of a
letter (as for example W for „write“ – write a value into the memory) or X (read the
measured values). More specifically, the commands are described in table 5.1. of the above
mentioned manual. Than follows a hexadecimal number that defines, which sub-command
should be executed. If for example number 01 is added to the letter X (i.e. X01), it means,
that we want to read the actual value of temperature. If we add number 02, we want to read
the maximal value of temperature, etc. The complete set of sub-commands is described in
table 5.3. of the manual. The whole command will be ended with the termination character;
in this care it will be the character Carriage Return in the backslash form, i.e. \r. The whole
command for i.e. reading of the actual temperature value then reads as follows: *X01\r
10) Enter the *X01\r command in the Basic I/O folder, in the Select or Enter Command field. In
the next field Bytes to Read enter number of bytes of the answer of the instrument, which
you want to be read. The answer to our command is 9 bytes long. If you would leave too high
number of bytes, reading would take long time, however too low number of bytes would
mean loss of information on the temperature. Send the command by pressing the Query
button.
11) In case the communication is set properly, the following answer from the instrument will
appear on the screen: X01025.6\r. Here, the value of 25,6 means the actual measured value,
i.e. 25,6°C (see Fig. 12).
Figure 12 – Window Basic I/O for commands entering

12) If everything ended up well, the communication between the PC and the temperature and
process controller has been well set and you can continue with the instrument programming
itself.

7.2 Solving Task 2:

Create a simple program, which will be sending commands into the temperature and process
controller and read its answers.
A program for sending and reading commands from the instrument will do nothing else than what
the NI MAX has been doing now.
1) To begin with, open and right away also save a new virtual instrument, as described in
paragraph 4. Name the file i.e. TM_Novak. At the same time display the context menu by
clicking on Help – Show Context Help, which is a highly useful tool. At putting the cursor over
any functional node or a front panel element, the context help will show the possibilities of
such a node or element and possibilities of their interconnection. Visualize the tools palette
Tools, via View – Tools Palette. On the palette, there are tools, which modify the capabilities
of the mouse, from simple interconnecting of blocks (bundle of wires icon), through the
control elements (the symbol of hand), description of elements (the symbol of a letter), to
probes (arrow with letter P on the yellow dartboard), which enable to follow the course of
signals along the connections of functional nodes and this way to debug possible errors in
the programme). The resulting environment will look as shown at Fig. 13.
Figure 13 – LabVIEW environment with open context help and tools palette
2) The first activity, which the resulting programme must do, is to configure parameters of the
serial link in a similar way, as the NI_MAX software did it. Therefore we will start
programming by entering the VISA Configure Serial Port node, which can be found in the
Functions palette, in the Instrument I/O item, in Serial sub-item. Draw this node into the
block diagram window. At placing the cursor over this function node, the context help will
show arrangement of the individual connecting terminals and in parenthesis at each one also
the default value of the terminal. From the help it is obvious, that – except for the name of
the port COM – we do not have to modify anything. Yet we will create four control elements,
which will enable us to modify the COM port name (vise resource name), the baud rate,
number of bits per data frame and number of stop bits.

3) Place the cursor gradually over the above mentioned terminals of the VISA Configure Serial
Port node and by right-clicking choose from the context menu Create -> Control. In the block
diagram and at the same time on the front panel, a roll-up menu will appear, in which the
values of all four parameters can be chosen. Besides of the port configuration it is possible to
set up, which command termination character will be used. Again, using the Create ->
Control function, create on the termination char of node VISA Configure Serial Port a roll-up
menu for selection of command termination character. The result will then look like
Figure 14.
Figure 14 – Serial port configuration

4) In the above-mentioned paragraph, we have configured the port for serial communication.
Besides of the port configuration, it is necessary to add some other features that are specific
for the given instrument. For such purpose serves the VISA Property Node, which can be
found in the Functions library, under the Instrument I/O -> VISA -> VISA Advanced item. Draw
it into the block diagram. In the port configuration we have set, which termination mark will
be used; now we will set if it will be used both when writing the command into the
instrument’s memory and whey reading the answer from the instrument. In our case, we will
use both and therefore we will set hereby consequently three features. To add a feature,
grasp the bottom part of the VISA Property Node with the mouse and draw it until three
white blocks appear for three new features. Enter a feature into each block by right-clicking
on the given part of the block and by choosing from the context menu Select property and
then the respective feature. Consequently add the following features: End Mode for Writes;
Send End Enable; Termination Character. As we need these features to adjust, not only to
read in the context menu of VISA Property Node, choose Change All To Write. At the End
Mode for Writes feature right-click with the mouse onto the terminal and select Create –

Constant and after opening the constant choose the item TermChar. For the Send End Enable
feature, create a constant in a similar way; this constant will be in the F (False) state by
default. Click on it to change it to R (True). Connect the last feature Termination Character to
the current terminal Termination Char. The End Mode for Writes feature defines, what will
terminate our command, the Send End Enable feature says that we will really use the
termination character and the last feature Termination Character says, which termination
character will be used. The whole process of communication setting may look complicate,
however it has been managed with only two nodes and several terminals. The result is
shown at Figure 15.
Figure 15 – Setting of the VISA Property Node

5) Now when the serial communication is already configured and other communication
parameters are set up, it is possible to create a function, which will write the commands into
the instrument’s memory. A node of such function is very simple and it is called VISA Write;
you can find it in the function library. Insert the node into the block diagram. Interconnect
the terminals VISA Resource Name between the nodes of the VISA Property Node and VISA
Write functions. Writing from the front panel will be done by means of the write buffer
control element, which can be created by right-clicking with the mouse onto the write buffer
node of the VISA Write function, then select Create -> Control. Data, which will be
transmitted into the instrument’s memory and then read from it back, are of the String date
type. The String date type is a method of interpreting the characters, i.e. whether it is a
number of a text, or how big a number is involved, whether it is an integer or a decimal
number, etc. The work with data types is beyond the frame of this text, just remember that

all we send into the instrument and what we received back is of the String type and it
behaves like a text, regardless of whether the command includes digits or letters. Therefore,
no math operations can be carried out with the String date type, which has to be taken into
consideration. The current state of the programme is shown at Figure 16.
Figure 16 – VISA Write and its usage

6) Another function of this programme will be the function for reading values from the
instrument’s memory. This will be secured by the VISA Read node, which can be found in the
function panel. Insert the node into the programme. Try to create an element for
visualization of the chain, analogically to the VISA Write function, which will read from the
instrument. At the same time create and set up a counter of number of bytes, using the
respective terminal of the VISA Write function node. Set the value to 9 bytes. Used the
context help. The result is shown at Figure 17.
Figure 17 – Writing of commands and reading the answers from the instrument’s memory

7) The above-mentioned example has, however, two basic drawbacks, which will prevent it to
function. The first of them is, that open communication between the PC and the instrument
is not properly terminated after reading the value from the instrument’s memory. This
disadvantage can be easily removed by entering the VISA Close function node after the VISA
Read function node. Find the function node VISA Close and terminate execution of the
programme by attaching it. Use the context help.
8) If you now set the communication parameters at the front panel (the right COM port, baud
rate, number of bits of data frame, number of stop bits and hexadecimal character xD for
termination character and further if you insert trial command *X01 into the write buffer
field, you will obtain in the read buffer field the answer X01YYY.Y, where YYY.Y is the actual
temperature. This way you have created a very simple programme for reading values from
the instrument via the serial link.
9) Now we will want to extend the programme and to read the temperature value every
second. For this purpose suits the While loop, which will carry out the command of writing
and reading repeatedly, until the Stop key is pressed. Draw the While loop into the block
diagram and by pressing and drawing draw the loop over the function nodes VISA Write and
VISA Read in such a manner that is includes also the setting of both functions. The whole
loop is equipped in the lower right-hand corner with a termination terminal, by right-clicking
with the mouse and selection Create Control from the offer you can make the Stop button,
which appears on the front panel as well. This button will enable to correctly terminate the
programme. The VISA Close node must not be included into the While function; otherwise
the communication between the PC and the instrument would be continuously interrupter.
The While function is shown at Figure 18.
Figure 18 – The While function

10) In order to prevent the port to be every second re-initialised and re-closed, so-called shift
register will be used. This is a kind of memory, which enables to memorize the
communication setting from the previous cycle and re-use it in the new cycle. The shift
register can be added by right-clicking on the spot, where the VISA Resource Mane
connection passes through the While loop; the Replace with shift Register is to be selected.
The second point of the shift register is to be inserted to the crossing of the While loop and
the VISA Resource Name connection, which enters into the VISA Close function node.
11) To be able to read the value every second, insert the Wait Until Next ms Multiple function
into the While loop and assign it to the value of one second (1 s) by means of the Create ->
Constant command. The loop will then be repeated always after each second.

12) Test the programme simply by pressing the Run button and turning on the heating at the
laboratory station panel. Temperature in the read buffer field should gradually change. If
everything is OK, turn the heating off.
Figure 19 – The shift register

13) We have finished programming the simple programme for reading values from the
temperature and process controller by means of serial communication. Do not forget to save
the programme, so that it can be used in the following task.
7.3 Solving Task 3:

Modify the program from the task 2 in such a manner that is continuously displays the measured
values in a graph.
A frequent task for program for data gathering is to visualize the measured values in a graph.
LabVIEW is well suited for such purposes and after the initialization of communication; visualization
of data in a graph is easy.
1) Use the programme from the previous task. The programme sends the command into the
instrument’s memory and after one second it read the string of the answer. Such a string – as
mentioned above – is in the String format, so that LabVIEW is working with it like with a text.
We will have therefore trim the initial text X01 from the string X01YYY.Y and the convert the
YYY.Y text onto a number. For that suits the function Fract/Exp String to Number, which
converts a text with decimal point onto a number with decimal point. Now search this
function in the Functions library and insert it into the While loop of the previous programme.
Interconnect the terminal of the VISA Rear read buffer node with the string node terminal of
the Fract/Exp String to Number function. Use a constant on the input terminal of the offset
node of the Fract/Exp String to Number function in such a manner that you can set the
number of characters in the String chain, which are to be skipped. In our case these are 3
characters (X01). The instrument uses the English-style decimal point, while the Fract/Exp
String to Number function node uses the system setting that means a decimal comma in the
Czech environment. This way we have treated the value of temperature with one decimal
place in the format (data type) of a number.
2) The read number can be now used in a graph without problems. Draw the elements
Waveform Chart onto the front panel. Move the graph node, which appears in the block
diagram, into the While loop and connect the number node terminal of the Fract/Exp String
to Number function with the node terminal of the Waveform Chart function. The result is
shown at Figure 20.

Figure 20 – Reading the values into a graph

3) Now you have finished another task. If you run the programme, it will not every second read
the temperature value from the temperature and process controller and save it into the
graph. Verify its function by pressing the Run button and turning on the heating at the
laboratory apparatus desk. Do not forget to save the programme and to turn off the heating
at the end.
7.4 Solving Task 4:

Modify the program from the task 3 in such a manner, that besides of visualization, it is capable of
continuous saving the measured values as well.
Saving data into a suitable format for further processing is a basic operation, which is necessary for
experimental activities. Most often it is no consequence if your program is user-friendly, or how
fancy it looks, but it is often just important to obtain data from the instrument for further processing
in external software (Matlab, Origin). In this task it is shown how simple it is to save the data into a
file.
LabVIEW contains – besides basic functions (VISA Write, Read, etc.) – so called express functions as
well; these functions assume that certain parts of the program are often used and they are repeating
within the programs. These express functions are located in the Functions library, under the item
Express, in the form of function nodes.
1) The procedure of modifying the previous programme for saving the data is quite simple.
Open the previous programme and insert into the While look the node of express function
Write to Measurement File. A dialog window will open. Within this window you can set up a
lot of file parameters. In the Action area tick the Ask User to Choose File selection, so that
the programme asks where you wish to save the data. Further, in the Segment Headers area
tick the No Headers selection, which will get you rid of the file header, as it is of no use in our
particular case. In the X Value (Time) Columns are tick the One Column Only selection, which
causes that one column with times, in which data were saved, will be recorded into the file.
At the end confirm with the OK button.
2) Interconnect the terminal of function node Fract/Exp String to Number with the terminal of
the Signals block of the Write to Measurement File function. With that you have finished this
task. The resulting programme is shown at Fig. 21. Start the programme by pressing the RUN

button, enter the file name and path, turn on the heating and see, how the values are being
visualized in the graph. Wait about 3 minutes and then view the file into which you were
saving the data.
Figure 21 – Recording data into a file

3) By this latest task you have finished the laboratory work, whose target was to demonstrate
some possibilities of the LabVIEW software and the philosophy of programming in the
graphic language. Certainly there might be more ways how to program the given tasks,
however not all can be shown in the limited time frame of the laboratory work. For those
who are mode deeply interested in programming in LabVIEW, we can recommend an
excellent book for beginners „Začínáme s LabVIEW“ (Beginning with LabVIEW), see
Literature. Further it is possible to attend to specialized subject, taught at the Department of
Physics and Measurement, where you can acquaint yourself with LabVIEW in full.
4) The whole solution of the laboratory work including the front panel is described at Figures 22
and 23. The control panel is very plain. Therefore, your last task is to modify the captions,
colours and setting of the individual elements in order to make the programme user-
friendlier. This task is simple; so try to solve it by yourselves (small hint – look into the
Controls library and seek for decorations....).

Figure 22 – Final block diagram of the program

Figure 23 – Final appearance (without customizing) of the front panel
8 Instructions for Laboratory Report

 The protocol has to fulfil formal requirements as set by the laboratory master at the
beginning.
 State the folder name where your files are saved.
 State in the protocol the task name, for solution, enter pictures of all prepared programmes,
including a brief comment to the individual blocks and their function.
 Legend and notes can be placed also directly into the pictures or graphs.
 Send the protocol in format DOC, DOCX or PDF to the e-mail address of the teaching
assistant.

References
1 Vlach J., Havlíček J., Vlach M., Začínáme s LabVIEW (Beginning with LabVIEW), Ben, Praha
2008, ISBN: 978-80-7300-245-9
2 Kadlec K., Kmínek M.: Měřicí a řídicí technika (Measuring and Control Technology)
http://uprt.vscht.cz/ucebnice/MRT/, (February 2005)

Date Notes Lector

WIRELESS SENSORS
WS January 2015
Author: Ladislav Fišer, Ph.D.
Laboratory Task: Wireless Sensors
Filename: MCE.WS.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 29
Wireless technologies are used wherever the cost of the cables is beyond reasonable limits -
inaccessible or distant places. In addition, through integration and miniaturization of wireless
components, the comfort in the building and management of large sensor networks increases. The
laboratory work Wireless Sensors is an introduction to wireless technologies in measurement and
control.
Students work with the measurement technique known from previous works (temperature,
humidity), and learn the theoretical foundations of ZigBee network type and how to configure the
wireless network and the parameters of individual devices.
Completing the laboratory work as well as the text of the manual assumes certain level of knowledge
on temperature measurement and digital communication. The necessary theory can be found on the
webpages of the Department of Physics and Measurements
The Instructions for Laboratory Work contains information, which needs not to be studied in advance
in the full extent. It is enough to read the chapters 1 and 2. The remaining text serves as a guide for
the work in the lab, contains the task assignment and instructions for carrying out the work and for
processing the protocol.
1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 9
2 Basic Information ....................................................................................10

2.1 Structure of Communication Standard .................................................................................. 10
2.1.1 Physical and MAC Layer of the IEEE 802.15.4 Standard................................................ 10
2.1.2 Network Topology, Security .......................................................................................... 12
2.2 Examples of Elements of a ZigBee-Type Network and their Features ................................... 13
2.2.1 Receiver of Wireless Signals UWTC-REC4 ..................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Wireless Thermocouple Converter UWTC-2 ................................................................. 14
2.2.3 Wireless Converter of Unified Signal UWPC2-NEMA .................................................... 15
2.2.4 Wireless Humidity Converter UWRH-2 ......................................................................... 15
3 Tasks .......................................................................................................17
4 The procedure for Tasks Solving ..............................................................18

4.1 Description of the Laboratory Apparatus .............................................................................. 18
4.2 Configuration of the Receiver ................................................................................................ 19
4.2.1 Common Alarm Configuration ...................................................................................... 19
4.2.2 Configuration for Signal Temperature (UWTC2) ........................................................... 19
4.2.3 Configuration for Signal Relative Humidity (UWRH) ..................................................... 20
4.2.4 Configuration of Process Unified Signal (UWPC2-NEMA) ............................................. 21
4.3 Setting of Individual Analog Outputs and Alarms .................................................................. 22
4.4 Setting of Data Recording ...................................................................................................... 23
4.5 Controlling of the Apparatus .................................................................................................. 25
6 Legend of the Device Names: ..................................................................27
7 Displaying Instruments for Analog Outputs .............................................28

1 Introduction
ZigBee is a wireless communication technology based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. ZigBee is a
relatively new standard valid since November 2004. Similarly to Bluetooth, this standard is
designated for connection of low-power equipment within the PAN (Personal Area Networks)
networks, at short distances up to 75 meters. Thanks to multihop ad-hoc routing it enables
communication even at larger distances without direct radio line-in-sight of the individual devices.
Primary designation is intended for industrial applications and applications of sensor networks.
ZigBee works in the licence-free bands (with general licence), either 902 - 928 MHz, or mainly at
2.4 GHz. The transmission rate is 20, 40, 250 kbps.
There are defined three sorts of devices: network coordinator, full-functionality device and reduced-
functionality device. In contrary to the other sorts, the last one only transmits information and it is
not capable of receiving or forwarding the data.
Wireless Sensors 9/29

2 Basic Information
The communication technology described with the IEEE 802.15.4 – ZigBee standard belongs to the
group of wireless PAN networks. To this group belongs also the widespread standard IEEE 802.15.1 –
Bluetooth, which finds its application mainly in consumers´ electronics. There is, however, a number
of industrial applications where Bluetooth is not suitable. For this purpose, the ZigBee alliance has
been established in order to create a new wireless communication standard suitable for the
purposes of industrial automation as well. Currently, more than 60 companies are involved in
development of this standard, including the worldwide automation leaders (Honeywell, Motorola,
Philips, Samsung, Omron, ABB, Siemens). ZigBee has been designed as a simple and flexible
technology for creation of even more extensive wireless networks, where transfer of large data
volume is not required. The main advantages include reliability, simple and easy implementation,
very low power consumption and – last but not least – a favorable price. Due to such features the
standard finds its place in a wire range of applications, which can be divided into several groups:
 automation of buildings (security, illumination control, access control)
 consumers´ electronics (remote control of appliances)
 computer peripherals (wireless mouses and keyboards)
 industrial automation
 medical care (patients´ monitors)
Due to variability of assumed appliances the standard defines three basic data transmission modes:
 periodically repeating actions (transmission of data from sensors)
 irregular transmissions (external events, i.e. pressing of a key by user)
 repeating transmissions with request for a small delay (wireless peripherals).
2.1 Structure of Communication Standard

Because of the need to implement the ZigBee standard even into the low-power 8-bit
microcontrollers (HC08, x51), maximal simplicity of implementation of protocols was a must. As a
result, the structure of protocols takes no more than 30 kB of operational memory. The protocol
consists of three basic layers; the layer of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, above which the network layer
(NWK) and application layer (APL) are defined. The physical layer specifies the access to the
transmission medium. The network layer realizes connection to the network, securing and routing of
packets. The application layer (APL) ensures similar services. It consists of the application sub-layer
(APS), ZigBee objects and user’s application objects.
2.1.1 Physical and MAC Layer of the IEEE 802.15.4 Standard

The physical and MAC layers of the IEEE 802.15.4 standard define several radio bands, so that it
could be used in various countries, where there are various national regulations and standards. The
main problem for majority of wireless technologies is various definitions of radio bands in America
and in Europe. Therefore, three basic frequency bands have been defines: global, American and
Australian, European.
The ZigBee range is approximately 10 to 50 meters, depending on local condition of signal spreading.
For transmission, the data signal is being modulated with the O-QPSK (BPSK) method and transmitted
by means of the DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum). For access to the physical medium, the
CSMA/CA method (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance and optional time slotting)
is being used.

Star Net
Tree
Network coordinator
Full Functional Device
Reduced Functionality Device
Figure 1 - Topology of a ZigBee network
The MAC layer (link layer) defines the communication protocol itself, which is based on transmission
of data frames. Four types of communication frames are being defined, which are used for data
transmission, administration or management of the network:
 Data Frame – a frame utilized for all transmissions of useful data
 Acknowledgement Frame – a frame for transmission of acknowledgement information, being
used at the MAC level for communication confirmation
 Beacon Frame – a frame used by the coordinator for transmission of so-called beacons (being
used for bringing the client devices into the sleeping mode)
 MAC Command Frame – a frame used for setting and administration of client devices within a
ZigBee network
In order to minimize power consumption of the end devices, the individual end devices may be
brought into a sleeping mode on the bases of synchronization between the coordinator and the end
station. Waking-up of the devices takes place in previously defined time and afterwards all the useful
data are transmitted. The interval of the synchronization sequences may range from 15 ms up to
approx. 15 min. Synchronization is realized by means of so-called beacon frame. The end devices are
periodically awakened-up and data are being transmitted to the network coordinator. The
coordinator will save the data and subsequently will resent them to that device, for which they are
designated, as soon as that device gets awakened. Such approach enables to extremely decrease
power consumption of the end devices. The devices can be thus supplied from batteries. When using
all energy-saving measures, it is possible to reach work-time of an end device 6 months to 2 years per
one alkaline battery. If the network works without the beacon sequences, the individual devices
periodically query the coordinator.

Figure 2 - Scheme of a ZigBee network
2.1.2 Network Topology, Security

The ZigBee technology based on the physical link layer IEEE 802.15.4 defines three various network
topologies. The basic topology is that of star with a central controlling nod (the network coordinator).
The other type is a tree configuration, which enables to extend the distance between the coordinator
and the end device. The protocol also makes possible to create redundant connections, thus forming
the mesh-type topology. Using that it is possible to create virtually any arrangement.
Within the ZigBee standard, devices are being classified as FFD (Full Functional Device) or RFD
(Reduced Functionality Device). The FFD devices implement full protocol frame and ensure all
services that are set by the ZigBee standard. The RFD devices implement only the necessary protocol
libraries in order to maximally reduce the hardware demands. Such devices may work only as end
devices. They may communicate only with the network coordinator and they are limited to the star
topology (end branches). The network coordinator and routers are realized by the FFD devices.
The individual devices of the network are being addressed by binary address code of 64 bit length or
of shortened 16 bit version. The local shortened address permits in one network maximally 65535
devices. Each constructed network is further being identified by 16 bit PAN ID, which distinguishes
overlapping networks based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard. Each network is formed and managed by
a coordinator, which also assigns the PAN ID. Other stations work as routers and end devices.
As a basic security, ZigBee uses the AES standard (Advanced Encryption Standard) with a key of
128 bit length, which is being implemented in the network layer.
Communication is being realized in three layers:
 physical link layer
 network layer (NWK), which ensures approach to the network, security, routing and
synchronization.
 application layer (APL), which is responsible for pairing of the devices, searching for new devices
and services supplied by them and for security.

2.2 Examples of Elements of a ZigBee-Type Network and their Features

2.2.1 Receiver of Wireless Signals UWTC-REC4
Figure 3 - Receiver of wireless signals UWTC-REC4

Features:
 Wireless receiver with analog outputs for DIN rail installation;
 Working with up to 48 wireless converters / transmitters;
 Four analog outputs 0 to 5 V DC, 0 to 10 V DC or 4 to 20 mA;
 Inbuilt programmable alarms for each channel;
 Programmable over USD from the supplied SW “TC central”;
 Power supply: 12 to 24 V DC at 250 mA;
 Four alarms (programmable) of the open-collector type, max. current rating 100 mA;
 Working temperature: 0 to 55°C, 90 % rel. humidity non-condensing;
 Radio band: ISM 2.4 GHz, direct sequence spread spectrum;
 Data packet standard RF: IEEE 802.15.4 open communication architecture;
 Dimensions: 93 mm height x 39 mm width x 125 mm depth
 Freely available SW “TC central” enables recording and displaying of chosen (up to all 48)
channels.

2.2.2 Wireless Thermocouple Converter UWTC-2
Figure 4 - Wireless Thermocouple Converter UWTC

This is a wireless process transmitter for thermocouple sensors.
Features:
 User adjustable for thermocouple input J, K, T, E, R, S, B, N, C; measuring accuracy with
thermocouple: types J, K, T, E, N: ±0.5 °C of the value; types R, S, B, C: ±2 °C of the value;
resolution with thermocouple: types J, K, T, E, N: 0.1 °C; types R, S, B, C: 0.5 °C
 Inbuilt automatic compensation of cold ends: -10 to 70 °C and linearization;
 Patented design enables connection of probes and connectors of standard sizes, include
miniature ones;
 Interface for connection to PC, at configuration: USB
 Sampling rate: programmable from 1 sample per minute up to 1 sample per every 5 seconds;
 Transmission radio band (RF): ISM 2.4 GHz, direct sequentially spread spectrum, worldwide free
licence (2.450 to 2.490 GHz – 12 channels)
 Standard for high-frequency transmission: IEEE 802.15.4, with open communication architecture;
 Range of high-frequency connection:
 UWTC-1: up to 60 m outdoors with direct line-in-sight [90 m with high-gain antenna]. Up to
20 m in built-up area [30 m with high-gain antenna];
 UWTC-2: up to 120 m outdoors with direct line-in-sight [do 250 m with high-gain antenna].
Up to 40 m in built-up area [90 m with high-gain antenna].
 Internal battery: one 3.6 V lithium, capacity 2.4 Ah (AA-type)
 Battery service time (typical): (1 year) at sampling rate 1 sample per minute and 25 °C;
 Each wireless connector transfers in real-time temperature of the thermocouple, ambient
temperature (temperature of referential coupling), signal strength and battery state;
 Dimensions: 100 mm (length) x 50 mm (width) x 25 mm (height), without antenna.

2.2.3 Wireless Converter of Unified Signal UWPC2-NEMA

This is a wireless process transmitter for sensors with voltage or current output.
Features:
 Converts process signal into wireless one;
 Processes unified signal, either voltage-type within ranges 0 to 1 V, 0 to 5 V, 0 to 10 V, or current-
type within range 4 to 20 mA
 Accuracy: ±0.04 % of the range
 Input connection: panel connector (mating piece is included);
 Interface for connection to PC, at configuration: USB
 Transmission date of a sample: programmable from 1 sample per 2 seconds to 1 sample per
120 seconds;
 Carrier radio frequency of transmission: ISM 2 4 GHz, direct sequence spread spectrum;
 HF output power: 10 dBm (10 mW)
 Range of the HF line: Outdoor with direct line-in-sight up to 120 meters, indoors or in built-in
area up to 40 m;
 HF standard of data packet: IEEE 802.15.4, open communication architecture;
 Power supply: one 3.6 V lithium battery type C (supplied with the instrument)
 Battery service time (typical): 3 years at sampling rate 1 sample per minute at 25 °C;
 Industrial polycarbonate box with IP65 protection rating;
 Box dimensions: 80 mm length x 82 mm width
 Weight: 272 grams
Figure 5 - Wireless converter of unified signal UWPC2-NEMA
2.2.4 Wireless Humidity Converter UWRH-2

Features:
• Wireless transmitter of relative humidity / temperature
• One unit can measure both relative humidity and temperature
• Temperature range: -17 to 49 °C (2 to 120 °F)
• Accuracy: ±1 °C (1.8 °F)
• Range of relative humidity: 2 to 98 %
• Accuracy: ±2.5 % of rel. humidity within 20 to 80 %; ±3.5 % of rel. humidity under 20 % or
above 80 % of rel. humidity at 25 °C (76 °F)

• Interface for connection to PC, at configuration: USB

• Sampling rate: programmable from 1 second to 2 minutes
• Carrier radio frequency of transmission: ISM 2.4 GHz, direct sequence spread spectrum
• HF output power: 10 dBm (10 mW)
• Range of the HF line: Outdoor with direct line-in-sight up to 120 meters, indoors or in built-
in area up to 40 m;
• HF standard of data packet: IEEE 802.15.4, open communication architecture;
• Power supply: one 3.6 V lithium battery, capacity 2.4 Ah (size AA), supplied with the
instrument
• Battery service time (typical): 1 year (at sampling rate 1 sample per minute, at 25 °C
(77 °F))
• Data transmitted to the host: relative humidity, ambient temperature, strength of
transmission signal, battery state
• Dimensions: 100 mm length x 50 mm width x 25 mm height (w/o antenna)
• Weight: 70 grams
• Can work with any wireless receiver and transmission modules of the UWTC series
Figure 6 - Wireless humidity converter UWRH

3 Tasks
The goal of the work is to learn how to configure a simple network of wireless sensors and to carry
out several basic measurements. These measurements are to be consequently evaluated.
1) Carry out configuration of the signal receiver for receiving from individual wireless sensors
(of temperature, humidity, unified signal) for the corresponding channels.
2) Set up the local process alarms to the given values.
3) Carry out configuration and activation of the remote alarm.
4) Carry out configuration of database of measured values for recording of signals from the
individual sensors according to the assignment.
5) Carry out configuration of creation of the process diagram according to the assignment.
6) Verify the autonomy of the process by stopping the program at PC (measuring (analog
outputs and alarms) keep running).
7) Evaluate the recorded data externally using a spreadsheet according to the assignment.

4 The procedure for Tasks Solving
4.1 Description of the Laboratory Apparatus
Thermocouple
Wireless temperature
Furnace model
transmitter
Wireless transmitter
of unified signal
Figure 7 - Panel for the laboratory work – 1

The laboratory work is based on two panels. The first one contains a wireless thermocouple
converter of temperature UWTC-2 with a thermocouple sensor, which is introduced into the furnace
model. This furnace is controlled by means of a processor unit, which controls heating and at the
same time it generates unified voltage signal for another wireless transmitter UWPC2-NEMA. Besides
of this laboratory panel, there is freely located a wireless transmitter of relative humidity.
Switch of indicators of analog

Indicator 4 outputs
Switch of wireless receiver
Indicator 1
Figure 8 - Panel for the laboratory work – 2

The other panel contains a receiver of wireless signals and four indicators of analog output signals
together with fours alarm indicators, which are being controlled by the signal receiver UWTC REC4.
4.2 Configuration of the Receiver

The wireless receiver is to be configured by means of the USB interface. At first, the receiver unit and
the computer are to be interconnected with the USB cable. Then turn on the switch of receiver and
that of the displaying unit on the panel of the receiver. Subsequently run the main application
“TC_central” thought the icon at the desktop, see Figure 9. As soon as the application gets started,
the main screen of the application will be displayed – see Figure 10. At first there are no data, when
the transmitter of temperature, unified signal and relative humidity get turned on, the respective
values will be shown in the windows, as seen at the illustration. Configuration of the transmitter
channels goes beyond this laboratory work.
Figure 9 - Program icon
Figure 10 - Main panel of the application

Main panel of the application contains the folder of “channels” A to D, which enable to visualize
overall 64 measuring channels, a folder for configuration of measured data saving, and a folder for
their visualization setting.
4.2.1 Common Alarm Configuration

Local alarms function as follows: If the low/high alarm is active, then the lower/higher value than the
preset threshold leads to activation of the alarm and thus to change in color of the value to red and
its flashing.
4.2.2 Configuration for Signal Temperature (UWTC2)

At depressing the right mouse button on the respective window, select the choice “configure” and fill
out in the pop-up window:

• Process description;
• Checking / entering the channel address;
• Selection of signal units for the process or the ambient environment;
• Setting of local alarms according to the assignment;
• Activation of remote alarm;
Figure 11 - Configuration of received temperature measurements
4.2.3 Configuration for Signal Relative Humidity (UWRH)

• Selection of signal units for the process or the ambient environment – the process is a
value of relative humidity, ambient environment is a value of temperature;
Figure 12 - Configuration of received measurement of relative humidity

4.2.4 Configuration of Process Unified Signal (UWPC2-NEMA)

• Selection of signal units for the process;
Figure 13 - Configuration of received measurement of unified signal

In case of this sensor, additional configuration within the UWPC folder is yet necessary.
Figure 14 - Additional configuration for received measurements of unified signal

In this window, it is necessary to set up the range of the source signal (in this case 0 to 55 V), the
process units (in this case V) and to define the range of the signal (in this case 0 V = 0 a 5 V = 5,00).

4.3 Setting of Individual Analog Outputs and Alarms

This particular received of wireless signal enables - besides of alarms bound to the individual wireless
inputs – to use also four general “output alarms”, which can be configured to any inputs of overall 48
possible inputs. Similarly, four of 48 possible inputs can be re-written into the analog outputs. In our
specific case the analog outputs of the unit of current within the range of 4 to 20 mA and “logical”
outputs (on/off) used for alarm indication. To get to the configuration of the individual analog
outputs and alarms, proceed through menu “Tools”, item “Configure Receiver”, see Figure 15.
Figure 15 - Configuration of Output Alarms

Configuration of output alarms consists in:
• Entering of number of wireless input, which is to be linked to the alarm being configured;
• Selecting of data type (mostly setting Process, in some cases Ambient), which is to be
linked to the output;
• Configuration of output signal 4 to 20 mA to process unit (i.e. 0 – 100 %);
• Setting of alarm;
This is to be done for all four outputs. Selection of the output which is to be configured is to be done
by the folder of the respective card, marked Analog Channel 1 to Analog Channel 4, see Figure 16.
Alarm is to be configured by three setting items:
• Setting the way of exceeding the threshold (rising / decreasing);
• Setting the value of the threshold;
• Setting the deadband (extension of the threshold value, for which the output will not
change).

Figure 16 - Configuration of output alarms
4.4 Setting of Data Recording

This setting is to be done at the folder “Chart” after clicking on “START” and it consists in:
• selection of wireless channel for recording;
• setting of sampling period;
• selection of signal type (Process/Ambient);
• assignment of a suitable colour to the curve of the given signal;
• assignment of a curve to the LH or RH y axis;
• selection of file for data recording.
At the “Dialog” folder, it is possible to follow the growing quantity of records and their specific
values. Data are being saved into a simple text file and it is possible to export them as values
delimited with a semicolon or TAB. That makes possible simple importing into spreadsheets for
further processing.
Setting of graph and data recording – see Figures 17 and 18.

Figure 17 - Setting of data recording
Figure 18 - Example of a graph

4.5 Controlling of the Apparatus

At first, the receiver is to be interconnected with the USB channel to the computer, on which there is
installed the program for controlling and configuration. Then turn on mains switches of the wireless
signal receiver and the indicators of analog outputs. Further turn on the individual transmitters.
Consequently, in accordance with the above-mentioned procedure, carry out the respective settings
of the individual channels, analog outputs and alarms.
The transmitters of wireless signals are to be put into operation by pressing the ON/OFF button. At
the moment, they will begin to transmit the measured values. Attention! The devices are
intentionally (once it corresponds to real needs of industrial apparatus, and at the same time this
way the transmitter batteries are being saved) configured to relatively long delays between the
measurements, i.e. once in 10 to 20 seconds, therefore it may happen that there is nothing to be
seen or „wrong values“ are displayed, before another measurement takes place. After
reconfiguration, too, it takes a while for the new configuration to get into effect.
The course of the signal for experiments is being generated by means of the „control units“ with a
microcontroller, which – after the button START OF CYCLE is depressed – turns heating on a
generates a ramp function for the transmitter of the process signal. This way, the furnace model gets
heated up and it generates the signal of thermocouple transmitter. The unified process signal has no
delay due to thermal capacity of the furnace and therefore it appears faster in the record. The cycle
can be anytime interrupted by the RESET button, which will turn heating off and set the process
signal to 0 V.
Figure 19 - Turning ON of the transmitter UWRH


• Standard protocol header;
• Tasks;
• View of the program window “TC_central” (see Figures 15), of course after setting of
ranges, units, etc.
• Table with settings of analog outputs and alarms (copied via the clipboard from
“TC_central” into Excel and further to the protocol);
• Graph of measured values, as a hardcopy of the “TC_central” graph (see Figures 18);
• Excerpt of the table of saved values as a hardcopy of the “TC_central” window (with the
setting of recording of received data being visible);
• Graph (i.e. from Excel) of the recorded data.

6 Legend of the Device Names:

• UWTC Universal Wireless Thermocouple Connector
• UWPC Universal Wireless for Process Control
• UWRH Universal Wireless Relative Humidity meter
• UWTC-REC Receiver for UWTC series

7 Displaying Instruments for Analog Outputs

The displaying instruments have working range 4 to 20 mA. Unless the user configures them
otherwise, they show per cents of the range. That is, if there are 4 mA at the input, the instrument
will show 0, if there are 20 mA, the instrument will show 100%. Should the instrument show 40, than
there has to be 4 + (20 - 4)∙0,4 = 10.4 mA at the input, etc.

Date Notes Lector

SEMICONDUCTOR GAS SENSOR
SGS January 2015

Author: assoc. prof. Dr. Martin Vrňata
Laboratory Task: Semiconductor Gas Sensor
Filename: MCE.SS.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 23
Semiconductor gas sensors are miniature sensors designed to detect toxic or explosive gases and
vapors. Contemporary gas sensors are able, in certain ranges of concentrations of analytes, replace,
expensive and complicated analyzers. The aim of the task Semiconductor Gas Sensor is present
commercially available Taguchi-type semiconductor sensor, learn about its signal processing and
measure its detection characteristics on PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation platform.
Attendance to the laboratory work and instructions for this work assume a certain level of
knowledge in basic chemistry and physics. Instructions for this laboratory task contain information
that needn´t be studied in details in advance. It is sufficient to read the chapter 2 Theory and section
3.1 SG Sensors Applied in the Laboratory Station. Other chapters serve as a guide when working in
the laboratory and they include work assignment, instructions for performing the work and for
processing the laboratory report.
Prior to beginning the work in the lab, students must complete a test covering the following topics:
• Difference in electrical properties between semiconductors and metals.
• P-type and n-type semiconductors.
• Examples of semiconducting elements and compounds.
• Examples of reducing and oxidizing gases.
• Combustion of methane on the sensor surface during detection.
• Definition of sensitivity for SG sensors.
• Description of sensor architecture and explanation of the function of its components.
1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 9
2 Theory .....................................................................................................10
2.1 Semiconductors - Basic Properties and Terminology ............................................................ 10
2.2 Operation Principle of the Semiconductor Gas Sensor .......................................................... 10
2.3 Evaluation of SG sensor sensitivity......................................................................................... 12
3 Devices and Equipment ...........................................................................13

3.1 SG Sensors Applied in the Laboratory Station ....................................................................... 13
3.2 PXI Platform for Measurement Automation and Data Acquisition ....................................... 14
3.3 Description of Laboratory Station .......................................................................................... 14
4 Tasks .......................................................................................................16
5 The Procedure for Tasks Solving and Instructions for Laboratory Report .17
Annex: ...........................................................................................................20
Instructions for Laboratory Work SS
1 Introduction
From the very beginning, the measuring technique is divided into two main trends. The first of them
looks for new measuring principles, transducing mechanisms and improved sensor devices, the
second one tries to reach the superior signal- and data- processing.
The availability of powerful and affordable computer technology caused significant changes in many
fields of human activity and thus in measuring technique. A properly completed computer becomes a
powerful tool for automatic control of measurement processes with easy variation of activity.
Computer communication with a real object (sensor) can take various forms. Mostly, however, the
connection is carried via a standard serial interface RS (RS 232, RS 422, RS 485), standard interface
GPIB (IMS-2), multifunction adapter („measuring card“) or via PXI platform.
This laboratory task demonstrates function of semiconductor gas (SG) sensor, which is computer-
controlled via PXI platform in LabVIEW environment. Before starting to work we should become
familiar with basic terms and theory.
Semiconductor Gas Sensor 9/23

2 Theory
2.1 Semiconductors - Basic Properties and Terminology

In comparison with metals, semiconductors exhibit higher specific electrical resistance ρ, which
ranges in a wide region from 10-4 to 108 Ω∙m (metals in the range of 10-8 to 10-6 Ω∙m). The absolute
value of specific resistance itself, however, is not sufficient criterion to classify given substance into a
group of semiconductors. General character of specific resistance vs. temperature dependence
(Figure 1) must be also taken into account. With increasing temperature the specific resistance of the
semiconductor decreases rapidly, while the specific resistance of metals exhibits slow increase with
temperature.
Semiconductor
Metal
Figure 1 - Specific resistance of metal and semiconductor in dependence on temperature.

Another difference is the fact that in metals, only free electrons can transport the electric charge. In
semiconductors, the charge is transported by means of both negatively (electrons) and positively
(holes) charged carriers. In inorganic semiconductors the specific resistance ρ is primarily determined
by concentration of charge carriers. Regarding the relation between volume concentration of free
electrons (n) and free holes (p) in the material, three situations can occur:
• when n = p - this is the so called intrinsic semiconductor,
• n > p corresponds to n-type semiconductor,
• n < p corresponds to p-type semiconductor.
Hence for n-type semiconductor the value of ρ will decrease on introducing electrons into the
material, but for p-type semiconductor ρ will increase under this circumstance.
Further, it is important to emphasize that the electrical properties of semiconductors depend much
more strongly (when compared with those of metals) on external physical and chemical quantities
(temperature, irradiation, magnetic field, chemical species absorbed on the surface). Therefore, the
sensors detecting various physical or chemical quantities are often based on semiconductors. To say
it in abstract terms, these sensors act as transducers converting external input quantity into easily
processable electric output quantity (e.g. electric resistance).
The examples of semiconductors include certain chemical elements such as Si, Ge, Se and certain
non-oxidic chemical compounds such as GaAs, InP, PbS, etc. An important group of oxides of
intransitive metals (e.g. SnO2, In2O3, Fe2O3, NiO) also belongs to semiconductors.
2.2 Operation Principle of the Semiconductor Gas Sensor

The SG sensor is a passive sensing element, which converts chemical input quantity (concentration of
detected gas) to electrical output signal (change of sensor resistance). The detection mechanism of

SG sensors is rather complex, depending on the nature of sensitive layer material, sensor operating
temperature, sorption of gaseous species on surface of sensitive layer, etc.; in some details it is still
subjected to research. With certain simplification, inorganic sensitive layer (also called active layer)
does not chemically change during detection; it just exchanges - either directly or indirectly -
electrons with the molecules of the detected gaseous analyte.
SG sensor operation principle is based on changes in specific resistance of semiconductor due to
chemical effects - presence of reducing or oxidizing gases in the atmosphere. Sensitive part of sensor
- semiconductor - is in the form of thin layer deposited on an electrically non-conductive ceramic
substrate. Semiconductor has to be chemically stable, i.e. it must not change its chemical
composition on reaction with any component contained in the measured atmosphere (especially
with oxygen, which is always present). Therefore, the sensor cannot be made from silicon, which is
covered by a non-conductive oxide layer in the air. These semiconductive oxides are commonly used
for sensitive layers: SnO2 - by far the most frequent, In2O3, ZnO, Fe2O3, NiO, etc. These oxides cannot
be longer oxidized and thereby they are stable in air. As mentioned above, SnO2 is the usual material
for sensitive layer mostly for its optimum value of specific electrical resistance. It should be stressed
that SnO2 behaves like n-type semiconductor.
To influence the resistance of sensitive layer, the molecules of analyzed gas have to be in a direct
contact (surface chemisorption) with semiconductor. In this context, it is important to classify gases
according to their redox properties:
• reducing gases - their molecules release electrons, so they behave like electron donors; all
combustible gases belong to this category (H2, CO, CH4 and other hydrocarbons, H2S,
alcohol vapours, etc.),
• oxidizing gases - their molecules bond electrons, so they behave like electron acceptors;
the examples are e.g. atmospheric oxygen O2, ozone O3, NO2, F2, Cl2, etc.,
• redox indifferent gases - their molecules does not exchange electrons at all; the examples
are atmospheric nitrogen N2, CO2, inert gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn).
The operation of SG sensor proceeds typically at working temperature 300 – 400 °C in two steps
(Figure 2):
(i) in "common" atmosphere containing mainly N2, O2, Ar, water vapour and CO2, molecular
oxygen is the only redox-active (oxidizing) component. It chemisorbs to the surface of
SnO2 (n-type semiconductor) sensitive layer and bonds free electrons from this material:
O2 (gas) + 𝑒 − → O−
2 (surf.) (1)
O2 (gas) + 2𝑒 − → O2−
2 (surf.) (2)
As a result, anionic oxygen species chemisorbed on the surface are produced. Since this process
extracts free electrons from n-type semiconductor, resistance of the sensor increases and when
achieving steady-state value, the so-called "sensor baseline" marked as R0 is established.
(ii) when now reducing gas (analyte - in our case methane) appears in surrounding
atmosphere, it reacts (combusts) with chemisorbed oxygen species:
CH4 (gas) + 2O2−
2 (surf.) → CO2 (gas) + 2H2 O(gas) + 4𝑒
−
(3)
As a result of this process, electrons are released back to n-type sensitive layer, whose resistance
decreases to a steady-state value marked as Rgas. The detection process is illustrated in Figure 2. As
mentioned, the typical working temperature of the sensitive layer is 300 – 400 °C. Such temperature
is necessary to ensure rapid kinetics of the processes (1) - (3) as the sensor response should be
observable in a few seconds after the analyte appears.

When detecting reducing gas on a n-type semiconductor, it holds the relation R0 > Rgas. Should we
detect oxidizing gas, the relation will be inverse: R0 < Rgas. When detecting gases on p-type
semiconductors, both these relations will be inversed, so there are four possibilities:
reducing gas oxidizing gas
n-type semiconductor R0 > Rgas R0 < Rgas
p-type semiconductor R0 < Rgas R0 > Rgas
Semiconductor gas sensors are used in many fields of human activity, primarily including detection of
hazardous gases (leaks of toxic or explosive gases, monitoring of environment in industrial plants and
mines), gases harmful to the environment (nitrogen and sulphur oxides, ozone) and gaseous
products of combustion (fire alarms, carbon monoxide by incomplete combustion). Gas sensors also
find application in chemical industry (analysing composition of reaction mixtures measuring and
control), automotive industry (monitoring internal atmosphere in the car), roadside checks of drivers
(alcohol breath test) and medicine (diagnosis of disease by breath analysis).
Region with low concentration of

free electrons - they are bonded in
chemisorbed oxygen
Chemisorbed
oxygen species
Energy barriers
against charge
transfer
on grain surface
Figure 2 - Detection processes on the grains of semiconductor sensitive layer: (i) Chemisorption of
atmospheric oxygen (which acts as electron acceptor) leads to formation of electron-depleted
regions in the material; they cause increase of sensor resistance to R0. (ii) In the next step
negatively charged oxygen species burn with detected gas (methane) and the electrons return back
to the semiconductor - hence Rgas value is established.
2.3 Evaluation of SG sensor sensitivity

As already mentioned, the active layer of a semiconductor sensor changes its electrical resistance in
presence of gas with either oxidizing or reducing properties. This change is indicated by change of
resistance between the measuring electrodes. The response of SG sensor to the its component in the
atmosphere (e.g. methane in air) is often evaluated as a ratio of the resistance in surrounding air R0
(sensor baseline - serves as a reference) to that in air atmosphere containing detected gas Rgas at
given working temperature of sensor t and concentration of detected gas ci:
𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑟 (𝑡)
𝑆𝑖 (𝑡, 𝑐𝑖 ) = (4)
𝑅𝑔𝑎𝑠 (𝑡,𝑐𝑖 )

3 Devices and Equipment
3.1 SG Sensors Applied in the Laboratory Station

A Japanese company FIGARO Engineering Inc. (www.figarosensor.com) has become the world's
largest producer of semiconductor sensors. This company manufactures a full series of sensors under
the designation "TGS" (with additional numerical designation), developed to detect various
combustible or toxic gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, methane, alcohol vapors, nitrogen
dioxide, ozone etc. Although many other manufacturers offer sensors having comparable or even
better performance, the company FIGARO keeps its dominant market position due to mass
production and tradition. Its sensors are applied in the fields of control systems, residential and
industrial alarms, breathe alcohol checkers etc.
The structural arrangement of a FIGARO sensor chip is shown in Figure 3. The sensor consists of a
planar substrate - chip - made from an electrically non-conductive material (ceramics), where the
surface is equipped by a couple of platinum electrodes and coated with sensitive semiconductive
layer (SnO2). The second side of the chip is equipped with platinum heating meander. Because the
principle of detection is based on the direct interaction between gas phase and the surface of solid
semiconductor, it is necessary (to ensure sufficient sensitivity) to construct sensors, whose specific
area of semiconductor surface is maximal. This can be achieved either by sintering of small
semiconductors grains into highly porous "thick" layer (typically 1 μm), or using vacuum technologies
to obtain "thin" (typically 100 - 200 nm) but rough semiconductor films. For proper function of the
sensor a heating element is included. Heating facilitates overcoming the activation energy of
chemical reactions (combustion) on the semiconductor surface. Real appearance of the sensor is
displayed in Figure 4.
Ceramic Sensitive
substrate layer Heater
Supply wires
Measuring electrodes
Figure 3 - Arrangement of a FIGARO sensor chip: front side (left); back side(right).

Figure 4 - Real appearance of FIGARO TGS sensor: sensor chip soldered on the pad (left); the
complete sensor encapsulated in metal cap with perforated mesh for entering analyzed atmosphere
(right).
In our laboratory station the TGS 2611 sensor in C00 model is used. It is designated for detection of
methane. The technical specifications and sensitivity characteristics of TGS2611-C00 are summarized
in Annex.
3.2 PXI Platform for Measurement Automation and Data Acquisition

PXI (PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation) is a rugged PC-based platform for measurement and
automation systems. PXI combines PCI electrical-bus features with the rugged, modular, Eurocard
packaging of CompactPCI and then adds specialized synchronization buses and key software features.
PXI is both a high-performance deployment platform, standard in present-day measurement and
automation systems. Its applicability covers both laboratory experiments and "hard" industrial
conditions. The development and operation of a Windows-based PXI or PXI Express system is no
different from that of a standard Windows-based PC. Moreover, it is relatively independent on
measuring-hardware development. In our laboratory station there is GPIB communication bus, which
is integrated into industrial PC. This system includes: a) multimeter for measuring of SG sensor
resistance; b) multifunctional card for regulation of temperature of sensor heating and for control of
valves switching; c) RS-485 interface for remote control of peripheral devices (e.g. mass flow
controllers).
3.3 Description of Laboratory Station

The laboratory station (scheme in Figure 5) contains three major sub-systems: gas distribution
system, auxiliary electronics and PC with PXI platform. Gas distribution system ensures transport of
analyzed gas mixtures (in a proper composition, sequence and flow rate) to the sensor. It begins with
chromatographic gas storage bags, followed by flexible tubing, switching valves, flow controller,
measuring chamber with sensor, suction pump and gas outlet. The analyzed gaseous mixtures may
only come into contact with inert surfaces such as Teflon or stainless steel in order to prevent
chemical reaction between gas and apparatus components. Auxiliary electronics includes power
supply for gas-switching valves and power supply for sensor heating. PC with PXI platform serves for
experiment control (status of valves, correct setting of heating voltage, reading of SG sensor
resistance, data saving).

Computer with Power supply

PXI platform for the valves
Power supply
for heating
Panel of electronics Panel of the sensor and gas

distribution
Figure 5 - Block scheme of laboratory station.

4 Tasks
1) Prepare gaseous samples, which will be measured: "pure" air, air containing 500, 1000, 5000
and 10,000 ppm of methane.
2) Set the operating point of the sensor according to the manufacturer's specifications (see
Annex). Determine the time necessary for stabilization of sensor parameters in the reference
atmosphere - "pure" air.
3) Measure the sensor response to individual samples containing methane (in increasing order
of concentrations). Return the sensor to the reference atmosphere after each exposition to
methane.
4) Depict the course of the whole measurement (sensor resistance vs. time dependence with
the assignment of methane concentration) in the form of a graphic plot - it will be a part of
your laboratory protocol.
5) For each concentration step evaluate sensor sensitivity (S) from the steady-state values of
resistance using the equation (4).
6) Determine response time (t90) or recovery time (t90*) for each atmosphere change.
7) Process the items 6 and 7 as concentration dependences in graphic form.
8) Evaluate the stability of the sensor resistance in the reference atmosphere (i.e. stability of
"baseline") during the whole measurement (except the starting ramp).
9) Compare obtained results with the characteristics of the sensor provided by manufacturer
(i.e. "Sensitivity Characteristics") listed in Annex. Process into one graph!

5 The Procedure for Tasks Solving and Instructions for Laboratory

Report
1) Prepare gaseous samples to be measured. Mix them into pre-evacuated chromatographic
storage bags according to assistant's instructions. Use a vacuum pump to evacuate the bags.
2) Connect "Panel of the sensor and gas distribution" to the "Panel of electronics". Mind the
correct polarity - the corresponding sockets and wires should have the same colour.
3) Open the measuring program in LabVIEW. The program will start on clicking the icon
"Semiconducting sensor". The program window (Figure 6) displays information concerning
the operating point of the sensor (voltage and current on the heating element), status of
valve switching (reference gas or measured gas) and the file path for saving data. There is
also a graphic representation of output quantity (sensor resistance vs. time dependence).
4) Rename the File Path to c:\LMRT\skupina\xxxxxxxx.asc, where x will be the characters
according to your selection. Follow this format strictly, otherwise your data would not be
saved!
5) Set the Delay for save data to 1000 ms. Set the operating point of sensor - i.e. voltage on the
heating element - in the program window (by entering numerical value or by using the
horizontal slider). Then start measurement clicking the "START" button in the program
window.
6) Determine the time necessary for stabilization of sensor parameters in the reference
atmosphere - "pure" air (firstly - watch stabilization of heating current, secondly - watch
stabilization of electrical resistance of the sensitive layer).
7) Measure sensor responses to samples containing methane; between steps with increasing
concentration of methane always return to the reference atmosphere. Before each shifting
(change of the atmosphere) it is necessary to wait for stabilization of the sensor output;
steady-state value must be achieved and maintained for at least 5 minutes.

1 2 3 11
5
4
6 7
8 9
12
10
Figure 6 - Operation window of the measuring program. Legend: 1 - measured voltage on sensor
heater, 2 - measured current on sensor heater, 3 - sensor resistance, 4 - horizontal slider for setting
working point (i.e. voltage on sensor heater), 5 - setting the period of data saving, 6 - switching the
valves in gas-distribution system, 7 - power supply for gas valves, 8 - file path address for data
saving, 9 - measurement "START" and "STOP" buttons, 10 - actual voltage on sensor heater in
dependence on time, 11 - sensor resistance (output quantity) in dependence on time - linear scale,
12 - sensor resistance (output quantity) in dependence on time - logarithmic scale.
8) At the end stop the measurement using the "STOP" button in the program window. After
clicking the "STOP" button the complete data will be automatically saved in .asc format.

9) Then process the obtained data following assistant's instructions. Import the .asc file into
Excel, select the appropriate delimiter. The table contains following columns:
Column Quantity
1. measurement number
2. el. resistance of the layer (kΩ)
3. set heating voltage (V)
4. measured heating voltage (V)
5. heating current (mA)
10) Make a graph in analogy to Figure 7. Horizontal axis: time elapsed from the start (it equals to
measurement number); left vertical axis: sensor resistance; right vertical axis: gas-valve
status (log 0 for "pure" air, log 1 for methane in air).
11) Evaluate all the quantities specified in Tasks 6 - 9 and elaborate a protocol.
Sensor resistance Switched valve position
gas on gas off
Switch valve position

Rgas
Time (s)
Figure 7 - Typical response of a SG sensor to shifting from atmosphere of "pure" air to atmosphere
containing methane and vice-versa.

Annex:


Date Notes Lector

CONTINUOUS LEVEL SENSORS
CLS January 2015

Laboratory Task: Continuous Level Sensors
Filename: MCE.Instruction.for.Laboratory.Work
Pages: 19
Level of liquids or loose materials in tanks or bins belongs to basic technological quantities to be
measured in industrial practice. For level measuring, a wide range of level sensors is being used,
which measure the level height continuously or just in limit states, while various principles are being
used (i.e. float sensors, conductance sensors, capacity sensors, ultrasonic sensors, radar sensors,
etc.). Data from the level sensors can be then used for finding out quantity of the substance, for
balance calculations or as entry information for process control. The task of laboratory work
Continuous Level Sensors is to get acquainted with four most widespread types of level sensors of
continuous actions, with their features and operation.
Attendance to the laboratory work and instructions for this work assume a certain level of
knowledge about level measurement. Instructions for this laboratory task contain information that
needn´t be studied in details in advance. It is sufficient to read the chapter 1 and lecture Level
Measurement. Other chapters serve as a guide when working in the laboratory and they include
work assignment, instructions for performing the work and for processing the laboratory report.
1 Theoretical Introduction ........................................................................... 9

1.1 Capacity Level Sensor ............................................................................................................... 9
1.2 Ultrasonic Level Sensor .......................................................................................................... 10
1.3 Measuring of Level by Finding Out the Tank Weight ............................................................. 11
1.4 Measuring of Level by Means of Hydrostatic Pressure Sensor .............................................. 11
1.5 Programmable Logic Controller ............................................................................................. 11
2 Tasks .......................................................................................................12
3 The Procedure for Tasks Solving ..............................................................13

3.1 Solving Task 1: ........................................................................................................................ 13
3.2 Solving Task 3 ......................................................................................................................... 13
3.3 Solving Task 4 ......................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Solving Task 5 ......................................................................................................................... 15
References ....................................................................................................17
1 Theoretical Introduction
1.1 Capacity Level Sensor

Capacity level sensors belong to simple and reliable types, which are well fit for measuring level of
liquids as well as loose materials. These level sensors are based on a capacitor of variable capacity,
which is proportional to level height. There are two principal approaches to the possible
arrangement of a capacity level sensor, which depend on whether the measured matter is or is not
electrically conductive.
a) for non-conductive liquids, the level sensors consists of two electrodes (i.e. metallic rod
electrode and the conductive wall of the tank); the measured non-conductive liquid in the
tank is the dielectricum of the capacitor;
b) for conductive liquids, the simplest arrangement consists of rod electrode coated with Teflon
or rubber coat (the dielectricum of the condenser), while the other moving electrode – which
changes the area of the capacitor - consists of the conductive liquid itself. See Figure 1.
Evaluation unit
with unified outputs
Capacity level sensor
Tank
Auxiliary Teflon-coated
electrode measuring
electrode
Conductive liquid (the

other electrode of the
capacitor
Figure 1 - Scheme of capacity level sensor for conductive liquids, which is used within the work
The sensor Liquicap FMI21 (Endress+Hauser company) is used in this laboratory work as a capacity
level sensor; this sensor has been adapted for operation in tanks with walls made of non-conductive
material and with conductive liquid as the measured medium. The level sensor consists of two rod
electrodes, one of whose is insulated with Teflon coat from the surrounding conductive liquid. The
other electrode is not insulated and serves as earth wire (connection with the electrode consisting of
conductive liquid forms the capacitor). The level sensor is equipped with electrical circuit with output
ranging from 4 to 20 mA, to be displayed on the ammeter OM 35 (Orbit Merret).
Continuous Level Sensors 9/19

1.2 Ultrasonic Level Sensor

The ultrasonic level sensor, which is used within the work, works on the principle of measuring of
ultrasound propagation time. From the time, which the ultrasound wave needs to pass the distance
from the transmitter to the liquid surface and back to the receiver, together with the knowledge of
ultrasound propagation speed in air, the passed distance can be evaluated. The difference between
the overall tank height and half of the passed distance is the level height in the tank – see Figure 2
and Equation 1.
The instrument Probe PL-517 (Milltronic company) is used within the work as a ultrasonic level
meter. The level meter is equipped with own display which displays the distance of the probe from
an object reflecting the ultrasonic wave and it is equipped with an electric output in a form of current
loop 4 to 20 mA.
Signal
Transmitted ultrasound impulse
Reflected ultrasound impulse
Time
Figure 2 - Ultrasonic level sensor working on the principle of ultrasound propagation time
measurement
The formula for calculation of level height measured by an ultrasonic level meter is then:
ℎ = 𝐿max − 𝐿𝑈 (1)
where Lmax is tank height and LU is distance passed by ultrasound, calculated from the equation:
𝑡
𝐿𝑈 = 𝑐 2 (2)
c is the speed of ultrasound in the air.

1.3 Measuring of Level by Finding Out the Tank Weight

The third type of level sensor, which is used in the work, is scales based on strain gauges load cell.
The principle of this sensor lies in the fact that scales measure weight of the tank, which is filled by a
liquid. Assuming density ρ of the liquid and geometric dimensions of the tank (here the inner
diameter d) are known, the level height can be calculated from the following formula:
4𝑚
ℎ = 𝜌𝜋𝑑2 (3)
For the calculation, it is however necessary to take into consideration the dependence of density on
temperature, and therefore a suitable thermometer should be used to measure temperature in the
tank.
In the work, you will get acquainted with scales based on strain gauges load cell M230 (Utilcell
company). Weight measured by these scales is displayed by the display unit for strain gauges load
cell OM501T (Orbit Merret company). Temperature of liquid in the tank is detected by the resistance
thermometer Pt100 and displayed by the Omega iSeries unit. Density of water at the measured
temperature is to be read from tables.
1.4 Measuring of Level by Means of Hydrostatic Pressure Sensor

The last continuous sensor of level used within the work in a piezoresistive pressure sensor LMP 331
(BD Sensors). This sensor utilizes a simple relation for level calculated from hydrostatic pressure:
𝑝
ℎ = 𝜌𝑔 (4)
The sensor LMP 331 is equipped with a standard output through a current loop 4 to 20 mA.
1.5 Programmable Logic Controller

Controlling of the equipment is ensured by the programmable logic controller (PLC) Simatic S7 313C.
This is a computer capable of cyclic processing of the entered program. The PLC has a number of
unified inputs and outputs, which make possible to obtain data from level meters or – on the
contrary – to control pumps and valves, which then enable in this case cyclic filling and draining of
the tank. The PLC in this task is controlled by a number of simple programs written in the Ladder
Logic language.

2 Tasks
1) Familiarize yourself with the apparatus for measurement of level height, identify the
individual level meters examine their make and location on the tanks.
2) Read the enclosed manual and familiarize yourself with the basics of controlling and the
method of loading the programme into the PLC memory.
3) Carry out calibration of the capacity level meter to zero level height and to full tank.
4) Carry out calibration of the ultrasonic level meter to zero level height and to full tank.
5) Carry out calibration of the scales and use the ultrasonic level meter as the reference level
meter.

3 The Procedure for Tasks Solving
3.1 Solving Task 1:

Familiarize yourself with the apparatus for measurement of level height, identify the individual
level meters and examine their make and location on the tanks.
At Figure 3, a scheme of the apparatus including the way in which the individual tanks are connected,
including installation of the supply and output armatures of the tank, pumps and valves.
Storage
tank
Tank A Tank B
Figure 3 - Scheme of the apparatus used within the tank

The apparatus at Figure 3 consists of three interconnected tanks – two (A and B) of them being
experimental and one being the supply one. Both tanks A and B are fitted with level meters. The tank
A is fitted with the capacity level sensor Liquicap FMI21 and piezoresistive pressure sensor LMP331,
the tank B is mounted on scales M230 and further it is fitted with the ultrasonic level meter Probe
PL-517 and with the piezoresistive pressure sensor LMP331 as well.
In the task, two-position valves marked as SOL1, 2, 3 and 4 and centrifugal pumps C1, 4 and 5 are
further used. The valves and pumps are controlled by means of programs for PLC Simatic S7 313C,
written in the Ladder Logic programming language.
Interconnection, which is marked at Figure 3 with dotted line, will not be used within this task.
3.2 Solving Task 3

Carry out calibration of the capacity level meter to zero level height and to full tank.
Capacity level sensors are usually being set to the whole range of their measuring electrodes. In case
we need to modify the range of such level meter, recalibration must be carried out. Your task will be
to change the range of the capacity level meter to a new maximal level height, as specified by the
assistant.
Make sure, that tank A is completely drained. If not, load the “empty_tank_A“ program into the PLC
and run it (the valve SOL3 will get open and the pump C4 will be activated, the tank will be emptied).

Unscrew the cover of the capacity level meter and check setting of the switch for measurement in
vertical tanks (the rectangle symbol) and in horizontal tanks (the circle symbol). This switch has to be
set into the position for measurement in vertical tanks. Further, set the switch for calibration of zero
and maximal position to the zero position (empty rectangle symbol). Press simultaneously both push-
buttons marked as + and - and hold them for 2 seconds, then value of 4 mA will be displayed on
the panel ammeter OM35 and after 10 seconds this value will be stored into the memory of the
meter.
Load the „full_tank_A“ program into the PLC. The pump C1 will be activated, the valve SOL1 will
open, the pump C4 will be stopped and the valve SOL3 will be closed. Tank A will get filled up to the
height preset by the assistant within the program (the PLC for the whole time acquires information
on the level height from the piezoresistive pressure sensor). Check the level height visually at the
sight gauge.
Now turn the calibration switch of empty and full positions to the full position (full rectangle symbol).
Again press simultaneously both push-buttons marked as + and - and hold them for 2 seconds,
then wait till value of 20 mA will be displayed on the ammeter and after 10 seconds this value will be
stored into the memory of the meter.
Finally carry out a test of proper calibration. Load the “test_cal_capacity” program into the PLC. In
this moment, PLC is getting information on the level height from the capacity meter and – if you have
done everything well – the tank will be gradually filled and emptied, first to one quarter, to one half,
to three quarters and at the end to the full preset level height. Check the value of level height visually
at the level gauge.
3.3 Solving Task 4

Carry out calibration of the ultrasonic level meter to zero level height and to full tank.
The ultrasonic level sensor – similarly to the capacity one – has to be calibrated to empty and full
tank. Calibration should be carried out to proportional range (with increasing height, the current
output will proportionally rise).
Make sure, that tank B is completely drained. If not, load the “empty_tank_B“ program into the PLC
Open the front cover of the ultrasonic level meter. Press the push-button 4 for displaying the actual
distance of the object reflecting ultrasound (tank bottom), press it again for saving the actual
distance; after about 6 s the level meter will switch over into the operation mode. Load the program
“full_tank_B“ into the PLC and run it. The tank will get filled up to the height preset by the assistant.
After the level stabilization, carry out calibration to full tank.
Press the push-button 20 , the earlier saved value of maximal level height in the tank will be
displayed. Press the button 20 again to load the actual value into the memory.
At the end, carry out the test of proper calibration. Load the program “test_cal_ultrasound” into the
PLC memory. In this moment, PLC is getting information on the level height from the ultrasonic level
sensor and – if you have done everything well – the tank will be gradually filled and emptied, first to
one quarter, to one half, to three quarters and at the end to the full preset level height. Check the
value of level height visually at the level gauge.

3.4 Solving Task 5

Carry out calibration of the scales and use the ultrasonic level meter as the reference level meter.
Measurement of level height in the tanks by means of scales consists in weighting of the tank with
water, and consequential calculation of level height based on knowledge of geometric shape of the
tank and density of the measured media in dependence on temperature – see equation (3). Your task
will be to find out the calibration dependence between data obtained from scales and the signal
from precise ultrasonic level meter.
Make sure, that tank B is completely drained. If not, load the „empty_tank_B“ program into the PLC
Check, whether the panel imager for scales OM501T is properly set and displays zero value. If not,
tare the scales according to the instructions of the assistant.
Load the program called “cal_scales“ into the PLC and run it. In half-minute intervals, water will be
flowing for 5 seconds into the tank from the storage tank and will gradually fill up the tank. Read
always the weight of the water in the tank and the distance from the reflected level on the ultrasonic
level meter display. The geometrical dimensions are stated at each tank. Finally, read temperature of
water in the tank.
Find out the water density at the given temperature from tables and calculate height of level in the
tank for the individual points. At the end, compose the calibration dependence between the
ultrasonic level meter, which is regarded to be the reference meter, and the scales.


1) Formal and content aspect of the protocol has to meet the requirements set up by the
laboratory master prior to beginning the Laboratory Work of Measuring and Control
Equipment.
2) Compose the calibration diagram for task No. 5, compare accuracy of both level meters.
3) Draw technological scheme of both tanks, mark the location and function of the individual
level meters. Mark the PLC control of the apparatus.
4) Briefly state in the protocol appreciation of the individual level meters, based on your own
experience.

References
1. K. Kadlec: Měřicí a řídicí technika, Měření hladiny, elektronické výukové pomůcky
www.vscht.cz/ufmt (Measuring and Control Equipment, Measurement of Level Height,
Electronic Educational Aids)

Date Notes Lector

PROCESS SIMULATION AND
CONTROL
User Guide for PSIC Add-in
PSC January 2015

Author: Iva Nachtigalová, Ph. D.
Laboratory Task: Process Simulation and Control
Filename: MCE.PSC.User.Guide.for.PSIC.Add-in.docx
Pages: 21
Each technological process can run under various conditions and we often need to research process
behavior with the view of finding optimal technological conditions and thus achievement desired
product quality, or realization or improvement of the process control system. However, we cannot
perform complicated, expensive and dangerous experiments with process in the real plant. Therefore
we prefer design process models and control algorithms and their simulation on computers, which is
more effective, cheap and safe technique.
In the laboratory work PROCESS SIMULATION AND CONTROL, students will learn to
 Design dynamic mathematical models based on balance equations and mathematical
description of known physical, physio-chemical and chemical laws.
 Simulate process behavior under various technological conditions by mathematical models.
 Design simple control system i.e. regulatory feedback loops with PID controllers which are the
most used regulatory controllers in industrial practice.
 Set and tune the PID controllers.
Students also will learn to work with simulation software, which was specially developed on UCT
Prague for teaching basics of process modeling, simulation and control, and for education students
not only in the field of process control.
In the laboratory, students will work with the simulation software. The document Process Simulation
and Control: User guide of PSIC Add-in is a manual that gives assistance to students using the
software. It is recommended to study it before start of laboratory work.
The document Process Simulation and Control: Instructions for Laboratory Work can be used as a
guide for working in the laboratory. It contains the guidelines for step by step accomplishing the
laboratory work and processing the final report. It should not be necessarily studied in advance.
webpages of Department of Measurement and Physics.
1 About PSIC Add-in .................................................................................... 9
2 Software Requirements ............................................................................ 9
3 Adding and Activation the PSIC Add-in ..................................................... 9
4 Features and User Interface of the PSIC Add-in .......................................10
5 Process Model .........................................................................................11

5.1 Model Design ......................................................................................................................... 11
5.2 Settings Simulation Parameters and Outputs ........................................................................ 12
5.3 Simulation and Results ........................................................................................................... 13
6 Closed-Loop Feedback Control ................................................................15

6.1 Loop Design ............................................................................................................................ 15
6.2 Settings Simulation Parameters and Outputs ........................................................................ 16
6.3 Simulation and Results ........................................................................................................... 17
6.4 Controller Setting and Tuning ................................................................................................ 19
7 Sheet Messages .......................................................................................19
8 Saving......................................................................................................19
Resources ......................................................................................................20
1 About PSIC Add-in

Process Simulation and Control (shortly PSIC) is an Excel add-in that lets you to
 Create mathematical models of processes and simulate their behavior,
 Create control loops and simulate their behavior.
Add-in consists of a file PSIC.xlam which complements this user guide.
Note: The add-in assumes models of max. 10 ordinary differential equations of the first order
(shortly the 1st ODE) of max. 23 quantities, and solves the 1st ODEs using Euler's method. The
add-in allows you to configure and tune feedback regulatory control loops with a single PID
controller.
2 Software Requirements
The PSIC.xlam file of the add-in contains codes of Visual Basic for Application (VBA) that extends the
built-in Excel commands and functions and provides additional features and commands for inserting
and checking quantities and ODEs of models, running simulations, configuring regulatory loops,
tuning controllers, etc. The PSIC add-in requires the installation of Excel 2007 or Excel 2010 and
authorized the execution of macros permanently in the Trust Center, or temporarily in the Message
Bar when starting Excel – see Enable or disable macros in Office files [1].
3 Adding and Activation the PSIC Add-in

Note: If you want the PSIC add-in to work in the long term it is advisable to place the file
PSIC.xlam in the computer folder that will be still available after activation the add-in.
In order to the PSIC add-in use it is needed to add it to Excel by following steps:
1. In Excel 2007, click the Microsoft Office button, click Excel Options. In Excel 2010, click the
File tab, click Options.
2. Click the Add-Ins category.
3. In the Manage box, select Excel Add-ins and then click Go button. The Add-Ins dialog box
appears.
4
3
Figure 1: Add-Ins dialog box
Process Simulation and Control 9/21

4. Click the Browse button (see Figure 1), find and open the file PSIC.xlam and if you are
asked for copying the add-in file to user folder, choose No . In the Add-Ins available box,
select the check box of Process Simulation and Control add-in  and then click OK button .
After activation, the new PSIC ribbon tab with the new commands will be available (see Chapter 4).
Note: Do not add the PSIC add-in by double-clicking on the file PSIC.xlam in the file manager!
After this, the add-in can be opened only as a ordinary workbook (you will not be asked to
install) and may not be added to Excel in a fair manner. It is necessary to restart Excel and
follow instructions 1 – 4 as above.
Note: The add-in can be inactivated at any time by clearing the check box in the Add-Ins
available box (see Figure 1). Inactivating an add-in does not remove the add-in from your
computer, it only inactivate its features and commands (including changes in the user
interface).
If you decide to remove the PSIC add-in from Excel, follow these steps:
1. Remove the file PSIC.xlam from its folder.
2. Start Excel, confirm warning about unavailable add-in file and follow steps 1 – 3 as when you
add the add-in to Excel.
3. In the Add-Ins available box (see Figure 1), clear the check box of Process Simulation and
Control add-in, confirm the query to remove the add-in from Excel and then click OK button.
Note: Warning about unavailable add-in file can appear even if file PSIC.xlam moves or
renames. Then follow instructions above, remove the add-in and add it again.
4 Features and User Interface of the PSIC Add-in

The works with the PSIC add-in is simple: the first you create a mathematical model (see Chapters 5
and 5.1) or a feedback loop (see Chapters 6 and 6.1), the second, you run a simulation (see Chapters
5.2 or 6.2) or rerun a simulation after adjustment of controller constants (see Chapter 6.3). The PSIC
add-in generates modified worksheets and graphics sheets with that you can manipulate in the
standard way, and informs or guides user through sheet messages (see Chapter 7). All models, loops
and simulation results you can save in standard Excel documents (see Chapter 8).
Commands for creating models and loops, simulations and controller tuning are available on the PSIC
ribbon tab through controls in groups Design, Simulation and Controller (see Figure 2). The functions
of each command are as follows:
 New Process Model
Button which generates the new worksheet named Model # for inserting input data of model
and setting of simulation parameters and outputs.
 New Control Loop
Button which generates the new worksheet (or sheet with chosen model) named Loop # for
configuring feedback regulatory control loop and setting of simulation parameters and
outputs.
 Mode
Dropdown list which changes controller mode (direct or reverse) in simulated feedback
regulatory control loop.
 Action
Dropdown list which changes control action (P, PI, PD or PID) in simulated feedback regulatory
control loop.

 Gain r0
Text field which changes controller gain r0 in simulated feedback regulatory control loop.
 Integration Time Ti
Text field which changes controller integration time Ti in simulated feedback regulatory
control loop.
 Derivation Time Td
Text field which changes controller derivation time Td in simulated feedback regulatory
control loop.
 Reset
Button which enables return back changes in controls in the ribbon group Controller (i.e. to
restore controller settings used in the last simulation).
 Run
Button which generates the new worksheet named Report # with results of simulation of
behavior of process model or feedback regulatory control loop.
 Rerun
Button which recalculates simulation of behavior of feedback regulatory control loop after
changing controller settings.
Figure 2: The PSIC tab and its controls
Note: Actions associated with controls on the PSIC tab can be run by keyboard shortcuts that
are displayed in tooltips (see tooltip of the New Control Loop button in the Figure 2).
5 Process Model
Quantities and equations of a process model are entered in the yellow cells of the Model #
worksheet that is generated by New Process Model button (see Chapter 4). On the same sheet,
simulation parameters (in blue cells) and desired outputs simulation (in gray cells) are entered too.
Note: A Model # worksheet is protected so user cannot enter data of other values or types than
requested. If you copy data, insert them as values using Paste Special command.
5.1 Model Design

If you design a process model, complete the Model # worksheet by following tables (see Figure 3):
 Model Variables and Constants 
Enter marks of quantities of process model (Variable column), theirs values at the beginning
of the simulation (Value column), their physical units (Unit column) and their descriptions
(Description column).

 Model First-order ODEs 

Select variables of which the first derivation occurs in the left-hand sides of the 1st ODEs
(Derivation column), and insert Excel formulae which calculate derivations i.e. the right-hand
sides of the 1st ODEs (Value column). Arguments of Excel formulae must be addresses from
the column Value of the table Model Variables and Constants.
In addition to these mandatory data you can fill cells labeled Your Notices  by your optional notes.
Note: After inserting Excel formulae of the right-hand sides of the 1st ODEs formulae will be
calculated and theirs symbolic shapes will be displayed in the Symbolic Formula (read only)
column. Red-highlighted values of formulae need not indicate errors in the formulae, but the
unsteady-state.
of formulae do not mean errors in the formulae, but the unsteady-state.
3
Figure 3: A Model # worksheet – process model design
5.2 Settings Simulation Parameters and Outputs

Before running the simulation fill simulation and output parameters in the following tables (see
Figure 4):
 Integration parameters 
Enter the final simulation time (Final Time cell) and the simulation step size (Integration Step
cell), select the numerical method for solving of ODE (Integration Method cell) and select the
time unit of a simulation step (Time Unit cell).

 Output Variable 
Select output variable of process model which you want to see (and to control in the later)
(Variable column).
 Charts Parameters 
Select location of simulation charts (embedded in worksheet or separated chart sheets) in
which results of simulation will be displayed (Location cell).
 Model Variables in Charts 
In each table row, select variable of process model which you want to display in chart
(Variable column), chart number (Chart No. column) and if you want to set secondary y-axis
for the variable, check Sec Y-axis checkbox.
If you want to simulate model response to step change in input (i.e. load) variable, select input
variable of process model (Variable column), fill size of step change in percent (Size in % column) and
time of step change (Time column) in the table Load Variables .
6
4
Figure 4: A Model # worksheet – setting simulation and output parameters
5.3 Simulation and Results

Activate a data sheet Model # with a finished mathematical model and run simulation by Run button
(see Chapter 4).
Note: If other than the data sheet Model # is active, Run button is not enabled.
The results are stored at an output sheet Report # in the following tables and charts (see Figure 5):
 Model Variables and Parameters 
In each table row, the time instants of simulation and correspondent values (or Excel
formulae) of model quantities are saved.

11
10
Figure 5: An output sheet Report # - table of model quantities, table of derivations of the 1 st ODEs, and charts

 Model First-order ODEs 

In each table row, values (or Excel formulae) of derivation of quantities (i.e. the left-hand
sides of the 1st ODEs) at given time instant of simulation are saved.
 Chart No. # 
In each chart quantities from the table Model Variables in Charts on data sheet Model # are
plotted.
Note: Yellow cells indicate data taken from the data sheet Model #.
Note: Although an output sheet Report # prevents to change or delete results, Excel formulae
can be viewed and tables and charts can be formatted in a standard way.
6 Closed-Loop Feedback Control

Feedback closed-loop control is configured in green cells on a data sheet Loop # that is generated by
New Control Loop button (see Chapter 4). The new mathematical model of controlled process (in the
yellow cells), simulation parameters (in the blue cells) and simulation outputs (in the gray cells) are
entered in the same sheet.
Note: To configure a control loop with already finished process model, activate given data sheet
Model # before using the New Control Loop command. PSIC add-in offers you the opportunity
to take the model from the data sheet.
Note: A data sheet Loop # is protected so user cannot enter data of other values or types than
requested. You cannot copy data from other worksheets, files, or programs.
6.1 Loop Design

If you design a feedback control loop, complete following table on a data sheet Loop # (see Figure 6):
Note: If you configure a feedback control loop with already finished process model, skip table 
and table .
 Model Variables and Constants 
Enter marks of quantities of process model (Variable column), theirs values at the beginning
of the simulation (Value column), their physical units (Unit column) and their descriptions
(Description column).
 Model First-order ODEs 
Select variables of which the first derivations occur in the left-hand sides of the 1st ODEs
(Derivation column), and insert Excel formulae which calculate derivations i.e. the right-hand
sides of the 1st ODEs (Value column). Arguments of Excel formulae must be addresses from
the column Value of the table Model Variables and Constants.
 Measuring Element (First-order System) 
Select measured variable (Measured Variable cell) and insert measured limits (Limits: Lower
and Higher cells).
 Controller 
Select controlled variable (Controlled Variable cell) and insert its desired value (Set Point cell).
Next, insert controller mode (Mode cell), select type of control action (Type cell) and insert
values of adjustable controller constants (Gain r0, Integration Time Ti and Derivation Time Td
cells).

 Final Control Element (First-order System) 

Select manipulated variable (Manipulated Variable cell) and insert adjustable limits (Limits:
Lower and Higher cells).
In addition to these mandatory data you can fill cells labeled Your Notices  by your optional notes.
Figure 6: A data sheet Loop # – design of closed-loop feedback control
6.2 Settings Simulation Parameters and Outputs

Before running the simulation fill simulation and output parameters in the following tables (see
Figure 7):
 Integration parameters 
Enter the final simulation time (Final Time cell) and the simulation step size (Integration Step
cell), select the numerical method for solving of ODE (Integration Method cell) and select the
time unit of a simulation step (Time Unit cell).
 Output Variable 
Select output variable of process model that you want to see or control (Variable column).
 Charts Parameters 
Select location of simulation charts (embedded in worksheet or as separated chart sheets) in
which results of simulation will be displayed (Location cell).

 Model Variables in Charts 

In chosen table row, select variable of process model which you want to display in chart
(Variable column), chart number (Chart No. column) and if you want to set secondary y-axis
for the variable, check Sec Y-axis checkbox.
 Regulatory Loop Variables in Charts 
In chosen table row, select variable of control loop (set point, control deviation, output from
controller) which you want to display in chart (Variable column), chart number (Chart No.
column) and if you want to set secondary y-axis for the variable, check Sec Y-axis checkbox.
If you want to simulate loop response to step change in input (i.e. load) variable, select input variable
of process model (Variable column), fill size of step change in percent (Size in % column) and time of
step change (Time column) in the table Load Variables .
Note: Model variables and loop variables plotted in charts can be arbitrary combined.
9
7
10
12
8
11
Figure 7: A data sheet Loop # – setting of simulation parameters and outputs
6.3 Simulation and Results

Activate a data sheet Loop # with a feedback control loop and start simulation by Run button (see
Chapter 4).
Note: If other than the data sheet Loop # is active, Run button is not enabled.
The results are stored at an output sheet Report # in the following tables and charts (see Figure 8):
 Model Variables and Parameters 
In each table row, the time instants of simulation and correspondent values (or Excel
formulae) of model quantities are saved.

16
14 15
13
Figure 8: An output sheet Report # - table of model quantities, table of derivations of the 1 st ODEs, table of loop quantities and charts

 Model First-order ODEs 

In each table row, values (or Excel formulae) of derivation of quantities (i.e. the left-hand
sides of the 1st ODEs) at given time instant of simulation are saved.
 Controller 
In each table row, values (or Excel formulae) of loop variables (set point, control deviation,
controller output) at given time instant of simulation are saved.
 Chart No. # 
In each chart, quantities from the table Model Variables in Charts on data sheet Model # are
plotted.
Note: Yellow cells indicate data taken from the data sheet Loop #.
Note: Although an output sheet Report # prevents to change or delete results, Excel formulae
can be viewed and tables and charts can be formatted in a standard way.
6.4 Controller Setting and Tuning

If you activate an output sheet Report # with the results of simulation of closed-loop feedback
control Mode, Action, Gain r0, Integration Time Ti and Derivation Time Td buttons (see Chapter 4)
becomes enable. They can be used to change controller mode, control action and to sensitively tune
controller adjustable constants. Changed or tuned values always confirm by Rerun button in order to
recalculate the results of a simulation and redraw the charts.
Note: If other than a data sheet Loop # is active, buttons for controller setting and tuning are
not enabled.
Note: If simulation has not yet recalculated by Rerun button it is possible to take changed or
tuned values back by Reset button.
7 Sheet Messages
In addition to dialog boxes and status bar PSIC add-in highlights errors and provides tips using color-
coded sheet messages that are always displayed above the sheet header identification (see Figure 9).
Figure 9: A sheet message highlighting error (red row) and providing tip (blue row)
8 Saving
Workbook with sheets generated by PSIC add-in can be stored into standard Excel document, i.e.
XLSX file.

Note: Excel formulae of the workbook refer to PSIC add-in functions. If PSIC add-in is not
activated or is missing before opening the workbook in Excel the user will receive a warning
message about the need to update the links to the add-in. Then the workbook must be closed
and PSIC add-in must be added and activated.
Note: Sheets with simulation results slow down opening and saving the workbook and
significantly increases file size due to the large amount of data and formulae. When you
design more models and/or control loops is therefore recommended to work with more
workbooks.
Resources
[1] Enable or disable macros in Office files. MICROSOFT. Office Online [online]. © 2014 [cit. 2015-
01-08]. Available from: https://support.office.com/en-au/article/Enable-or-disable-macros-in-
Office-files-12b036fd-d140-4e74-b45e-16fed1a7e5c6.

Date Notes Lector

PROCESS SIMULATION AND
CONTROL
PSC January 2015

Author: Iva Nachtigalová, Ph. D.
Laboratory Task: Process Simulation and Control
Filename: MCE.PSC.Instructions.for.Laboratory.Work.docx
Pages: 19
Each technological process can run under various conditions and we often need to research process
behavior with the view of finding optimal technological conditions and thus achievement desired
product quality, or realization or improvement of the process control system. However, we cannot
perform complicated, expensive and dangerous experiments with process in the real plant. Therefore
we prefer design process models and control algorithms and their simulation on computers, which is
more effective, cheap and safe technique.
In the laboratory work PROCESS SIMULATION AND CONTROL, students will learn to
 Design dynamic mathematical models based on balance equations and mathematical
description of known physical, physio-chemical and chemical laws.
 Simulate process behavior under various technological conditions by mathematical models.
 Design simple control system i.e. regulatory feedback loops with PID controllers which are the
most used regulatory controllers in industrial practice.
 Set and tune the PID controllers.
Students also will learn to work with simulation software, which was specially developed on UCT
Prague for teaching basics of process modeling, simulation and control and education students not
only in the field of process control.
In the laboratory, students will work with the simulation software. The document Process Simulation
and Control: User guide of PSIC Add-in is a manual that gives assistance to students using the
software. It is recommended to study it before start of laboratory work.
The document Process Simulation and Control: Instructions for Laboratory Work can be used as a
guide for working in the laboratory. It contains the guidelines for step by step accomplishing the
laboratory work and processing the final report. It should not be necessarily studied in advance.
on webpages of Department of Measurement and Physics.
1 Initiation of Laboratory Work ................................................................... 9

1.1 Installation of simulation software .......................................................................................... 9
1.2 Getting familiar with the software ........................................................................................... 9
2 Mathematical Modeling ..........................................................................10

2.1 Specification of process.......................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Design of process dynamic model on the base of conservation laws.................................... 10
2.3 Simulation disturbances in load variables and studying shape of process-reaction curves
(time dependence of output variables) .......................................................................................... 10
3 Process Identification ..............................................................................12

3.1 Finding process time constant (only for self-regulating process) and process gains by
reading from charts of step responses ........................................................................................... 12
4 Closed-Loop Feedback Control ................................................................13

4.1 Specification of loop parameters ........................................................................................... 13
4.2 Building the feedback control loop ........................................................................................ 13
4.3 Simulation disturbances in specified load variable and studying relationships between
controller constants and the shape of process-reaction curve...................................................... 13
4.4 Tuning controller constants so process-reaction curve to be stable and control deviation to
be suppressed or fully removed. .................................................................................................... 14
5 Completion of Laboratory Work ..............................................................15

5.1 Saving outputs ........................................................................................................................ 15
6 Generating Report ...................................................................................16
Resources ......................................................................................................17
Instructions for Laboratory Work PSC
1 Initiation of Laboratory Work
1.1 Installation of simulation software

 Read the chapters Introduction and 1 Software Requirements of the document Process
Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1].
 Sign in ICT network.
 Install the simulation software i.e. read and follow the instructions in the chapter 2 Adding
and Activation the PSIC Add-in of the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide
of PSIC Add-in [1].
Note 1: Ask for the teacher to help with installation the software in ICT network.
Note 2: You will save files on the network drive Z: (see instruction 5).
1.2 Getting familiar with the software

 Read the chapters 3 Features and User Interface of the PSIC Add-in and 6 Sheet Messages of
the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1].

2 Mathematical Modeling
2.1 Specification of process

 Read the task specification from the teacher.
2.2 Design of process dynamic model on the base of conservation laws

 Before model design, specify
– Sizes (or boundaries) of balanced system
– Size of balanced time period
– Balanced variable (or variables)
– Sign of SOURCE terms in balance equations.
 Define all process quantities needful for process mathematical description and then terms in
balance equations ACCUMULATION = INPUT – OUTPUT ± SOURCE.
 If initial value of some process quantities is missing, calculate it from balance equations.
Assume the process steady state at initial time and thus zero ACCUMULATION term.
 Modify balance equations into the form (1)
d𝑦𝑖
d𝑡
=⋯ (1)
where yi are changed output process variables.
 Complete balance equations appropriate number of necessary initial conditions for the
numerical solution of balance equations.
Note 3: Ask for the teacher to check the model before working in simulation software.
 Design simulation model i.e. read and follow instructions in the chapters 4 Process Model and
4.1 Model Design of the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-
in [1].
Note 4: When filling cells follow instructions in cell tooltips.
2.3 Simulation disturbances in load variables and studying shape of process-

reaction curves (time dependence of output variables)
 Before simulation, specify
– Load variables i.e. process variables ui in which you suppose disturbances
– Output variables i.e. process variables yi which are affected by disturbances.
 Estimate final simulation time. If you design model of self-regulating process modify balance
equations into the form (2)
d𝑦𝑖
𝑇 d𝑡
+ 𝑦𝑖 = ⋯ (2)
use final simulation time six times greater than time constant T. If you design model of non-
self-regulating process use arbitrary final simulation time.
Note 5: Some relationships in the model and so absolute term yi in the equation (2) can be
nonlinear i.e. yi2, √𝑦𝑖 etc. In such cases, consider coefficient multiplying derivation in
equation (2) as rough estimation of time constant T and adjust the final simulation time
after the first run of simulation (see Note 7).

 Set simulation parameters and outputs i.e. read and follow instructions in the chapter
4.2 Process Model of the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-
in [1].
 Read and follow instructions in the chapter 4.3 Simulation and Results of the document
Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1] and simulate
– Steady state i.e. run simulation without any disturbances in load variables,
– Step responses i.e. run simulation with step changes in each of load variables.
Note 7: If you design model of self-regulating process you should see settling of step
responses in simulation charts. If it is necessary adjust final simulation time and run
simulations once more.
Note 8: Study carefully shapes of process-reaction curves for every simulated situation.
Compare trends of curves with your expectations and thus verify model validity.

3 Process Identification
3.1 Finding process time constant (only for self-regulating process) and
process gains by reading from charts of step responses
 Read value of time constant T from charts of step responses as shown in the sample on Fig. 1
and calculate its average.
Figure 1: Sample of reading of time constant T from chart of step response of self-regulating process
 Calculate process gains ki for each of load variables from the charts of step responses as
shown in the sample on Fig. 2.
N1
tg    ki M
N2
N
ki 
M
Figure 2: Sample of calculation of gain ki from chart of step response

of self-regulating process (on the left) and non-self-regulating process (on the right)

4 Closed-Loop Feedback Control
4.1 Specification of loop parameters

 Read the task specification from the teacher.
4.2 Building the feedback control loop

 Before loop design, specify
– Control variables i.e. process variables which are controlled,
– Measured variables i.e. process variables which are measured,
– Manipulated variables i.e. process variable which are adjusted to maintain controlled
variables at their set points.
 Use controller mode according to the following rule:
– If manipulated variable tends to increase when controlled variable is increasing set direct
controller mode.
– If manipulated variable tends to decrease when controlled variable is increasing set
reverse controller mode.
 Use P controller with gain r0 = 1.
Note 9: A number of experimental or mathematical methods are available for estimation of
controller constants for control processes of the second- and higher-order processes, but
there is no method for setting controllers regulating the first-order processes.
Note 10: Although you use PI, PD or PID controller set only P controller with unit gain for the
first run of simulation. After this tune all constants for any controller according instruction
4.4.
 Design control loop i.e. read and follow instructions in the chapters 5 Closed-Loop Feedback
Control and 5.1 Loop Design of the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of
PSIC Add-in [1].
4.3 Simulation disturbances in specified load variable and studying

relationships between controller constants and the shape of process-
reaction curve
 Set simulation parameters and outputs i.e. read and follow instructions in the chapter
5.2 Settings Simulation Parameters and Outputs of the document Process Simulation and
Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1].
 Read and follow instructions in the chapter 5.3 Simulation and Results of the document
Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1] and simulate
– Steady state i.e. run simulation without any disturbances in load variables,
– Response to step change in specified load variable.
Note 13: In chart, you should see settling of controlled variable (at the set point or, at the
new value in case of permanent deviation) after disturbance. If it is necessary adjust final

simulation time or, when response is unstable, decrease controller gain and run
simulations once more.
4.4 Tuning controller constants so process-reaction curve to be stable and

control deviation to be suppressed or fully removed.
 Read and follow instructions in the chapter 5.4 Controller Settings and Tuning of the
document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of PSIC Add-in [1].
 Tune controller constants intuitively according to general relationships in the table Tab. 1.
Table 1: Relationships between controller constants and quality criteria
Controller Constant Overshoot Settling Time Stability

 r0   
 Ti   
 Td   
Note 14: The basic method is to tune first the controller gain r0. For the second – if you have
PI, PD or PID controller – set Ti to big value or/and Td to small value and sensitively
decrease resp. increase them so process-reaction curve to be stable and the small control
deviation (or the short settling time, see next note) to be satisfied.
Note 15: Remember that a settling time and an overshoot act against each. Therefore, you
can adjust controller constants only a process-reaction curve will have a small overshoot
but a long settling time, and vice versa. Which controller adjustment is better depends on
the technologist’s requirements and the nature of the process.

5 Completion of Laboratory Work
5.1 Saving outputs

 Read the chapter 7 Saving of the document Process Simulation and Control: User Guide of
PSIC Add-in.
 Remove all unsuccessful sheets and leave sheets with valid model, valid loop and simulations
results. Save the workbook as <task-number>.xlsx on the network drive Z:.
 Check saved workbook and sign out from ICT network.

6 Generating Report
 Create a report in DOCX or PDF format of the name <task-number>.docx or
<task-number>.pdf that will contain
– Complete task specification (including figure)
– Mathematical model (including initial conditions)
– Estimation of a final simulation time
– Process time constant T and process gains ki for each of load variables
– Charts with model responses to step changes in each of load variables
– Tuned values of adjustable controllers parameters
– Charts with loops responses to step change in specified load variable
– Evaluation the quality of feedback control (comparison process-reaction curves in loops
with different controllers, problems with controller constants adjustment etc.).
 Give back the task specification to teacher and send Excel file together with report to
teacher’s e-mail address.

Resources
[1] Nachtigalová I.: Process Simulation and Control: User Guide for PSIC Add-in [on-line], January
2015, http://ufmt.vscht.cz.

Date Notes Lector

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March 2015

Published by the University of Chemistry and Technology, Prague

Supported by PIGA 2014/023

Non-contact Temperature Measurement (NTM)

Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)

Measurement of Electrolytic Conductivity (MEC)

Virtual Instrumentation (VI)

Wireless Sensors (WS)

Semiconductor Gas Sensor (SGS)

Continuous Level Sensors (CLS)

Process Simulation and Control (PSC)

Preparing for Laboratory Work

NTM January 2015

Non-contact Temperature Measurement ....................................................... 6

1 Theoretical Basics of Non-Contact Temperature Measurement ................ 7

2 Arrangement of IT Thermometer and Thermal Imaging Camera ..............12

3 Optical System of a Non-contact Thermometer .......................................14

4 Factors Acting at Measuring by Non-contact Thermometers ...................15

6 Calibration Check of Non-contact Thermometers ....................................20

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 5/23

Non-contact Temperature Measurement

Figure 1 - Measurement of temperature with IR thermometer and thermal imaging camera

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 6/23

1 Theoretical Basics of Non-Contact Temperature Measurement

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 7/23

Figure 2 - Radiation by black body according to the Planck’s law

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 8/23

black body grey body

Figure 3 - Radiation and emissivity of three types of emitters

Table 1 - Informative values of emissivities for chosen surfaces at  = 7 to 14 µm.

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 9/23

emitted radiation absorbed radiation

Figure 4 - Interaction of radiation with an object

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 10/23

Figure 5 - Transmissivity of optical materials in dependence on wavelength

T = 300 K, RH = 50 %, CO2 concentration 300 ppm,

Figure 6 - Transmissivity of atmosphere

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 11/23

2 Arrangement of IT Thermometer and Thermal Imaging Camera

Figure 7 - Block scheme of pyrometer and thermal imaging camera

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 12/23

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 13/23

3 Optical System of a Non-contact Thermometer

D – Distance S –diameter of measured Spot

Figure 8 - Optical resolution

Figure 9 - Laser aiming systems

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 14/23

4 Factors Acting at Measuring by Non-contact Thermometers

correct still correct wrong

measured object is measured object measured object is

Figure 10 - Field of view of an IR thermometer and aiming at the measured object

Figure 11 - Main sources of errors at non-contact temperature measurement

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 15/23

compensated by setting so called apparent reflected temperature (this subject is described

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 16/23

Figure 12 - Situation at thermographic measurement

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 17/23

When neglecting radiation of atmosphere, the formula (15) gets simplified:

Color palette: iron medical grey

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 18/23

Non-contact Temperature Measurement 19/23

6 Calibration Check of Non-contact Thermometers

calibration black body