Backgrounds

Nepal is a predominantly agricultural country having a population of

1,84,91,096(2048) and about glVo of economically active people of
Preface to th6 first edition.
the

population involve on agriculture and that's why Nepal has to modernise

It was felt that there was a need of a book which covered the simple design
-essentially in the agricultural fields of technology.
of hill irrigation systems in Nepal. Keeping it in mind, this book has been
Nepal has a land area of 1,47,181 hn2 and out of it the agriculturable
prepared where simpler methods of design of hill irrigation systems are
land area is 26,533 tg1t} 08qo of total land area). To tlate (2052) the inigateil
given. The hill irrigation systems which were constructed and are now in
land area is about 824331 km2(8,24,331 ha) which is 3l7o of the
construction phase are costlier and the maintenance costs of the systems
agriculturable land area and 5.6Vo of total land area.
costed higher. That's why we have to replace the costlier projects by cheaper
Traditional irrigation canals (or Kuloeg have been constructed by the
The
ones constructing them with available local construction materials.
Farmers in their own skills and the Canals have got their relative durability'
structures like aqueducls, super passages and lining works in secpage zones
The farmers have constructed the hilly canals (kuloes) through rocky
must be constructed with cement mortar and other than this must be
mountainous country slopes and altogether they used local materials which
constructed with available local construction materials (eg Mud mortar stone
needs minimum operation and maintenance costs.
masonary lining, wooden aqueducts, Drywalls and gabion protections etc)
Presently there are three types of irrigation systems seen in Nepal on
because the maintenance cost of the projects will also be lower and the
the basis of management which are as:
Nepalese people themselves continue the irrigation systems without any
r) Farmer managed inigation systems (FMIS)
haltage and can stand on their feet.
I i0 Agency m,anaged irrigation systems. (AMIS)
I think this book will be helpful to the concerned ones. And am
iii) Jointly managed irrigation systems (JMIS)
grateful for encouragement and help that I have received fiom Department of
Fanner managed furigation systems (or the traditional canal systems)
irrigation, colleagues, relatives and fiiends I am also thankf'ul fbr the
serving 2 to 8 nos. of families and generally having a hacterage cover of less
cooperation receivetl fiom the publisher and express my good appreciation tcl
than 15 has have been possessing their sustain ability and lesser operation
them.
and maintenance costs as compared to the other irrigation systems
mentioned above. These systerns (FMIS) are constructed with local
materials and local skills while the structures in the canal systems made by
cement mortars once damaged by tandslides and other natual calamities its
2055 Ashadh P.A Pollnl
maintenance cost will be higher and it will be beyond the capacities of the
D.LO Myagdi.
farmers. Then the fanners go to the doors of governmental offices for the
help. So our irrigation systems should be constructed in local materials
mostly. Essential structures eg: aqueducts, syphons, pipes, super passages
drops, essential linings etc. should be constructed in cement mortars and
other simple Structures eg: retaining walls, canal lining works, protection
works, intakos, drops etc. should be in mud mortars gabions zmd dry walls Contents
with suflicient required design sections. The objective of this book is also to S.No. Tit]es pages
overcome such problems,
Nepal is a poor country and has been depending upon in fbreign aids
tll Introduction I
for its development works. Aid is a temporary lelp Depending upon foreign
Izt Responsible points on the failure of some of Hil rrrigation
aid is just like a slave. We have to live proudly and have to stand on our Systems in Nepat. 4
feet. Nepalese farmers/peoples should develop tleir own working skills in l3l selection criterias for rmplementation of rrrigation projects 6
every developing fields, and they should use widely their local materials, and
l4l Irrigation Plannings. 7
should go a head through cheaper projects which could provide them more .tsl Discharge Measurcment in Streams and Rivers: g
production and lesser operation and maintenance costs.
(r) FloatMethod
(ii) Cunentmateringmethod.
(iii) Manning's Velocity method.
16l Surveying: 12
(0 Preliminary(dentifrcation)Survey.
(ii) Detail Survey
m Estimate Norms for Detaited Feasibility Survqy on
Irrigation Projects 23
I8l WaterRequirements: 4t
(0 Crop water requirements
(ii) InigationWaterrequirements.
(iii) Cropevapotranspiration.
(a) Blaney & oiddle empirical fomrula.
O) Penman's ETO calculation Formular
(iv) Crop Coefficients, operational water requirements, reinfall,
irrigation efficiencies.
(v) Exarrples on water barance carculations, ETo calculation by
Penman's equations.
l9l X'inancial Analysis: gz
(ii) Calculation of BCR and NpV.
(ii) Calculation of EIRR (By differenr methods)
(iii) Sensitivity afralysis.
t10l Canal Systems Ilesign. I03
(i) Hill cutting works
 (ii) [,ottgiturlinirl skrpcs ol caltal. (xr; [.'krw Lhro oriticcs & weir gates.
(iii) Wator vclocitios in canal. (xii) Design example on weir.
(iv) Canal side slopes. (xiii) Design example on settling basin. (Sand trap)
(v) Freeboards 1l2l Special Works to Control Silt Entry 179
(vi) Embankments (0 Silt excluder
(vii) Berrns. (ii) Silt extractor or silt ejector.
(viii) Curves radii, reservation widths. [13] Drop Structures. 181
(ix) 'Bed width to depth'ratios. (i) Necessity & Location.
(x) Canal Seepage's. (ii) Types ofdrops.
(xi) USSCS Method for Limiting Velociries. (iii) Vertical drop with example.
(xii) Compound roughness, n (iv) Chute drop with example.
(xiii) Manning's equation. (v) Pipe drop with example.
(xiv) Kennedy's theory of design of canal. (vi) Cascade drop with example.
(xv) Design of canal with Lacey's equations. (vii) Sharada type fall with example.
(xvi) Linedcanals, Fraude no. (F)
I14l Energy Dissipators: 2ll
(xvii) Sediment transport. (i) Introductionandtypes.
(a) Engelund & Han,sen method with example. (ii) Tlpical drawings of stilling basins, SAF & Baffled spillways
O Meyer Peter's equation-with example. wilh Fraude no. & some dimensions.
(c) Eixstein's equation with example. (iii) Design example on stilling basin-Ill
(xviii) Regime approach. (iv) Design example on straight drop basin.
(xix) Tractive force method with example.
I15I Cross- Drainage Works: 224
(xx) Mud mortar stone masonary lining with example. (i) Inftoduction.
I11I Canal Headworks: 155 (ii) An aqueduct & a Syphon aqueduct
(i) The weir or barrage. (iii) The super passage & a Syphon.
(ii) Under sluices. (iv) Level crossing.
(ii| Divide Wall. (v) Design concepts on an aqueduct, Syphon aqueduct.
(iv) The fish ladder. (vi) Structural design concepts on slab & beam.
(v) The canal head regulator. (vii) Typical drawings ofsuperpassages, level crossing, and
(vi) Location of H/IV or side intakes. aqueduct with Few concepts of design.
(vii) Types of intakes. (viii) Design example on an aqueduct.
(vin) Some design conceprs on canal intakes (Sedimentary) (ix) Design example on a syphon aqueduct.
(ix) Gravel trap. (x) HDP pipe crossing over a stream thro suspended cable
(x) Sand trap
l16l Irrigation 0utlets: 279
 (i) Intnxluctiur & Classes ol'outlers.
(ii)
(iii)
criteria tbr Judging the behavior of Semimodule and modules.
Hydraulic design conceprs on irrigation outlets.
IxrnoDUCTroN
IIT Hume Pipes (RCC pipes): 2E7
(i) Design Concepts on RCC pipes. lrrigation:- It is the natural or artificial application of water to soil for
(ii) Design example on RCC pipe the purpose of supplying the moisture essential or beneficial to plant
l18l Masonary WaIl Design. Zgg growth. Natural application is through the agency of rain and through the
(i) Slenderness ratio & Typical drawing for a retaining wall. flood of waters of rivers. The artificial application ls through the
(ii) Allowable stresses for design. involvement of the construction of engineering works (eg. head works, dam,
(iii) Gravity retaining wall weir, canals, channels etc.).
(a) Theory of design of gravity retaining wall. Artiti cial apfl i cati ont.
O Design examples of a gravity retaining wall. (0 Laft irigation: By some mechanical or manual means.
[1e] Columns JlO (ii) FIow irrigation: By gravity flow fiom the source to the field.
(i) Introducrion & Tlpes Methods of inigationt.
(ii) Design conceprs on short (Axially loaded) Columns. (1) Surface irrigation:. It is tlle flow over the land surfaces-
(iii) Design concepts on eccentrically loaded columns. (a) By flooding:- It could be free flooding, boarler method or
(iv) Design concepts on Long columns. check method.
(v) Design example on short column. O) Furrow irrigation:- It is by making furrows in the fields.
(vi) Design example on eccentrically loaded column @ Sprinkler or overhead irdgation:- It operates under pressure.
(vii) Design example on a Long colurrn. (3) Sub-surface or sub-soil irrigation.
[20] Timber and Steel Beams: 32t (4) Trickle/drip irrigation.
O Introduction & design concepts
(ii) Design example of steel beam. Brlef introduction of every methods are as follows:
(iii) Design example of a timber beam. (1) Surlace irdgation:- It is the flow over the land surfaces.
lzu Discharges Through Notches and Orifices. 328 (a) By flooding:- It could be free flooding, boarder method or
(r) Dischargethro'notches. check method. Free flooding is meant admitting the water at
(ii) Dischargethro'orifices
one corner of a field and letting it spread over the entire field.
I22l River training works 331 It is evident that in this case there will,be over irrigation and
1231 Rate Analysis Norms of some Important ltems. 336
Conversion fables. large percolation losses at thg corner at which the water eners
{241 356
125I Rderence Books while insufficient irrigation will be achieved at the farthest
360
t25t Some notes. 361 end.
In boarder strip method the farm land is divided into fields
according to the natural slopes of tle ground. In check method
field is divided into a number of comparunents and the water

-1'
 is admitted into each in turn from the watercourse running
(3) Sub-surlace or sub soil irrigation:- In this system" watdr is
along side.
carried in open jointed tile conduits, plastic pipes with openings
(perfbraterJ pipes) buried under the ground at depths of 25 to 60 cms.
The water escapes from these in to the soil and reaches the plant
roots. It avoids evaporation and minimizes percolation losses. It is
more expensive.

25 to 60 with flow of water

cm

O)
Check method.

Furrow irragation:- It consists of applying water to 'furrow'

T Subsurface Irrigated

in between the rows of plants to be irrigated. The water (4) Drip/Trickle irrigation:-In this system water is applied to individual
reaches the roots of the plant by percolation. Here evaporation or small groups of plants through small diameter of pipes and control
losses are less. valves.

Quality ol lrrigation Water :- Salinity of water decreases the production

of crops. Among the commonly cultivated crops: sugar beet, rape seed and
Cotton have good tolerance. Barely rice and wheat have moderate tolerance
in that order; while peas and potatoes have low tolerance. The filllowing
classification of irrigation water made in USA can provide a useful guide
line
Furrow irrigation of water
lnltv OI

o) Sprinkler or ovbrlread irigation:- It operates under pressure. It Class of Elecrical Salt content Sodium 7o of Boron PPM
consists of an overhead system from which water falls on the plants water conductivity ppm total cations
and the ground in the fonn of sp1ay. The spray could be provided by micro-mhos/cm
perfbrated pipes or by oscillating or rotating of undulating land. It
I 0 - 1000 0-700 0 -60 0 - 0.50
eliminates deep percolation loss anf ensures spreading of water. It is
suitable for sandy undulating lands. l 1000 - 3000 700 2000 60-75 0.5 - 2.0
u Over 3000 Over 2000 Over 75 Over 2.0
Nozzle (Oscillating) Class - I Water are considered good to excellent- suitable for most
Water pipe plants under most soil con,litions.
Class - II Waters are good to hannful and can be tolelated by some crops
'mentioned
above.
Sprinkler System
Class - Itr will be unsatisfactory for most crops.

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-3-

Responsible points on the nearly
failure of some of hill irrigation
Someof the hill irrigation systems which are consfructetl under
HMG help have not been showing their full targetted success. It has been
experienced that the following points are More responsible fbr it.
1) Lack of ownershipness: of the water users' groups upon the
irrigation system.
2) Feeling of the water use; gtoups: The water user groups of
the system feel that the repairing and maintenance of the system
(even a small landslides, damagings which are within theirs' capacity)
should be executed by HMG offices itself because they think that the
system was constructed and completed by HMG help. Such f'eelings
should be deleted from their minds.
3) Low village contilbution to the system: Nepalese youths
have the great tlesire of being a 'LAHURE' and a 'JAGIRE,.
(LAHURE means the man who works in indian military and police
. forces. And now-a-days it means (le man who works in the worlds of
various countries like Japan, Australia, Germany, Arbian countries
etc. JAGIRE means civil servants in HMG ofTices). Villages of
Nepal are just like without the youth peoplq because the youths go
to the cities, go to difTerent countries to become LAHURE i.e. for
works. So the villages are having with older peoples only and the
older people could not contribute their help to the irrigation system.
4) Local materials must be used widely: working with cements
have become todayls like fashion on every projects like building a
house construction of irrigation and water supply projects.etc.
Though it is good due to its durability to some extent but mostly it
has been seemed bad when it is in huge mass system because
-4-
is costlier to maintain
cemented structures once damaged and
construct again.
Poor Nepalese people always have to rely on foreign aid which is not
good beceuse depending upon foreign aid is just being like a slave.
So we mostly have the habit of using ours own availabled local
construction materials (mud mortar, stones, wooden aqueducts, stone
covers etc.). The irrigation systems made mostly by local materials
have lesser operation and maintenance costs. Using of local materials
develops the skills of the farners also. Big aqueducts, H/l[, intakes,
super passages and essential lining works should be in cemented
work$ and the others small aqueducts, canal covers, canal linings,
retaining walls, protection works etc. should be in mud mortars, dry
walls, wooden works and stones.
s) $ilbalaneod 'environmontal system: Cutting and t'elling
down of the tees (Ileforestation); destruction of the jungle and wild
animals by fire, erosion of land by floods etc. have lead us unto
unbalanced environmental position. As a result the water resources
have drie4 afrrospheric temperaturc has risen, over and under rainfalls
happened. Due to these natural disaster the irrigation systems have
faced with huge landslide problems, water scarcity problems in the
sources.
-5-
 Selection Criterias for implementation Irrigation Planning.
of irrigation projects.
lntroduction:
lnstitutional & organizational criteria:. At least 507o of the Irrigation is the process of artificial application of
water to crops for
beneficiaries agree in writing to D.I.O's implementation rules and their growths by rain or other means. Irrigation requires
a source of water,
regulations regarding beneficiaries participation, organization, its conveyances from the source to the fields anrl tristribution
within the
beneficiaries contribution prior to project implementation. fields' In the planning we have to analyze first the water
iequirements antr
the water resources. These two together determine
2) Social criteria:. (i) More than 50Vo of the beneficimies households the maximum area which
could be served by an irrigation system. The size
own in average less than 0.5 ha of land within the command area. (ii) and capacity of the
irrigation system are determined based on the water requirements
The sum of the land holdings within the command area of the smaller during the
peak denrand period. Finalry a technicary feasible
50Vo of the beneficiaries households is at least l|Vo of the total solurion is worked out
and test for its econornical viability.
conrmand area.
Planning aspects:
3) Technical criteila:
(l) Agriculturat aspects:
(i) Thewaters sourceisadequatefortheproject. water is essentiar for plants as solvent and
carrier of nutrients as medium for the biological processes
(ii) The project selected is not likely to cause a negative impact and to
regulate temperature by transpiration. If natural
on the physical environment. rainfall
is not
sufTicient then additionar water may be applied
(iii) The construction worlis are beyond the capacity of the by irrigation. The
mam I
beneficiaries.
(a) Where rainfall is low and no crop Complete irrigation
4) Economic criteria:
production is woul<I be possible is required.
(i) The economic internal rate of return (EIRR) is higher th.an
without irrigation.
107o.
o) Where rainfall is usually adequate but Supplement
(ii) The benefit: cost ratio i.e.
I ratio is greater than 1.0.
improved quantity, quality or irrigation is requned.
(iii) Higher the increment in the net f4rm income due to the project intersity is desired
the higher the priority given to the project. (c) Where there is a ris,k of. inadequate Protective irrigation
rainfall and a threat of crop damage or to increase
security.
failure by drought
From an agricultural point of view the principar
elements to be
considered in irrigation planning are:_
(a) The climate: Which determines the amounr of irrigation
waler needed and its requirement over time.
rl

-6-
-7-
 o) Tho plantc:- Which have individual water nee<ls.
(c) The soil:- Which serves as t}te medium of transport and Discharge measurement in streams
storage of water and has variable capacities in that. respect. and rivers.
The cropping pattern, crop water requirements, effective rainfall and
the size of the irrigation area finally determine tle amount of Mcirsurement of flow velocity of streams, rivers are carried out by the
inigation water needed. lirlkrwing methods
(ii) Engineering aspects:- It is to study the possibilities to provide (i) Float method.
the water amount from the selected source with a technically sound (ii) Current metering methotl.
conveyance & disfibution system. The points to be considered are: (ii) By using Manning's velocity fonnula.
(a) The water source - which determines the quantity & quantity (i) Float method:- A piece of a wootr or a ban should be used as a
of water available for irrigation.
tloating object. The time taken by the object to cover a fixed distance
(b) The topography - which determines the layout of the irrigation (should be at least 10 to 15m) between two selected cross section is
system and the method of water disribution and application.
taken. Several reading (at least 5 readings) shoukl be taken pret'erably
(c) The arrangements and dimensions of canals and structures-
in the mid stream in small channels and a cross the witlth of large
which have to meet hydraulic, functional and stability
streams and an average time calculated.
requirements & standards.
^ D(m)
(O The overall safety & susrain ability of the scheme- which has
Whcn:
r)" =
ffi
Os = surface velocity of water in, m/s.
m/s

.to satisfy operational as well as environmental noedq.

(iii) Economicat and social aspects:. D = Distance between the two cross sections, m.
(a) Economical aspects:- The cost benefits, EIRR, shoultt be t = time elapsed by the float object to cover the distance, sec.
Average velocity, O = C. ds.
analyzed.

O Social aspects:- The location and the general food supply Where, C = 0.65 for streams of tlepths upto 0.30 m.
situations have to be considered. If there is a good market a = 0.70 fbr streams of depths upto 0.30 _ 1.20 m.
": farurcr will spare more etTorts to boost production.
= 0.75 for streams of depths upto > 1.20 m.
(lv) Duty:- For preliminary planning purposes, the water requirements The accuracy of the result will be + l0 t<t 20Vo.
for tnefiil andTerar can be taken as folkrws:
(a)
(ii) Current meter method:.
Hills - 2Litlsec per ha for clay soils.
This method gives much accuracy. In this method a device
3 Lps - per had for loamy soils.
current meter (with a prope/ler) is used where a series of cups
5 Lps per had for Sandy/Loam soils.
mounted on a shaft i.e. free fo rotate are fitted. The speed of ro&rtion
O Terai - 1.5 Lps per had for clay soils
2.5 Lps per had for loamy soils. is a function of velocity of ttle water in which it is placetl. There is a

4 Lps per had for sandy/loam soils. correlation between the nos. of turns/sec and the speed of water. It
measures the velocities ranging fiom 0.20mls to 5.0 m/s.

-8- -9-
 inten'als'
If the depth of flow in a stream is 0.30 m or less, nteasure the a

a--U,""'
1 1l t=1
flow at 0.6d. If the depth is greater than 0.30m, measure the flow and rr o-n*
0.8 d (where d is depth). -13+-

(iii) By using Manning's formula: Watel depths

o=!.
\II
p.2l3 sl/2 (1)

Where, O = Average velocity of flow in m/s.

Cross section of river/stream.
n = Manning's roughness coefficient.
R = Mean hydraulic radius (A/P), m. d1 +d2+di+...+dn
S= Water surface slope in reach. .'. Average depth

A = Mean area of cross section of river, m2 =D(say)inm'

P = Mean wetted perimeter of river, m. Width of cross section =W (say) in m.

Manning's n: ... A - W.D. in (m2) ... ... ... (3)

The discharge can be calculated by the equation:
Streams/ rivers 'n'
Q = o.A. (m3/s)
Clean, straight, deep pools 0.02s - 0.030
Clean, Straight stones, weeds 0.03s
Clean winding, pools, shoals 0.040
Clean winding stones, weeds 0.045
Clean in effective slopes, weeds 0.048
More boulders, weeds 0.050
Sluggish reach, weedy 0.070
Very weedy, deep pools, timber,
Under brush, Boulders etc. 0.10.

Now knowing the average velocity O, the discharges of the streams.

can be calculated as fbllows:

Q= O.A ... ... (.2)

Where, Q = discharge in m3/s

r) = Average velocity, m/s.
A = Average cross - sectional area of stream, m2,

- 10- -l1-
 (aqueducts, super pa.ssages, siphons, level crossing, pipeline, linittg
Survevins works etc.) in order to prepare the dstailed design of the system and
_L the cost estimates of the proiect.
lntroduction: The main purpose of the detail surv-ey is ttl oollect sullicient
Survey is to collect the basic data lbr the planning, design and data for the preparation of the detailed design-, the cost estimate and
constr-uction of the irrigation projects. Surveying is usually carried out in the fioancial analysis of the project. In general the detail survey is
divided into following three parts:-
two sepafate stages:
(r) (t) Engineering survey:
Pretiminarysurvey(Identitication) (ii) Hydrologicalsurvey.
(ii) Detail survey. (iii) Geotechnicalsurvey.
(l) Preliminary survey or project itlentification survey in this survey
sufTicient information is collected to make an initial t'easibility (al Engineering sun eY:-
Fixation of intake sitg, canal alignment, location and type of
assessment of the proiect. It helps us to make a priority ranking tor
the mazor structures along the canal and topographical survey
implementation of a number of proposed schemes during the must be carried out. The survey covers fbllowing works:-
planning stages, The preliminary survey of the system covers the 1) Selection of IUW site, L-section and x-section of H/IV site, L-
lolkrwing main topics:-
(1) General information:- Location, access, labour availability,
r X-sections of the source river, establishment of stable bench
mark serving as reference point for all leveling works of the
system, sketches showing important f'eatures of the
availability of construction materials. suroundings.
(2) Command areiu- Size, ownership, soils and land use, slope.
(3) 2l Selection of canal alignmen*'
Source river and its catchment:- Name and type of source,
It should go along watersheds, stable zones, through lesser no.
' vegetative cover of catchment, use and water rights, catchment of cross drainage works, short, commanding more lands, avoid
area, minimum and maximum discharges of the s()urces. slide and seepage zones and rockclifTs etc. avoid htluses
(4) Agriculture: Present and future cropping patterns, inputs, temples and schools etc.

yields, prices and marketing.

3t L-section, r-aeGtion of canal atignment showing
(5) Intake sits- Flow, water quality, bed materials. ' Table
(6) Canal line and alignment:- Length, stability, cross-
Topographical S urvey ComPonents
drainage's landslides, seepage zones, fbrest arcas. Scope Instrument

(7) Village participation's:- Organizations, Finance and Labour t. Benchmark System Hills - 0.5 km spacing Level

Contribution, reason for assistance request. 2. Headworks Terai- 1.0 km sPacing

' 2.1 Sile plan to show lvledium Slruclures Theodolile

(S) Extension of the system:- Possibilities of future extension locations, layoul ol Blend on either side 50 m kom river bank

of the command areas or irrigable areas. headworks, selling 1:500 scale.

(ii) Detail suruey:- It is an engineering survey of the H/w or intake basin, existing river Hills 0.50 m conlours

site, the canal alignment and sircs of the mazor canal sEuctures banks upslream Terai 0.25 m conlours
and downstream.

-12- - 13-
 Small Structures
.l.00
Extend on either side 25 m from m contour interval
river banks Terai 1:250 horizontal scale Theodolite
1:250 scale 0.25m contour interval
Hills 0,50 m contours
Longitudinal,Pr6files 1:500 horizontal scale Level
(typically 25 m u/s and d/s) 1:100
Terai 0.25 m contours vertical scale
2.2 Hiver Sections Cross Sections 1:100
Theodolite
a) Range ol Sections Hills/l.erai
(Structure axis,25 m u/s
Theodolite
Small River and d/s)
500 m u/s
5.0 Command Area
500 m d/s
Medium Htvers 2 000 m u/s
Mapping from enlarged Hills l:5000 horizontal scale
2000mdA
aerial photographs Terai .l:5000
horizontal scale
(b) Long Section Hills/Terai
Sample/detailed mapping Hills i:2500 horizontal scale
Level Theodolite
Small Rivers 1:500 horizonial scaie Terai 1:5000 horizontal scale level
1:100 vertical scaie Slope > 1:50 1.00 m contour interval
Medium Rivers Scale 1:1000 horizontal 1:50 - 1:200 0.50 m contour interval

: 1 00 vertical scale
< 1:200 0.25 m conlour interval
(c)
1

Cross Sections At.intake axrs and range of sections

*
Small Rivers every 1:100 scale 100 m At morefrequent centres where required.
Medium Rivers every 1:100 scale 250 m
3. Canal Line Cross drainage works and lining works
etc. Location of C.D. works, drop
1
3. Preliminary Alignment Hills structures, escapeq, outrets, soil types,
Abney level levels, slopes, randslides should arso
Terai be shown in L-section.
3.2 Long Section Canal length
Levei
< 5 km 1:1000 level 4) sketched of all designed structures
with sufficient measures to
horizonlal scale
allow the calculations ofquantities and cosl
1:100 vertical scale
Canal Length > S km 1:2500 level
5) fne size of command arca should be deterrnined by traverse
horizontal scale slwey or taking the rand hording data from
.i00 the farmers.
3.3 Traverse Canal length
1: vertical scale
6) Inforrration on the availab,ity of the
construction materiars
< 5 km 1: 1OOO Theodoltte
horizonial scale
should be collected.
Canal length > skm .l:2500 horizontal scale 7) Data should be collected as in itlentificatron
surfey.
Tabte iil Hydrological survey:_
The objectives of the hydrological
survey is to collect all
relevant data [o predict the water rrppty
of the source river & the
lnslrument water requirement of crops. Long
3.4 Cross Sections Hills every 50 m* scale 1:50
terir rain falr and other climatic
Theodolite data are obtained from the nearest
Terai every 100m*Scale 1:100
rainfa, or climatorogi.ut .tuiior.
Level/ water flow of the source river is estimated
fiom hytlrologicar tlata.
Theodolite To get an idea of the high flood levet (HFL)
4.0 Special Struclures
is Oyons".iirf nooO
Sile Survey Hills 'I marks on stones or Trees on the bank
:250 horizontal scale Theodolite of river antl by asking village
old people.

-14-
- 15-
 FIGURE
The flow in small streams is usually estimated by the area
velocity method:- The Hydrological Regions of Nepal (MIP)

Q = A.V.C.
Where Q = discharge (m3/s)
O = Velocity (n/s)
A = Average cross-sectional area of flow, m2
C = Water velocity coefficient
(C = 0.66 for depth 0.30 m.
= 0.68 for depth 0.60 m.
= 0.70 for depth 0.90 m:
= 0.72 for depth 1.20 m.
= 0.74 for depth 1.50m.
= 0.76 for depth 2.00 m.
= 0.78 for depth 3.50 m.
= 0.79 for depth 4.50 m.
= 0.80 for depth 6.00 m.)
The velocity of flow is calculated from the float method in the
section of the Stream.
*ruignt
lllP mcthod:
Medium Inigation Project MIP) has developed a method to esrimate
monthly flows from a single measurement of discharge (flow). This metlxxl o
o
is described follows:
a^s o)

We ha',e a figure which shows 7 hydrological regions fbr Nepal. Frx -c

o'
each region 'yvlgan hydrographs' were calculated & non-dimensionalised by J
E
dividing the nronthly means by the mean flow of 'April'which is generally .>E
a'=
thd month with the lowest flow during the year. The values are given in =O
ot
table wiiich are multipliers to determine the mean monthly tkrws of a #e
bE I6
F
stream from a single suitable flow measurement. We have non dim
hydrographs then:-
s,g
'acn
P
'El;
eao

{t
Examplet A stream is in region 3 (say in Kaski) 9JcD
-ZnC
-Eo
The date of observation of flow is Sept. l5th.
Estimated flow was = 250 Vs.
?i6;-
EE
F!^J
E .g

Value of non-dimensional hydrograph fbr sept. is 20-88. l4.oo-Oii

CO>aov
E:9 oY c
.'. PredictedApril flow =,fr* = 12 Vs. tziE2'6 0

Flows for other months are calculated by multiplying predicted April

;EiiPEP
/\!=)'='=

flow with the corresponding values and the results are as follows: =b:-E'p:'E
EpFE:gE
lo!>OEO
b==qsEs&
- 16.
 Example - Table
Mrp t{on.di-"rrtion]il'ir,on", H; drosraphs
Months Non-dim. Predicted Calculations
Resion 3 flows 1/s

6 Aqril
May 2.60 1.21 1.88 2.19 1.00 72 l0 x12=12
0.91 2.51 3.50
June 6.00 7.21 3.13 3.75 2.7J 6.0u 6.00 May 1.88 23 '1.88 x 12=23
July 14.50 18.18 13.54 6.89 l.2I '24.3'.2
14.00
August 25.00 27.27 25.00 27.21
June 3.13 38 3.13 x 12=38
13.94 .JJ.78 35.00
September 16.50 zl.tg 20.8:i 20.91 10.00 27.0t )4.00 July 13.54 163 13.54 x 12=163
October 8.00 9.09 10.Q 6.8g 6.12 6.08 12.00
Aug. 25.A 3.00 25 x12=300
November 4.10 t.g4 5.o() i.o() 4.)t 3.38 7.50
December 3.10 3.03 3.75 3.44 J.]J ) <,- 5,00 Sept. 20.88 250 Measuredflow
January 2.1$ 2.24 ',2.71 25g 2,42 2.03 3.J() Oct. t0.42 t25 10.42 x 12=125
February 1.80 1.70 1.88 1.88 1.82 1,.6:t ):20
March 1.30 1.33 1.3S 1.38 1.36 n7 1.40
Nov. 5.0 60 5.0 x 12=60
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Dec. 3.75 45 3.75 x 12=45
This hydrograph must be regarded as very approximate
Jan. 2.74 -r -, 2.74 x 12=33
fable Feb. 1.88 23 7.88 x 12=23
MIP Non.dimensional Regional Hydrographs
March. 1.38 l"t 1.38 x 12=17

Similarly 80% reliable flow also can be calculated.

744567** (iiO Geotechnica! survey:- These survey are carried out to determine
M,ay 2.06 0.77 0.82 1.33 1.08 0.8, 4.35 the stability and the suitability of foundations and the engineering
June 4.91, Z.3t 1.29 '2.11. 2:23 2.8S 7....
properties ofrocks and soils.
July 9.38 9.?1 4.7r 3.16 6.15 18.64 t3.91
August 21.25 20.77 20.59 **i< 13.8i 25.4') 40.00 Aspects of survey are: slope stability & risk of the Land slides.
September 11.88 15.00 17.61 *** 10.77 Z}.j+ J4.jB Any attempt to build stable structures in an unstable
October 6.sA i.38 7.65 6.94 6.54 4.0i 16.52 environment like mountains, hills where erosion antl mass wasting
November 4.38 3.62 4.82 5.00 4.42 ).63 8.70
3.19 2.77 3.13 3.61 3.27 ,).03 i.2.2
December are important and dominant geomorphologic factors must cope witlr

January 2.41 2.15 2.47 2.61 2.3S 1.64 a.4s the natural forces acting against it. Irrigation systems seem to be
February t.7B 1.62 t,Bz 1.89 1.77 1..t9 .t.30 hazardous because they introduce the water into the soil as a
March t3t t.3t 1.35 t.j3 1.j5 1.03 1.5.1 destabiliging agent.
4pril t.oo 1.gp 1.00 t.00 1.00 1.00 t.00 Hill slopes upto 35o are usually soil coveretl while steeper
Nrt r, A[
* Insufficient data to establish g\Vo, only minimum. slopes can be considered rocky or covered with then layer of soil over
** Insufficient data, envelope curve only.
**x No data. rock.

-18- 19-
 Laminated
ro"O \ Figure
\ Stability 0l Dipping Rock

High riskof Stable

failue / /G*locicPlun"
Low risk of
failue.

sl0pe angle steeper slope angle less steep

than angle of geologic than angle of geologic
plane:- Freedom of plane:- no freedom of
movement. movement.

The rock type and the mineralogy of the rock determine the intensity of
weathering and the potential for landslide increases with the weatherability
of the bed rock.

cracks, Fractures & Laminationr.'- more favourable for weathering actions.

Hard mirrcrals such as quartet:- Least subject to weathering actions.

Carbonate and clay rich rocks

such as marbles, calc, schist are prone ro;- chemical weathering under Slope ofhillside

zone,
subtropical conditions. may tE unstable
Pyrite, Sericite, graphite, chlorite:- Unstable. Stdke parallel to slope Strike perpendicular to slope
State s, Phyllites, Schists : - High risk of sliding.
Gneiss, quertz.ite:- Medium to low slide potential.
Mussive limestone & dolomite:- Most stable rock.

Dip into slopc Dip out ol glope

Fock gcncrally stabls Bock potentially unstable

-20- -21-
 The presence of water always increases the potential fur slides llstimate Norms for 'Detailed
considerably. water adds weight to the rock <lr soil matrix and it increases
the pore-pressure along discontinuities. Permeable rocks or rock witr cracks
I,'easibility study' on irrigation
and fiactures ezr.sily collect water which c:ul ffigger a liurd slide. Projects:
Concave slopes and irregular surlaces with many depressitxrs are
collectir wat-er and Lhus mure subject to lailures thiur convex nn,r planer l. Fleld work:'
slopes. I lentlworks site:
Generally speaking a slope will fuil when the shear stress produced (lt) Sitc selection (Fly level surwey)'
on a possible failure surlace exceeds the shear resistance. Soil slope (i) ManPower required:
movements are governed primarily by the depth of s<lil layer <lvedaying bed Surveyor 1.0

rock, soil water content and ground water crxrditions and the soil mechanical Over )r 2.0

properties such as cohesion and tiiction angle. Latv .' 19.0

;uide = 1.0
hainman = 4.0
SlafTman = 4.0
Site clearance = 4.0
Instrument man = 2.t)
note tilker = 2.0
2.0.
waterman = ,*t
(ii) Performancecriteria: Hills 6 km/day
Terai 8 km/day.

(b) Contour survey.

(r) ManPower required:
Survevor 1'0
Overseer 2.0
Labour 22.0
(Chainman = 4.0
Staflman = 4.0
Site clearance = 4.0
Instrument man = 2.0
taker = 2.0
note
waterman = 2.0
4.0
Pegman = ZLO)

_)r- -23-
 (ii) Peilormancc cdteda:
Rivertype days (ii) Performance criteria:
I Small 1
River type pits c/c days
I Medium 2 Aridrh) distance
E large 3
<20m 4m 1.0
Nde: Rivertvps <50m 5m 2.0
Hills Terai < 100m 7m 2.5
Small Width<5m width<10m. >100m l0m 3o
Area< 3 ha. Area< 5 ha.
tr Medium width < 25 m widrh < 50 m. (c) Hydrological survey (+ watcr quality test)
Area < 5 ha. Area < l0 ha. (i) Manpower required: (ii) Performance criteria:
III Large. Width < 25 m. wirlth > 50 m. Hydrologist 1.0 Hills 3 dlrys,
Area < 5 ha. Area > l0 ha. Assistant 1.0 Terd .1 d.irys
(c) L-section and x - section survey: Labour 4.0
(D Manpower required: (il) Pedbrmance Criteria: 1.0
Surveyor 1.0 River type da]'s
Quide
3.0
Overseer 2.0 I Small
Labour
4{))
Labour 22.0 I Medium
1.0
(Chainman = I.-5 Canal alignment.
4.0 Itr Large 2.0 (a)
Staffman = 4.0 Layout sulrey: (b) L-section sulvey:
Site clearance = 4.0 (i) Manpower required: (i) Manpower required:
Instrumentman = 2.0
note faker =
Surveyor 1.0 Surveyur 1.0
2.0
Wateman = Oveneer 2.0 Overseer 2.0
2.0
Pegman = 4.0. Latxrur 9.0 Lirbour 26.0
2LO) (Staf'frnan = 2.0 (Chainman = 4.0
Note: Rivertype Hills
Site clearance = 2.0 Surftman = 4.0
Terai
I Small
Instrument man = 1.0 Site cleiuarce = 4.0
width < 5 m width < 10m. note taker = 1.0 Instrument man
IJ Metlium width < 25 m
= 2.0
width < 50m.
m krge width > 2-5 m width > m
waterman = 1.0
2.0
=
note laker 2.(')
-50 Pegmiur = waterman = 2.0
(d) Geological sun'ey: 9.0 _l ()
(, (ii) Performance Pesman = :- )
Manpower required: 26.0
Geokrgist 1.0
Criteria: (ii) Performance
. Assistant 1.0
Hills 3 km/day. Criteria:
Lalnur n.O
Terai 6 km/day. Hills 3 m/day.
2 labours can dig I pit a day. TenLi 6 km/dav.
pitsize=lxlxl.5m.

-24-
-25-
 (e) Geological surYey:
(c) X-section survey:
(il Manpowcr requirtd:
(l) llanPower rcquired:
Surveyor 1.0
Geologist 1o

2.0
Assistant ' 'u
C)verseer
labour 12.0
Labour 22.00 2 Labours can dig a Pit a daY'
Pit size 1.0 x 1'0 x
(Chainman = 4.0 1'5 m'
Stafftnan = 4.0
(iD Performance critelial
4.0
Site clearance =
Hills 0.25 km/ c/c 1.5 km/daY.
Instrument man = 2.0 3.0 km/daY'
2.0
Terai 0.50 km/ c/c
note taker =
waterman = 2.0 (0 In filtration rate surveY:
Pegman =
4.0 (1) ManPower required:
2L00) Geologist 1'0
(ii) Performance criteria: Assistant re
Labour 4.0
Location Dist. cicl kmiday
6.0
Hills 50 km 1.-5
canier;
(Water 3 '0
Terai 100 km 3.0 tligger 1-0
4.0)
(d) Bench mark survey:
(0 Manpower required: (i, Performance criteria:
1.0 km/ daY.
Surveyor 1.0 Hills 0'50 km/ c/c
Overseer 2.0 Terai 0150 km/ c/c 1.0 km/daY.
Labour 26.0
(Chairman 4.0 Cross - drainage works'
Staffinan 4.0 (a) Contour, L-sectiofl and x - section survey'
critefia:
Site clearance 4.0 (i) Manpower required: (ii) Pedormance
InsEument man 3.0 SurveYor 1'0 Hills 4 C'D'/daY'
Note taker 2.0 0venseer 2.0 Terai 6 C'D'/daY'
Waterman 2.0 Lab,our 22'0
Pit digger 4.0 (Chainman = 4'0
4.0
Pillar carrier Staff'man = 4.0
2e0)
@illar size:- 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.50m)
Site clearance = 4.0
Instrument man = 2'0
(ii) Performance criteria: note taker = 2.0
waterman = 2.0
Location Dist. c/c/ km/day Pegman = 4-0
Hills .50 km 10 22.0\
Terai 1.00 km l0

-27t-
-26.
o) Geological survey:
(ii) Podotmenco critelia:
(r) Manpower required:
Geokrgist 1.0 Command area da!'s
< 100 ha 2.0
Assistant 1.0
3.5
Labour 12.0 <200
< 300 ha 4.5
2 Labours can dig I pit a day.
5.0
pitsize1xlx1.5m. < 500 ha
< 1000 ha 6.0
< 5000 ha 1.5
(ir) Perfotmance criteria:
> 5000 ha 10.0
C.p. width c/c davs
(b) Topographical surveY:
<20m 4m 1.0 (ii) Perlormance criteria:
(i) llenpower requirrd:
<50m 5m 2.0 Surveyor 1.0 Hills 20 ha/ day
<100m 7m 2.5 C)verseer 2.0 Terai 30 ha/daY.
> 100 10m 3.0 Labour 24.0
(c) Hydrological survey: (Chainman = 4.0
(i) Manpower required: (ii) PertormaneeGriteria: Staffman = 4.0
Hydrologist 1.0 Hills 4CDlday Site clearance = 2.0
Assistant r.0 Terai 4CDlday Instrumentmean = 2'0
Labour 4J0 =
note taker 2.0
6.0 walerman= 2.0
(guide 1.0 Pegman = 4.0
Labour 3.0) Ranging man
fD
Command area for Hills and Terai: (c) Binch mark survey:
(a) Traverse line survey. (, llanPower roquircd:
1.0
(l) Manpower required: Surveyor
Overseer 2.0
Surveyor 1.0
Labour 26.0
Overseer 2.0
(Chairunan = 4.0
Labour 26.0
Staffman = 4.0
(Chainman = 4.0
Site clearance = 4.0
Staffman = 4.0
Instrument man = 2.0
Site clearance =
4.0
note taker = 2.0
Instrument man = 2.0
waterman = 2.0
note taker = 2.0i
Pit digger = 4.0
wateflran = 4.q
Pegman = 4:0
Pillar Canier N
26.0\
26.61)
(Pillar size - 0.15 x 0.15 x 0.50 m)

-2s- -29-
 (ii) Performance Griteria: (f) Infiltration rnte survey:
Command area - 1 BM/50 ha l0BIWdav (0 Manpower required:
(d) Agricultural sun/ey: Geologist 1.0
(r) Manpower required: Assistant 1.0
Agronomist 1.0
Labour 4.0
Asst. 1.0
(Water carrier - 3
Labour 1.0
1
(guide - 1.0) drgger
4O)
(ir) Performance Griteria: (iD Perlormance critetia:
Command area dav Command area - 1 inflltration / 50 ha - 2 inflict/day.
< 100 ha 2.0
, (infiltration test)
< 200 ha 3.0 (s) Socio Economical Sun,ey:
< 300 ha 4.0 (1) Manpower required:
< 500 ha
< 1000 ha
5.0
Economist 1.0
6.0
> 1000 ha 1.0
Assistant 1.0
Labour 1.0 (guitle)
(e) Soil sun,ey:
(l) Manpower required: (ii) Performance criteria:
Geobgist 1.0 Command area davs
Assistant 1.0 < 100 ha 5
Labour 4.0 < 200 ha 6
2 Labours can dig a pit a day. < 300 ha 1
pitsize-lxlx1.-5m. < 500 ha 8

(iD Performance criteria: < 1000 ha 9

> 1000 ha 10.

< 100 ha one sample / 25 ba 2 days. Miscellaneous for hills and Terai:
< 200 ha one sample / 35 hq 3 days. (a) Camp establishment.
< 400 ha one sample / -50 ha 4 days. (i) Manpower required:
< 700 ha one simple 170 ha 5 dnys. Cook 1.0
< 1000 ha one sample / 90 ha 6 <Iays. Cunp wurker 4.0
< 1500 ha clne samp( ll0 ha 7 <Jnys. (ii) Perfirrmance criteria: Cost will be awarded according to the
< 2000lra one s:rmple / 130 ha 8 davs. totit| man days requireil filr the engineer.
'l 2000 ha ..-._ samfile / I-50 ha
one c) dlys.

-30- _-3 l-
 (iii) Equipmcnt?equind: !. Oflicial Work:
It€m Otv. Amount/dav Desk study:
Large tent 1 Nrs. 150/- Data collection' comPilation and report presentation:
Silrall tent 8 Nrs.400/- (i) llanPower required: (ii) PerformancePriteria:
Engineer 1.0 Minor 5 days.
Canpbed 15 Nrs.300/-
Overseer 2.0 Major 7 daYs.
Sleeping bag l5 Nrs. 150/-
Typist 1.0
Furniture I Nrs. 150/-
Peon 1.0
Utensils L.S. Nrs. 100/-
Nrs. 1,250i-
Head work site:
A compensation Nrs. 1,250/- per day will be awarded for the <luration of the
(u) Contour, L-section & x - section
field work period. (i0 Pedormancecilteria:
(i) Manpowet required:
i
O) Transportation:
Engineer 1.0 Minor -5 dzrys
(i) llanpowor rcqd. C)verseer 2.0 Major 6 daYs
Expe( 7.0 Drafurum 1'0
Assistant 8.0 Typist 1.0
(ii) Pcdormancr cdtoda: Peon 1.0

Cost will be awarded according to the locAtion of proiect.

(c) Equipment: Note: Pmiect tYPe Hills Terai

(, I Minor width<5m width<10m

llanpowor: Area<3ha Area<5ha.
Team leader 1 person/day.
Major wirlth>5m. width>10m.
Porter 20 person/day. Area>3ha. fuea>5ha.
(ii) Performancecriteria:
will be awarded according to the location of
Cost
(b) Geolory:
the proie,cL
(i) Manpower required: (i0 Perfotmance Clitelia:
(d) Equipment:
1.0 4 days
Geologist Minor
(ii) Pcdormancc critoria: Assistant 1.0 5 days.
Major
Item Quantity Rs. Amount/rlav Draf'tman 1.0
Theodolite Typist 1.0
1 Rs. 1501
Peon 1.0
Level instrument 2 Rs. l50/-
Others L.S. Rs. 50/-
Rs. 350/- Note: Pmject type IIills Terai
A compensation of Nrs 350/- per day will be awartled tirr the tluration of the I Minor wi<lth < 10 m width < 50 m
tield worked period. il Major witlth > 10 m width > 50 m

-l2- -33-
 (c) II1'drolog-v:
(i) Manpower required: (lt) ('ortlorr'. l,-scclion, r - scction.
(ii) Performance criteria: (t) Menpower required: (ii) Performance criteria:
Geoktgist 1.0 Minor 3 days l irginccr I.0 Minor 2 km/dity
Assistant 2.0 Major 3 days. ( )vcrsccr 2.0 Maiur 2 kmi&ry
Typisr 1.0
Draluruur 1.0
Peon 1.0
Typist 1.0
(d) Design and drawings: Pcon 1.0
(r) Manpower required: (ii) Pertormancecriteria:
Engineer 1.0 Minor 5 days
(c) Geolog:
Overseer 1.0 Major 10 days.
(r) Manpowerrequired: (ii)Perlormancecriteria:
Draf0nan 1.0 Geologist 1.0 Minor 10 pirs/day = 2 km/day
Typist 1.0 Assistant 1.0 Maior 10 pits/tlay= 2 km/day.
peon 1.0 Drafrnan 1.0
Typist 1.0
Note: Prcject type Hills Terai
Peon 1.0

I Minor width < 10 m width < 50 m (d) Design and drawings:-

I Major width>10m width>50m. (D Manpower required: (ii) Performance criteria:
@) Estimate: Engineer 1.0 Minor 3 &rys
(r) Manpower required: (ii) Performancecriteria: Overseer 2.0 Major 6 days
Engineer 1.0 Minor 4 days Draf'fnan 1.0
Overseer 2.0 Major
Typist 1.0
7 days Typist 1.0

Peon 1.0
Peon 1.0

Note: Prcject type Hilts Terai

I Minor width < 10 m width < 50 m
Note: tvne
Proiect Hills Terai
I Mljor width > 10m width > 50 m
Minor width <0.-5 m3/s Q < 1.0 rn3/s/
canallength<5knr C.L < 7 km.
Canal alignment: Major Q>0.5m3/s Q> 1.0 m3/s.
(a) Layout C.L. > 5 km C.L > 7 km.
(1) Manpower zequired: (ii) Performancecriteria: (e) Estimnte:
Engineer 1.0 Minor 2 km/tlay. (t) Manpower required: (ii) Performance criteria:
Overseer 2.0 Major 2 km/day. Eugineer 1.0 Minrlr 2 CD/day
Dral'finan 1.0
Typist Overseer 2.0 Majur 2 CDldal,
1.0
Peon 1.0
Typist 1.0
Peon 1.0

-34-
-35-

.L
 Socio- economy:
Note: type Hilts
Pmject Terai
(e)

Minor (r) f,anpowtr roquired; (ii) Pcrlormance critoda:

width <0.5 m3/s q < 1.0 m3/s/
Economist 1.0 area
Span < 10 km Span < 25 km.
Command days
1.0
Major e > 0.5 m3/s q> t.0 m3/s. Assistant <500ha 7
Typist 1.0
< 1000 ha
Span > 10 km Span > 25 km. 8
1.0
Peon < 1500 ha 9
Command area for Hills and Terai > 1500 ha 10
(a) Traverse line.
(it Manpower required: (ii) Performance criteria: Miscellaneous for Hills and Terai:
L Engineer 1.0 Command area days. (a) Planning & Management (for construction)
Overseer 2.0 <200ha 2 (1) llanpowor roquirod: (ii) Peilormancc criteria:
Draf[nan 1.0 <500ha 3
Brpert 1.0 Minor 5 days
Typist 1.0 < 1000 ha 4
Peon 1.0 > 1000 ha 5
Assistant 2.0 Major 10 days.

Typist 1.0
O) Topography: Peon 1.0
(r) Manpower rrqd: (ii) Peilormance criteria: Nde: Pmject type Eilli Terai
Engineer 1.0 Hills 25 ha/day.
Minor C.A. < 100 ha. C.A. < 500ha.
Overseer 2.0 Terai 50ha/day
Drafman 1.0 Major C.A. > 100 ha. C.A. > 500 ha.
Typist 1.0
Peon O) Rate analysis:
1.0 (l) llanpowcr rcquirod: (i0 Peilormaneecdte:ia:
(c) Agriculture:
Engineer 1.0 Minor 6 tlrys
(r) Manpower required: (i0 Perfotmance criteria:
Agronomist 1.0 Minor
Overseer 2.0 Major 6 rllVs
7 days
Assistant 1.0 Typist 1.0
Major 7 days
Typist 1.0 Peon 1.0
Peon 1.0
(c) Economic analysis:
(d) Geology: (i) llanpowe: required: (ii) Performance criteria:
(, Manpower required: (i0 Performance criteria: Economist 1.0 Minor 5 &rys

Geologist 1.0 Assistant 1.0 Major 7 &rys

Command area days
Assistant 1.0 Typist 1.0
< 500 ha 3
Typist 1.0 Pe<'rn 1.0
< 1000 ha -5
Peon 1.0
< 1500 ha 1

> 15fi) ha 10

-37 -
-36-
 -

(d) Rcporlprcparation: Duty and Delta

(r) Manpower required: ( ii) Performance criteria:
Expert 1.0 Miulr l5 dirys
Assisftmt 2.0 Mzrjor 2,5 duys Duty (D): It is the area irrigated by a discharge 1br specified no. of days
Typist 2.0 callcd base period fbr the duty. It is measured in hectilres/cumecs in metric

Peon 1.0 system. Duty fbr a channel is usually calculated on the head discliiuge of the
cluurnel.

Note: type
Pruiect Hills Terai Duty based on discharge passed through the outler, antl t\us
Minor CA < 100 ha' CA < -500 ha. excluding all losses in the canal system, is called outlet discharge tactor's or

Major CA > 100 ha. CA > -500 ha. the 'outlet factor'.

(e) Oflice equipment: Delta (A): It is the water depth (supplied for the irrigation purposes ro the
crop) over the culturable command area: It is measured in meter.
tiit Performance Griterial
Minor NRs 10.(x)
Relation between 'Duty' and 'Delta':
Major NRs l s.00
Let 'A'be the water depth in meter, m.
Nofe: Project tlpe Hilts Terd 'b' be the no. of base days for the duty &
Minor CA <100 ha. Ca < 500 ha. 'D'be the duty in hectares/cumecs.
Major CA >100 ha. Ca > 500 ha.
Then by detinition;
1 cumec running fbr'b' days irrigates 'D'heclares
or, I cumec running fbr 1 day irrigates (f) U."**
o{, (24 hrs x 60 min x 60 secs) m3 of water s},read ()ver iul areu ,, (3)
hectares give the water depth, A, in.

or, 86400 m3 = (?) .o

(m3)
0r, ^= 86400
(Dihxhu)
^
tlr, A- 86400m3 I lta = 100 x 100)
1
(3) . 1oo x roo m m"

t-.
8r,1; bl
"' (i)
E= o---l m

-39-
-3{t-

il t_
 r*
Examplet
Crop = wheat, b =4 weeks =4 x7 days. Water Requirements.
A = 13.50 cm = 0.135 m and for,
Cro| =rice Wetcr requirementsl
A = 19 cm = 0.190 rr, b = Z
|weefrs =4*7 days. ( I ) Crop water requfuement.

Area irrigated for wheat is 100 ha and for rice is 500 ha. Find out let factors. (2) Irrigation water requirements.

Solution:
We have outlet factor for rice; Brief description are:

, =&q.i (l) Grop water requirements: It is the quantity of water utilized by

the plant during its life time. This water may be supplied either
8.64 x (2ix 7) days
1

/ ha \ entfuely by rainfall, entirely by irrigation or by a combinati.n

of
= 0.19. =[*%] both. Crop water requirements of
Paddyrice = Crop evpotranspiration + Land preparation.
=7s64
mJ/s + Evaporation + deep percolation _efl.ective rairthll
.'. ouflet factor =
500 Ia = 0.628 m3/s. Dry foot cropS = Crop evapotranspiration + Land preparation tilr wheat
+-
_

7s6 eff'ective rainfall.

mJ/s
Similarly outlet factor for wheat,
(2) ltrigation water requirements: It is the quantity
, 8.64 x b
v-=- ol.watcr
a utilized by the plant tluring its liretime plus l.ssers i. liclcr
_8.64x(4x7davs) application, fbrm channels anil main cimal. i.e
0.135

=ns24
mr/s
Irrigation water requirements
100 ha = Crop water requirements + l0sses in tierd appricar.i.n. lilrnr
.'. outlet fhctor = = 0.056 m3is
ns2 +-
m-1/s
channels and main caniils.
Grop evapotranspitation or consumptive use;
Note: I l/s/ha = 8.64 mmitlav It is the quantity .f water used hy a cr,p in r.ranspi.itirxr (2(,r, of .r
less of it retained by the prants iurd the rest used in chemical antl
biological processes antl released to he evaporated nrainly lirui tlic
surfaces of leaves is known as trauspiratirxr) iuul huilding up ol the
plant tissues and evaporated trom the adjacent soil rlr riom interceptccl
precipitation on the pliurt trliage in iny speciried time. Ir. w.ultl
hc
measured as v.lume o[ water per unit i[eA or simpty as dcptli .l'
water on the irrigated area.

-40.
-41-
 Factors all'ecting crop evapotriulspiratrrn: 'l'hc pcrccul daylight hours, p, dcpcnd on the latitude. For latitude ot
- mean temperatue.
l(I', 20', iurtl 30o North the value of P fur the various mrxrths are giveu as:
- dayliElrt hours.
Table ol values of P
- humidity
Months Latitude Nort]r
- wind movement
It has been fbund that potential evapotranspiration (PET) by a crop 100 20' 30'
can be correlated to pan evaporation (measurement of evaporatitxl Jan. 8.13 7.74 7.30
tiom a standard pan filled with water and open to atrnosphere) which Feb. 7.47 7.25 7.03
may be actually measured at site. Mar. 8.45 8.41 8.38
Ercrop = K.' FL, Anr. 8.37 8.52 8.72
Where Errcrop = C(tp evapotranspkation Mav. 8.81 9.1-5 e.53
K. = Crop coefficient. (diff'erent tbr dift'erent crops and also vtrry Jun. 8.60 9.00 9.49
vany tbr diff'erent growth stages of the same crop depending Jul. 8.86 9.25 9.77
upon foliage and the metabolic needs of the plant). Aus. 8.71 8.96 9.27
E1,l = Pan evaporation'
Sen. 8.25 8.30 8.34
In the absence of Pan evaporation data, the potential Oct. 8.34 8.18 7.95
evapotranspiration can also be estimated by Empirical tirrmula Nov. 7.91 7.58 7 .tt
(Blaney criddle methul) which are given below.
Dec. 8.10 7.66 7.05
The procedures to esdmate tlte evapotranspiration are given below:
Tltc total consumptive use over the entire growing season U = 2.-54I k.f.,
where 'k' and'f vary tiom month to month. The value of k will also tlepentl
(1) By using'Blaney and cfddle empirical formula':
on crop, soil conditions & other climatic tactors. This has to be determined
- 2.54H*
-'"' 100 = 2.54 k.f. (cm)
tJ =
cxperimentally for each region and crop, Average value of 'k' is a fbllows:
Where, U = Monthly consumptive use or Evapotranspiration i(cms.)
K = Empirical Coefficients. Value of 'k'
t = mean monthly temperature in o Fercnheit. (If the temp. is in For winter crops - 0.6 to 0.80
/ 9t,
oC&ist,thenlt=*+32. \ For summer crops - 2 x above values.

\))
1

P = monthly 7o of annual daylight hours that occur during tlte (2\ By using Penman's formula:
period. Er,, = .[o,[X;,11',J.li;i];.11J1,1ff,-.:11,,,] (i)
f=
ifr & represents monthly consumptive use tactor.
This Penman equation is the version pnrposed hy .1.

Doorenbros &W. Puritt in F.A.0. irrigatirm drailage

Paper 24. where,

-42- -43-
 Ern reference crop evapotranspiration in mmiday (the ref. _ Net crop waterrequirement
-E- fieldx E - farm x E - main x 8.64 15
(L/s/ha).
crop being short green grass).
adjusbnent factor depending on maximum relative
lNdc: E -fieldxE- farmx E - main fordry fixlt crops is 0.29 or29(/o
humidity (RU*u*), total solar radiation (Rs), daytime (0.6 x 0.7 x 0.7) and for paddy crops is 0.54 or 54Vn 1g.g5 x 0.8 x
0.8)t.
wind speed (Uday) and the ratio daytime wind to right
rime wind zl
1-troar) = From the experiences of different irrigation systems encounteref in
W= weighting factor depending on temperature and altitude. Nepal the following maximum gross inigation requirements needed
Rn= net radiation expressed in equivalent depth of at H/w are compiled in table trelow:
evaporation in mm/day.
/(u) wind function Maximu m uirement
(ea - ed) Vapour pressure deficit in millibar. Percolation loss m/dav 3mm/dav 10mm/dav l6mm/rlav
a
Mainpaddy - Lt4 2.48 3.16
Steps (X Estimation Ol The lrrigation Water Requirements: Early paddy - 2.18 3.68 4.96
(0 Calculate reference crop evapotranspiration, E1,r. Latenaddv - 1.14 2.64 3.e3
(ir) Select appropriate crop coefficient , K.
Field application effi ciencies l5Vo 109n (t5%,

(iii) Calculatecropevapotranspirtion: Main wheat- 0.67 0.72 0.77

Ercrop = K"'Ero'
Parly wheat- 0.55 0,-s9 0.64
(iv) Estimate operational water requirements fbr land preparation, leachinl Maize - 0.95 1.02 1.10
or percolation. Grop Goelficients K", Operational water requirements,
(v) Calculate field water requirements: ninlaUl, irigation efficiencies:.
= ETcrop + Operational water requirement. (1) Orop Coefficient, K":- Crop coefficients, K., are <Iitl'erent lirr
(vi) Estimate effective rainfall, Peff. different crops and also vary for ditl'erent growth stages of the sarne
(vii) Calculate net irrigation requirement, Inet: crop depending upon the fbliage and the metabolic neerds of the pliurt.
= Field water requirement - efTective rainfall. tbur growth stages are generally distinguished as tolkrws:-
(viii) Estimate loses in field application, farm channels, & main canals.
Estimate the respective etTrciencies, E - field, E - farm, E - marn. Initial stirge :- germination & ezuly growth, gnrund Cover
(ix) Calculate gross irrigatiou requirement, Igross, Needed at the < 1001,

diversion. development stage :- attainment of eff'ective tull grountl cover ol

,'gross
l-
Inet 70 to 80Vo
Etieldx E _ tarmx Emain
mid season stage :- start of maturing, discoloring of leaves, tiill
Field crop water requirements are usually expressed in units of l/s per
of leaves.
ha. The conversirxr factor is 8.64 mm/day = I I/s per ha. Theretirre Late season stage : - lmrvesting stirge.
Iralf montlly lield crop wuter requiremcnt

-44- 4S-

I
 according to these stages are given in table'
TABLE
Ttre, K.,
The crop coetlicient (K.) in Io af,e ol crop growitlg scltson sittce Coetlicient Ikc
Crop Crop Developmenl Staqe
sowing is as tbllows:
initial I development I mid season lale season al harvest

Table of (K"l in o/o age growing Bean, green 0.30-0.40 0.65.0.75 0.95-1.05 0.90-0.95 0.85-0.95
Wheat, Sugar Ricc Bean, dry 0.30-0.40 0.70-0.80 1.05-1.20 0.65-0.75 0.25-0.30
% of crop Maize, ctltttln
Cane Cabbage 0.40-0.50 0.70-0.80 0 95-1.'10 0.90-1.00 0.80-0.95
growing Potatocs, peas, biuely and
sugnr hcets. otltcr sntall cotton 0.40-0.50 0.70-0.80 1.05-1.25 0.80-0.90 0.6s-0.70
season sitrce
sririus Groundnut 0.40-0.50 0.7G0.80 0.95-1.10 0.75-0.85 , 0.55-0.60
sowittg
0.20 0.08 0.50 0.80 Maize, sweet 0.30-0.50 0.70-0.90 0.05-1.20 1 00-1.15 0.9s-1 10
0,/,'
0.3(r 0.15 0.60 0.95 Maize, grain 0.30-0.50 0.7G0.8s 1.05-1.20 0.80-0.95 0.55-0.60
10%,
0.3 3 0.75 1.10 Onion dry 0.40-0.60 0.70-0.80 0.95-1.10 0.85-0.90 0.7s-0.85
25Vn 0.7-s
0.65 I.0 L30 Onion, green 0.40-0.60 0.60-0.75 0.95-1.05 0.95-1.05 0.95-1.05
50%, L0
0.90 0.[t5 I .15 Pea, fresh 0,30-0.40 0.60-0.75 0.95-1.10 0.85-1.00 0.80-0.90
I5'/o 0.85
0.20 0.50 0.20 Rice 1.10-1.15
'I
. 10-1 .50 1.10-1.30 0 95-1.05 0.95-1.05
100%, 0.20
Safflower 0.30-0.40 0.70-0.80 1.05-1.20 0.65-0.70 0.20-0 25
1 .00-1 15 0 75-0.80 0.50-0.ss
Q) Opetational water requirernents: It ctlvers the water necdcd Sorghum 0.30-0.40 0.70-0.75 .

lbrlilrldprepalati0n,leaclittlgtlrperctllatitlttltlssesirrlltlrxledpirddy Sugarcane 0.40-0.50 0.70-1.00 1.00-1.30 0.75-0.80 0.50-0.60

fieltls as wcrll as in oilrer crop tields. Sunflower 0.30-0.40 0.70-0 80 1.05-1.20 0.70-0.80 0.35-0.45
Tobacco 0.30-0.40 0.70-0.80 1 .00-1 .20 0.90- 1 .00 0.75-0.85
Crop coetficients & crop water requirements
crtlp Tomalo 0.40-0.50 0.70-0.80 1.05-1.25 0.80-0.95 0.60-0.65
The evaptttriurspiratitln, or tlte water rcquirement' of a specilic
Watermelon 0.40-0.50 0.70-0.80 0.95-1.05 0.80-0.90 0.65-0.75
(ETcrop) is l.he prtxluct tlf tlte crop ctlctficicnt (kc) and tlie rclerettcc
Wheat 0.30-0.40 0 70-0.80 r.ris-r.zo 0.65-0.75 o.2o-0.2t
crol) evapotranspirzrtirln (ETil).
A/ote; 1sl f igure for high humidity (RHmin>7O%) and low wind (<18km/h)

2nd figure for low humidity (RHmin<20%) and strong wind (>18km/h)
ETcrrlP =kcXETtl
Values ol kc vary witlt the crop, the rrrlwittg peritld iurd tlte stitge o1'

gnlwth. Four glrwtlt stxges are getterally distinguished, initial-.

Tlible below gives cfllp cilefficients firr sevcral crops lirr thc tlillerentl
(tiom devektpment-, mid-seastxt-and late lcssott stttgc. kc-r'iilues itrc ltlw
growing stages inclutling thc final cocfficiellt at hirve st Linre
during the initial stagc (0.3-0.5), risc during thc clevekrpnrenl" stagc
Drxrrctrbros & Prurtt, FAO-ID 24).
irnd rcilch a pelk ot'ubout 1.0 to 1.2 tluring tlte mid-sciisr)tl st.ttrc atld
dcclinc in thc ripcning peritil l"tlwirds tlte latc-seasotl.

-.16- -17 -
 Crop fields
For Paddy Crops: For Land prepnration:
Spring paddy 150 to 100mm.
Mainpaddy 110 to 100 mm.
d d ; d d- d r
cI i
dd d d. For Percolation
qq ddd ldeal rice soils (clay content) 3 to 5mm/day
o 2
2
-dd;
Hilly areas (GBM + clay) l0 to 20 mm/day
Nddd;;
I clay 3mm/day
t
o
q clay loams 3 mm/day
-od;;; E

60aooo loams
C NCJJJ-;;
silt loams 10mmid.ry.
-d;--:;
f,rne Sandy Loams
oooooo
c Sandy Loams 16mm/&ty.

For upland erops:

a
Light watering for facilitating ploughing & harrowing.
,
a a
!a I (3) Raintall:. For maximum crop productivity the field water
I
t- l- requirement must be fully met by rainfall or irrigation. Rain fall is
highly variable therefore the rainfall distribution must be analyzed
tt N and a level of reliability determined which reduces the risk of crop
ii
z.
c

o failure to an acceptable level.

d
oo
E
NF;
g-
o d d d d< (A) Reliable rainfall: Irrigation water requirements are usually
a
q
'a ! 9t!q calculated based on the 807, reliable rainfall distribution. This
o
Ed is the minimum amount of rainfall that can be expected in 4
,i .c
d-dJ d :-

out of 5 years. Assuming a normal statisticiil distrihutitln of

6 d ;-
o
.E
d-i;

the rainfall data, probabilities can be calculated tiom the mean

a o E
I and standard deviation:
E
&o P(xVo) = Pmean + (P(x7o)' Sdev'
!
c 8 :*-g i E i qr I
.E
6
iiu
s"iilt!ii39EEi Where, P(x%o) = rainf all at probability level (x%,)
o ta;^-. Pmean = mean rainfa]I.
5. 5.
o
, ! E! - I
oI Er3 E
E srr$tri] 98958; '
P(xVo) = Probability coeflicient at x7r, level
Sdev = standard deviation.

-4E- -49-
 Probability Goclticicnt
Table
Probability tevet. Probabi lity coeflicient. Analysis of Baintalt Data {mmf
IO4o 1.2816 Station: Khumaltar
207o 0.8416 Year Jan Feb Mar JurE Oct Nov Dec Total
30Vo 0.5244 180 178 248 138 46 84 0 0 364
407o 0.2s33
1

30 19 52 430 143
50Vo 0 26 38 13
204 84 '10
0 1t98
263 321 \233
6fiVn -0.2531 6 31 108
276 t41 7 1422
340 364 205
70Vo -0.5244 35 53 102 438
46 0 11 1226
388 249
80vo _0.8416 8 48 96 440
26 0 0 1 477
234 tz
90Va -t.Z8t6 12 104 89
118 0 0 1 089
282 260 54 35 8 52 1 145
21 28 152 512 .1.
=i
296 215 107 2 1 698
+ 40
sdev 47 12 299 243 36 ll 6 b6 950
7 I 106 323 144 128 iE
0 10 I nno
Where N = ro. of reconls (or year). o 102 102 260 242 251 0 19 0 159
steps of calcuration of g\vo reliabre h.m.geneous rlistribution: 10 111
1

95 235 347 141 !E

(0 set out the m.nthly rainta[ trata. calculate the mean monthlv 4 72 148 409
22 2 1158
4\ro 201 146 0 14 309
1
rainfall fbr the periul of record. 15 45 96 277 292 306 16 0 8 330
(i0 From the mean values select the driest month. I
1

35 122 356 293 327 183 0 68 535

(iii) Select the two consecutive driest months. 31 106
1

107 303 235 204 45 0 50 I 367

(iv) Select the three consecutive driest months then the f.ur driest. Mar 39 40 74 180 178 462 s12 388 327 276 141 68 1 698
consecutive driest montlr iurd so on. Mn 0 0 U I 12 55 235 138 36 0 0 0 otn
(v) The cumulative raintal totn]s tbr the periods itlentified above Mean ,)
10 16 64 99 196 326 261 182 70 13 18 1277
are flrcn calculate fbr ealch of the year of recortl. Sdev 11 13 zv 45 44 104 82 76
(vi) The totals of each period are added and the mean (p*"u,, 88 76 35 )q 199
) 'I
5 5 26 61 108 257 197 108 b 0 0 1110
calculated.
(vii) S4", is then calculated.
(viii) P(x%o) = P(802o) = (p_"rn) - 0.g416. S.1"r.
(B) Eflective rainfall:- The eft'ective rainl.all, peff, is that
p.rti.n of trre relizrbre raintail that contributes to meeting trre
water requirement of cnrp:
... PetT = .f.P(807 ).

- 50- -51 -

*
 Table For upland cnops:
Analysis ol Raintall Data (mml Cumulative Months f 0.70 fbr any amount of p(g0q0).
Station: Khumltar
(4) rrrigation efficicncics :- No irrigation
system is capabre of
covering water without losses in the
1-2 12.2 11-2 1 1-4 1G4 10.5 9-5
form of seepage, spiltge and
evaporation. To estimate the overa,
irrigation efficienciel or a
Year system alr components that affect
it must be considered such as field
1971n2 030 30 30 73 92 176 595 1025 apprication losses, E-field, on farrr
distribution channel losses, E
1972n3 026 36 67 105 189 202 406 4n 622 -f'arm, and the main canal losses,
26 858 _ E main.
1973n4 11 A 30 171 194 125 501 609 842 917 1238 1578 Irrigation efficiencies, E _ field:_
1e74tr5 30 65 tb 76 82 135 181 283 488 638 1002 1440 Rice (paddy) - g5 to gOEo
1975t76 i9 47 47 47 47 95 121 217 466 754 1142 1388 Dry foot crops - 60 to 70%
1976177 1325. 2Q 25 34 138 150 239 357 584 818 1100 E - farrr:- Ranges in between 70 ,g}Vo
o
1977il1 12. 74 {?- 156 184 215 37'l 425 714 974 1486 In an average - 75Vo
1978n9 1 44 44 91 198 210 42s 897 E- main :- Ranges in between g0
4'1 42 601 1196 to 90Vo
'1979/80
18 76 82 112 12A U2 248 284 764 .'. Overall efficiencies, E _ field x
521 1087 E-famr x E _ main.
1980/8'1 77 17 17 57 159 174 276 404 540 684 944 = 604ox70%ox70Vo
1 981/82 13A zo 42 78 189 189 284 535 666 908 1143 = 0.6 x 0.7 x 0.7
1982/83 17 21 ,7 38 45 117 139 287 428 483 830 1239 = 0.29 for dry foot crops And
1983/84 13 28 42 42 57 102 248 344 545 792 1028 1305 = 85c/o x 80Vo x t\Vo
'1984/8s 910 18
'18 22 57 73 195 501 638 930 1286
= 0.85 x 0.80 x 0.g0
031
= 0.54 for paddy rice on a well managed
't985/86
99 s9 118 D4 407 514 841 1108 1401 1704
schemes.
Max 39 65 99 171 194 225 50'1 609 842 1108 1401 1704
Examples on water balance calculation,
Mln07 17 22 57 73 '195
274 457 595 885 - water requirements,
11 shortly, and penman (F1o) Calculations:-
lvlean fi n 43 57 79 136 207 300 481 .659 922 1254 (i) Water balance calculation: A
Sdev scheme water balance is
12 15 26 40 48 51 110 119 166 178 223 234 essentially a comparison of the ava,able river flows with the
P(80?0 1 14 21 23 39 93 115 201 342 509 7s4 1056 diversion requirements of a no.
of potential cropping pattems.
Monthly Results To calculate water valance we need:-

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Auq Sep Ocl Nov Dec Total
(1) Future cropping pattern:
Crops
f (80%) 1 13 54 86 167 3?2 22s 141 1056
Planting Transplanting Harvestirg
Rice - Spring March - 2 April- 2 July - r
For padtly crr4s: Rice - Monsoon, July - 2 oT., Oct-2
.f = o, if, (P(807o) < 5mm Wheat - Nov. 1
Feb. - 2
,/' = il, 5mm <P(807o) <100 mm.
0.8-5 Maize - March - 15
June - 30
./ = 0.70 il, 100mm<P(807o) Maize - March - l June - 15

-r2- - 53_

I
 @ Take standard F1n values fiom district tables.
(3) Take crop coefficients, K", from table. Prcdicted April,flow =tH = 0.12.
(4) Calculate ETcrop = K". ETo. fbr each half month.
(12) From{he intake water requirements, possible critical 15 day periods
(5) Land preparation: are:
For premonsoon rice - 150 mm over two half months.
Monsoon Crop - July-2
For follow paddy - 55mm over one half month.
Sept.
For all rice crops - Alow two half months addition "2
of 50mm for ponding & there are Oct-1
no Eo losses from these Oct-2
application. Winter Crop - Nov -1
For wheat - 60 flrm over one half month. Feb-1
Deep percolation for clay, clay loams - 3nun/day. Feb-2
Loams, silt loams, fine sandy Spring Crop - Mar -2
loams - lOmr/day
April - 1
Sandy loams - 16mm/day.
(O Calculate eff'ective rainfall values from district table. April - 2
O Calculate net crop water requirements. (13) A typical crop water requirement calculations are given in this
(8) Allow field qfTiciencies.
chapter you can see.
(9) Calculate field crop water requirements.
(10) Allow for canal system efficiencies. A) Water requirement calculation example shortly:-
(11) Prediction of river flows through regional hydrograph: Taking specially a crop type & a month only.
is region -3 . A flow on 2 - march is 190 l/s then Croptype :- Main paddy.
Months Non dimensional Measured flow Predicted Predicted Month :- July (15.5 days, half month).
hy&ograph April flow hydrograph, ETo = 4.833mm/daY
1m3/s.;
(m3/s-) Half monthly Evapotrans piration, ETo= 4.833 x 15.5 74.g0 mm.
=
May 1.88 0.23 Water requiremenq
June 3.13 0.38 ETcrop = CroP coeffke x E1o
July t3.54 1.62
Aug. 25.0 3.0 = 1.1 x 74.8
Sept. 20.83 2.5 = 82:30mm
Oct. 10.42 1.25 Land preparation = 50 mm (say).
Nov. 5.0 0.60
Percolation losses = 10 x 15.5 = 155m (... lOmm/day percolati,n).
Dec. 3.75 0.45
Jan. 2.7t 0.33 Total field requirement = 82.30 + 50 + 155 = 2g7.30 mm.
Feb. 0.19 0.12 0.23 80Vo ranfall = 155.5 mm (say.
March. 133)163 0.17 .'. Eff. rainfall =70?o of 80Vo rainfall.
Anril 1.0 0.12
= 0.70 x 155.5 = 108.80 mm.
Net irrigation requirement, Inet = 287.30 - 10g.g 17g.50 mm.
=
-54-
-5 5-
 Ig.o.,
Inet First half of the following month B (b1) =-3b+a
4
EfarmxEfieldxEmain _3x3.6+1.9
=@ 178.50 -4
= 3.18
= 330.55mm.
.'. water requirements (Vsha);
Hence half montlv values will
Igross Month Jan (A) Feb (B)
8.64 x half month
(. 1 l/siha = 8.64mmlday)
?. 1.9 (a) 3.6 (b)
_
-
330.55 b
8.64 8x 15.5 2.32 3.18
halt monthly 1.90
= 2.468lls/ha.
values
= 2.5tlsha.
(3) Penman (E1o) calculation examples are given in this chapter you
PENMAN fTO CALCULATION
can see.
(C) REf,'ERENCE CROP EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETo)
t4t Galculation of half . monthly values:-
The Penman equation estimates reference crops evapotranspiration (ETo).
Irrigation planning is generally done on the half monthly basis and if
half-monthly climatic records are not available, half'-monthly rain 1all This is defined as "the rate of evapotranspiration from an intensive surface
& ETn values must be determined from monthly data. ot eight to fifteen centimeter tall green grass of unifbrm height, actively
To calculate the values lbr the 2nd - half of month A(a2) antl the tirst growing, completely shading the soil & not short of water".
nAf of the following month B (b1) from the respective monthly
values'a, &'b, the following equations are used: The forrr of the Penman equation used in the manual is:

a2=3a+b ETo = C(W.Rn + (l-w).f.(u). (Ea-Ed)

4
-bl 3b+a Wrere ETo = reference crop evapotranspiration in mrn/day
= 4 W =aweightingfactor
The results are multiplied with the no. of days in the half monthly Rn = net radiation in equivalent evaporanspiration mm/day
period to calculate the total of the period. (u) = the wind function
Example: of calculation of half monfly values: (Ea-Ed) s saturation deficit in millibars
Given data:
C = an adjustrnent factor to compensate fbr the efl'ect of
Months Ian (A) Feb G) variations in day and night weather conditions'
L 1.90 (a) 3.60 (b)
b The estimation is carried out in five steps:

Solution: (i) Calculation on saturation deficit (Ea-Ed)

3a+b (ii) Estimation of the wind function t(u)

2nd haif of monrh A (a2)
4 (iii) Estimation of the weighting factor (w)
3x1.9 + 3.6 (iv) Cnlculation of net radiation (Rn)

2.32
(v) Estimation of the adjustment factor (C)

-57 -
-56.
 The prol0rma c.4 inrlicates
the steps of trre procetrure ,ur<l
srrourcr bc
used .o enter the resurts llrkc, as r.he d.lily mean relative humidity and the average of
of calculations and estimates firr the d.ily
each m.ntlr
as they are made. A example ligurcs as the monthly mean (Rh mezur).
calcuration is show, in tuble
c.3.
C.2. CALCULATTON OF,THE SATURATTON rrrcn Ed = &ffip* *
DEF,TCTT (Ea_Ed)
Calculation of Ea (h) Statiurs recrxding wet antl tlry bulb temperatures
(a) Stations recording maximum
and minimum temperatures Ed is obtained liom figure C.3 or C.4 by comparison of
the average
The mean daily maximum
antl minimum temperatures fbr montily depression of the wt bulb temperature and average nrunthly
each
month are calculated and averaged
to give the mean montlily dry bulb temperature.
temperature (Tmean). The
result is entered in profbrma (t')
C.4. Stations recording dew point
Using Tmean in Figure C.2. gives
Ea in millibz*s tbr entry rxr
Proforma C.4. t. In this case, Ed is obtained directly fiom Figure C.2 in millibars.
(l) Stations where no temperature records are kept,
O) Stations recording rainfall
only
In this situation the data required are the latitude of the
The mean montrrry temperature station and its
can be obtained by adjustment
of trre elevation in metres. The data are inserterl into profclrma
temperature data of a station C.3, where
nearby that reconls temperaure
and the necessary constants to arrive at an estimate of average
rainrall' The latitude, longitutte monthly
ana erevation of both stati'us dew point are shown.
arer
also required.
The equation representing the model is:
To adjust the temperature
at the neighbouring s.uti(,n Td=81 +B2E++B3L,
the equation
used is:
a,r = A}AL, + 43 ALo + ,A4 AE + 45 Where, Td = mean monthly dewpoint in "C
AP
Where E = elevation in metres
AT = differenceinmonhly mean temperature Lt = latitude in decimat tlegrees
&t = diffbrence in latitudei*p;; * decimal degrees) and B B2 and B3 are the monthly constanls,
&t = diff'erence in longitude (expressed in 1,
tlecimal tlegrees)
The dewpoint is used in Figure C.2 to obtain Ed.
AE = diffff.rce in elevation
Gelculation of Ea.Ed
_AP = 6111'.."nce in monflrly precipitirtion
and A2, AZ, A+antl ,{5 are The estimates of Ea and Ed air entered on profbrma c.4
monthly constants shown rn prolirrma, together
with their difference (Ea -Ed).
c.2.
Using the derivetl montfily Tmeans
in Figure C.2 gives Ea in
c.3. ESTIMATION OF THE V/IND FLTNCTION F(])
millibars. (a) Shtions with recorded wind speeds
Calculation of Ed where wind speed records are taken at heights other than two
metres
(a) Stations recording relative
humidity
above ground rever, the conection factor to apply to
the average daily
In Nepal humidity t,ata is recorded wind run in kiiometers is obtained from Figure C.5.
at 0g40 hours and 1740
hours
each To obtain f(u), the corrected daily wind run is used in Figure
day' For practical purposes C.6 and
the average of these ,,,o
readings can be the result entered into profonna C.4.

.58-
-59-
 o) Stations where wind records are not kept maximum possible sunshine hours is obtained liom Figure C.l1 tirr
Due to the topography and limited data it has not each month and inserted it Pro{brma C.4. The ratio nA.{ czur fien be
been possihle to
derive a model for the country as a whole. Therefbre calculated.
a subjec:tive
estimate has to be made taking into account local (h) Where sr4rshine records are not available.
experience, wind
data from the nearest station and topography. The following equation is used to derive nA{ in these situations:
Table C.1 gives values
of f(u) for seyeral wintl strengths. nA.{=a+Bp+CP2
Where P = monthly precipitation in millimetres, and A, B and C are
Table C.l.
constants which depend on the geographical location and the
Variation of llul with Wind Run
elevation of the site being analyzed. The constants applicable to ten
Wind Range of Wirul Run Average r(u) suushine groups are tabulated in Table C.2.

Light Table G.2

< 175 8s 0.s0
Moderate 175 - 425
Gonstants of the Sunshine Model
300 1.08
Strong 426 - 700 560 7.79
Group Nr Bxld Cx 105

Very srons I 0.81 - 0.t4 0.11

The estimated value of f(u is inserted in profbrma 2 0.85 - 0.24 0.36
C.4.
0.87 - 0.25 0.40
c.4. wEtcHTtitc FACTOR {Wl
-1

4 0.90 - 0.29 0.36

The varue of the weighting factor (w) is derived
fiom Figure c.7. which 5 0.80 - 0.11 0.08
relate w to Tmean and elevation. Tmean
was calculatetr in section C.2.
6 0.79 - 0.25 0.34
The derived value of the weighting factor
is inserted into proforma c.4. iuul 1 0.76 - 0.10 0.06
the value of (1 - w), f(u). (Ea_Ed) calculated.
8 0.69 - 0.15 0.t2
9 0.'76 - 0.07 0.03
c.5. cALCULATtot{ OF NET RADIATIOI{
lRnf 10 0.12 - 0.26 0.34
Derive Totat Radiation (Ra) 'Ihc appropriat'e group number is identified by locating the pro.ject
This figure, in milrimetres per day equivalent crrrrdinates on Figure C.1.
evapotranspiration, is
obtained from Figure c.g and depends on the llnving selected the group number, the corresponding constants and m<lnthly
latitude of the station and the
time of year. The figure is entered in profonna ruittlirll tigures re inserted into Proforma C.1. and thc n/I.{ raticl calculated.
C.4.
calculate Ratio of Actuar Sunshine Hours linter the result on Profonna C.4.
[o Maximum possible Sunshine
Hours (rVN) ( irlculatc Net Solar Radiation (Rs)
(a) Where sunshine records are kept I{s = (0.25 + 0.50 nA{) Ra
From the records calculate the average darly llrt rrrrrl n/N have bcen obtained in previous paragraphs. Enter the results on
sunshine hours per
month and enter in proforma C.4. The figure llolorrnlr (1.4.
frlr mean daily

-60- -61-
 Calculate Available Net Short Wave
Radiation (Rns)
Rns =0.75 Rs. Rhmea Ed -
= mbar Ed=lHPx Ea .
Rs having been carculated in the previ.us
paragraptr. Enter trre result ., Twet bulb Ed =-mbar figure C.3 or C.4.
Profbrma C.4.
Tdew 2.09 Ed =7.0 mbar Figure C.2.
Calculate Net Long Wave Radiation
Loss (Rnl) Ea -Ed = 6.8
Rnl = 611;, f(Ed). (0.1 + 0.9 nAr) run
c.3. Wnd 85 f(u) = 0.50 Figure c.6 or Table C.1
The value of f(t) is obtained from
Figure C.9 using Tmean as carcurated (kr/day)
in
section c'2' The varue of f(Ed) is Tmean
obtained from Figure C.l0 usi,g Etl c.4 11.9 .C
calculated in Section C.2. Enter the
value of Rnl profbrma
on C.4. W = 0.62 Figure C.7
Calculation Net Radiation (Rn)
Altitude 1304 m
Rn=Rns_Rnl
(1 - w). f(u).(Ea-Ed)= 1.zg
Enter the value on profbrma C.4.
Month Jan Ra mrn/day = 9.0 Figure C.8
Calculate W.Rn
Latitude 29.6
The weighting fact.r was calcuratea''n
Proforma C.4.
section c.4. Enter the resurt .n n (h0 nhr : - Figure C.11
Nhr = - Figure C. I
C.6. Adjustmenr Facror (C)
sunshine group =6 By division or from
The adjustrnent factor ciur be tiken
irs 1.0 fbr all regirns of Nepnr. r/N = 0.64 Proforma C.l
C.7. Calcutation of ETo (mm/day)
The sequences and procetrures tirr
Rs = 5.13 n' =(o.zs+ o.sft)n"
the carculation are sh.wn .n the right luurd
margin of Profirrma C.4 with reterence Rns
to the Figures. Tables anil = 3.85 Rns = 0.75 Hs.
Profbrmas in this Appendix. A
worked example firr January in Crninpur Tmean 11.9 oC
f (t) = 13.12 Fig - C,
(0202) is shown in Table C.3. Ed 7.0 f (Ed) =0.228 Fig = Cro
mbar
Tabte
Worked Example of i{onthly ETo Galcutation nN 0.64 Rnl Rnl{(l),/(Ed).

(r,* ri)
Rn
Example.l
Calculation of Monthly Ref.erence Crop 0.62 WRn = 1.13
krn (ETo) Using penman Meth<xj c.6. 1.0 C =1.0
Penman Reference Crop ETo c.7 ETo
= e (yy,p. + (1 _wI. I =2.4?nmlday ETo + C(WRn +

Project Design Criteria Station Chanipur 1-

(0202)
Elevation 1304 Latitude 29.6 N

-62.
- 63.
Example - 2
= 6. l5 e(19.51
x9.rt282.1) trl = 11.5
Table
Mcun actual vapour pressue (ed) (only if no measured value available)
Penman Reference Grop Evapotranspiration (ETo)
cd=RHmean/lO0xea
(Calculated Example)
= ...../100 x ..... d = 0.51
ETo(mm/dav) = cx ((w x Rn) + (1 - w) x f(u) x (ea - ed)) Calculation of f(u):
llu) = 0.27 x (1'+ (U24l100))
Station: Klumaltar Month: Jiuruary
= 0.27 x 91 + (89/100)) f(u) =...............
Altitude: 1350 masl Latitude: 27.7' "N" Calculation of w:
(i = 6.6 x 10-4 x PMB
Basic Climatic Data:
= 6.6 x 10-a x 857 = 0.57
Mean daily temperature: ((Tmax + Tmin)/2) Team = 9.1o "C D = (ealTKmean) x (6790/Tltuean - 5))
Mean relativehumidity: ((RHmax + RHmin)i2) RHmean =14% = (11.51282.1)x (67901282.1 - 5l;= 1.6
Mean actual vapour pressure: sl = 8.3 mbar =D(D+G)
Actual daily sunshine hours: n = 6.5 h. =1.0/(1.0+0.57) W =0.64
Measured 24 h windrun: U = 106lan/day Calculation of nEt radiation Rn:
Rs = (0.25 + (0.5 x nA{ )) x Ra
Height of anemometer: H =5.5m
= (0.25 + (0.5 x 6.5/10.6)) x 9.3 = 5.18
Tabulated Values: Rns = (1 - 0.25) x Rs
Max-possible sunshine hours: N = 10.6 h = 0.75 x 5.18 = 3.89
= TKmean x
a
Extra terrestrial radiation (mm/day) Ra
(T) 2x lO-9
: = 9.3
= 282.14 x2x l0-9 = 12.66
Calculated Values:
(erl) = 0.34 - (0.044 x edo'5 )
Wind conversion tactor (uct): = 0.34 - ).044 x 8.30'5) = 0.21
-forh=2m: ucf=1 tGA{) = 0.1+ (0.9 x nA.l)
- for h > 2m: ucf = (2610'17 = (215.5) 0'17 - 0.84 = 0.1 + (0.9 x 6.5i10.6) = 0.65
- fbr h < 2m: ucf = 12610'22 = Q15.5\0'22 = .......
Rnl =f(T)xf(ed)xf(niTrl)
Converted 24 h windrun at 2 m ab<lut ground (U24):
= 12.66 x 0.21 x 0.65 = 1.73

U24=ucfxU=0.84x106 U24 = lJt) km/dlry

Rn =Rns-Rnl
= 3.gg - 1.73 Rn = 2.16
Mean aftnospheric pressure (PMB) Select c from Table depending on RHmax, Rs and U24:
PMB = 1013 - (0.1155 x altitude) 98Vo 5.18 89
= 1013 . (0.1155 x 1350) PMB = 857 mbu Uratio assumed to be 2) C=1.0
Mean absolute temperatue (TKmean)
Calculation of Reference Crop Evapotranspiration:
TKmean =Tmean+2'73
ETo =cx(( wx Rn) +(1 -w)xf(u) x(ea-ed))
= 9.L + 273 TKmean =Z82.lK
Saturation vapour pressure (ea) = 1.0 x ((0.64 x 216) +(1 - 0.64) x 0.51 x (11.5 - 8.3)
ea = 6.15 X e(19.51
x Tmean/TKmean) ETo: 1.97 mm/dav

-64- -65-
 Fioure
Sunshtn-e Groups

t Locaron 5lt#fr stailons

I

g
rt
!l
t
l5 r,\ *
t flE
*I=
Ia
E!6
Ec
EE;
B i Il--
E 6at /i
_(;dh^_
\/

, /e
--.-.L i )r-
i-j i.
t"
-//t t
,/
. i,/
f. i
!
I

r6\ .al
i-"-_ :l
I

i -67-
I
 Dl monthly Opcn W.l6t EYaPotatlon E.lamai.3 lEol }G
lmmrd.yl
lndex Jan Feb Ma Ap May Jun Jul Aug S€p Ocl |lov Da lleu qqqqqq9q\ qqqq\q\
N
tvh}ff&a|,1.041052273394795928006,995.255175064'423.{2,254485 @o=tso@@oootsoF6Noo@Fo
PusmaCamp 401 264 380 588 8'64 852 605 483 {53 116 415 336 253 192 ?
Galura 409 2.61 3m 569 8.13 927 8'27 609 588 54'l 188 354 249 550 2 eqq Qrq9q= qqqa!qa!9 qqq9nqq
7Ol 267 368 562 8G 878 761 625 605 529 188 381 272 545
NNdN
thftwa
Lumle 814 223 324 483 5'90 542 117 3'65 375 353 372 280 273 387 z
o q\q Aqaqqa r|qqqqqr?qq \q3-qq.
(hdnrla 815 243 342 484 620 664 6'28 534 545 498 'll8 30.l 218 458
Ran$r 902 2.4g 345 5.62 1.10 7 75 653 517 559 501 1'67 342 217 501 oQq aqqqqq q-q=9q\qq i==q\q=

KdhmanduAirpoil 1030 239 335 495 591 646 577 521 4s8 464 113 2'97
2X 442 E
Okhaldhunga 1206 271 373 703 171 59d 471 1'04 104 3S 393 2U 2Q
4u r9 eaq qtqqqq aqqar-.qq
<r
\qqa?q-q
i
Fhdinalh 1114 315 435 630 879 904 128 678 65{ 556 521 383 36 582 Qeqq-q qoqqqqc-q aqqq--t
Dhakrla 1O7 286 394 5.92 658 596 5m 420 439 llt 127 331 292 441 E Edii Enot<6t
Tr$ffi 1320 305 423 638 805 795 6'87 606 611 552 190 379 297 519
o ,9.9c.
6= P-o- Po--*or .EqPer\ee\- t.qq=qqq
o E t-@oN6Nts
Eg E---
g.d@;
E-----* il -
i- 9.oNFFF thGttstdd+!- :.jF+ddqil
EEO6
Drl' Iodhly Ev.poiEn.P'"''tlooE t'm" lElol **-- 3--*--- Eqoqoaeec- E---
aoi,
-9 o* aGoilcdG;;o
i6@; i;;ildGil 8.F;+6=i
lrrnldryl G>

Jan Feb !k Atr May Jun Jul AW 569 Ocl l'lov Dx lbrt
EL/
' q=
o
l!
i=:=
Elo6
i=;s=r: EBls*5ssss i:;ssss;
Slali@ lndex oE ooFts Oaq99qq E----qi\eq
=o?qeqqqq
tt l
o
l,lahsdral'Iaofl105175266}895726715.944,374x4193552,561883s ca
g+ i--- i.---=* taqeqaqec. t.q<?o:<r\.
PusmaCamp 401 2O0 2.93 171 689 7O5 502 4OO 372 335 327 2'69 I E5
395
o
4C0 loo 301 4.6s 661 712 709 509 492 450 397 275 189 452 o 9s .Ia^'.. <R6NNN@

C*1ura f!65- ^ HHE d;a;;;

-6N6-;NN6nFO@O€
aaaaasaBB 33sS$EB
707 203 2A {58 664 739 6.47 527 515 {S 398 300 207 {€
Btittwa
Lumle 814 165 255 379 473 {50 3.63 286 2U 275 303 213 iO5 305 E.,
EEEC
FONOoO
'164 376 06@6o@NtsFFF@
Khariilr 815 187 274 396 513 559 5'30 445 454 1t2 338 235 tr
NNNNNNNNNN

9@ 190 196 459 634 6.50 548 429 464 115 378 2'68 187 101
R{nW
KdhmnduAirpod 1(B0 1.80 261 {.lO 496 551 '184 'l'38
{11 380 332 228 168 362
-Oee 5-- Esxppp firsusEsEs fr:HEEHe
g(haldhmga 1206 201 2.El 533 617 4'97 381 316 3!7 3'm 312 220 lfi 347

I
lbrdirath
Oraklla
Ta*rm
\
1114 2.11 3.51 518 729 7'80 614 577 553 {59 421 3m 23l 182
1m7 212 301 165 538 516 d.29 331 350 3a 3r0 250 215 356
1:QO Lv 3.39 s.l7 6@ 612 5'82 50{ 5l9 {5l 3'97 292 225 {s E "Ee '*=*'#
E-E=E
E
' t€
=e--
HE - A
dg F
o>o 8 5do E=E;E;E=E sssgE=t
=
=48
5,
E1
EaP AE38Ae tsPFNBg;Eg S;EgEg=

-68- -69-
 $EspiFEgFEg HsEESEEEEEIs:
ET=*EEE*FEEEEsg Tabl. p.nmr|t OF.clorr
E3&;85SS333 ,r
lUrrtlo.Urfry/Unlgrtt r
C
a frsEIEEFEE:=Iss Al
S(lcrt rH$(lflrc lilhlf har,jd {{t RHnrH (!i
e&:3R*E:3S= E
E
frsEEEEEp==iEs: I -..Fird
Rlhw 60,
Rthar ==m-
C.FaetrI c(Vrd:Jxrrrdi[g t{) Rs. i orlvd{r , iurrl
)

t.!2t t}nr/dar,)
_-'
rnt Rs s! s r ,a--f- - - ^,.
Fr.hu=65"
TS:*E;RE*83 c
C

C H;IEEEEEEiIs;* o 096 o.gt 099 roz rod lor oT-E-ror lo3 r.os r05
o @ 0.95 0.96 lol rm rH
090 0s 097 rm Lo2 l.oa l.o5 30

ES**g3g3gss CC
a! *tn ::: o9r
oga :: 096
::l oge
li lor ,o!
l-02 ro3 oe. 0s6 oee ror ror r04
60
so
CrlI EF*:iEEEEE*iF.sr o$ oes ;; ;; ;; ;; t
;;1 Efr;JS;8ft; l.
E
n
-t s:EEEEEEIFa*s
150
ls
.090 0.93 095 o9S lm t@
0.69 0.92 oga 097 099 tol
0._02 0.9t 097 099 l.o? l.o3
090 093 096 OS tol r.o3
150

oe3 os6.oee ro.|, 180

Eh*EESB;qSgS o :::
ao l.!1 !."
0.86 0.t8 0.92 095
osg oer oe4 0e7 rm ro2 2ro
o
fi-*IEEEs*EE:&Ee 0.98 I m o 87 0 90 0.9:l 0.9Q r.@ 1,02
I
a
210 0.01 0.07 o.$ 09{ 097 099 oss 0s8 0.s? 0.95 0.99 t.ot
210

u no
333ft333S8S; F
lt sqslp*EEEEEiEE; 3XI
s0
0E2 O.S5 0.09 OS3
0.00 o.&r oa, 0.9r
096 0.90
096 09s
o.&j 0.87 0.90 o.ga 09s
082 0.85 ,; ;;
t.oo
;;
;,;
I0
ilo
E L 078 082 066 -"J
o9o 095 097 OS0 0.9A 097 0.99
---* _Om O8t
.9q==6ta?-.Dor6to- x S0

o
O=@(rosdda,+;,+ lrl E;IEEEEEEtiEs
E utn' s i--l-l--T-I-Bl+ru E 70.!
ffi._-.
prtrar
=
?<.:

EfrPBSB*Bg:s;
o
s 098 tm t.o2 lot t06 106 lm l0l ro3 106 lo7 107
gE o 0.97 o.9o Lot t.o3 t's l.06 09a t6 roi rol ,ir;;;
30

IFsssBfrrBssBs
;
E E *as=* eFFg E $ s
la
096 O97 l@ LO2 lo5 lc6
0.9a 0.96 0,90 I 02 I Oa r G5
097 099 lol t.o{ l.06 r.07 go
0.95 097 ,.00 I ol t.o6 I 07

ai*nssBBsiEss
150 0.03 095 090 t.ol I 01 I 05 120

B;=E&I:EEi:EE t&
2r0
0.91 o.ga 0.97 l.@ t.o3 .t 05
0.90 0.93 096 O_99 I 02 r 04
0.9{ 0.96 0.99 l.@ LOs r.06
o e 0.95 0.98 l.@ I 05 t.o6
tso
t8o
o.gt 0.9{ 097 I 01 I (x LO6

f**R*BssfrFs3 t
;::E&E=ElrrEE 2$
210
o.EE 09r 0.95 0.98 tot l.N
0.87 090 093 097 l.ol I 03
0.89 093 0.$ t@ Lo3 t.os
09r 095 099
0.88 I 05
2lo
24

,[*i:EFi$3frSfr 2 **P:EEEiSInIEE il)

3l)
0.E50t8 092 096 t.00 l.@
0$ 0.07 o9r 095 099 I 0l
'.03 1.04
087 0.$ 09t o$ t.o2
085 089 0.q? 0.97 I ot I 03
270
so
5 xn 082 005 090
:-- --- os.
-.- 098 l0l
330

EB-EgSSEBgg roo A=':E$p*=ElI:EE

t OB4 087 092 OS l0O tO3 360

SEqEEER=3S8
KENNEESNNHH E xp:EEFEEEi:EE
C
gE
FeFEPoeEHEs -aJ
ao gfiElEEp*ff-*SE:EE
Fa
e5
-*i*:EEEffIEE:..E
G^

U,

ao SP=EEEEiEE:Eg
.Eo
P . E fig
E
t g::s=Eiip*EEEgS
!x
Es*fEg#+*sigE
5 5 E E 8 #,.E # EE
C
gi:EEiEEEE:EE
=
t
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5 € E E Fgg iF"*T E E
-70- -71-

*
 8H@.80".
- Rltna = 85..
Mean Temperature vs saturaied
u24
s 5678910R!tk4 r,p",Iigr:tt :;"2
r0l 102 lo.t 106 roB tm r02 r03 r05 roz ,os-l;;-$
60 099 101 r03 t05 108 t08 rm 102 to{ l0/ 109 109
s 098 100 102 t05 l)t 1(I8 099 tor tH 106 lOC 109
60
120 096 099 !Ol ,M 107 108 098 r00 ,03 t06 t09 l0g
90
150 095 09/ l0l 104 107 l0B 096 099 ro2 lo5 108 tlo
120
1S 093 096 tm 10i tr6 rm 095 097 tol r05 t08 llo
l5o
210 092 095 099 I 02 I 06 I Os 093 096 tm lo{ 108 109
180
24A 091 094 098 10, 105 107 092 095 099 103 107
21O
270 089 093 097 ,00 10.r t06 109 210
m 091 094 o$ t@ t06
088 092 096 100 104 t(5 0s
108 270
330 0.87 0s0 09.t
oga 103 10s
093 0.97 t01 tos r07 s0
088 0Q 0.96 tm to5 l0/
s0 085 08, 0r3 o.rs ,m 08, 0rr 015 330
,m
'*
urffi
r
Rltmr = m1
s 6
Rltnq =
s e-;--il-,r.
gS'" u

60
ro3 ,or-JE-G-T-
'os 106 t08 tl0
102 104
ror r od J
i,, oe ir-lF--
r r
r
I'

ll0 r@ to{ t6 lm tl0 ll0 i. lc

I 100 t02 t05 107 110 lll m
r00 r@ 105 107 ll0 t1'
t& 099 l.0r 104 t07 lr0 rtr 099 101 104 to7 tto .ilt
90
150 097 100 103 l0/ tl0 ltl 120
180 agl 100 l03 r07 ll0 rll
096 099 102 tm rl0 tl, 150
210 0s 099 l.@ 106 l.ro lll
09.t 0.98 t02 106 tl0 rll 180
2& 091 098 102 106 ll0 lil
093 097 r0l t05 r09 t10 2to
0 93 0.97 I Ot r.05 q
n0 092 0.96 too r04 t08 *.] I O-q I r0 2&
r0 092 0.s ,m lol r08 Llo
o.9l 095 099 to3 107 to8 0 9l 0 95 0.99 1.03
270
3I o9o 0.94 ogs toz to7 I 07 l.o9 IO 'aa
s0 j89 093 097 tot 106
109 090 0$t os tm ro/ 109 330
rc6
98, 0r3 0r? 10, .,06 1 360
1

t.
., ::

t
I

3o .1o

Ea or Ed mbar

-72-
-73-
 Fiqure C.3
vapour Pressure lrom Dry and wet Burb remperidi.ebatt
Figure C.5
(Non-Venti lated p-sychrometer)
ALIITUDE O.1OOO M Corrcctrorr Factor for Conversion of Wind
Measurement lo 2m Height

!,
,o qo )U I
VAPOUR PRESSURE MBAR
ALTITUDE IOOO. 2MO M c

2.O 3.O 4.O

i€ASURIXEil? ltEIGrl H

Jr, 40 50
VAPoUR PRESSURE MBAR
-75-
-74-
 wind Function for wind ar !lfl",?i8f ? Figure C.7
Weighting Factor
E

8
or

o
xE

2
D
E
z
3

-;_q
WIND FUNCTION f(u)

-76-
-77-

_-.. ,t
 Figure C.g
Exlra Terrestrial Radiation Lons wave Badlailon trT&til?,?03
,jS

tEtrEl frrfl.l
6
E

: t3:33 i:13 Ooo

aaF€
RAOIATION RA MII/DAY
-78- -79-
 Mean Daity Duration of Maximurn possibte ar"rlr,l,n^1ti3;11
Lonswave Radiation r, fl?ffi ,?rl3

suNsHtNE HOURS(X)
-80-
 Tabte
Possible Future Cropping patterns
ffi ,liii
;i r ! iiii r r
E
r
TransplanU : i iiil r
II
Plant
Hills (<100 m amsl)
(t) nice spring 1 July
Bice Monsson
Mar.
June 2
1 Apr.
2 Nov. l
1
r i€
(it)
lttreat
July
Nov.2 |lar.2 I i-
Maize Mar.2 June 1
tE
tr,H
Rice monsoon ttta,lz June 2 Oct. 2
V/heat Nov. 1 dG
(iii) Rice June 1 July 1
Mar.
Nov.
1

1
Wheat
Hills (1000 m -2000 m amsl)
Nov.2 Mar.2
(i) Rice May 1 June 1 Oct.1 E

(ii)
Wheat Nov.1 Apr.1 .e

Vegelables (winrer) Nov.2 Mar.1 ii

2
(Summer) July 1 Oct. 2 j
Terai
ah

0 Rice Spring Apr.t May 1 Aug. =

1
5
Bice Monsoon July 1 Aug. 1 Nov.2 @ j
Wheal Dec't Apr.2 ri
July 1
(ii) Rice B
June 1 Nov. 1
Wheat Nov.2 [,lar2 =
i
July 1
(iii) Rice F
June 1 Nov. 1
Wheat Nov.2 Mar, a ^
Mungbean Apr.1 June
1

1
EE
f3
scd
July 1
(iv) Hice June 1 Nov. EE ll;
Polalo Nov,2 Apr.1
1
e9
.E.g
€=
6:

June 1
(v) Rice May ET €@ rJ
3g <o
1 Sep,2
Maize Ocl. 1 Mar.1
Mar. 1
(vD Jute
July Z -cj
U''i :F
Aug 1
Rice July uo
1 Nov.2 t
(vii)
llay 2 le !EE 9E

ti
Rice Apr.2 =
Sep.2
B.R, d,
Pulses/Oilseed Oct. 1 Mar,1 cE
(viii)
Feb, 1
:6 .a
(ix)
Sugarcane
Vegetables (Winter)
Dec.2
Nov.2 Mar. :I ii-
l4
:(J
d.? ?
jd
E

1
, l.l, E- .i
e
(summer) July 1 Oct. 2 | ..E 88 >q
r do e.g -
ilX
I JL 5< =
L r- -o =.10
EB
iii
( l*
31
lt*
rr 5
,t"E _ca
€e
s^E
E 8A*
, :; t-. .a o

-E2,- i ;,J Z*
 -iilt'ls B l"JlIllJglrlly Cl,lljrld lglsirlrJ].rt]vjrlr-r.rqguircnu..nt ar Khunral

lv,oflmJanJanFeb,Feb.MarMarAprAprMaylr/ayJun,,,;;*'ffi];*-;
2 1 2 1 2 r 2 1 2
pays
:l:, .-l t
...1i.,i.....1.gr.g.....11,.g......1.$g.....1L! r5.s
2 1 2 1 2
212121212 1

rs.o

80%Rain(mm) l o 20 5o 7'o B'0 lg'0 2e'o gt'o 39.0 s3.0 7o.o ro3.o i42.0
;; ,;; ,il ,li ,ll ,il ,Ii ,:i )i
r4g.o r2s,o i,z.o sl.o s6.0 26.0 9.0 4.0 z.o 3.0 3.0

i::.l;JI*'. ,,0 ,.,0 ,,0 1'0 ,10 1.10 ,0s ,os oes oes
:,1; l;ll l;li f; :j: :il 75 9 7?'6 73 4 7l'6 73.4 70.0 58.3 42.a
040 065 ,os
{mm)
.and Prep. sg.G 47.1 ,r., ,0., ,n.,
)ercot.(mm) 55 0 55.0 5O.o 5O.O
6
,,,,,lil ,lli ,lii ,lll liJ lil ,,, 0,, 138 202 2s3
e''Rain(mm) o7 14 35 49 56 91 3

f-ner(mm) 51.1 72.1 99.4 104.3 87.5 ?1.4 56,7 3s,2

33 2 36 1 36 5 32 0 30 7 r9'5 22.1 7,7 1.4 2.1 2,r
49.8 55.5 70.5 63.8 e2.4 45.1 46.6 59,4
?5.0 35.r r2.4 ro,1 27,2
Erierd 75% 75% 750/' 75% 75% 75',/'
E-lam 907. go% 90 go% go% go% go% go% go% go%
75o/' 75'/' 75a/" ls% tsvo 75% 75%
7so/o
.sv. ?s% rsrc rs,/. 7s% 7s% .sr, rsy. ?s% 75%
7sy. rs% 7sy, 7s,/"
i,111,.,, Bov. so% Bov. so% 80% Bo% so% Bo%
:::;:::::i ;:l :::::: Bo% Bo% 80.,6 80% Bo%
147 8 102'8 1305 118.1 60.0
l-gros{l/s/ha)
- 0.5s 0.60
:.y: ou, orr ;; or3l
;";
0.q2.".0t"s9.."9:.:l.
83.s 86.3 tto.o 46-0 6s.o 27.e 40.2 60.4
""g9q ,.,0
_g3.l__q!g_9.4s

Itlonlh Jan Jan Feb. Feb. Mar Mar Apr Apr May May Jun Jm Jul Jul AW Aug Sepl Sepl Ocl ocl Nov. Nov Dec Dec

Psi,)d I 21 2 1 212121212121212 \2 I 2

Davs 15.5 14.0 15.5 15.5 15.0 15.0 15,5 155 15.0 15.0 15.5 1s.5 15.5 1s.5 150 15.0 15.5 1s5 t50 15.0 15.5 15.5

Ero{mdd) 1.9 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 1.1 4.6 4.S 5.' 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.3 41 3.7 3 43.2 2.9 2.6 2.3 2.0 18

EIo(mm) 29.5 32.5 36.4 43.4 55.8 63.6 69.0 73.5 79.1 n.5 69.0 66.0 66.7 65.1 66.7 63 6 55.5 51 0 6 45.0 39.0 34 5
49 31.0 279

eO% Rain (mm) t.0 2.0 5.0 7.0 6.0 't3.0 22.0 31.0 a9.0 53.0 73.0 103.0 142.0 l4-o.0 12s 0 1A20 81.0 s6 0 26.0 I 0 4 0 20 3.0 30

Oop Coellicient kc t.l5 1.00 0.90 0.40 t r0 t.lo 1.10 Llo 1.10 1.05 0.95 0.95 1.r0 1.10 1.10 1 10 1.10 1 q5 0 95 0.95 0.40 0.65 r 0s r 15

Eloop(mm) 33.9 32,5 32.8 't7.4 61.4 70.0 75.9 80.9 87.0 81.4 65.6 62.7 '13.4
71.6 73.4 70.0 61.1 53 6 47.1 42 I 156 224 326 321

-md Prcp. (mm) 75.0 75.0 50.0 50.0 55.0 50.0 50

-0

. Peml.knm) 45.0 45.0 46.5 46.5 46.5 46 5 46.5 45 0 45.0

6
fr Freld. Req. (mm) 33.9 32.6 32.8 't7.4 136.1 145.0 170.9 175.9 133.s 127.9 65.6 62.7 128.4 168.1 169.9 116.5 106.1 98.6 47 1 42.8 15.6 22.4 32.6 32.1

,
ell. Bain (mm) 0.1 1.4 3.5 4.9 6.8 1t.t 18.7 26.4 33.2 371 5l.l 72.',1 e9.4 104.3 87.5 71.4 56.7 39 2 22.1 7.7 2.8 14 2.1 2.1

l-net (mm) 33.2 31.2 29.3 12.5 129.6 133.9 t52.2 149.5 100.3 90.8 14.5 0.0 29.0 63.6 82.4 45.1 49.4 59.4 25.0 35.1 128 21.0 30 5 30 0

E-lieH ts%. fr% Tsrh 15% SO% SO% $96 90% .k 90'/o 90% 90P/" S0% gcf/o 909'," 90?6 901; 90i6 901i, 909i 759i 751'.0 7591 75',',.

E-lam 75% 7A1h B% fin :5% 75'h E% 75% 73"h 75% 75"/" 75.h 75% 75% 751to 1591 15% 75\; 75",',o 75.,1 751'" 7511 7511 75'L

E-main &.h wh 80% W" &% WA 80% 8@/c n% Wi 80i/" 80% m9r 8096 809i 809i 801'" 809i 809t 80-c'o 8094 8091 80:i, 809;

laross (mm) 75.8 69.3 65.1 27.8 240.0 248.0 261.9 276,9 185,7 26.9 0.0 53.7 118.t 152.6 83.5 91.5 110.0 46.3 650 244 46.7 67.8 66 7
'68,t
 Tabb lfypic.l W.t.? B.LncG. Lazernic.rwE.tl
Proiect AndhiKhola lnigatim Proiecl
: HainlallCh+kol (0810)
Hiver Andhi Khola EIo, Eo Khalini Ta (0815)
l,let Comm&d Arsa (ha): 68.00

Moilh Jil Feb Apl May tr JJ Aug seB oct llry Doc

lril rbilh 121 l2l I t2l 1 2t212l2

crlp WtEd Malp Rhe $rlual

EIo (mr*hr) 't.87 t.87 2.74 2.74 3.96 3.96 5.13 5.13 5.59 5.59 5.30 5.30 1.a5 a.15 4.51 1.51 112 1.'.t2 3.38 3.a8 2.X5 235 1.61 t.6,t
Crop Codl Kc 1.15 t.l5 0.90 0.{() 0.15 0.60 0.00 1.05 1.05 1.05 0.80 0.00 0.0 r.io t.t0 r.r0 1.10 035 0.95 013 0.66 01.05 l.ts
ET mp (mm/day) 2.15 2j5 2.11 Llo 0.m l.7A .10t a.lo 537 5.87 5.57 .21 1.15 0.00 4.99 1.99 1.53 1.53 3.21 3.21 l.ot 1.53 1.72 l.8S
EIcrop immrni momo 32.6 M.6 s6.99 t6.14 0.00 26.73 16.17 61.56 88.(x l8.Ol A.{8 63.60 oo 00 7{.9t 74.S1 6298 629€ 18.17 a8.17 .|5.16 22.91 25.9' 2823

Lord PerDanlm lmml 55.0 56.00 50.00 50.00 60.00

Deep Pe@hibn (m) i50.c 150.0 150.00 150.00 150.00 150.00 1$.00
Eo (mlr,&y) 2,12 z.te a& x.a 4.u 1.01 6.m 6.20 6.54 6.61 6.28 6.28 5.3,1 5.34 5.15 \45 ,l.sg {.98 4.1E 1.lE 3.01 3ot 2.1a 2.10
Eo (mn$El Mlh) 0.00 0.00 0.00 o.oo o.0o 0.0 0.00 o.o0 0.00 000 o.o0 o.0o 80.10 80.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 000 0.00
Totd crop Wdor 8eq 31.68 3a.60 10,11 19.86. 1.6,a 3r.5, 52.37. 6t76 9a.6S 9a.68 S.76 69.88 210.3,( AO.r4 280.36 2!f.* U.gd m.S ?g2.35 52.45 7t.17 6.C2 A.0l O.17
lq 1-,lt l*r{tt
6t
EltectE fi.lt .ll lmm) o.0o 1.25 o.0o 0.00 9.35 tE lT 9.35 11.45 3E.25 a6.75 &.75 113.10 138.60 171.30 119.70 7!.80 81.60 56.95 15.30 9.35 0.00 0.00 000 0.00

ilGt Cmp W.hr Rsq 1o.l rs.s6 o.oo 12.87 a.oa 5s.31 56.13 17.93 9.or o.0o 71.14 s.01 r$G6 zoi.se trt.st t66.0t r87.o5 13.00 7s.!7 2s.a 2a$
3a.68 30.ta 40.17

(m@l|rl @ilh)

tkld Etthleel 0.60 0.@ 060 0.60 0.85 0.t5 0.05 0.85 045 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.85 0 85 0.85 0.85 0.01t 0.85 0.85 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.60

Flold Cmp Watd Roq o.rs 0.s9 0.52 0.26 000 0.17 0.55 0.69 0.73 0.62 0.12 0.m 0.65 0.03 i l8 t.82 1.2t l.5l 1.70 0.39 t.ot 0.33 0.36 0.39

(l5 Ptt h!)

Dblroanal EficbEl o.7o 0.70 0.70 0.m 0.70 0.m 0.70 0.70 0.m 0.70 0.70 0.m o70 070 0m o70 o70 070 070 0.70 0.m 070 0.m 0.m

T.n H.€d W.br Bq 0.61 0.56 0.?1 0.36 0.00 0.21 0.7S OgC t.0,1 0.88 0.17 0.00 O93 0J7 2N 2.60 1.03 2.15 2.13 056 1.11 0.18 0.5' 0.56

(l,S pd l[)

lhPr Canal Efilclrcl 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.m 0.70 0.70 0.m 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.7r, 0.70 0m 0.10 0.m 0.m 0.70 0.70 0.70 0m 0.m 0.7t)

lia.|l Wat€r R€q*wnl ogt ol0 1.06 0.52 0.00 0.31 l.l3 t.10 l.l0 126 0.21 0.m 133 0.67 2.9e 3.12 2.62 3.0t x.17 0.t() 2.05 0.60 0.71 0.6
(Us pet lE)
00'f Bsble Rtvs Fhf, lltoo 95.00 83.00 m.oo 63.00 55.00 ltoo 35.00 34.00 38.00 18.00 m.00 113.00 350.00 750.00 900.00 !50.00 550.00 350.00 z75fi .@ 1t5.m 160.6 ritt(D
d ld.ks (US)

BoEbly ffighbd A6r 126.36 110.96 78.26 131.30 tlA tG2.B 39.05 25!2 22.9G 30.21 203.10 t,lA 55.02 52a.21 251.9t 2122 4a.57 171.63 101.m 3'.525 lG.5t Zn ? 2nE 5D
0b)

Proiect : Aunri Khoh lniliin kqiecl rflclrfrInD

River: Andhi Khola ETo.Bof,tsITr(Cl9
Net Command Area (lra): 68.00
hh Ja Fd U.r AFilrylnI tug$dG
HM 1212! 212121212 Rh 12121 21212
fd
crq
1.s1 1.5t a.12 1.12 l.g g
ETo {hn/&, 1.A7 i.tr 2.la 2.7a r.06 105 5.13 5.13 s.sg 5.S 5.s0 S.30 1.{s 1.45 4.38 3.38 2.6 2.S I

oqffik t.ts l.ts 0.e0 0.10 o@ !.lo l.1o Llo !.10 l.@ l.@ t.lo 1.ro 1.10 1.10 0.9s i.95 0.t3 0s 016 , ls

frdqlhdry) 2.15 2.15 2.47 i.10 q& om 0.@ 5.64 6.15 6.15 5.63 5.30 a.45 0.@ t.99 a.99 1.S3 1.53 3.21 3.21 1.01 l.$ l-12 t,

nqq{htuilmd) &.26 32-25 36.90 16-& 0.@ o@ o@ 81 65 92.21 Q2.2a E7.S 70.50 S.75 0.m It.91 71-9t 67.98 67.08 a4.17 {.17 15.16 22.01 25.8 AA

75.050.00
7S.@ 50.@ 55.m 50-00 $.m @.@

hTPsdh(m) ls.@ l50m t50.m

150.4 150.m 150.@ ls.@ i50.m 1$.@ 150.m 150.@ 150.m 130.@

e(dq, 2.12 2.12 t.az s.12 th 4& 6.20 5.20 6.6{ 6.4 6.2! 6.28 5.9 5.31 s.ls 5.15 1.18 {.98 1.10 l.l8 &01 3.01 2.18 2-ll
h(m#lhd$) o.m 0.0 o.@ 0_m q@ 72.m 8!.@ o.m 0.@ 0_@ 0.0 od 0m 80.10 o.m 0.m 0.@ 0.@ 0.m 0.m 0.@ 0.@ 0.@ 0.@
ror oo *rr nq 32.26 32.26 S.99 l6.al O.S 20?.fl 318.m 2u.6 202.2a 212.2a 237-4 fi 6.75 22E 285.10 211.01 27a.U 217.08 217.S tl8.l7 18.17 75.16 2?-gl 25-A zafr

I imlCld)
{
@
I EHt nil (mm) o_@ 1.25 O.OO O.@ g.35 18.17 0.S 11.{5 3825 16.75 !0.?5 l13.lo 138.S 171.30 119.70 79.80 81.fl 56.95 15.30 9.35 qm 0.m 0.m 0.m

32.26 2a.Oi 36.g9 t6.aa O.m 278.00 !il.6 1'6.10 O.@ llo$
270.20 25t.go l05.ag 156.70 1$.21 105.1i 1S.38 16l.03 182-87 3882 75.16 22.01 2s.83 zAn

0.@ 0.s 0.& 0.60 0.85 0.85 0S 0.05 0.8s 0.s 0.E5 o.ES 0.05 0.85 0.85 ', 0.85 0.85 0.85 0.8! 0.6 0.60 0.50 0.s 0.@

o.lt 0.s 0.t0 0.2! q@ 2.s 2.!0 2-a5 2.31 l-n 1.A 16 0-@ 1.01 I 11 l.t1 1.21 1.16 t.66 0.35 0.07 0.29 0.s 0.s

H.Cd Erdry 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 o.7o 0.70 070 0.70 0.70 q70 0.70 070 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 070 0.70 0-70 0.70

0.50 0.51 0.68 0.s @.s x& Lo 1$ 3.2N 2.9 2.S 1.5t 0.@ t.44 201 2.S! 1.77 2.08 2_31 o.$ 1.34 O.a2 0.t7 0.52

0s p. h.)

ll*,cdEfrq 0.70 0.70 0.70 0lo 0.70 o.ro oro 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.r0 0.70 0 70 0.r0 0.70 0.70 0.10 70 0.70 0 070 0.70 0.70 0.70

hB. hb A.$iool 0.6 0.71 0c, o.{ qm tl7 5.12 5.0! l.rl l.il 2.90 2.15 0.m 2.05 2.83 3.51 2.53 2.98 i.38 .12 1.01 0 60 0.8 0.7a

(Us F t.)

&%Bd* Rl. k t15.m 05.m B.m 7o.m B.@ ss.m 6.m s.e g.s s-@ 18.@ 70.06 ri3.m !so.@ 750.m goo.m ,50.s 550.m 3S0.@ 275.00 225.m 185-m 160.@ lS.@
dlfi![q
M, hig.H fts i358a l2!.2t 8150 162.21 M lcil 1.a7 6.00 7.23 10.{ 16-S 32 !5 NA 170.51 2&.8 21E.90 36.42 184.36 103.3i 332.l !{.07 07.S 23i.02 181 82

(h.)
T.bl. B.6! Me.n.nd 8096 Boaf,abb Bainlell ol llotoorol,ogical Stetions in llepal Appendix . B

Mean Raintall 8()'Z' Reliable Rainlall

h&srlbnthm EL- LiS l'dd Mh ,hn F€b lil.l &r [h, Jo Jul Aug sa oct f,lov De Tolal Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug SA Oct ilov Dec Tohl
tlo. Etlon tud3 Ub YE ol
{nul) f) f} Rmnl lrt lrt tt l'rt trt |it tit m nd h) m ild nn iil lnt td mmfrffiEfrHlrtmid
100 MstEkC Zom
lollcbp8tlu fa2 O 29.65 m50 a S 55 11 7a frl 133 1oo 216 69 E 18 t666 38 a 37 30 52 193139 378 1s3 27 0 3 1419

103P.bnw6sl 1266 n 8.17 80.53 I 35 fl) Q. ft lS 357 &2 180 48 lO 22 1381 33 33 S 40 62 203386 b4 107 13 0 2 11n
lo{Dad€lilfa 1837 z!.il 00.5f a $ 56 65 55 .tl 196 358 303 179 60 8 A 1€0 18 6E n $ 48 159326 251 169 34 6 01?21
lost{ahendnNagEr 176 29.03 N2. 10 A n $ n $ I 523 410 260 56 5 A 1672 I 21 I 3 19 160406 slE n4 43 0 0 1164

l(r6&lauistEilhu t5O 28.60 S0.36 15 6 A l0 A Q &, 506 1,16 275 57 7 17 lTdl 11 17 I 6 4 2n 507 310 13 0 3 ,(E
ZO0 SsllZm
202olBipur(W6$l304A.55U.nAS$6{5156171364360A26s7nfi9745504}403411629539913251011208
2ooslgadtDdl3d,29.27&.S0S53l,5p.3E742112&?f,21n717211?fE1632$268)1082693011u38001074
2018.1ft1{mA3!81.321050.619}5612!3G548547z&5316r!.2117590A?91c4.232449t71?f622020155'l
2OGArnGtrte602S.+5!1.1523{ffS$O1993002591534310201216?2.3€9306612E?27,911661805900
2oODlESdf $t 28.61 80.60 A 6 20 ,g 17 al * 519 40{ 2@ 76 1 12 1600 12 I 21 A. $ 1n W YJ 27 12 0 01320
215G0&vdl(UtG0',62i.07C0.6119a3115ia1726682632355666162175260115!5m18557523650101668
AlDisyale/,7nf0.g55OE}37tllttEa2?52167,1g22101306301.l15364816718624171332m860
300 KarEl Zom
soaihbo 10(E A.U !1.7, 6 S $ 51 G,5 64 96 to6 72 36 6 21 621 41 31 31 35 6 m 54 81 54 15 0 0 414

303Juh m n.A CL17 8 e. 12 51 3E a6 6l'|t,,. 183 S 38 5 13 ?!9 la 51 42 l9 n t2 171 146 54 17 0 1 *7

3,O6Gm SIH ihgd A$ 29.55 !2.15 16 e A. 4. 11 a6 76 211 2X tZ3 36 8 16 686 13 A 1a 41 31 64 134 186 82 36 0 2 630

Sl2ilrd 468 28.94 U.55 I I D Q A $ 5l 16? tsz El 40 10 24 738 10 l2 s6 31 13 4) l@ 6/ 58 I 0 1 ,ol

3f30tm195029.,1,1t2.10rO1667171t36Ea817061222313591161&923Ir073863p1150n0r5r314
400 Blul Zoil
OlPGmCup A.O t1.25 l5 I
950 t O 6 71 N 114 363 219 63 7 2. 1635 21 30 17 X g 216 42 35{ ls6 {6 0 7 1353
ao2D*lll a.B un u t
l1@. 32 r p. n m 18s 180 27 56 il rs 1749 2E 30 17 ls s0 190 3e6 100 r0 1,l 0 1 lw
{01&FrH t23l 2am &m n g A 6 aa 5l N 504 41 2a7 0.l 6 A 17E3 A ll n 24 2 8l U2 Sl 159 51 0 1 12gl
OScta.p.nalGid 6 A.$ al.2l 15 5 33 25 6 m 314 653 65, 360 60 t0 em U n 7 15 n *5 676 s43 304 11 0 01m
,l06suitul7io2tfi!1.64O8342931602115615333(o6E5.l51s5115/lA3astm368l97s40tl4!8
OTXcum ZS 8m V..12 29 3 n n P 16 218 {09 372 m m { 9 l1m 5 I 26 I A 107 2n 47 41 43 0 0 t0l9
4otct&rfrr2156.11lt2t?!Ot9Ar{183{01335256662101379l210'1010?.! 1m3s,1@z,001065
{gKtEl'n fl} A-10 !1.57 12 tg A rt 8 6 216- 162 &7 ffi n 6 | lW 0 la 2 I a 101 3S W. 31{ 51 0 I l0r3
lfgslhatsa.o0lt.7t7l81tll,O2l712937331662920t53l'121252{101{03315?,6$015la6
5oo RapllZm

g)al.bflEGU 12?0ztil la6il 29 C, S C e g, I &1 365 211 66 5 ls 1665 l9 18 26,16 n 61 S 333 199 37 0 I 1316

505 ElrilTa !a! 2!.to !a.u u 6 21 a a o ut 3'16 245 167 55 6 f 1A. 9 16 13 20 6t llt m tn 119 26 0 ! g
50aTuEpu t66.t3u30 16t2al2nt23ll 15.1)0fi649161755 11 t1 97t8@. 132@?!0sr{t
S.lmB.r fa', 2r3f lull B g 29 3l O 50 lE lE 23 134 5, 5 21 l(te 9 29 g 11 s 11 263 1r !l I : ' x
.s
511

{i
blfl !F9 tflG*d
f-r.f=rt (4,
E rg br It -ur4=:4 h:- nz ., E ag r-r!rrfa'i-:-_-
h
-!_-Ll*ur9Stca *r! t-a l.d YRd
(Er f) n n@d F - E-
€fl) OribgnZm
tolSlM nqa.7a A.n 21 l 13 2 18 12 2 1'l 36 10 31 ,4 2 a 3 7 i 7 : . € E ": z :E
601 llubmrplu 2566A.75 8.70 15 6 12 3l A 30 50 58 53 56 43 10 5 37! 5 3 D A''6 Q 5l a < v :r
605 8aotxp $4 28.27 E3.60 16 2. 17 18 54 151 256 536 4Zt 296 ffi 10 17 1891 15 12 10 32 t"?1 ZE 5t9 14 ?E r!
12113 28.48 83.65 15 A 2 4 A 134 e7 358 312 60 Tl 9 ',|l l1€7 10 30 D 64 118 182 311 3.2 1< -
606 Tatopanl
609 Benl Ba:ar &5 A.35 83.57 n
8g.t 28.22 83.70 fl
21
A
A
A
&
31
4]
E
@
167
200 3@ 365 211
371 639 199 353
68
104
7
6
10 1150 8
16 23Gs 13
16
A
2
16
2
19
s
125
7Q ai 3E ls7 A
312 713 4t !' : -:.:
614 Kushma
7(E Lumbiri Zore
702 TaNen 1067 27.87 83.55 lJ 24 15 A 41 68 2s9 461 356 2A 56 1 16 152 5 0 33 14 d n4 68 381 s2 r . ..-:
703 Bdwal ffi 27.42 AX.47 21 17 t5 17 E 73 €1 692 652 39E 105 12 7 24!6 5 2 1',1 16 56 n6 55 616 U 77
704 Belwa (Glflad) 150 27.68 84.05 A 2. 10 18 50 123 458 7m 588 383 111 7 t3 2509 6 10 1 37 66 393 691 611 ru 67
706 Dumkaull 1U27.41 U.22 14 14 10 19 Z 131 386 640 421 373 88 7 m 2181 15 I I 23 94 261 565 !O9 @ 65
707 BlEhahawa 1N 27.53 8.47 14 15 13 15 19 58. 305 5@ 326 330 6 5 15 1695 10 15 5 I 37 131 519 317 310 n ' '4::
715 Kamhikol 1760 27.93 83.15 16 lt 6 24 S 108 300 486 U7 367 88 11 27 l8{1 13 20 2. 13 90 286 A1 365 1S 13
716Tadihfla 94 n.55 83.07 11 n 16 19 E 60 243 576 32 286 74 5 12 1664 11 26 4 I p 184 560 191 136 21 :!.i:
722 M6lkot 12& 8fi eX.27 28 2 19 31 61 131 367 453 3813 260 81 I 15 1835 15 15 2 S 119 4 A0 ln 187 12 ltd
728 Semad 15427.53 H.75 5 15 B 2 A U 368 610 350 345 A 1 26 1897 16 0 I 10 81 391 446 151 159 19
t0o Gandald Zore
602 KhLdi Ba&r a3 28.28 54.37 21 6 € 69 97 1E2 sA 912 762 485 112 n 13 3271 19 n $ & 178 638 814 717 454 40 16 !ar
8ol Pokhara Allport p7 20.22 U.@ m A 31 55 116 306 656 925 781 618 1m 2. 19 37?/ 27 31 41 S0 334 m5 U7 676 534 108 2 a*
. .tt2
809 GoddE 1097 28.00 84.62 25 n 14 36 R 157 330 453 378 21 66 13 16 1780 17 13 29 67 133 2W 443 386 162 25 0
610 Chapkoi 4il 27.88 8.82 28 6 23 32 55 132 311 489 U2 258 81 6 13 1768 I 6 33 28 100 257 447 2U 164 A 0 c 15'
81 1 Malepahn &56 28.22 83.95 12 18 21 59 134 319 595 800 7n 557 184 & 2 $27 5 26 43 123 233 506 662 695 448 105 8 18 2t_r
81 4 Lumle 1642 28 30 83.60 16 A 35 47 115 84 010 145t 1281 857 n1 31 19 5200 28 n 35 96 261 661 1300 1202 675 164 19 ! {:6:
815 Khairlnl Tar 500 28.02 84.10 12 18 24 30 117 293 410 521 389 315 87 21 X 248 3 19 18 88 239 387 494 354 317 25 19 17 1.$:
816 Chams 2680 28.55 84.23 10 A 40 95 {4 48 112 200 147 146 ffi 9 n 9s5 5 18 83 1 2 93 150 133 l2s 24 1

617 Damaul 3* 27.97 U.28 8 13 24 24 113 2813 3&t 141 n4 279 58 1 30 1905 12 I 12 r08 143 337 427 337 m I 0 2 ra83
900 Narayanl Zono
902 Rampur 256 27.62 U.42 16 19 14 19 50 142 356 569 396 335 A S t7 2015 25 10 11 26 115 254 553 385 329 55 r 7Ea

903 Jhawarl n0 27.58 y 53 27 16 16 18 44 104 316 4n 447 310 85 11 l2 1851 11 11 21 26 n 252 399 399 275 67 1?€
901 Chl$panl Gadhl 1706 27.55 85.13 16 16 18 43 S 161 391 598 438 389 88 11 17 2269 16 11 n n 149 329 515 114 216 42 1 8ar
905 oamn 2314 27.60 85.08 l5 18 2 30 s 178 311 484 Ul 303 11 10 20 1895 16 19 16 73 166 64 4/h 345 m7 45 1 5€l
906 Helauda N.F.l 474 27.12 75.05 18 17
't30 27.17 M 98
14 30 t 146 396 609 493 390 87 15 t3 2265 16 18 11 46 113 fi2 52 $2 32 75 1$i
909 Slmala Akpod 15 16 11 15 v 121 2t6 v6 340 209 91 5 11 1r8 7 0 19 10 88 1S7 379 311 20 118 1${
9ll Pamohur 15 27 07 84.97 15 ls l5 13 E 100 21 458 214 254 B 6 13 1543 :3 1 17 13 m 235 455 m ZE 50 1 291
912 Ramoll Baldya 152 27.02 85 38 30 19 10 1 265
915 Mailhu Gaun 1530 27.62 85 15 14 17 24 27 n 128 242 363 2N 271 n 6 24 lvl 16 15 15 73 135 179 323 269 239 35 1 283
918 BlEar{ 91 27.78 6.12 12 13 10 11 A 80 233 469 214 214 66 4 15 1423 5 5 7 4 80 216 2m 2U 156 _cE
919 Maloilanpu Gadhl 1030 27.42 85.17 12 15 10 16 67 113 n3 $9 356 254 56 16 21 1756 8 4 11 66 58 143 286 nn 169 39 1016
s21 Kalaiya 110 27.03 85.00 10 12 12 16 41 rS 24 551 278 271 & 4 n 1649 3 1 31 5 t09 161 5n 139 198 15

-89-
 Mean R.aintall 809[. Rcliablc Rainlall
(homoseneous Series)

lnd.r Slalin Nam Ele- Lall- tdd Mn Jan Feb MaI APr MaY Jtfi ,Il ALg Sep oct Nov Oec Total Jrn Feb Mar Apr May )Ur Jd Aug Sep Ocl Nov Dc Tot'l
No. vallon llJde luh Yc oi
t ia H ld H d Hil
(ma8l) 11 f) Rurd t H iil tst lrt il H h h hhH hd 6 Htilr
lom Bagm.ti Zona
lm 27.92 t5.17 6 i7 l8 a 3t 6 sr! an ls & 7z cg lo M? s't1 24 u lo5 m 5a $6 212 Q 1706
1094i{wald
106 otndiE 1420 27.87 61.93 A i i A n t?B ad;56 sii ,a zi rm| 12 3 3'l 67 106 m s11 'l4l 184 113 5t 1696

1006 Adhallg M 21.67 85.07 ii ir a SO tol) tlo At Ct s 6os 210 s ls 3lgl 14 30 20 60 113 110 s 902 a65 3099

2064 27.t0 ii ia i 16 11 b n 12 380 668 713 3'16 65

s1 so rso lo0 aii ru fi 106 E le 27rs 2112
l0O7 Kalori
lhr4u 1502 27.80
t5.25
i6 ia ,p. s .t ta,iia 6a 6?5 w $ e 172$7 17 1E 16 50 79 s m6 fl6 3fii a ?205
100C
l@
85.62
27.1E 65.n t9 lt $ 66 l(x 3A0 56t rn 3, ls 66 13 15 216 5 t2 11 56 105 261 56 52s m o 1E1l
1009 Chllt8E
26a5 27.95 ii a s * s t, oo riar rols t6t 2s 13 fiE A 17 G ?9 13,r 606 l03l 915 160 101 3134
1016 S.mdEng
olielEr 1550 27.E7
85.60
is ii 2. xt o l$ B 619 aB 3.5 6 17 17 20s 1 16 21 65 E7 346 6S 615 N 6! 2166
1017
645 2?.7t
85.57
is e E lo 7D $ aa 171 117 Zn V 15 M5 I 15 16 s0 83 211 {$ 110 215 41 1521
1010 BauEpdl
1365 27.70
65.57
ii s ia ii m r iii i)5 Aa t 7 t@ I
fus i 'O 2 12 u 6. ill 2$ zts la 17 E1'l
l0A0
1022G*nd
M0dd!
1400 27.51
t8.€5
16 t6 a a 62 rz0 iii ilE 4a $0 a s a 1966 18 16'16 s7 tn N 517 *t5 I fr 16t0

1023 Dohl Onl 7t0

06.40
27.O3 05.n ia ii i a 6 t 21i i!3 iL iso 6! :a 1 it rara fi ,t rs 57 er rE4 3,12 236 l5'l 26 2 ll33
1562 27.62 37 tr i9 3,t ss :01 a ii ei 2ia z 7 1566 9 t1 26 61 n I(,. 340 351 136 I 0 1312
1021 ohddld
1240 2?.92
E5.55
ii a ir ar i r Lt eoz n7 3?r 61 6 .t2212768 0 10 16 s G s07 503 I 1t 12 2t9a
1025 oinp
1m 27.n as.S
15.6lr
io ri er ga ro5 r04 {o v?l ta 351 $ 16 Z1$ 7 m lt 75 130 M & 5E6 m 4! 0 rul
im7 8.ltr.bbe
Prdws a0 27.57 05.75 i6 id ii ia c r rur [p 181 166 s3 6 ri roog 10 10 l5 13 $ ,? a5 $5 l2e ,5 0 E65
1mE GlEt
1360 27.67 85.31) t6 10 1s a 64 s ig6 @6 261 lle r 13 $ 1m I 13 16 5'l s 167 @ 1{l 2 7 't056
1(P9X!rumlbr
1c,30 Xalhm.ndr Atpod 13e 27.70 t5.37 {5 ir is sr 56 9? sl it 3$ 166 s3 7 6 1Aa I 10 37 3E 79 A3 319 305 lct n 0 l?21
103E Pami*iEl 6s 27.6t 66.63 127122150$2tsan621850t6r1a06121036781a23526.t13.6
& s 12 141r 12 15 'll 56 121 tEs 3l7 u7 t95 51
0 974

1019 Xhopad (Pamt l) 1517 27.5E E5.52 ti a6 b sr lc iio 36i 2s!

ii p. 20 7 33 sl'lo m 209 a6 30 I
0 12@
gr
10tl Tham&hll 1817 2t.02 E5.s2 12 $ t { a ai :sr m ^M rfi E m 1406 16 s r23 S0 9a3 963 3s5 90
0

21C0 2r.m $.55 c 25 A 51 B ln ic mii tia s04 st 7 2t 3br t8 r 2s 0 2 29S

1c6t Tad€ Oryang
ffioCn+. Gam 141E 2?.60 85.33 ro is 16 2 57 I fr s/0 oti n1 55 7 S l{l 9 t6 a 59 & la 313 310 ll0 0 0 E 120
l-ritr t31t 27.55 E5.3t io rz 12 16 66 lll N ei $l ier s' 6 Msl, 11 13 s 'r9 102 tn 372 n2 16 31 0 '| 1t55
1061
SrEachof tat 2?.m 6.n o il i 15 6c 116 21 S 3,t7 2$ l6E O l' 13 l52r rc t 11 50 96 ls 0 a3 191 31 't? 10 BA
1062
1063 Ttpka0a lm 27.70 8.78 1 17 1E 2. 60 111 Sra 6QE 5$ {36 9 31 2il6 15 7 3 10 135 301 710 530 114 104 0 12 na
Jamlgu Zom a 0 l,l7
I 100
1102 Chdol t91o 27.67 16.05 21 16 6 {7 n . t.9 Q1 517 531 3t0 S 15 10 215 lO 12 21 53 121 310 aS1 1m 245 71
1103 *l 2o@27.6s!6.2313.t11rr*16131!5d]5062n&t?112|2631r!a781123S5365302/65a14112010
llo,t Molng 15s27.5216.057la2124i0t10A5531$ZtZ@13516m02?5411726331s5361716e20157t
,106Bamt$.p 500 a7 101 I 0
llO sMrlGadh 163 21.2t C5.g7 3t A 1a 4 1@. m 454 679 5S7 47 fi1 17 11 2AO 16 17 n $ P9 3A fil 2231

ll09 Panhadot (Ect) 2E n.OE 6.67 3l 17 r t9 17 113 310 56A A $s 10r 11 6 I91r 5 5 ra 4 6a &5 417 386 Zt 6! 0 0 1515

11t0T!ts| s7 n.@ *.g2 31 12 7 t9 59 loa Zr3 Q1 rz 213 71 10 6 15S 5 1 A t9 9? !E3 371 313 26 52 0 0 1261

I t la ll.rilrth $ 26.00 c5.9r 13 r0 ri ii € A 27 3n 261 rer 6? 1 a lm 2 7 E 15 61 4l lga 263 176 a 0 0 97It

-90-

hld D+ t!fftLJ{
rhoorcL
E L* lst 5 .h! F- tar fer U.Y Ju A{ S.p Ocl t{w 0€ Tolal &n F€b ]Lt &r ltey Jr J, At{ S.p Ocl tlq Dec Tot'l
--h h-
t *t ti YG ol

(nd) (') (') Rcqd :t rt Fr td lit Fr lirt h ln) ld Iri lnl l.t lit lilt EMhHM

tASqr$lrZrr
1202 OrrSEtt 2619 27.70 86.72 $ 17 2 Q re ll0 s G05 tas 9l 7t 15 r0 2161 6 I a{82n560{58 29566501818
lm Ot$rt!l. lno n32 36.50 E 10' fi A @ 137 316 1S 371 250 05 I 10 1785 11 fl u $ 116 23s 435 315 2t616011153
la t XtrtnE Bazil r2E5 n.$ 86.08 n $ ll 26 3t 99 a1 326 tg5 157 {t 1711186 5 B 21 83 171 26? 165 1341000895
la3 U&hrrG.dd '|l75 26.9i1 86.52 33 20 13 6 53 r55 310 5€5 132 31t 117 16 t0 a19 I 1 26111l,!-m7ln319 ?f5m001707
1A 5 Lrttn l3s 26.37 86.50 16 10 11 12 O i,ll 26S 157 61 %7X t0 12 1521 0 { 11 2. 115 229 {19 2t 187 4 4 ADe
t2l6 Sl.lts 102 26.65 S@2 S 18 s97m 11 15 3E0 312 N 66 12 5 1374 ',l
t1 2. 80 251 3(tr 191 169lt001006
12200i*: 2n0 27.52 86.62 16 11 12 51 96 2S3 510 165 n2 18 l0 lt 1931 9 l6 7 al 78 238 191 157 m$031625
1223 RaFlal 91 26.55 t6.75 tl '5 13 10 ta 95 24 3E5 215 61 6,t 10 12 l3G0 0 , a21@?21,f626312131 72166
1 3fl) l(6N Zom

, 303 CtEklpu (East) 13p9 27.28 17.33 S l0 P acl 171 211 318 272 le 61 17 6 1382 1 6 11 45 157 115 m 275 154 57 1 0 1112

1 30{ PaLrD6 $n n.ss 87.17 fi l0 12 a 55 t41 253 349 3t9 ml 67 fl ts t555 3 4 12 B ili 216 1ol 315 lgE 2 4 I l39l

'13J07 Dh.*lna t160 26.98 87.35 S I 10 ri 19 76 lA 67 111 1m 56 57922 1 I 5$301762631226E71007t2

l311 Dh.En Bazar 444 25.19 d7.17 S 12 la 2:l 55 159 356 551 398 14 21 6 2363 a 4 5 g 1A 250 395 535 376 lm 0 0 1870

1313 Bfatugor 67 6.11 81.28 ? ',15 7 11 12 136 311 w2. 350 N2 93 1117n1 s 13 16 86 311 520 182 218 3 0 0 1398

131( TeilEthw 1633 n13 87.s5 r5 1 1 6 96 t{5 136 191 t32 il8 51 tr0E250 0 n75l1tl7310192S171tz8
1 319 B*8lmgil AlDoi t2 .16 El27 t5 l0 I al
18 157 330 $5 29t 2E6 95 11 C 1775 2 7 3 2t 155 285 a52 n6 259 43 1 0 t160

1320 Tmham 200 26.70 67.21 t6 lt I ll 61 136 V. 516 261 279 9l) 12 16 1736 1 1 6 € l29 2E4 161 7e 206 55 1 5 11131

lalBtsFw t505 27.lE 87.03 21 A 10 31 ?3 150 % 311 1t3 163 AS 16 I 1303 4 ,3 6 m 120 17J 2E9 1n t66?eI 0 1066

l a00 Mechizom

l$5 TapblurE lnz n35 t7.67 31 1g 21 50 120 229 324 131 395 219 8l 11 I 197t ',12 t9 {t s 24 2n 3n 409 23{gA20r76E
1 4s6 Memong Jagal 1629 27.N 67.93 33 11 17 ,16, 130 229 341 lEl 390 213 110 19 il 2071 6 il 5l r21 2!8 326 400 335 211{6501769
tr07 llam Taa Eslalo 456 261 m C3 7615556 1 15 { 117 D5 115 321 182 S 0 0 13m
1 100 Damak 163 26.72 - B
07.67 11 10 l8 70 16E 4X7 744 517 363 r11 11 6 2191 t 3 11 11 90 250 589 511 a692601904
1121 Ga& {Gnlq0 r43 26.50 E7.90 2 0 13 14 38 257 m 835 335 620 A2 ??,nsa0 0 0 10 m 2n 518 363 1S31800621856
 l*
Financial Analysis (iv) annua"l pro.iccthcnefils tue equivalent to the estimated total net
agriculturiil benefits arrrt constant from year 1 to 20.
Tlnencle! ovaluataon:
(B:CR, N.p.V., E.LR.R, and Sensitivity Iriniurcial evaluation is done in three ways:
analysis)
lntroduction: The financial analysis is to access whether (i) By calculating BCR, NPV.
or noLth.e cosr
of_ a project ran be justifred by trre expected
benefits. It allows to aakc rr (ii) By calculating EIRR
priority ranking between similar projects for the
allocation of limited funds. (iii) By sensitivity analysis.
Financial analysis qualifies all costs and benefits
and to &akc
assumptions concerning the project life and phasing
of expenditure antl
Dlrcounting: It is a way of comparing present with future amounts of
returns. The finalciar performance,of the project money. Future amount can be expressed intenns of present worth by
is most c.mmonry
measured by the benefit cost rafio (BCR), the discounting them using an appropriate discount rate. An alternative
net present value (Npv) and
the economical internal rate of rehrrn (EIRR). way of thinking about discounting is to calculate the amount of
To calculate the BCR and NpV, future costs and money required today which when invested at a rate of interest
benefits are tirst
discounted to presenf value at a predetennined rate. equivalent to discount rate, would yield the future amouut. Thus the
BCR is the ratio of the
present value ofproject benefits_& rhe present interest rate used for compounding assume a viewpoint fiom ,ow tri
value of the project Costs i.e.
B:cR=@rr.o
present value of,project
Costs
the future, whereas discounting assumes a viewpoint which looks
back from the future to the present.
A BCR greater than one (1) indicates that the project unting example :
is viable. I ) i :; t: o
The NPV is the difference between the present The sum of NRs 1,000 invested at \Vo per annum will yield NRs
varue of the benefits
and present value of costs i.e.
1,080 in a year's time. Conversely, the sum of NRs 10g0 due in a
NPV = Present value of beneflts - present value year's time is worth NRs. 1,000 today, if the discount rare is g%. If
of cost.
= +Ve. the choice had to be nnde between receiving Rs. 1,020 today or Rs.
A +ve NPV shows that the benefits exceed the costs .that 1,080 in a year's time (given an interest/didcount rate of g%) then if
& the project
meets ilre specified minimum requiremen*. priority would be preferable to receive Rs.1,020 today since this could be
is usualry given to the
projecr wirh higher BCR & NpV, invested at87o to yield more than Rs. 1,080.
The EIRR is in principle calculated in the same If the interest/ discount rate is 'r' then the sum arising in 'n, years
way as BCR.
However the discounting rate is not a predetermined time (An) from an inyesunent of (Ao) is:
rate but the rarc at
which the present values of costs and benefits
are equar. consequently the An = Ao. (l + r)n ......... (l)
BCR is unity and Npv is zero. The EIRR represents ,n'
the miximum possible Similarly the present value 'Ao' of a sum "An' expected to arise in
discounting or interest rate at which the project
would still be profitable. years time is:

Project Phasing: Ao= fu ...........(2)

Project phasing :ue stanaardized anrJthe fbrowing (t + r)n
lixed lirr a.ll projecs.
v assumptions
r --. --' iue
Here
1
is the discounting tactor.
(t) The project is consrructed in one year (year.
(l + r)n
-;-
0)
(i, Usetul project life is 20 years (year 1 to 20). Grlculation ol BCR and NPV:
(iii) Average annuar recuffent costs are 570
0f trre constructi.n cost
A discount rate of lU%o is chosen because it is generally the lower
(estimate) tiom l to 20 years. limit required for irrigation projects in Nepal to be considered viable.

-92-
-93-
 The fbllowing example illustrates the calculation ol BCII (Berr.trr
cost ratio) and NPV (Net present value).
r* F

6
H Ifl
'

H
H
ti cr
( $i; 3 d
(;

H'Iq N P B E E
(, c) o

EEEEHEEEEEE
O O
=O
EE EBEEEEEE
O o o o O O O O O
E
O

E
qE
fiq
q

a
Example: A fictions project costing Rs. 1,00,000 and producing annual . .rooooo ooooooooooooo

benefits of Rs. 20,000. The discounting rate (r) is l\vo. Averagc

t HNEXEEEEEEEEEHgEEEgg
F@ 6
@o
annual recurrenf cost = 57o of estimate = 5,000. n o to 20 years.
=
. (,oOOoo O ggoOOOOOOeOO -
Discountf'actor= 1 -
1 f Hts:&EiEEEEEEEEgEEEgE NO
.9q
ts
q
(r + r)n (, . (1.1)n
llt .oOOOOgOOOOOOOOOOAOo

#), f^ :
Hh*ffiEgBBBEEBBHEgHEEE
; ; d ci ci o d d o o a ci d o o o o o o
oo
6i-
N
q

Tgble ol Galculation of BCR & ]lpv

Year Costs Benelits Cash flow Discount PV. of P.V. of Remarks
U
I HE€SSEPEEEBEBEEEEHEE
I ; ; ci ai o o o o o ct €i o o o o o o o o
6l-
N
E
d
Fs. Rs. ao factor. Costs Rs. benefrts

{ HT;gREEEBSEEEEgEHEgg
ON
u7-
(10%) N 6l
Rs. o o o o o o o o o o o oo o
'10,000 - ci d ci do
t -1,00,000 I 1.000 1,00,000 U i,
I f HFS€HNE$EEEEEEEEEEEE @i
q-
s,ooo
|
000 I
2o,ooo l s.ooo o.sos 4,545 '18,182 B ;ddooaooaooooooooooo oi
5 20.000 15,ooo | 0.826 4,132 16,529
EEHEERHEEdEEEEEEE=BE Nts
.? -: 6
s,ooo
I zo,ooo 1s.ooo I 0 751 3,737 15,026 fi I a o o o o o o o o ct o o o a o o o cj o ci
5,000
5 000 I|
20,000
20 000
rs,ooo
15,ooo J
I o 683
0.621
3,415
3,105
13,660 to HBStrESEEeqeEEBBEqEEE
- ciooooo
N6@NO@{N@O6tOOO@=

o ooooo ooo oooo

E& o
ri
12,418
I I 0.s64
tr; EgEf;$qHf;f;EqEiEEEEEEE
s,ooo zo ooo 15,ooo 2,822 1,289
1 6N o'
s,ooo I zo.ooo 1s,ooo
| 0.51s 2,566 10,263
; c; o o o o o o o oo o o oo o oo o o ci

15,0001 0.467
5,ooo
5,000
I 2o,ooo

20,000 5.ooo I 0.424

2,333 9,330
5
EtsEEfrEEE&NEqE=EEEEEE
- ci o oo a o o o o o o o o o a o oo o
cl
a
q N

I|
r 2,120 8,482
5 000 20.000 rs,ooo I 0.386 1,928 7,711
{ EfiPESEE$HfiNEEEEEEEgE
ooooooo
q8 E
6
+
5,ooo I zo,ooo ls.ooo I 3so o 1,752 7,010
- ciooooo o o oooo
5,ooo I 2o.ooo ls,ooo l o.3le 't,593
6,373 f EEPESgSEEgERESqEEEEB @o
6
o
+
s,ooo I 2o.ooo rs,ooo I o.2eo 1,448 5,793
;doooeoooooooooooooo @*

s,ooo I
RRhsabEsE6Nbh&a8E9AP NF
s,ooo
5,000
I zo,ooo
20,000
r

s,ooo I
0.263
0.23s
1,317 5,267
; 6 di F F @ Q u2 t
; ci o oo
q e? q q <Y q -
o o o go
= ooo oo oo -
r: -
oo -
o
1a? qi

| r 1 ,197 4,788
EBSFEEHf;E*HEgRRfrEEEE
r5,ooo I
N
5,000 | 20,000 0.218 1,088 4,353 l E ; cio o o 6 o o o o oo o oo o o oe o df
ol
6
rs,ooo |
s,ooo
| 2o,ooo 0.1e8 983 ,I
3.e57 |

gSEPPEEEf;EESEgggfrERfr NO or
5,000 | 20,000 15,000
| 0.180 8se ] 3,597 I
g ;ooooooooooooooooaoo o*
@
@

5,ooo | 2o,ooo 15 000 I 0.164 818 3,2701 F

ESESHFPHEHEEqC$iHEgg o
|

5,ooo | 2opoo 1s,ooo I o.t4e 7/.Bl| 2,s:Jl D

t
- ci cio
oo o o o o o oo oe o o o o o F

Total Prese nt value o

1,42,568 1.70.2T o
I I
ESHgHSEEFETEBEEHS;$$ 66 o
B:cR =##ffi =ffi= r.17>rJ u
t ; ciooo oo o aoo

6-oNO=@O@O@+A@
oo oooa o o o
oq d

NPV = 170211 - 142568 = 2i103. Which is +ve. ( EtsE8E8EbtsE$EPtrFXTERq

56 6 d A d d d o cio o o o ci o o ci o de E
o
The BCR is 1.19 which is greater than 1.00 and NpV is +ve =
value.
Hence, therefore the project meets the minimum requirements. o
oFNota@ts@o9=S9:FP=PP lo.,.

-94-
Et oo
d()EE zt
00(J
c)
-95-
 G

200/,, 4.81 t.24 3.92

Galculetion ol EIRR: 3.95 t.20 3.30
250k
(, By ustng cost bu.eJit coeffrcient:- 10o/o 3.32 1.t7 2.84
Construction cost = 1,00,000.00 (say) 357o 2.85 t.t4 2.49

.'. Total donsruction Cost = 1,00,000.00 4tJ% 2.50 l.t2 2.22

45Vo 2.22 1.11 2.00
Iotal Present value (at 107o) of tbe project t.82
50% 2.00 1.10
= 1.43 x 1,00,000 55% 1.82 1.09 1.6'.7

(fi?n t.62 1.08 1.54

= 1,43,000.00
Net agricultural benefits per annum: If cost: benefit coefficient is
Nore: what will be the discount rate (EIRR)
= 20,000.00 (say) 5.25.
Total Present value (at 107o) of the project benefis Solution: From table, 5.44 127o
4.98 l4Vo
= 8.51 x Net agricultural benefits. ,l
5.25
= 8.51 x 20,000.00 Now, 5.44 4.98 (r4 - t2)
= 1,70,200.00 or, 0.46 2.0

.'. BcR=+,I,{##=iffi= 1.1e> r.o 1

0.46
2

.'. NPV = P.v. of benefits - P.v. Costs = 2'1,2N (+ve value)' Again, 5.25 - 4.98 = 0.21

=ffi
Cost benefit coefficient Now, &-g.27 =1'17
.'. For 5'25 14 - L.lT =12.83Vo
"'EIRR=
l2'837n

20000 (lI) By applying various '% of discount rates:-

In this method the present value of cost and benefits are tried to
From cost benefit coefficient table:
equalize in various 7o age of discount rate and the actual value is
EIRR = 14% desired by the formula

EIRR=Lowrate. x (H.R - L.R')

Coet: bcnotrt coollicicnt table
C:B Cost of the Project = 1,00,000.00
Annual benef,rt = 20,000.00
Year Costs Beneftt Cash flows The P.v. of'net cashflow at discount rates:

ZVo 16.35 r.82 9.00 (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) at 10% dise Rs. at 16% Rs.

4Vo 13.59 1.68 8.09 factor disco. factor.

67o tt.47 t.57 7.29 100000 {00000 1.000 -100000 1.000 -1 00000
0
87o 9.82 1.49 6.59 20000 15000 0.909 13635 0.862 12930
1 5000
lU%o 8.51 t.43 5.9',7
2 5000 20000 15000 0.826 12390 0.743 11145

l7%o 7.47 1.37 5.44 5000 20000 5000 0.751 1 1265 0,641 9615
3 1

l44o 6.62 1.33 4.98 5000 20000 5000 0.683 10245 0.552 8280
4 1

164o 5.93 1.30 4.57 5000 20000 '15000 0.621 s31 5 0.476 7140
5
lSVo 5.35 1.27 4.22

-97 -
-96-
 6 5000 20000 15000 0.564 which indicates ttre rate at which both technologies have the
8460 0.410 61 50 same Npv. Ir
7 5000 20000 15000 0.513 7695 0.354
is used to help decision making in preferences for one
5310 technology over
8 5000 20000 15000 0.4$7 6945 another:- e.g option between gravity and pumped
0.305 4575 supply.
o 5000 20000 15000 4.424 6360 0.263 3945
10 5000 20000 't5000 0.386 5790 0.m 3405
't1
5000 20000 15000 0.350 5250 0.'t95 N25
12 5m0 20000 15000 0.319 4785 0.168 25n A 2Eo
13 5m0 20000 15000 0.a0 4350 0.145 2175
14 5000 20000 't5000 0.263 3945 0.125 1875 1,.,
15 5000 20000 15000 0.239 XpV 2q)
3585 0.108 1620 (Rs) 170
'16 Million
5000 20000 15000 0.218 3270 0.093 160
1395
17 5000 20000 15000 0.198 zSt0 0.080 1200 l,t0
18 5000 20000 15000 0.180 270A 0.069 1035 ll0
19 5000 20000 15000 0.164 2460 0.060 900
n 20000 15000 149 0.051 765
100

Di&ontr& -->

Sensitivitv to discn,rnt
EIRR = L. R.' + . Disc. val. at L.R. An alternative fonn of sensitivity analysis is"rt"
- Val. at L.R. - Disc Vel at t{R
Disc.
values' These varues aim to measure by how much
also to assess switching
= lovo. zzo#ffiroqs) x (t6vo 'tovo)
yields) would have to change before the project
one of the variabres (e.g.
becomes less attractive than
= rovo +ffixa the best alternatives.
Cros over discount rale

= 10 + 4.28 = 14.28"/"
Scnsitivity anaiysis:
The viability of a project may be affected if the construction cost
were to be llvo higher than the assumed or the production 1070 lower A 180
or I
both. Testing the projects viability in this way is called sensirivity.analysis. NpV 170
(Rs)
where the project alternatives give similar net present values (Npvs) or mLllion.
EIRR. It may help to decide which project should be selected.
Sensitivity tests carried out are on:-
(0 Prices of project ou@uts.
(ii) Potential yields ofcrops.
(iiil Ovemrn in project costs. Amual powtr co$ (Rs. nillion)
(iv) Delay in project implementation. --)
A further test which may be carried out is the sensitivity of the 'lIrc atxlve tow 'cross-over'
choice of the alternatives tolchanges in discount rate. This help to & 'switching varues' of the probrem decides that
choose tlrc gravity option may be more suitable than
between two alternatives technologies (e.g. one with high capital
but low the pumped supply one,
I
recurrent costs and the other with low capial cost but high recurrent hrt'tusc annual power cost of pumped supply is
costs) 11 million Rs. per year.
which meet the same need. A cross over discount rate can be calculated

-98- -99-
 lffi
Ex.mpl. I
EMG
HMG
Miristry of Wrter Rerourcei Ministry of Water Resources
DeprrtDeat of Irigrtion
Irigrtion Mmrgement rLd W.ter Utilizsaiotr Diviiior Depaft ment of Irri gation
Crcp Budget AssuptioN ud Net E[rm calalatio$ PROJECT NET AGRICULTURAL
Name of Scheme: Kot Khola I.P BENEFITS
Name of Scheme: Kot Khala Ip
Lmation: Tekem (3 - 9) werds)
Location: Takam
lLE Yield Achl Grcss Secd Fcdiliurea Chen Faning Labow Rs. Bullocks iLt Districl Myagdi
L.v.l. Yi.ld Eq.Rat0 80.0 Bs 160.0
Unil-Rab: !ha lta NReIa Kghg KgtE NRcha NRchs mday b-dey NRs/ha ('nlps
Unit
Pstldf 02m, (NFs4) (15 NRckg)
Arca Net Total
< 1.0 30 150 40
Retum Return
1.1. 1.5
r,6.2.0
21 .21
u 28100 30 rto lmtm 21950
185
21sfldn
42
4470,o 710 tra NRs/ha NRs
I, Condition ,with proiect:
45
2m2m
2.6 - 3.0
> 3.0
tr0 36(m 30
30
t50
2*
t@ 33550
zt'
16 7360
1t
200

hddy 82 7792 63E780

Wel
+J.J
(NRs,t)
30
(15 NRJkg)
260 m zt1 18
Wheat
15 4780 71700
<1.0
000q
lm r00 24
Matze 30 5680 17M00
1.1 - t.5

n5n
lm

tml5m
50
t5500
ll
120 96d,
25
26 4160 17&
Potato 8 38920 311360
2.1-2.5 25 t75 179) 75 tg2fo t30 10a& 27Mt 4780
> 2.5 1m m t50 1() N Pulses
'zg 1m N 110 112 28
Mriz,r (10o, NRdt) {12 NRsks) Oilseed
< 1.0
l.t .1.5
25
25 50
140 21 Millet
150 25
1.6 - 2-0 ,{!m 25,ix) tmtm 26 t1t0 2140
z.t -at L' M t65 t320 27 .,,20 5680
>2.5 25 r75 50 r75 I
'3.0 25 200 ll0 175 N
Polah (12m, NRsn) (15 NRstq)
< 5.0 tm0 150 36 (lnp intensity = 177%
5.0 - 6.0 i0 drm 1000 lvm 50 5q! 44500 160 12tm 38dn 25620
6.0.7.0 t000 tm 170 40 F'uture Toal Net Agricultural
.l000
7.0.8.0 t50 42 Returns: NRs. 1,192240.00
!T zwru €6to
> 9.0
'10.0
lm0
lm0
n !m
61000 t90 152(I,
200 u
38920
2. Condition ,'without project,,
{5
260 150 200
pdldy
Pul$s
ot-to
(,rm, (NRSr) (40 NRyrg)
l(ffi 20&o a6m
Wtreat
40 710 28400
Oileld
'1.0
fl00q NRcl)
10
(lmNBYkg)
0 0 55 n
Muze 8 1740 t3s2o
03-07 I ofl) I alm 25
6
t000 -59m
Potato
25 2t4o 53500
Milllt
'0.6
Goi NRS,t)
9
(6.s NRclq)
0

sq
95

Pulses
5 25620 128100
03.1!
.ta 30
I mIm .85
Oilseed
s 29600 148000
;\'016.' l (*) reomended Duimu yield tevels for "with proj€t" oodition
Millet 2 -5900 _11800
2. Irbou ratc should be calculatcd c thc EaliEd mte undcr 'sithout prcject" @nditions (= opportudty rate of labour = htal
fming incomq total labou units) 50 -89s -89s0
ThE sue raie should also be applied for the 'eiih prcj€t" @udition However, the muimu labou nte should not exceed
the c!rent rate for uskilled labou ia tbc ro
3. Rrte for bullclr ircludes @st for a pair of bullocks md ooc &ivq 90
(l bullockday = 25 labou uits) (lnp intensity lZ}Vo
4. F*tilizer rcquircmeDa ir Siven itr UEa equivalctrt which itrcluds @sts of all fertilirem ge&Elly otrly 2/J of fertilizer cosls =
ihodd be spent on N fenilizr od 1l3 on P ud K fertilia Prcscnt Total Net Agricultural
Returns: NRs. 3.51.170.00
Trxal Net Agricultural Benefits
per annum:
lrnl-g4pzA.qa

-100- -l0l-
 r#
IIMG
Ministry of Water Resources Canal Systems Design
Department of Irrigation
FINANCIAL EVALUATION tl) lllll outtlng workr:
Name of Scheme: Kot Khola I.P.
(lalculation of earthworks in hill cutting are carried out on,
Location: Takam
District: Myagdi lrxrts, irrigation systems in Nepal. The method of calculation of
Total Construction Costs: NRs. 40,69,457.00 qururtitics of earthworks are as follows:

Total Present Value (at 10%) of Projecr Costs: NRs. 58,19,324.00

(1.43 x Total Construction Costs) cut slope. (Varies from 630 to vertical)

Net Agricultural Benef,rts perannum: NRs. 8,41,070.00

Bench cut (Track cut)
Total Present Value (at 10Vo) of Projecr Benefirs: NRs. 7157506.00
(8.51 x Net Agricultural Benefits)

Benefit: Cost Ratio (BCR): _7157506 _ L',Lr

1 .ta
- 5879?24-
(PV Benefits: PV Cosrs
Netkesent Value (NPV): = 1157506 - 5819324 = NRs. 1338182
(PV Benefits PV Costs)

Cost: Benefit Coefficient:

ffi =4.84
(Total Construction. Cost Net Ag. Benefits per annum)
llcrc, In this figure,
'AABC'represents the hill cu$ing area.
'Xo'represents the hill slope.
Internati<.rnal Rate of Return (IRR): =t+X*ffix(4.98-4.84) =.t4.ffi% 'yo'represents the cutting slope.
(from Table below)
... Zo = 190 - y"
BEllEFlT. COST Al{D OOST: BE]{EF|T COEFFIC|E]{TS 'h' represents the height of hill cutting
Disc. Coefficients Disc. Coefficients
'a', b'and'c'are the sides of A ABC.
Rate Benef. Cost C:B Rate Benet. Cost C:B
27o 16.35 1.82 9.00 20vo 4.8',7 1.24 3.92 |. a2 Sinz'. Sinx'
49o 13.59 1.68 8.09 25Va 3.95 1.20 3.30 The area of A ABC = (t)
17.47 t.5'7 7.29
Sin (Yo - X')
67o 307c, 3.32 1.1'1 2.84
And if the sides of the AABC are known rhen:
8Vo 9.82 t.49 6.59 35% 2.85 t.t4 2.49
ll%o 8.51 L.43 5.97 40vo 2.50 t.t2 2.22 Theareaof AABC=m.. ,.. .,, (2)
l2%n 4.47 t.37 5.44 45Vo 2.22 1.11 2.00 Wheres=i(a+b+c)
1

l47o 6.62 1.33 4.98 50Vo 2.00 1.10 1.82

l67o 5.93 1.30 1.57 5570 1.82 1.09 t.6l If 'L'be the length of hill cutting then
18Vo 5.35 L.27 4.22 609n t.67 1.08 t.54 Quantity of Hill cutting = AABC x L

-1 03-
-102-
t2l Longitudinal SloPes ol Ganal:' Slorrc nra.sotrry wiLh
L- slopes of main canal will depend on the level dilforcncc hctwccrr cctrrcllt p()inting, plaster 2.00 - 3.00
the intake and heighest level point of command area. The secottdary lttttl R.C.C. 4.00 - 6.00
tertia_ry canal slopes depend on the topography of the command tucit, Steel lining 10.00
principallf the land gradient and the soil characteristics.
1
Canal slopes are designed with non-silting and non-scourittg
conditions. To minimize the construction costs the canal should lbllow tltc lal Canal side stopes:
The canal side slopes depend on material in
terrain slopes. To avoid erosion the canal should follow the limitatiott ol which it
l,rr.cd. And rather depend upon the stability of materiars is cut and
maximum slope. And a minimum slope should be maintained fbr tltc t'rxrslructed. To reduce land acquisition costs
in which it
and excavation
setlimentation or the growth of weeds. .l lr caual are usualry designetl to be as steep as possibre. Forthe side slopes
In hills canal longitudinal slopes ranges from 1:50 to 1:1000 (V:H) tlrc vclocity of flow of water and tractive force
erotrible soils
are kept within the rimit.
anrl in Terai from 1:1000 to t:2500 (v:H). with the non-silting and non-
sc0uring principle we can design the canal in any slopes witl the field side
conditions. Side

(3t Water vclocities ln canal:' lknl Rock

water velocities in canal should be designed with the n<ln-silting iurd
Loose
1.1
,.4
non-scouring principle. Minimum velocity should not be less than 0.40 m/s
which prevents weed growth and transports the anticipated sediment klad. IItrd 1:0
Generally earthen canals are designed with the velocities ranging fiom 0.60 Soll Rock
m/s to 0.90m/s.
r,f,n r,!
Clay
Permissible maximum water velocities in canal through diff'erent r,f,rc r,l t,| to t:t
materials are as follows: Loam
1:1 to 1: 1| r:rlto t:z
m velocities Surdy loam
Srurdy clay r:rln r:z r:rln r:z
Coarse sand 0.30 - 0.60
kxrsc sand
SandyLoam 0.75 - 0.85 1 :zto I:21 l:2 to
Loam 0.85 - 0.90 (silty sand, Sandy earth)
1:3.0 1:3.0
Clay loam 0.90 - 1.15 ( i.B.M. Soil.
Dry stone, Dry brick 1.50 r:rln t:z r:rlw t:z
Gravel t.20 Solt peat, loose Sandy earth, porous
Disintegrated rcrck 1.50 tlfilr r:zln r:z r:zln r:t
Dressed masonry 2.00 Typlcally used slopes:
P.C.C. 2.50 - 4.0
lirr Hills - 1:1 in earth and t: in roctr.
Shot Crete 2.50 ]
Hmdrock 6-8.0 tirr Terai - t:tln 1:2 forprimafy & secondary canals.
Boulder lining 1.50
l:1 to 1: tlrc,wtuy& quaternary canals.

-104- -105-
 between canal bank top
tq Embankmcntsl Embanlonents are the canal water retaining

H Frcc board! It is the difference in levels structure. The bank top width of canal depends on:-
due
may rise above design water levels
and design water level. Water levels
of the runoff tiom the - Type of soil of construction.
to unplanned { uncoordinated gate closures' inflows
wave action while tlowing in the - Capacity of canal.
country stopes into the canals and the
pass such unseen emergency waters
thero the
canals. Thus the canal has to - Type ofcanal.
free board (FU). - Seepage gradient (Saturation gradien$
as:
Using lacey's formula G6) can be designed
I (i)
- Width of service road.

Fb = 0.2 + 0.253 3
(Q) """""'
Where, Fb = F e" board in' m' The saturation gradient line should not cross the outface of embankments. A

Q = design tlischarge
in' m3/s' cover of at least 0.50m over the saturation line should be there.

Canal free boards (F6)

Lining works (F6) in (m)

Discharge
(L ir the total (F5))
1ar3/s) ;
< 0.10 0.20 0.10

0.30 0.15
0.1 to 0.50
- 0.40 0.20
0.5 1.0 Seepage gradient (Saturation gradient) hne for dilferent types of soils are as
0.50 0.20
1.0 - 2.0
follows:
0.55 0.25
2.0 - 3.0
0.60 0.30 Soil t
3.0 - s.0
- 10.0 0.70 0.35 Clays 1:3
5.0
0.80 0.40
10.0 - 30.0 Loams l:4
0.50
> 30,0 l:7
Coane Sand
Fine Sandy,
sil

Suggested minimum embankrrent widths are as follows:

Canal Section
-lo7 -
-106.

rl
 Unlined Ganal Cross. 9.ec-tions 'Example of Lined Canals in Hilt Areas
in Hill Areas

Cinals ln OrdinarY Soil

Q)tor slopes l€3. lh.n l:3

Bank slop€s -
0€p€ndenl on

(u For slopes mor€ lhan 1 :3 and H less lhan, 5 m

Canals in Rock

(lfy slone ot

@f For slopes mors than I :3 and H more lhan 5m

Ctound Stabl€ ground Unsrablo ground

rock) (Hard rock) (Loose/ lractured)
rock or boulclers

-- Hole lor
excavation
debr6 and
lighr and
ail
Plester. shotcrele
of ,masonfy
tip

.lUnn.lllng Tutmollinq
,Hard rock) (Hard rock)
.108. .109.
 Unlined Terai Canal Cross Sections 1 Unlined Terai Canal Cross Sections 2

R€.rv.llqr Resarvation

lb
irfa Oplb.tal drean to
t- r- Prevotn gullying ct
canat sioes

l*l
\
lin40
sb9o. \ \^ oesion water
6"r Xtir.l
Dcsagn b..il(
top lcwl
IUIU
0 Min
hr.l
4.0 Mar
II OesiOn
becl width
i
i
Sot4mg$ ora{,lirrnr
JEd inlots ptorided al lO".,gn Dotl wrrtth I
*rrvar
tor side dtarn F--_-t

Canal an qut (W. L < o. G, L.)

Banl Top Lorel
-l - 8sd LeYel > s.Om
C.o.l ill Cllt .ad Fitt (W. L > O. c. L.)

Fea.riretbn Fl€ser\raion

!Eg: Bank lop letel 2 design bank top l€tol

Canal in Cur (W. L < O. G. L') lDccign beO widrnl

Benl ToP Level - 8ed Level < 5'o m
Crnel ln Fil (8.L. > O.c.L.)

-110. -111.

I
Minimum emb ankment widhs : - l8l Qrrves radii:- These are determined by the needs of the canal or by

Design Without inspection with inspection ttre associated service roads. Hydraulically detemrined canal radii.

discharge Road (m) Road (m) llinimum radii lor unlined canals
(m3/s) Hill Terai Hill Terai Location Soils Radius (R) in (m)
Q< 1.0 0.75 1.0 3.0 Terai Alluvial, erodible R=25xWs.
1.0 < Q< 1.50 1.50 4.0 Cohesive R=t0xWs.
5.0 Hills Rock, Conglomerate of Stiff clay R=3xWs.
5.0<Q< 2.0 2.0 5.0 Other soils R=7xWs
10.0
10.0<Q< 3.0 5.0 Where, R = Central line radius in, (m)
15.0 Ws = Water surface width of Canal, (!d.
o > 15.0 1.5 > 5.0 usually of 15m minimum radius is provided for 4 m wide roads and
a curve
2Om for 5m wider roads.
canal embankments should be tuffed (grassed) to check them damages from
rainfall or by other means of erosions.
For lined canals:. Where there are no Constraints, Radius 3 x Ws. is
(7t Berms: It is the horizontal space initially left at ground level =
recorrmended. If it is necessary to use a tighter bends special measures like
between toe of the bank and excavation. When a canal is in deep
guide vanes and provision of super elevations can be taken.
cutting an additional bemr, usually to f - wide, may be provided a
I
little above the FSL besides the one at ground level.
Super elevation (h) =#(m)
Where, b=bedwidth(m)
-E R = radius of curvature (Cennat Line),m
O = Velociry (m/s)

f
d1
g = acceleration rlue o gravifu(nls2)

Although this fonnula applies to rectangular sections it can be used as an

I' approxirution for rapezoidal channels.
,zdz __4
|el Reservation widtfrs: Itis the total width of land to be acquired
lir constuction. Reservation width is divided inb two parts:
Canal in cutting Canal in deepcutting
(i) Peruranent land.
Benns are provitled in hill canals for ground-eross slopes steeper than (1:3) (ii) Temporary land.
H:V and cuts exceeding 5m. Berms protect against erosion, provi<lcs
Canal reservation width depends on: (i) Size of canal (ii) rcad widths
additional strengths prevents from guttering and reduce seepage's. (lip disposal of soil (iv) embgnlrnent back slopes (v) side drains.

-ll2- -l 13-
 canals in the hills the reservation
width should cover at PuoolrtionrThere is a zone of contineous saturation fio tlre canal to the
For pinary
water table and the direct flow set up. 'H' is the total seepage head which
least50muphillsanddowntotheriverbarrktoensurethesafetyofcanals.
helps to seep.
nOl 'lod widih to drPth'r*L':
Ab.Orpttdl: Rate of loss of independent of seepage heat. But depends on
For (h + Capillary head, hc).
Discharge fm3ig t ratitrn
Canal tYPe

lil
.'. Percolation loss = 3 times the'Absorption loss'.
6.0
T€rai kinary
I 5.0
SecurdarY Canal Sepage
0.30 - 0.60 I 4.0
< 0.30 I

I
2.0
< 0.10 1.0
Tertiary
> 3.0 2.5
Hills All
1.0 - 3.0 2.0
0.5 - 1.0 1.5

< 0.5 1.0

for liuod canels

Percolation from canal

< 0.50
0.5 - 1.0
1.0 - 5.0

t,rrBaturated Zone
nrl G.n l lolPtgo'r: ot
unlined canals due to infiltration
Seepage losses occur through the
,frY,f,
canal boundary' These losses arc
water thro' the soilmass along tbe
dependent on the depth of water
table' soil type' the soil molsture content'
of eompaction of fill and the age
aml
ii ,/"*iuarvFrinse
fiubidity, tenpern$re of water' dogr€e water mouad
the shape of cmal. (t)
an earthen canal are:
Two distinqt conditions may exist under
Percolation (ii) AbsorPtion' \- ncnnal *atcrreblc

Absorption from Canrl

'1 14- -115.

 l12l USSGS Method of limiting velocities:.
Einstein's Curve lbr Sediment transpott. This method is used to estimate the maximum average velocity
which should be allowed in a canal (non-scouring velocity). US soil
conservation service (USDA - SCS Design of open channels 1977) has
shown that with a limited amount of field data (unified soil classification,
plasticity index (PI), and void ratio) the maximum allowable velocity can be
calculated.
Maximum allowable velocity by this method can be computed as:
Vmax = Vb. a . b. c. ... ... ... (i)
where, a = Correction factor for void ratio of canal surface face material.
b = Correction factor for curvature.
c = Correction factor for depth.
Vb = basic velocity, ms/

Example: Data:
Soil classification = CL
Void ratio = 0.80
o -----> P.I. =12
Sediment Concentration = 3000 ppm.
Fig. Eirotein bed load fruction
(TheO-VrelationshiP) Design depth =2m
Radius of curvature = 6x Ws.
to Etch &H $olution: From basic velocities of Coherent soil graphs,
Character of material losses cumecs/million m2 of wetted For, P.L = L2, Soil type - CL.
V6 for 1000 ppm = 0.84 m/s
V6 for 20,000 ppm = 1.30 m/s
Impervious clay loam 0.92 to 1.20
by interpolation V6 for 3,000 ppm / 0.90 Approx.
Medium clay loam 1.20 - 1.80
Correctionfafiors:
Ordinary clay loam siltY soil a=1.03, b=0.8, c = 1.15
lavaash loam 1.80 - 2.70 Vmax = V6. a.b.c.
Gravelly & Sandy ClaY loam, = 0.9 x 1.03 x 0.8 x 1.15
2:70 - 3.60 = 0.85 m/s
cemented gravel, sand and claY
Sandy loam 3.60 - 5.20 l13l Gompound roughncssr
In channels which are lined r{ith two or more different materials (eg
Loose Sandy soil 5.20 - 6.10
nlck on bed, concrete on sides) or in channels where regiment deposits iue
Gravelly Sandy soil 7.0 - 8.80 cxpected to forn on the bed, a compound roughness coefficient may be
Porous gravel soil 8.80 - 10.60 calculated from:

soil 10.60 - 21.20 ,,,

n=p2t3[i _rr_,J ... ... ... ,,
Ll ni'"l

-116- -tt7 -
 Figure
Correcrion Factors to Bastc Vetoctty O5ffi
Basic velocities for Gsherent'soils (usscs) Comctlon Frctorlo tbH RaUo

2.0
1.2
1.9
9 r.r
1.8 o
t
lt
r.o
1.7 E
I o.g
6

_.!
1.6
I
1.5 E 0.8
.:
e
o.2 o.4 0.6 0.8 t.0 1.2 1.4
o 1.4 Vold Ratio (e)
a
o
6
6 1.3
Factor ior Curve Radius
1.2 T*",
;
Sedimed leclen llow
1.1
> 20000 ppni
a 1.0

o b
o 0.9
.'1.0
10 12 14 16 1E
Plastichy lnclex P I
20 d
lt
t o.8
rffiil
o
1.6 t o.7
o 1614121o864
1.5 C'
Cuwc Radius/llfater Surlace Width
1.4

1.3
Frctor lor tlepth of Flow
a 1.2

.} 1.t
Io 1.1

l2
"9
o
!o
G
1.0

0.9 l,r o
0.E 1,0

0.7 or
0,6
la
0.5
ro121.161820?224 at
Phsliclly lnder PI
.'118.
r.0 2.O 3.0 4.0
' 119' Dortgn Wrtrr Dopth (m)

... I
 =_>
od
->o
io ,o 6
'o
o
6 ri .g 9A _o> o 9.
E ( Wrcrc n = Combined roughness coeff. for whole cross section.
! co oc liZ 6 o I
o c o 6 oc 6 6 !.9 E;. E
u E
c o o o 6 o a .9
- 6
o
6
0 o
@
6
o
6 p !o
o-
E .9 P = Wetted perimeter, m.
6 E o po e= o-d 6 o o
z 6,^
6 o
od E
o
6 o
e E .9
co
q E P
o Pi ='?erimeter of part i of cross-section, (m).
6@ .e d o z.E )6 Eo
-.= {-:
o; o o c o o6 3> o; o c
t
Io 6o i-
OO
oo
o:
pti
c
o
iq
o
ca
o
o
o
o
p@ Q!
-c
oS
E'
o
!
9d
.U>
aa
o
E
o
.9
E
ni = Roughness Coefficient forpafi i ofcross section.
ei 9.t 60 oo o o to
F
bto
-o
!o
-,q oc o
OE !tic Eg -g 6 o
6€ d- 6E 6tr 6: S6 oci =p '6 5ir
6 !c
Ed aq Sa >? 6C otr 60 >9 qo
.go
6= .eE ';d
.9
c
6
.9
c6 o (141 llanning's equation:- The average velocity of flow in a canal can
o! o6 ab o= P,> Pys E" o' Eo o o o
o: oo 6X 00
o.X
LE
Qd
6? 59 iE 6E LA
ooE
: o( oE-
o
c o o
r - be designed by Manning,s fonnula.
=E
g = ! p2/3 st/z ...... ... ... (1)
o n
OJ
,o
OE o. E C E o. I o J
o
! I
o
!
o o. Where,
E= o o o c a
= U) a U)
=
C)
=
O = Average velocity of flow in canal, m/s.
g>
o n = Manning's roughness coefficient.
R = Hydraulic mean radius = A/p (m).

co
o S = Water surface slope Canal bed slope.
u)= .E =
z: aa A = Cross section area of flow. m2
E UC
o
o )a 3
rJ
-c
TO
FE Xo
Za
-O E P = Wetted perimeter of canal, m.
-"J
<.e Td
=6
Z= l:o
c
(, 'j:o 5P Ag
J6
u6
ffe =5
-6
a'i This equation is recommend for the design of rined and unlined
?o
=6 >6
<: =.4 Oo
z; irrigation
tr-q crH ul9
<d
o o: (r< o: a< canals where:-
o
o
.
ft .
lhe range fS SOO)sarisfies. Here K, is mean diameter ot grains
o
o @
(
o 2c
o I6c a9
(s *.
o6 o a outside the range of 15 to 500 for
E
o5
o-Lo
9N
E9 o {. <q 5 use of Manning's equarion will
I -6I'6
<3o otra
cda
9o OE
o c,^> Q= zu cilier lead to large errors or require the use of a different value of 'n, even fbr
E
o 9E.qB
LU< c:A
6-- o {io {Eo the same roughness projection, K'
o ?o.=s
QS=. (r)!0 pE2 This is due to fact that tre oiverlence
J dE9.i Jro ! #E
o
o
<5>iZ -os-Ei A)- 6)- between the correct logarithmic raw
[mean velocity in open channels with
rtrughness boundaries,
fr = O.ZS + 5.75 bg where Vx = shear
ft,
o
P
o
o
E
E
vclocity,
tr
a 1 + I and the assumed exponential equation begomes liuge
J-
.9. .a
t )
a
6
3.6s
=6
o 9'6
3Ee 0) rutside this range. Knowing o, trre discharge is carcurated
by continuity eqn:
=9a
VEo
Q = V.A
(_)
Lutso > z ... ...(Z)
Z= u.9 ar o-9
= o
cr o^ g. l)crivation of average Manning's roughness coefficient,
oE5 =s6
{cN o n, is as follows:
erEl
v)Ed
Cf o:
v*Z _t
t- c uo- a
{9c
Ood zo6 I
u>5 _t

-120- -t2t-
 * gE gg gggE glggEgsHE gsEE g:SSgglEgEgE
T
.EBsp=EeeegpEHiS&SHxREESgU gBE=qtqq
tJ 6 o <j o o o o o d d d d c; ci o cj o o o cj o o o o o o o o o o o o o

*EEEscEsEsgggsEsBEEgEsEEi=g:gggg53
Material involved Earth
Rock cut t, - 6 E 6 o o ci <j o cj o o ct c, ci d d o o o cj o o <j o ct ggEggS=3
-EIUE=ESssEEEEH=*RSRxEBEgE <t o o d o oI

Fine gravel.
*HEEE$EEEEgEEEEgBEEEggEgE==3333883
is oooooqooo'

Degree of irregularitY Smooth

Minor
lil -- 6 6 d d o <,
8ETBE $ EEg E E E E E H E NH & ME HHEE
= ci o o o o ci ci o o o o o ci o o o d
ggEEEEEggggEEEBEgEEnxf;
o Eo H

q d d d c, o o o <i cJ o o o o o o ct <i o o - 3 3 3 3 SEEEES=Eq

g Eq{
o c $
o o o o o-q

"== EE3 EEEEE;

Moderate
Severe
is -gE ggCE=g:=3 g gE gEESBEBSEBgE gEgBESS
Variation of channel Gradual 0.000 I *EsEEEsE3gggggEEssgEEEEgEs3E=38::E
Cross-section Varying
t^i s
xEEEqSEE E^=o
,. - BBEsEEE=ilEP1EE o o EeEHf ci Eeft
ci fi
Occasionally 0.005 .- oo o o o o o o o o o o
EE 6 66.dci o€too oooo
Varying
0.01 - 0.015 ii. *B=EEEg$sssgsggsEBBgEgEsggEsE::933
.EBgEETgq=qEE!gEEEqHE{&i&EE$EENiEq
Relative effect of Negligible 0.000 - .; o o o o o <, d ci <i o o o o o ci c, o o <i o o o o o o o o o o o o o

obstrqction Minor 0.010 - 0.015 I *EEEEE=E$EEgEgsggsgsgsEsEsEsE==iX g

Appreciable 0.020 - 0.03
is - g g g gE g g g==E: 33= : : g
B E 8B *B B $sEE I E

Low 0.005 - 0.01 I =3

0.01 - 0.025
*EBEgEEEgEEgEgggEEEEEgEEE=EEEEgS=g
Medium ,*
High 0.025 - 0.05
t'I .EgEggEggg==383:ggBEgs$!SSEBBEBB3$
*EecEggEEg5EgEsgEggggsgggEEEgEgE=:
.{l
te
-E=BgggEBgs3==933:=3=SSSBESaEBBBgg
, * gE E=EEEE gg g g
EEE E 8E EE E 3 g EEEg-EgEE E E
Average'n' = m (no + n1 +n2 +n3 + n4) = .... ... ..,'.. .'. (3) fs - E 3E g g g g EE g E g 3 33 Bg 533 3 E 8$ B B $E€
U '3=:==E3E=33sSSEE8!8338333888933i3
= =E =
3uggrstod vabor ol manning'3'tl :'
Hills. All types of channel - straight & unifomr canal:' 0.02 - 0'025
It tf
.t23-
-122-
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I"E_5 sESEr SEgS
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= z
 Poorly maintained 0.035
Stony beds/ sides 0.030 Cmsidering A &Z to be constant,
Terai. Primary- 0.025 - 0.028 FOr most efficient section, differentiatiur O
=
Seondary ffi
Tertiary
0.025 - 0.030
0.030 - 0.03s -$.2{il-,= o

For finlag Genelr: Z2+ -z

Dressed masonry 0.018
Brick - masonry 0.017 of,
*= (rt[i2 ., - z). d.
R.R. masonry
P.C.C.
0.02 - 0.018
of' b+zd= g'[$i-ryd.
0.015
R.C.C. pipes (rough 0.016 - 0.018
of, b=(y\[22*t-z)d-zd.
R.C.C. pipes (smooth) 0.011 Of' a-N.ffi-zd-zd.
HDP pipes 0.008 Of' b=2d1[fi - zra.
...b=z({A4 D -,)u... ... ... ... (4)
Dorlgn ol Gmel wlth rppticetion ot nprt otffclrnt treporoidrt
roation: Thus the wat€r surface width, T = b+Zzd.

- r1^[rz .) d
= twice the length of sloping side.

,Ld Refening to AOPQ in figure,

OQ = OP. Sin0

.'. oQ=T..=l- -"{'''z-. n'nx-;-l.:-=fr.

2'
Here, {Vl+ l 2
(22 + t)
Z = side slope
P=Perimeter=b+2.d. 22+l Thus a semicircle with 'o' as cenfie and'd'as radius in congenital trr
(l)
Arca,' A = bd + z& + d(b+zd) ... ... the bed and sides of the most efficient uapezoidal section.
(2)
or, .A
b=a_zd.
The hydraulic
$ean radius, R, of the section is given by:
Substituting in (l) we get, p- \(b+zh).h
R=
P+- zd+?i. Z2+ o*r7tfrz*).a
"'*=1
(... substitute ,b = 2(r[6; - ,)nl
If the side slope assumed to be vertical and ,A' & 'd' are constant, the
dondition for the mosr efficient secrion becomes: = O
S
.1 30.
- 131-
 (lsing nrnnning's oquatiou;
Differentiating eqn (3);
a.-L.Zz - d= 0 q=4 p2/3 gl/2
Czz+t
or, z, =^[7i) or, o5o =#.G)? (#)i
1
Of' Z=-=
13 or, 0.50 x O.O22s x (z)i. (1sq+ =1.8: o2 1a;3.
of, 0 = 60o
or, 0.49 = 1.33. 62.66
Thus the most efficient section in this case is one half of a hexagon. or, d2'66=ffi =0.26i7
1
Hence for most efficient section, or, d= (Q.2677fR
*d
R=
t ... ... ... (i) .'. d = 0.61m.
.'. h=0.83t1=0.50m
b*z1[72+t- r)0. ... ... ...(i,)
x = (b + zd). d..... ... .. (iii) check !=1p2/3 s1/2 -
#-(0.61)0.666-(#).,,
.'. O = 0.73 m/s <0.90 m/s
& from Manning's equation.
v.A. =
4 *zlr
s1/2 ... ... ... ... (iv)
F=+=+=0.29<0.5s
Q= \ gd 19.81 x 0.6I
From these four equations one can solve the problem of designing a C = C.r.R.S.
canal with given data. = 0.97 x x
x 0.00133 (for bed)
1000 3.5
= 0.39 kg/mz 0.54kglmz
Example
Design an earthen canal with the following datas:
[Note: See Fr, & 6 values in the latter chapter or Lesson]
a = 0.50 m3/s
slope = 1:1, .'. z= 1.0
Side
slop = 1:750
Canal
Manning's n =0,0225
Soil = silty loam

Solution:
For mosr efficient secrion, R =
t ... ... ... .. (0
k-u = o.5om -J
b-2('[72+r -,)u-2.6[rzi- r).0 = 0.83d... ... ...(ii)
Earthen canal
A= (b+ zd)d= (b+ l.d)d = (b+d).d= (0.83d+ d)d. Trapezoidal section
.'. A=d(l.83d)= 1.83d2

-132- -133-
 ll5l Trlrl ptocodurr ol Drlgn ol ornrl on l(onnrdy thoory:
Kennedy's critical Velocity Oo = 0.55 m.D. 0.64 ... ... ... 0)
*#*
23 O-gqu_l
T

Wtrerc m = Critical velocity ratio (CVR) = 1.0. 2-s00

'D flow
= depth of canal, (m) ,r 'HJ o.or1s., ol2s5 x
3, ^/.
we have to use the following three equations fro the design of a canal:
Continuity equation, Q = A.V. ... ... ... ... (i)

zt+!*0#
* {ns-(ii)

and Kennedy's eqn, Oo = 0.55.m.D0.fl .. ... ... (iii) k-- 7.8 m -+

Exrngb:Data:
Perimeter p=b+G.0.
Q = 15m3/s.
q_ I =7.8+GxZ
" - 25oo = 12.27 m.
17'6o
n=0.0225 R=A
P=Tzll = l'43 m'
^="ffiffi=fi=r.o Again Kutter eqn becomes:

3olutlon:
Sidestope=lr t*r'v.l
Assume depth D = 2.0m.
U_ 23+44.44+3.875
t + (23 + 3.875) ;04221'
"'lt.+z
\ffi
Then Vo = 0.55 x 2.0'64 __ 23 + 44.44 + 3.875
=ffix0.0239
= 0.85 m/s. 7t.3ts
Hence, A=*=o*= fi.6omz =lJ,tx 0.023e

= 1.13 m/s
Forside rlrp" (i , r),,1 =aa. *l cvR = *= # = l'33> 1'o' Next trail'
Substituting d = 2.0m.
t2 2nd Trial
A=b.2 +
t. Assume water depth, D = 3.0m.
of' 17.ffi=2b +2
Then critical velo; Uo 0.55 x D 0.@ 1.11
or, b=7.8m. = = m/s
According to Kutter's velocity equation/. Hence, A=*=# = t3.5om2
I
fbr slope
i: 1,

-134. -135-

,r{ l
 -

,tz
A=M ^2
*)=bx3+5|. 'Ihc skrpc is givcn by the eqn.
c2 T
Or, 13.50-i=rO. ^1

.'. b = 3m.
S = o.o0o3o
\ ... ... (v)

Perimeter, p= b+ G o. = 3+Gx 3 au
= 9.7m. Where, f = Siltfactor
... R=*= = t.i6{ra"
#=1:40m.
According to Kutter's equation. where 'Ks' is the average particle size in (mm).
I 0.00155
^. +;+
zr _J-
V= Erample:
* {ns.
, . (r,. o-9tul)
zJ + 1 O-QqUI
# Design a regine canal for tlischmge
3olution: We have,
11
f 15m3/s with silt factor = .f = 1.0

o.oDs+ I
2500 u=(#I=(q#I=o6em/s
t + (zz* o_!qu5@*
I l./17 ^o = 5u2 5 o.(2 = r.rem.
I \ i. ?=;-til
2so0 I P= 4.75{O= 18.40 m.
= 1.1lm/s
rhe cvR = for a trapezoidal canal witn j :l side slopes,
*= i# = 1.0 oK.
P=b+ G,o = 18.40 m ... ... ... ... (1)
(f Gl Design of a Canat with Lacey,s cquations .'. A = RP = 1.19 x 18.4 = 21,90 *2 ... ... (ii)
First calculate velocity from equations:_ From these (i) and (ii) equations,
I p=b+r/-sa=tg.+o ...b=18.4-{so. ......(iii)
*, = (a€F ,2
'= [,oo) "' "' "' "' (i) AndA+bd+)=Zt.eO
Then workout the hydraulic mean tlepth fiom
eqn. Substitute b from (iii)
o=i- {
^=r.T .........(ii) or, (I8.4 -G..rl x,t+*=21.90
Then, Area=$ ..,. .. ... ... (iiil 0r, 18.4d - GO2* 0.5 dZ
=2t.90
Perimeter = 4.75e ... ... ... .. (iv)
or, 18.4 d - 2.24 d2 + 0.5 d2 = 21.90
Knowing A & P and R the shape of the channer,
or, - l]74 d2 + 18.4d - 21.90 = 0.
bed witlth and depth crm be
or, ,JZ - 10.6d + 12.60 = 0
worked oul

-136.
-137
 10.60 + 7.87
(ll) llurictl aud p()tcctod mcmbrane lining:- Such as sprayerl inplace
=z asplnlt, syudretic rubber and plastic tikn.
+ 7.E7 10.6 - 7.87
=-10.60z',2 (rii) Earth lining:- Thick or thin compacted earth or soil cement.
(tv; Dry lining:- Dry stone and brick pitching, ribs of concert or
=9.23m,1.37 m. masonry.
Possible,d=1.37m..,
t-
Or, b=18.4-15x1.37 Thlolnos ol lining:
.'.b=15.33m. (i) Dry stone/Brick lining (Pitching) 0.20 0.30m.

tL (ii) Stone, Brick masonary (1:3 - 1:4crn) 0.20 0.40m

^
o.ooo3of3 o.oool x t.o3 (iii) P.C.C. Concrete (R.C.C.) 0.075 0.15m
SlopeS=----l-.=----- I (iv) Shot Crete 0.025 0.05m.
a6 (15f (v) Earthling Thick 0.30 1.00m.

=*,, (vi) Buried membrane (low density

polyethene sheet, H.D.P. sheet,
P.V.C. butyl, rubber erc. 0.20mm to 2.0mm.
n7t Linod Genals:- A compactal earth cover over buried membrane 0.30 0.50m.
Lining of a canal means making the canal bed and sides impervious
and hard tn check mainly the seepage losses and erosion of the canal.
(18) Fraudc no: (Frf:.
Canals may be lined for a no. of reasons which are as follows: Channels with a hard surface lining may carry supercritical fklws, if
(r) Prevention of seepage looses in porous soil. the canals are steep and fast fklwing. At fraude no (Fr) between 0.55

(ir) itevention of scour and erosion in steep canal. and 1.40 the flow pattern will be unstable and may have stantling
(iii) Prevention of aquatic weed growth. waves causing damages to the canal side slopes and betls.
(iv) Reduction in maintenance requiremeuts.
(v) Reduction in land acquisition needs.
Fr= (0
(vi) To permit sharper bend.s. For Sub critical flows, Fr S 0.55
(vii) To provide stability in unstable hill zones. For supercritical fl ows, Fr. ) 1.40
(viii) To reduce the section to limit earth works especially in the hills. Unstable tlow pattern, 0.55<Fr<1.40
(ix) To prevent water logging of adjacent lands. For rectrngular Canals:
(x) To prevent bank erosion in village areas
Fr= ",f
g.d.
Typos ol Lining:
(i) Heard surface linings:- Such as concrete, brick, burnt clay tiles, shot
And for rapezoidal canals

Crete, asphalt, stone and brick masonry.

"&
A
cr-
D'!Yq

-138- -139-

l-
 Where, O = average velocity, m/s,
O= average velocity, (m/s)
cr= energy coefl. (typical 1.0 to 1.10 in canals) D50 = Medium dia of sedirnent, (m).
g = acceleration tlue to gravity (.ols2)
q5 acceleration tlue to gravity, (mts2)
d = flow depth, m.
A = flow *"u, -!S = Sr. weight of the sedimenr grains GNlm3)
^2 Sp. weighr of warer 6Nlm3)
Ws = water surface width, (m). -!=
Lo= beo share stress
=(*.
For a supercritical flow, canal should be designed a"s a chute. d. So.
(d = depttr of flow, So e7x1",
= surface sl<rpe)
(191 Sedimenttransport:. with the substitution of Co ttre above equation
The sediment moving in flowing water of a canal can be divided into
will be:
0.05 co 02 dl.5 s^ 1.5
three parts: 8s= (KN/m witlth/S)
(r) Suspended load:- It is that pafl Of load which does not move in
contact with the bottom. It is supported by vertical interchange of
uo'l*.,1,,0
turbulent eddies:
The average discharge of canal can
(ii) The bed load:- It is that part of loatl which move in contact with be expressed as:
the bed and they move by rolling sliding & by saltation or small Q=A.V.=Ws.dm.O
leaps. Thus the flow per unit width will be.
(iir) wash load:- It consists of fine sediment which enters fiom outside q=#=dm' o'
and does not settle on the channel boundary. This fraction does not
we can express the sediment transport capacity
in terms of weight of
create a silting problem.

uu.,ffi=,.=fr
sediment/weight of water and convert this
The sediment concentration in the lower layers being more than in to parts/million.
the upper, there would be a net transfer of sediment fiom bottom
towards top.
The weight of suspended grains is transferred to the water as an 8s
excess fluid pressure.
of, x=
Cw.d.O
There are three equations to solve the sediment transportation

=*# #*.
i
problems which are given below:
rhen, x
(D Engelund and Hansen method:. ro6 ppm (by wr.)

-r (.G '.1
Fro a simple assessment o[ sediment transfnfl capacity the tbllowing
equation is used,
0.5
have, "o
Drq-l (o we
fi = Sp. gravity = SG = 2.65 (euartz)
8s = 0'05 1, uz[
((' - (*)rru ]"
L,[g').] X = 15500
o.,d0.5 so I .5
Where, gs = Sediment discharge per unit width of canal (K/N/ur. PPm (D5g < 0.t5mm)

width/s).

-140-
.141.

I
Example: Data:
(b =t actire torce on bed, Kglmz.
d= 2m
(., = critical tractive fbrce in Kgtmz.
O = 1.5 m/s (iii) Einstoin equationr It is rationally tlerived on principles of static.
The equation correlates two dimensionless parameters, Q & Y where'
D50=0.30m=0'3x10-3m.
I
SG = 2.65
a
Es/ I
=e; ("ir)z (#)
1

& (i)
So = 0.5 mlkm = 0.0005,
Then X
*-r := (G.R,.S
, l)d ... ... ... ... (ii)
0.3 x 10.-3 Wrere, 8s = bed load transport rate, Kg/rn/hr'
= l2Z5 ppq:_ G = Sp.Gravity (S.G.) =12.65
0.05. Ls. u2 .0.1'' t,,''t g = acceleration due to gravity
Or, O=
DS KN/m width/s
R = unripple bed hydraulic mean depth, m'
0.5
(.1 'l 'Dso I/l\
r"cl
_ o.os. z.e s. r.s2. z1'5. (o.ooos)t'5
=
F , J
using this n' calculate R'.
=---=.=-
(9.81)o'5. Q.6s - t)2. (0.: x to-3) (*=26s) S = slope of canal'
(w = l.o \ = dos Grain dia')

0.0037 KN/m width/S. 6 = grain size dia. in, m.

=
= 32 ton/m width/S. t'.'1Kg=10N1 Example: Data:
Q = 3o m3/s'
(it) lleyer . Peter's equation:.
bed load concentration = 50 ppm by wt.
It is based on experimented work carried out at Federal institute of Ks=d65=0.30mm'
Technology, Zwich. For natural grains in water (SG = 2.65) the
Solution; Quantity of bed load to be fransport€d.
equation may be written as: 6
^ = 50 x 10- x 30 x 1000 x 3600 kg/hr'
r__ _3
(50 ppm - 50mg 50 x 1O-
6t<g;
8s=47ooLr, (*)i-("1' 1m3 = 1000 kg of water.
Where, 8s = rote of bed load transport in Kg/m/hr. = 54hg/hr.
I
n- = manning's Coeff. pertaining to the grainrsize on plane,
The regime perimeter =P = 4.75 QZ Gacey's).
unrippled bed.
I Or, P = 26m.
Kr6 Let the channei bedwidth be kept =23m.
=T where Kq = grain dia in m (d65)
Hence rate of transport/m width,
n = manning's coefT actual value obtained on the ripple bed of g.=#=235kg/m/hr"
channel.

-143-
-142-
 t
Using Mayer pcter cquation:
(cr=0.075xd. Using Einteins equation:

Es/ I '1 t
= 0.075 x 0.30
=0.02tuglm2 ('.' (cr=
o=fr("i)'G*l
l1 0.75 x <I)

kr7 (o.t * lo-3),

,=T 235
n =--1;-=t.t'ot Wrere (", = kglmz
l1!
2.65 x 1000 x (2.65 - 1)2x (0.003m)2x (9.81)2
&d=inmm. = 1.23
/ (silt factor)
= 1.76{E;= 1.76 x {030 For, +
Q = 1.23, fiom tig (Einstain graph) Y = 3.8.
= 1.0 d
we have, Y =-19-:--t)
Foritn =0.02
Andthen*=ffi+=0.50 or,3.8=@AT@
From Manning's eqn' R'represenls grain roughness only,
Meyereens*=r*[C1*); a"]; ,
r)=!,P'352.
T
,Z

or, Iit3
235=4711sLrooo.n.s.fo.sli -
and it R is the actual hydra mean depth req. for a rippletl bed
o.ouli t. To=pRs) 21.
.'. R'S. = 0.00043. ... ... ... ... (i) 6=lpr57.
n
Again fiom Manning,s equation.
For these two eqns'-
J
Q=v.A.=l*3rz. o.
$= (*)'
n
2t
or, ro =
ofox ng. s2. (26. R), {
3
t... = p.R.l
I1 u=(*)t *=,orr,1 *
or, R3 s2 = 0.026... ... ... ... (ii)
Substituting in Y
Solving (i) & (ii) R 1.22 m.
= ao_(2.65-l)(0.0003)
1x=-
S=0.000352=35m&m R'.S
a
Actual perimeter would be very nearly -1
the assumed perimeter
= 26m OK Or, R.S. = 0.00036 ('.'R'= o.s 7.nl
If the side slopes are tne canal requires a water depth _ 1.36 m &
21
|:t, a
O=| six 26.R.
n5
slope of 35m/ km with a bed witlth
of 23mto carry this bed load. 2t
:o =
Or,
rfox nTx sf x zo.n.

-144- -145.
 ll Slopcs:-
Or, R2 s2 = A.026 tz l
Squaring,
10
s=o.ooo2o6J.fi
T ,,, (m < 0.2 mrfi)

R3.s=o.ooo676 171 EoI

s=o.ooo274.i.rE . rril (0.2 <m <0.6mm)
Simplitylrrg the values of R & Trom above two equatiotts,
S
ls 1
R = 1.31 m.
S = 0.000274 (=274 cm/km)
s = o.ooo3o3
ji. ri "t' . ,,,, (0.6 < m<2mm)
.lI
& b = 23.m. 13-;
s = o.oool88J ,t6
... ... (viii) (m > 2mm)

(2Ol Regime apprcach (empirical approachf:.

In this approach the equations were primarily based on experiences Whetre, Ks = median grain size (mm)
Dm = mean dePth, flow arealWs, (m)
with irrigation canals and empirical data tiom natural courses.
A channel is considered to be in regime condition where neither E = Shape factor, wetted PerimeterAMs.
erosion nor deposition of material occurs. In other words non-siltittg O = Velocity (m/s)
and non-scouring of a channel is a regime condititxt. Slope and Q = tlischarge (m3/s)
section of a channel will be in equilibrium (rate of transport equals S = slopes ofcanal
the rate of sediment supply) in this approach. e = width factor.

Laccy's regime cquations can be summarizcd as m = sediment particle median dia, (rffn).
follows:-
1
'f lacey's silt factor for general use ranges from 0.8 to 1.2 is
suggested. 'f = 0.4 to 10 for silt, 1.25 - 2.75 tor sand, 4.75 - 9.0 fbr
Water surface width W" =4.83.E.Q2 ... ... ... (i)
gravel, 12to 24 for boulders.
Silt facttrr, , =ryf (ii)
e = width raaor; or a cray traction. and.
Silr facror, t -- 1.75.1\ ... (iii) lf ij1ffil:us
1
t2ll Tractivo lorcr method (enalytical approachf ol
Mean depth (hydraulic), ,* J## ,.. ... .. (iv) designing ol a canel:-
,1. tl Non-scouring channels will be designed with this Principle. For a
particle resting on the bed level the force is provided by the drag of
Eqnt (i) to (ii) are valid for all values of, m, the sediment particle
median diameter (rrun). moving water. Similady for a particle resting on a slope, there are
two forces, one due to gravity and the other due to fluid drag. This
gravity has a component tangential to the slope. The particle will

-146- -147 -
 move w"hen the resurtant of the fbrce of fluid drag Motion will result in side when the ratio of 'F to nonnal lirrce 'Ws.
artd tangential
componeht of the gravity lbrce are suflicient to Cos 0,'is equal to'tan Q'.
move the particle.

i.e. tano=W
W".Coso
or, (, =
ffi ... ,.. ... ... (i)

Also motion will,result in bed when,

tanQ = "(r
lils
Or, (, _ Ws.
a
tanO
(ii)

Section of Canal
And ractive force ratio, K, :

Flow
K=

..(iii)
E = cos
" { (,.,#_)= { (- ffi)
Maximum stress acting on bed (coetr. (c) from tractive stress on bed
J multiplied by y. R.S) S Limiting stress on sides, K. LL.
For trapezoidal canal having side slopes t: tfo--to l:2. Coell'. (c) can he
trken as 0.97 for berl and 0,76 for sides. Unit tractive tor Lo. is
plan of Canal given by:
-7-
Equilibrium of a grain on sido slopa. Lo = C.r.R.S ,.. (iv)
Wtrerc g' = Side slope angle. Where r = Sp. wt. 0f water (1000 ks/m3)
IF = Submerged wt. of parricle. R = hydraulic radius, m
Ls = Tractive tbrce intensity on side. S= Water surface slope.
o, = area of the particle.
Tractive force on grain = a (r. C = 0.97 for bed &.0.76 for sides.

F = Resulranr force = 1/ twr2 s in2u+azTs2)

= angle of repose of particle
+-
LL = I imiting tractive force on level bed.

-l48- .749.
 1.0
0.97
,-t_ I'rapcz0ids
Permtsstble or lirniting tractive force or stresses. (N/m2)
iS=2:l &1,5 wittr velocities and manning's n, (1N = 0.10 kB)

Trac{ive torce (l*,1/m2

Velo, Clear Velo Water Mannings'

q
j
/ Maleriale (r/s) Wder (rt/s) transporting (n).

€
l + Rectanglq
collidal silts.
lCohesivasl

Flneoand, Collidal, 0.5q 1,30 0,80 3.70 0.0200

ti
Sandy loam, non collidal. 0,50 1,80 0,80 3,70 0.0200

Slh loam, no ollidal 0.60 2,30 0,90 5.40 0.0225

Alluvial silts non collidal 0.60 2.30 1.10 7.30 0,0225

Odinaryfirm loam 0,80 3,70 1,10 7,30 0,0225

Volcani ash, 0.80 3,70 1 ,10 7,30 0,0225

B/D ratio Striff clay, very collidal 1.10 12.70 1,50 4.50 0.025
'
Max. tractive stress on bed. Alluvial silts, collidal 1.10 12.70 1,50 n.50 0,025

Shales & hardpans 1,80 32.8 1,80 32.80 0,025

Fine gravel. 0,8 3.7 1.50 15,60 0,0225

Graded loam to cobbles when non

collidal 1.20 18,6 1,50 32,30 0.030

Graded sills to cobbles when collidal 1,50 21.0 1,50 39.10 0.025

q Coarse gravel, non collidal 1.50 14.70 1.80 32,80 0,025

d,
Cahhlas ,{ chinnlac 1.50 /r'60 1.70 53 sO 0"035

-o
Examplcr
A channel with light load of fine sediment
Bedwidth,b=5.0m.
Waterdepth, d= 1.0rn.
Side slopes, S.S. = 1.5:1
Median size of particle, K, = 1.0mm.

TanQ = 0.75
Design a channel without causing scour.

-150. ,'1.51-
 From table (following this example), permissible stress
on betl = Uud mortar rlone'nrasonaty lining:'
0.29 kglm2. lffil
For cheaper irrigation projects in the hills or Terai of Nepal a mud
If the side slope is q,, Coar c = 1.-5, Coro 1
tan cr = mortar (cohesive soil) stone masonary with sufficient design sections
U*& 1.5
can be used. Design example is given below:
Hence,,.=**\m=038 Data: Design discharge = Q = 0.50 m'/s'
I

Design rectangular section

Now,
Manning's'n'= 0.025
Permissible stress on bed = 0.29 kg/mz. 1

Or, C.r. R.S = 0.29 ('. HereR=depflr)

Canal sloPe =
ffi
Or, 0.97x 1000x l.0xS =0.29 (CoeU. C = 0.97) tolution:
Or, S= 0.2t)8 x l0-3 or 29.8 cm/km.
ffi=
Similarly,
Permissible stress on sioe K.(L. F. +l
Or, CrRs K(1.
Or, 0.76 x 1000 x 1.00 xS =0.38x0.29.
Or,
0.38 x 0.29
^ =-'JA-= u 145 x 10-3 = 14.5 cmlkm.
For most eff,rcient section, R = t ... ... ... .. (i)
"
The lower of the slopes, r4.5 cm/km b=2(t[22 *t - z)t=z(r1oTr - 0) = 2d.... ... ... (ii)
will have to be adoptetr. If k*ger
slopes are to be used, the sidc slopes shoukl be A = (b +zd) d=bd+zdL = bd + 0.d2 - bd.' .. '.. ." ... ..(iii)
stabilized_
Substitute b =2d from (ii) in (iii)

Table for Limiting (permissiblef stresses for ... [ = 2d.d= 262 ... ... ... (iv)

non-cohesive matetiat llnrm nranning's equation discharge.

Tractive ( Permissible stresses lbr non r:olresi Q=A.O.
2t
Median size of
Limiting lractive force kg/m2

(1k0.10N)
or, a=2drl.nJsz
2

#61 (+J"
material (d50) Clear waler Light load of
(mm)
fine sedimenl
Heavy load of

fine sedimenl
or, o5o=
0.1
q
0.122 0.241 0.364
0.2 0.'r25 0.250 0.375 ( )r, 0.50 = --@-x (0.001333)0's
0.5 0.145 0.265 0.400
0.025 x (2)3
1.0 0.193 0.290 0.435
2.0 0.290 0.386 0.530
!
( )r, ,9 =o.2ltlz
.'. d = 0.61m.

-7 52-
-153-
Hence, b ='2d = 2 x 0.61 = 1,22 m. Canal Headworks.
Check
2L
The structural works provided at the off take of a oanal from its
o = nT s; =
| o#* (ry)','"u x (0,00133)o.s
souroe are known as canal head works. The canal head works are temporary

artd permanent. Small hill irrigation systems have temporary type of

= 0.66 m/s <1.0 ut/s Ok
headwofis.
Fraurle no. Fr = { =
......-.,....L- = 0.27 < rr. 5 5
1e.81 x o'61 The headworks may be divided into two classes-diversitm headworks
JS
Tractive force, Lo C.r.Rs. iuld storitge hr:rulworks, Diversion head works mainly serve to divert the
=
For bed, (o
= 0.97 x l00O x 0.305 x 0,00133 required supply into the canal tiom its source, And the storage headworks
serve the purpo$e of storing up surplus water when available in the
river in
= 0.39 kglmz <0.54 kg/#
Wall thickness = 0.55 of h = 0.55 x 1.01m = 0.55m. excess of demand and releasing it when demand overtakes available
supplies'

Stone soling with

earth, clay (oohcsive soil),

p-o.ss+l+- t.22nr
----a,F0,s5-l
Mud mortar stone mosonary lining
Crnal section
For Q = 0.5 m3/s
s=#

A typicel fig. of divemion

Head works.

.1 55.
.1 54.
A diversion headworks consists of the fbllowing parts.
(i) The 'weir' ot bartage:. It provides the obstruction across thi
lrl Others arebuttress weirr timber weir, trench type
weir, ogeo type weir etc.
rn'er required to raise up its water level and divert the water into the
canal. It is aligned at right angles to the direction of flow of the (ii) Undersluices:- It is constructed in continuation of the weir with a
river. Weirs may be dividerl into the tbllowing classes:
crest at a lower level on the same side of canal. For scouring of silt
(al llasonary ureir with vertacal dropsr tleposits in front of the regulator, the crest of under sluices should be
lower than the crest of head regulator by at least 1.20 m, if no
special work to exclude the silt from the canal is provided. Under
sluices passes the winter freshets and low floods without dropping
the weir shutters. Under sluices should be capable of passing 10 -
l57o of the maximum flood discharge to reduce the length of the
(bl Rock lil! weirs with sloping apron!. weir. To ensure scouring capacity, under sluices should be able to
take at least double the canal discharge at pond level.
(iii) The divide wall: It separaies the weir fiom under sluices. It
provides a quiet pocket in front of canal head regulator &
concentrates scouring action of the under sluices tbr washing out the
silt deposits. Its top width will be 1.5 - 2.2m, made with masonry.
(cl Concrete weirs with sloping glascies
downstream:. (tv) The Fish tadder:- Water is released from the fish ladder for the lif'e
of fishes. Fishes can travel up stream in water flowing with a
velocity of 3.0 to 3.5 m/s.
(v) The canat head regulator:. It is the intake structure of the
canal. It regulates the supply of water into the canal and completely
shout out the high flootls from entering into tle canal. It controls the
entry of silt into the canal. The crest of head regulator should be
higher than the crest of under sluices by a minimum of 1.20 m & if
(dl Barrage: lt provides large paft of ponding & ir silt excluder is provided by a minimum of 1.80 m. The head
eonsists o, and shutters.
regulator is sometimes aligned at 90o to the weir but slightly larger
angles upto aktut 110' are appreciable.
With broad crest & sloping glacis downstream, the discharge formula
applicable is:
1
Q = 1.71 (L - k.n.H). n2 .., ... ... (i)
Wlrcrc, Q = tlischarge in, m3is.

-156- -r57-
n = no. of end confraction of,piers. The secondary cunents that occur at river bends play an importurt
K = Coefficients depending upon the shape of the upstream cut water role in sediment exclusion in the canal system.
0r nose of the piers.
(K=0,01 -0.03) Typcr ol lntekcrr
K = 0.01, for round piers. (l) Stunple bank intake.
= 0, for pointed piers. 0l) Double orifice intake.
= 0,02 for square piers. (lll) Bottom rack intake (Tyro lean).
L = length of weirs.
H = head above crest, m.
(lv) Bank intake with sirle sluhe.
In small hill inigation systems, temporary weirs 0f gahion hOxes
(v) Gabion weir intake.
and mattresses interlocked with possibly existing boulrters, wtxxlen .tomo dorlgn ooncrpt on o^enrl lntekor (lrillmont
piles and boulder & brush wood weirs have providetl to be most
tttp otc.f:.
suitable and are extensively used.
(a) Head loss over cill =g'28
Locatlon of l{rW or Sldo intako. \\,tse O = Velocity thero'restriction (Over cill etc.)
Side intakes must be safe against boulder impact ancl tlood waters K = Loss Coeff. (= 2.5 for contraction)
entry. They are most effective when built on the outer bend of the g = 9.81 m/s2.
river or near natural pools,
O) Assumption should be taken that the half the available depth is for
sediment trap or storage and that the area above storage level should
give a trough velocity ranging 0.15 m/s(for settling course.send) to
0.50 ur/s (for settling mediun coarse gravel only).
(c) The first orifice uea might be 60% of net trap cross section (or..toqo
of the gross), The area on cill might be the same as the net trap crcss
section.
bend 0f rivcr. (o Nominal trap velocities:-

Coarse Fine/medium Medi Coarse

Sand srevel pravel
Nominal trap velocities 0,15m/s 0.2Smls 0.5Om/s
Sill velocity 0.15m/s 0.25mls 0.50m/s
First orifice velocity 0,25m/s 0,42mls 0.83m/s
Ouflet gate velocity 0,60m/s 0.60m/s 0.60m/s
Headloss at Sill 3mm 8mm 32mm
Headloss at lst orifice 8mm 22mrr 88mm
Section A.A.
Head at outlet gate 46mm '46mm 4r6mm
of river
Total head loss 57mm 76mm l66mm

.1 58. .r.59-

ft
 (e) The above basic concept is fbr upto Q = 0.50 rn3/s. Aroa of scdimcut ll rlcsign ol caual systcrn in l.erms of its transporting capacity is not
rlrcr
trap cross $ection (A,) ranges from}to'l m2. wr:ll cstahlishcd, lrlr example, in an unsurveyed small existing system, then
(0 Length of trap, L = S{-n.to 10 .{
\ i.e. 7m - 26m firr a 0.5 m3/s rssurnc a maximum capacity of 100 mg/l of 0.30 mm dia. sand during
flow. uuxrth with the highest sediment load. For design purposes:

For largerschemes we can design as the fbllowing: Use settling basin design curves.

Gravel trap: The main design principle is that the water velocity through choose a flow depth sufficient to ensure no rescues ofdeposits when
the basin shouldbe less than that which is component to move the smallest there is full storage. Use critical bottom velocity.
size of gravel. Use siorage requirements in terms of fiequency of clearing out and
Flow velocity thro' gravel trap allow this volume below the nominal basin depth.
The storage volume, Os,
Particle Nominal velocity Design velocity
Size for deoths (m/s) for denths (m/s)
(mm) Q x Xmax x Q x F.I. x 3600 x 24
3m 1.5m 3m 1.5m os =
100 4.0 3.5 2.0 t.7 B.D. x 106
60 3.4 3.0 1.7 1.5 Where, Q = flow rate thro'settling basin, m3/s
40 3.0 2.6 1.5 1.3
X*u* = maximum sediment concentration (by mass) of entering
20 2.3 2.1 1.2 1.1 flow (mg/l)
10 1.8 1.6 0.9 0.8 O = trap efliciency.
5 1.8 t.6 0.7 0.6 BD = Bulk density of setteled materials, (t/m3)
2 0.8 0.1 0.40 0.3 F.I. = Interval between flushing or emptying (days).
Sand trap: Sand traps operate as settling basin. The theorl ot Rrr smalU medium schemes.
sedimentation is the ba.sis of design. For the design of the settling basin the Xmax = as given above.
D2g particle size should be used (D26 size being that which 207o of the
dl = 0.90 (90Vo)
sample, by weight, is smaller than). It is not considered practiciil to provide
BD = 2 tlm3
a settling basin tbr D26 particle sizes less than 0.15mm. For design of the
scouring velocity in the settling basin, the D5g size should be used.
FI = 7 days

Flushing design for sand trap.

Maximum suspended solids D26 Size D56 size
Scouring velocities for D56 sizes of sand are given in graph (use the
mg/l concentration (mm) (mm)
graph). The bed slope needed in settring basin to provide
the scouring
Poor Medium Gxxl
velocities can be calculated as follows:
intake site intake site intake site
Qs
qr={'Yr=v;
qs
Hills 2000 r500 r000 0.20 0.40
Terai 2000 t-s00 1000 0.15 0.30

-160- - 161-

llir.
 Wko, Qr. 1.25 x Qdeslgn.
Bw . Bed width of sefillng basin.
Vr. - Sconring velocity.
o Yg - Scourlng depth of flow in basin.
o C
t
c o 6
c tl
(,8 IE
Es
E
I I-ll I Slopc curves for various g, & Vrr:
5o
o; E8 E.:
to
!
t.l.o
EI # Er
Ei E]E
t-{
S. = (n Vr")2. f+Y
Us/
[n = 0.015 forconcrete
*i
6fr
EA 8(
o
ot,9

'85 I
CE t-
.L'. -ri
6
= 0.02 for masonary.l
The sDe of settling basin sluice gate and its invert level shoukl be
0, E
E
n
ll'5 E.
6 based on following criteria,
w si o lAi
o C
.E B a
v --.-:.-
t
tilr i 's - rI
=IEb
8i e
E Er
r +ro ; -'o
- Br. vr.'
tl
E;
'$l
2Er
55
.EE
T
T
sr qe =4
Qs

o
r! (Q, = uni, a'tch. in sand sluice gate
6 Jo
o Bg = width of sand sluice gate)
E
vo
I
I
_o_
o tc = (#) (1, = oeptn of.water v/s of sand sluice gate)
",

flI The depth of sand sluice invert below the bed of the settling ba.sin
d/s end is:
at

Y*+0.05-Y,

.162. .1 63-
 JG

Sequent depth, h2 is a function ofFraude

No. Fr.
V^
rr--F--...
.,
... ... ... (ii)
1g-h3

fr=o,
t{, ., r*, - r] .. ... (iii)

&dhr
To river'

Access bridge

Sard sluicegeb

Where, Q = discharge in m3/s

t""' .ain canal
LI Cd = discharge cmtf. tlependent on
hr & a ( = 0.60)
Cv = velocity coefiicient (=1.0)
Setting basin hl = hcurl ol water u/s of opening,
From intake m.
b = n,idth of gate, m.
a - gate or orifice opening, m.
Li

,A, typrcal double oritice intake showing sediment rap

r) = velrrity of flow at opening, m/s.
I Orficc ontrclliag
Irr = rgqusnl depth, depttr ofiuinp, m.

d\
flow frcn riva. fre conrotling
I flow to cual Ir j = dgrth before jump. m.

ii To crral
Submerged flow:
\.:.i:.i: I

l':':':': /
l:.'.1:;.' 1

'y'o'-
o

Free llow:.
j Suhmerged flow

Q = Crl. Cv' U' a2 ,*(*- 0 63) (i)

-164- -165-
 Example: Design a weir on pemreable fbundations by using Khosla,s
Curves. The dates are given below in the drawing.
Data:
U/S Pond ldel, 102.00

Weirgrted frce flow

3.
(r)
Q= 1.?xbxH2 ... ... ...
Solution:
Where, = width of weir'
fo

H Head ovet crest' m' Hea4 U=102-98.50

':
= 3.50 m.
(i) D/S cut off depth: The deptlr .r d/s cut off must be suflicient to
keep the exit gradient (Ge) wirlrrn
Jrermissible limit.
Soil type is course sand.
Design value of exit gradient lirr hrs soil type;
Ge=1:5to6
1
Take Ge =)=0.20 is coqsidercd r0 hr. reruonable
o
The pressure at tle bottom ol tlrc e ul oll.is h, and
l.MxbxH2,,.,"" "' (1)
L

(ie = H1-----:
Q=
Welr gate tubmorgcd llow:' =X
d ,r{1"

wtrcre, =-FEanda=,rb
^
Wehave,b=15m.
Try with d = 3.3m then s, = = = 4.55
3 rr*
.'. )u=2.82

.'. c"=Sx-!=
r.r o.zo
niz.az
A 3.30m deep cutoff is therefore acceptable.
WhereCd= 0.60

-166- -167 -
,.rua, .. )a. !t:t
il Upllft prorluro!-
Arr u/s cot oft depth of 2m is taken. So R.L. is 98.0 Assume
trrititlly that u/s and d/s cut off walls are independent and the floor
q..4,. ; rhrckncss is negligible. For the u/s cut off:

/ ii ::: ,: =*=*=0.,s:
!.:.: i; [;nmr Khosla's chart, tbr sheepile at end.
:i i .tti.: : Q11 = 22Vn, ODr = 1007o - 22Vo = 78Vo
i I
: .-;: I I 12%,
.ri i i QE= QCr = 1007, '32 = 687o
!.: i '1 I
r'IX . Agrply crlrrcction to the above values,
:!t ^i (rU Ctrrection of Sg, fbr the thiclness;
l I -lF
:! Assume thickness of floor, t1 = 0.80m
t.
3 tr
(lrrrect of C, =.r (QO, - 0
a C)
0
=ry (iEVo-6wo)

=+41o
(h) Correction of Q", for interference of tVs cut oft.
t
Khosraromrurac = re
(ulf (T)
The bottom of the floor level u/s is (100 - !)
= (100 - 0.8) = 99.29
Assume floor thickness 1.0 at end of stilling basin. Then
D = U/s floor bottom level - D/s pile toe level.
= 99.2 - 95.2 = 4m
Dl = U/s floor bouom level - u/s pile toe level

= 99.20 - 98.0 = 1.20m.

br= 14'5 m (aPProx').

ThenC=C
/ 4_\0.5_* /1.20 + 4\
(r+s/ (: ts )=-3.MEo
Thus the corrected value 0r, = 68% + 4Vo + 3.46%

: 75.SVo
For the D/s cut off

*=f = #=0.r,
-168- -1 69-
 From Khosla's chart,
QD = 2'7.SVo, QE= 42Eo
Correction to be applied at upper and lower end of slope
is 11.2 x
(a)
Apply correction to the above values, fr
Correction of Qg for the floor thickness:
= * 1.71o
(lrrection, 0p = 65 + 1.7 663Eo
Assuming lloor thickness = 1.25m. =
correcrion=!tO, - Ogl 0G=59+1.7+60.7Vo
Summary of uplift pressures:
=#
3.3'-"" ei.Svo - 4zEo) I.ocation From chart Conected
Dt 78Vo TBVo
='5.57o
o) Correction for interf'erence of the u/s cut otT
Cl 687o 75.5Vo

The level of the bottom of the ils floor is 96.75 &. the level of the - 66.77o
toe of u/s pile is 98. G 6oJvo
.'.D=96.75-99=-2.0 E 42Vo 36.5Vo
This (-ve) means that the u/s cut ofT has no influence on the uplitt D 27.5Vo 2't.S%
pressure at the D/s cut off.
(lv) Deterrrining the flrxrr thickness:
Thus the corrected value of Qp It 'h' is the varuc .f the ordinate from the hydrauric gradient
to the
= 42Vo - 5.51o upper floor surlhce. then the depth of material rer;uired,
=
= 36.57o
utr;
Wlrcrc, 6(sub) = The submerged density of the tloor material.
(c) Correction due to slope:
Q%o=lQgqn=102.0
Pressure at top (F) and bottom (G) of slope are calculatetl by
QVo=UVc=911.5
interpolation.
Assuming a flat appron.. HVo=lU)Vo=3.50
0", - 0p
The hydraulic revel at eacri point is carcuratea fiom
the fbrmura,
= 75.57o - 36.5Vo = 39Vo
roz-{sixn
so that QF = (if x 3 e) = 657o
7s.s
PositionCEGE
0c=7s.s (#x 3e) =5e?o
QVo 15.5Vo 6.7Va 60.jVo 36.5Vn
Correction due to slope, Uplift press. level 101.14m l00.g3m 100.62m 99.7gm
Slope 7o Correction UpperConc. Surfacelevel. 100m 100 m
1:1
9gm 9gm
11.2 h=
l:2
1.14m 0.g3m 2.62m 1.7tJm
6.5 Mlrrimum depth of conc. regd. 0.g0m
1:3 4.5
0.60m 1.g5m 1.25m
Actual depth (incl F of Saf.) 1.0m 0.70m 2.20m 1.50m
l:4 -1.-1
1:5 2.8 The minimum depth of concrete required is increased
to a,ow iirr a
1:6 2.5 factor of safety = 1.20 against uplift.

-170-
-t7t-
 Examplel. 2 Design a serrling basin (Sanrl trap) with rhe fblkrwing
figure
dataes. Dataes: Hill canal, Scouring Valocities in Sand Trap
Entrance depth =.0.65m
Q design = 0.50 m3/s
intake site: good
Maximum suspended solid concenhation = 1000 mg/I.
Particle size, D26 = 0.20mm
D5o = o'4omm'
Canal can carry 100 mg/l solids.
n = 0.02
Solrtion:
Settling basin must trap a suspended solids concentration of lff[ -
100 = 900 m/1. This is approximately 90Vo trappinq efTiciency.
(i) Settting hasin si:zc:- Frum settling basin tlesign curvcs.
For D2g = Sizc = 0.20m

$
AS
= O.OOS (Frrxrr gr:rplr)

...As=o$r=ffi= l(rm2

1g
Length ratio of settling basin 5 to 10.
= =
T
Takeff= l0(say).
Assumingwidth,W= lnr
.'.L=10.W=10.3=J0nr.
(ir) Check minimum tluw dcprh:
Assuming critical bottom velocity = 0.2mls tbr D111 (tiom trough
velocity giaph).

(iii)
Minimum water depth =
# = #fo = 0.83 m =0.85m.
Storage volume, O.;

o"
Bd x 106
0.-5 x 900 x 0.90 x 7 davs x 3600 x 24
2x106
= 12250 m3
Particle size, D50
I
-172-
i
-173-
L

I
,{r
@
 Figure
Guidance !o OuUine Desion of Gravel lr,r ,i1?'S"?"#3[i'fl&i
and Settling Basins (deprh ringE t.5io-s ii' rsp""irlce8lXlfl
raFO o I
qq
_OOOO O O
ocqqq 9 q 83
ooooo o o cioo
g
OO

--
l>o
E3
E
o
,-":'
4di ci>F
# bIj
Ey r)
(l!
o o
utt o
J= ci
(J,
FF
Eu {
EH o F
n U
e3 o o
J
I!
o\J
oZ
JF
F
E]

l''
I
U)

Ee38
oooo 3 X
c I
osuRFAcE
:. s€TrLlilG
Lo
B
il6, O/A FOR
N (ralo=.)
003
o.e ro

PARTICLE DIAMETER ( nrnl

:;
lvls 0z (I
(uu)uatu{vlq a'IJttwd
-174- -175-
 o^ Wc have,
Sroagedepth=f# =m= 1.36 = 1.40m
1
For 7 days flushing. Q = 1.84x Wx H
This storage depth must be provided below the flow depth. _1

(iv) Flushing design:- or, 0.25 = 1.84x2xHZ

From scouring velocity curve, scouring velocity for D5g (0.40mm) I
Particle = 1.35 m/s ,=(.#L)2=o.n^.
Scouring flow = 1.25 x Qdesign.
Q" = 1.25 x 0.50 = 0.625 m3/s Free board = 0.13m
For Q = 0.75 m3is, Canal depth = ?

m=qr=T#=o'21 m3/s/m.
Using formul4
qs 0'21 rQma ro'6 .ln,.n
tT
Scour rleptlr of ;ow, Ys =
v.* 1.35 =
o. l6m.
(.o**] = ooffi (APProximatelY)

.!.( 2_ L\ u,
BerI srope, sc = (n. u." = R,
L t, .'. dsoo6= (ffi)o o.u,
".r, ([)e. [. )
4 = 0.83m
Water levcl rises when QnooO tlows in Canal
= (0.02 xr.35)2- (.h), = o.oos3 =
# by 0.ti3 - 0.65 = 0.18m.
This is the minimum bed slope of settling birsin This level will be same in basin also.
Assuming a lm wide scour gate,
Hence spill way height, H = 0.17 + F.b.
Qs
qg= = 0.17 + 0.13
gut" *i.ttt =
tf = 0.625 m3/s/m.
= 0.32

(i#)?=o5rm = 0.35m.

Depth
'-=(#)'= Design of flush out canal;
of sand sluice invert below bed of settling basin Scouring velocity = 1.35n/s.
= Yg * 0.05 - Yr. Qnooo = 0'75 m3/s
j 0.51 + 0.05 - 0.16 = 0.40m.
A=$=ffi=0.56m2
Dmign sido rpill weyl
3 Taking bed width = gate width = 1.0m.
Qfor sharp crested weir I.84 x W x ft2.
We have Qd = 0.5 m3/s.
= .'.water deptn =t# = 0.56m.

Supgrcse Q flood = 507o adttition. Manning's fornula;

.'. Q spill wa] = l.J x 0.5 = 0.75 m3/s 2
0.02 x 1.35
Discharge over spill way = 0.75 - 0.50 = 0.25 m3/s
Take the width of spill way = Jp.
srope, s=
ffi)'= 0.56 \2/3
= o.ooa| = *
H= I t( 1+ 22 x 0.56
0.56) )
-17 6- -177 -

&-
 .'. Drawingr Special Works to Control

Side weir u
/ spillway
l./
-{t _ _9_ _
(1) sitt excruder!- These works are constructed in the river bed
in tront
- tlSsrr -
regulator to prevent coarse silt from enrering
Rl!:19 D*charge,
rresrgn:-
the canat.
Intake e, carried by silt excluder should be aktut 20Vo <>f the
o.Bs canal discharge.
- a minimum velocity of 1.g _ 3.0 m/s must be maintained to keep
I
\z free from sediment deposits.
I 4(lm
....-.-.
- henceA=9
d'
- heigrt of the opening is determined by tlre cleara,ce
available fiom
jre flgor of pocketu/s of under sluicei to the cre.st;f rrr"Jl*griuro,
less the thickness of nxrf covering,
A
.'.widttr=ffi
lo crnal

To urdersluice

_-_>
_->
---;>

"*r"rr,l
Plan
Settling hasin (Sediment tran) Section nftunncl

Double Orifice Silt excluder:

-179-
-178-
A) . 3llt oxtnctor or 3llt.f.Gto?!'
These works are construct€d olr the canal a little distance d/s ftom the Drop(Fall) Structures
head regulator works and they sene to remove some of tle silt which
has already entered tbe canal hom the bead and hill slopes'
(l) ll:oority end Locetibn:
Design: It consists of a horizontal diaphragm slab a little above the canal
- bedwhic.h sepafirtes outthebottom layers of flowing waters where when the availabre ground slope exceeds the design be<l slope of the
suspends occur. The canal bed is slightly depressed under the canal' this excess has to be accounted for by providing vertical drop
or falls
diapnragut in 'the canal bed. A drop may be provided at a location where the F.s.L.
Qd=lfiqn of the cmal discharges. outstrips the ground level but before the bed of the canal comes into fiuing.
heigbt of oJrenings = according to the cross-section of canal ('e' 50 - The F.S.L should remain below ground level alter the fall for
75% ofcanal dePth)
about z}u{[
m (as to this extent has area can be easily irrigated by a water course from
an outler at high level u/s of the fall)

Canal
-->

The purpose of a drop structure:

- to achieve a drop in water level in canal.
- to check erosion in canal.
- to raise water levels at off take location in the canal to fecilitate
watef
delivery to the new or existing off take (outle$.

A) Typot ot drops:
(1) Vertical drop (Srraight drop ) (0.5 to 1.5m)
.L (2) Chute drop (upto 10m)
(3) Pipe drop (4m)
(4) Cascade drog (1.0 m)
Seclion X - Y

Silt ejector
-180- -181-
 Figure
(3) Vortlcel droPs (Stnight dtoPll'
Typical Longitudinal Seclion
2r I ot'ra

a I @aal
ora laaaal
0al i03 tar

,J. lfl,lu
e.o | ff'!al
asr l@tal r'rffit
eac I a tlr
ore I al tal
,l,l,1,i,iil'l'ii,r,i""']"il +
d/8lo$e
proEction
err l@'tar ral5-3.(htr
fi
ur laa arr
t?r |6 lcr tfrff 5 x canal
waE dEp[t)

!at I ta'ect Vertical drops

raa lor'aar
Dorign GoncoPts:
1".,1 llil3i (i) \ = (dZ- T*) + DroP + P '. '.. ... (i)
ra. ltatll
aa
ce lot
at
att
lCl aat
lortl
Dropnumber. D=+'..
qv' '.. ... "' (ii)
tr loorll
lra loo.al q
tl
Fraudeno.Fr= (iii)
aaa lta'atl
ora lfi'3ll
iV b-\
tn llrati Q ... (iv)
9-
^- Bw
rt9 iogall
Where, Bw = Canal bed width; P = height of crest'
rrr ltt aar
eea loiatl Ld = Length of drop, Lj = Length of jump' etc'
arl llflal
(ii) Crest width = UIS canal bed width.
o.r I sa'alt
tar l@aal
Itt +satl
(iii) Crest levei should be set so that there is no draw down in U/S canal.
El 16 atl (iv) Discharge over chest is as broad crested weir:
J

e = r.7r. w.H t ... ... ... .. (i)

(v)Asmallpipeof5mQshouldbeprovidedthrtluglrthecresttohelp
tD lrcat U/S canal drainage.
o +50ar
i;t!!!
xor.l,tA31:l
gg (vi)Thestillingbasinshoultlbeofrectangularsectiotrandbeslightly
wider(sayby0.20m)thantheU/ScreStwidthsotlrattlrenappeis
aerat€d., Altematively, aeration grooves should be provided (otherwise
cavitation may take Place).

-183-
 The basin size and depth should be checked for Q1g67r, Q5g7, and HYDRAULIC CHARACTERISTICSOF STRAIGHT DROP SPILLWAY HYDRAULIC JUMP

QtO?o of the design discharge. Supercritical flow changes to sub

critical flow in basin forming hydraulic jump which in fact the
energy dissipator.
(vii) Fraude no. Fr = 4.5 to 13.00
(viii) Protection works d/s beyond the basin = 5 x canal water depth.
(rx) Check for safety against uplift & piping failure.
d
=l
?lj
(x) Seepage path length = 4 x the maximum hydraulic gradient. rl
Fl
(i.e. exist gradient =
i
(O Cut off should be provided at d/s and u/s of basin to protect fiom
scouring and piping.
(xii) Desirable limit of drop height = 0.5 to 1.0m. But sometimes it can
be taken as upto 2.0m.

. Example
Design a vertical drop with the following data
Q = 0.50 m3/s
Drop height = 1.0m.
B*(Canal bed width) = 0.80m.
U/S & D/S Canal water depth = d = 0.65m.
.l
Side slopes =): I
Solutioru
Step 1. Calculation of L6 & Li with Q100%
Assume d2=0.71m.
Then y = (dZ - Try) + drop + p.

Drop no. D =4=

'*)'
= (0.71 - 0.65) + 1.0 + 0.08 (say) = 1.14m.
(8*)',
\r-= t^8illl4t = 0.027

From D V, d2ly grapb, d2ty for D = 0.027 is

d2lY =9525
.'. dz= y x 0.625 = 1.14x0.625 =0.7725

= 0.71m as assumed.
Calculation of Ld = ?
h r.0
L'tJ (... Hw = 0.65 - 0.08 = 0.57m)
Hw-0.57-

-l 84-
-185-
 dc
From graph, D ,- ; compute d2

Lri Q
From graph D v, , = o.tzs
v
l.?i assumed 0.15m'
(...D = 0.027) :. d2=0.715 x =0.22m' which is greater than
L4rorP
yHw = 1.75 is 1.70
Again assume, dz= 0.20m.
;. L6= Yx'l'.7 =1.14x 1.70= 1.938
Then y = 0.20 + 0 + 1.Gr0'08 = 1.28m'
= 1.95m. D=
j1= 0.00018.
Calculation of L, = ? gyr
Calculation of d1(dePth of jumP) From sranh.9 = 0.tO
",.y
Read graph, U u-
$. :. d2= 0.16 x Y
No*.$ =0.125 t.'D=0.027) = 0.16 x 1.28
'v OK'
= 0.206m which is nearlY
i. dr=0.125 x Y =0'125 x 1'14 =0.1425= 0'14m' Now setd3, dz>dz
g 0.5
dl=dz+0'01
Pr=9=&=3.81 = 0.2 + 0.01
{eor !q.gt
x 0.14
L. = 0.21. m.
Read from Fr Vs for Fr = 3'81
*|graPh SimilarlY, d4 = ? d1= J

L, From figure' d4='J2- Tw = 0'71 - 0'65 = 0'06 m'

4 = 5.75
d2 4f=yx0.5=0.57m.
.'. Lj = 5.75 x d2= 5.75 x 0.71 = 4'10 m'
Now length of stilling basin = L4 + Li'
= 1.95 + 4.10 = 6.05 m. = 6.10 m.
*'1..
Step 2. Calculation of d3 for %* t.".
!f = o.os

Assume, dz = 0'15m.
T=0'15-0+1+0.08 (. Tw = 0,Assumed)

= l-23m. rVs loose

/0.0s\2 protcctirtrt

fr=j1- \o3o/ -=o.ooo2. t, min = 0.30nt.

butheret=0.60m. (vs cut
(1.0n)
off {lepth
=:t.Uu.

gyr 9.81 x (1.23)3

F Ld=r.r5**l<--- LF4.IG" --i
Vertical d$P
ilrd# =-'! ,=9.07 drop ht = 1.0m
(#), Q = o.5m3ls'

-187-

-186-
(4) Ghute drops:.
( ) v The size of chute is designed using manning'/ formula.
tvr) D/S protection = 5 X water depth in canal. (2lto 3 m)
(vii) Desirable limit of drop height = 2.0m. Sometimes it can be raken
upto 10n.

Steps of designing:
Calculate flow intensity, q =
3
Calculate critical depth, Q = i/G-tq?gl
Deqign concepts.
Calculate, [Vd".
(1) Velocity at section C, dr
Y
c= 2s 1H" - h1d ... ... ... ... (0 From fig, find
n
& then d1.

3. Lc. 2g,(Hc - h.fc)

I - {gtlr o,
CalculateF=+ -- 9whereVr
'---- ^=9
3
{gdz dl
Where, h/" =- ...... ... ... (iD
4
T
8k'q 5
c = horizontal distance from top of chute to section C.
Find rr2, riom
fr=;(\E 8F l)
Fintl L.;. tiom graph
I = 9.81 m/s2. fi.
K = Slriker's Constant = --l , Errmple: Design a chute drop with the following data.
mannlng s n
Hc = HL of U/S Pond level above centre of flow section c. Q = 0'50 m3/s.
hlg = Accumulated friction losses from top of chute to section D. Drop ht = 2m.
floilunit width of chute (flow intensity).
Weir width = c8n0l bed width, b = 0.80 m.
Q =
'hy.'is deterrrined by trail and error, the Vc is calculated. And depth
solution: Flow intensity = q = = 0.625 m3/s/m.
3 = **'
of flow at section Y" =
", *
(ir) Sequencedepthrelations,

1) (o
Criticar depth, rr" =
ilf iffi
=

H = dift'erence in energy level = 2m.

*=(*{I+8F
Where,r=$ ......(ii) rrrenf; =h= 5.88
1sd
(iir) When chute is short & steeper than 1:10 the friction loss in chute From energy loss in hydraulic jump grapli,
tl r
can be neglected. It should not steeper that 2:1 & not flatter than 1:3
with preferences for a slope of 1:2 (V:H). n = 0.2a1
(iv) Discharge over crest, (as brad crest weir) .'. dl = 0.241x 0.34 = 0.082 m.
3 V r = Velocity at the beginning of junrp.
Q= 1.71. w.H.? ... ... ...... (i)

-188-
- 1tt9-
 v2
V1 7.62
= 8.5 O) Bend losses = Cb.; where Cb = 0'10
{edr ./s-81 * ott8z
From graph, for F = 8.5
(c) Frictional losses = From graphs' (it is in r/100 m')
T.W._derrrh (O Trashrack losses = usually 0'05 to'0'10m'
d1
= 11.00.
(v) AdequacY of velocitY:
Wehave T.W. deptlt = d = 0.65m. For drops: 1.0 to 2.0 r/s
or=T=o.o6m. For syphons: 2'0 to 3.0 m/s
(v0 in
To check water hammer, adequate submergence should be there
#=i(^m;z -r) =L(^m*trz - 1) = lr.s: entrance and exit. It should be minimum of 0.5 x section
depth above

.'. dz = 11.53 x d1 = 11.53 x 0.06 = 0.7ftn. the soffit.

Fronr graph, U.ZS

(vii) For steeper slopes greater than 1:1 pipe drops are provided'
fr=
.'. Li = d2x 6.25 = 0.70 x 6.25

= 4.4 m.
Sill heigltt = d2 - trv = 0.70 - 0.65 = 0.05 = 0.06

Pipe drcP
Lj=44flr
Lj=a.afl' +
-----+l (viii) Head loss due to Frictional resistance of the wall of pipe:
Ghute droo
Darcy wieshbach equation,
drop ltt = 2.0m. f.l.$2
A = 0.5m3/s
nt =E'n
(5) Pipe drops:."
Design concepts:.
.nr=H# . .(i) [ *=#]
(l) For pipe drops, a desirable tlrop height is upto 4.0m. Where, hf = head loss due to wall friction (m)
(ii) Inlet box and outlet stilling krx should be provided.
(ii, Maximum velocity in HDP pipes should be upro 3.0 m/s f=ColeBrookewlritefiictionalcoefficientwhichisderivgdfrom:
(iv) Losses in pipes: (ii)
(a) Entry & exit trsses ]**t-Awhere, *=-4rogls(ft.'#).
L = length of PiPe.in' m.
V2 = Vekrcity in pipc
Vl = Velocity in canal.

-190- - 191-
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T b;tsN@qooo
o @ ts a o o i6 o @ F @ @ 6 A? @ O O :t ci-.-6iciFjsi+d
< o ts o
+ i5 i- 6 6 o ; N ci 6 i* @ o Q t 6 * o N
;;3;;:,j.j r;.. = -:: - ci o i + si I :: @@o60
;99qcre9'c<Y
= =
&.b9 6-+@tsO-NOOts6-OOO-oo@o
do-N€o@oo

8'Io 5 - : =.:
5 o o o'o o
q oi oi oi iN 6i o ai o +
= <i o i e qq q q q q C 9
o d o o d d o o d o d o ci o- d o €t o o o o
@ @ o
q Fq F q d
90 I't
[>
-P
ood
i@o@@oo@-FF@hoF=q3BR3F3P
"?-Sq-eeolqq-qa?an:1l
o o o o o o o o,j - - - - ; ; 6i si ; d ai + + + * II ;,

c6
dt
Es=EEEEEEEE==E==3ggg333g ! I
zv
I F e&33s83333333333R33q:RESRREEEE
;:;:jd6oooci;--
<i c; o o o.i d J o o ci ci o ci ci o o o
:i ; ; ; ; ; ; ; 3 a a o
00.)o'?
o. oo .> ,l T
Ehr
-5E
o
g sSEEEEEEFg}+??ESqEEFSEER
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a ; ; ; ; ; ; : ; ; ; ; ; a ; ; ; d o o ii ci <i o
;

-193-
-192-
Q = discharge is, th3/s (xii) Reynold s nurnber:-
d = intemal rtia o.f pipe in, m. 'Re' of water = ?
K. Absolute roughness of PiPe, mm.
If velocity = 2nVs
(= 0.30 mm for smooth concr. pipes.
Dia of pipe = D = 325 mm 0.325m.
steel pipes.
. = 0.03 mm for
= 0.003 mm for HDP pipes)
... *. -z,l< l0' = 6.5 x
I x 4*?? 1o 4

R = Hydraulic radius, m.
Exrmplc: Design a pipe drop with the following data.
Q = 0'30 m3/s
f,"= Reynoltl's numbetr, (*. = B) DroP = 3'gP'
Canal velocity = 0.75 m/s.
O = Kincnmtrc viscoisty of fluid, m2ls. Ground slope : 1:2
( I suokc =tm2/s) Pipe length = 10m.
Sometimcs cnrprrical formula to calculate J, the coeff. 9f friction is from Sokrtion: Assume flow velt,e-ity = 2mls
ihcsc cqns:
""-v-
.'. n=9=o'=30=o.l5m2
2
a) ./ = 0.fi)32 *%u*
Reu'zj / uut n =$ ( . 0 is dia. of pipe)
I rn = 0.008 ftlr HDP pipes \
It.n R6
I Or, O.tS =d 4
'{frt --z=
b)
- = 0.011 for R.C.C. smooth pipes I
l. = O.0tU rut RCC rough pipes. ) 4 x o' 15
or, 0- = 0.437 m.

(ix) Trash rack Losses: 0.05 m to 0.10m is u&en' No HDP pipe of this dia. will be available
y2
hr = KIT .'. Use 2 - Rows of HDP pipes of Q = 225.(X) mm.
(Inner dia.)
Wtrere K=r.r5.04sffi (ffi)' From prpe flow chart, fbr Q = 0,075 m3/s

an = nct area opening

dia$=0'225meter'
ag = gross area of traslrack.
O=2mls
(x) Ioint losses:- 0.25m equivalent lcngth tbr every joint will be For 10m, .'. h/=1#- 10.0m = 0.125m
generally tzdrcn.
(xD Kinematics viscosity of difl'erent liquitls:
Entry & Exir ross ='".*to =U*#il= 0.26m.

Water=1x10-6m2/s Trashrack loss = 0.10m (taken)

Glycerin = 6.63 x tO
-tn2ls Two joints = 2x 0.25 = 0.50m extra length.
Kerosene = 2.54 x 10 '6m2/s
ffi- 10 = 0.125 x 0.5 = 0.63m
Ethyl alcohol = 1.52x 10 -6m2ls
Total loss = h-f + Entry, exit + Trashrack + Two joints.
Air = 1.53 x 10-5 rn2ls = 0.125 + 4.26 + 0.10 + 0.063
-7m2ls
Benzene = 8.14 x 10 = 0.55m < 3.0m.OK.
-194-
-195-
 Figure
Figure Pipe Flow Chart 3
(k : O.OO3mm)
Desilgn Chart for HDp pipes

lD 250 mm lD 200 mm lo 150 mm lD 100 mm

(Ar€a = 0.049 m2 (tusa = 0.031 m2 (Arca DISCHARGE Q (l/s) for eiersfto*i"s FtL
= 0.019 m2 (Area = 0.oo8 m2

T)iwrt r].
I:
o
o
o!:
a.or
E
eot <t
ool sl-
L

I t!
a
q
J t
(l
Irt $ U
root
5
-J
q
t
oolh a
$*t <
{"."
lr'o
oPoo'

:3i:.:B 'B r q t a.:9q

i r i
- rn

DIAMETER D (m)

H€adloss m/100 m

For use wrth HDF plastic pil)es

Nolo: lO = inlernal diameter
(k - 0.003 mm) -196-
"ty7-
 Floure
Plpe Fldw Cha.rt 1

Desl gn chart ror con"r","Fl?fi[ (k = 0.3mm;

lD 3(x) ,illl lO 250 mm lO ?(D mrn lD 150 mm *z

#
.

(tuoa-o.ozr#1 (Area = 0.049 nf t (Arcd ,;0:trrf (Area - 0.018 'a-.i=*?.h

dug.
Irl ;'oi-t
ot
oa
€
a
o
* \c
q
3;5
oo:
o oo' Ol-
ll c)t
t I oo1
l\
l
a
l.*
ool. a
t{
I
q
I r!i:
q
U
[:: -J
q
I
t
,l
I
".'ir
a
d
.a 1:li* \
1d"^.
Itl
att

tt,
l5*'
an I oooo'
la,
,4,

o.2 0.3 0.40.5

DIAMETER O h)
Hoadloss m/loo m
For use with smooth concrete PiPes

Note: lD = internal diameter

1r - o.o mlnl

-r99- l

-198-
 Flgure Altcrnative method of calculation of dia of pipe in a drop or slphon:
Pipe Flow Chart
(k = 0.03mm) Dia. of pipe = Q=0.234($f)t 'o .'. "' ... ,,i)
Wlrcnr: 0 = diameter of pipe in, ft.
Q = discharge in ft3ls
I = length of pipe in ft.
A$r, H = waterhead (drop) in ft.
DISCHAR6E Q US) for PI?ES FulL *t
t -. tgEll
ait ,tJ.'"ni ((r) Cascade drops:-
3'i-i#; -'o
,
t

t
Widft ot ca8cade duE
2,
,l
'tc|
ll
'o
ft
rl
,1
ll 0it
o,'. r
It
0a
;oot

o.ooi
t.,
D/S Elnsition

ollol

l*:;
;1..:
oo o o
^
at"' )600o^-o o

::::3 e i rodrl

@
Plan

DIAM€TER O h) Drrign Goncepts:

(i) Slopes are provided 1:1 to 1:2 (Constructed according to ground
For use with steel pipes slope)
(ii) The drop should not exceed 1.0 m each.

-200- -201-
(iil)Advantagesofcascadesoverchuteisthatthewatervelocitiesare 2 Q=$=#*= 0.526 m3/S/m
Step -
reduced&asmallerstillingbasinscanbeprovidedatthebase.
(iv) Cascade with U/S canal width, Step - 3 Choose stepheight, Z = 0.90m. ('.'maxZ=1.0m)
=
(v) L>Ld+0.10(m) step-4 s=&=##h=0.031
Where Ld = 4.30. 7.9.0'27
,,
lrnS
Step - 5 Ld=4,3xZxD0'27
&D=[gz = 4.3x0.9 x (0.031)0'27
Where, Ld = hydraulic droP length, m, = 1.51m
z = step height (m) .'. | = Ld + 0.1 + thickness of sill i.e. 0.30
Q = unit tlischarge
m3/S/m = 1.51 + 0.1 + 0.3
= 0.91 m (L > Ld + 0.1)
= d"signrc*",I. *i,ltl,
Step - 6 Overallrslope=ffi
g = 9'81 m/s2
If the step length is too short i.e. the ground too steep the cascade width = 2.12> 2
should be increasetl & the calculation rechecked'
It had to be 1:2 Not. OK.
(vr)Acontrolweirslrouldbeprovidedatthetopofcascadetoprevent Repeat to match given ground slope 1:2,

draw down in the canal. Fix W = 1.0n.

(vii) The stilling basin at the bottom should be designed as a straight drop q#=o.sm3/s/m
with a droP of 1.0m.
Z= 0.95m.
(viii) 0.20 m F.b. should be taken. nz os2
(ix) UiS floor = 3 x canal llow depth or 2 m which ever is greater'
D =*= *#t* = o'026

(x) D/S transition length = greater of 5 x canal flow depth or 3'0m' L>Ld+0.1
Ld = 4.3 xzxD0'27 -4.3 x 0.95 x e.026\0'27 = 1.52nr
Example Design a cascade drop with the following data:
= 0.5 m3/s
L=Ld+0.1+0.3
a
ground slope = 1:2 nearly. =1.52+.1 +.3
Drop height =3m = 1.92m.
width
U/S & D/S canal = 0'85m' Overall stone =ffi
WaterdePth = 0'65m
= 2.02 nearly Ok
Solution:
= 2,0
Step 1 Fix cascade width w = 0.95m
Stcp - 7 Provide U/S protect = 2m leugth ('.' 3 x water depth
0.88<W<1.258.
=3x0.65=1.95=2.0m)
Or, 0.8x0.85 <w< 1.25 0.85
Provide D/S Protect = 5 x water depth.
Or, 0.68<W<1.06
& =5x0.65=3.25m.
Hence 'W'lies in between 0'68 1.06

-202- -203-
 Sill height = 0.2(mat entrance.
Step - 8 Provide weep holes with suitable at each steps.
Sill height = 0.15m at other steps.
Step - 9 Design of control weir:
Bt = 0.55 1tf44 = 0.36 = 0.40m.
i) Length of crest, Lt = Cascade width = I '0m'
Base thickness *= 0,5 x 0.M = 0.22 0.25m
ii) Crest level, Q will be as rcctangular crest. =
31 Free board = 0.20m.
Q = r.84 , t-' * o7, (f;)(,

Bt=o.3om

Lt=1.0m

11
0r, 0.5 m3is = 1.114 x
1
1.0 x D2 ,'(#)'
I
Or, D3 = 0.22 F-3.:\n-------t

.'. D = 0.41m.

iii) Bt = 0.55 {D = 0.55 x {041 = 0.3-5m'

iv) Basethickness=0.5x D =0.5 x 0.41 = 0.2lm'
Height of crcst will be calculated as itt weir gatetl
Free flow;
5 F-r.o^--i l---,.rr,.-i
Q=1'7xL1xDl
1
05=1.7x1.0xD2
.'. D 0.44m.

-204- -205-
 Design GoncePts:
(1) Sharada tyPe Fall: Trapezoidal crest Rectangular crest
31 31
(i) Q = o.415Lx tt.2(ltlg)6
(0 Q= 0.45 {-zg * l-ru.'(H/Bf
(ir) B = 0.55 {lr
*-o (ii) B = 0.ssfi
(ii1) H + d = D+ drop in bed level. (iii) d=D+ drop in bed lev - H.
(iv) Height of crest above the uPPer (iv) Height of the crest =D -
(hd + Hz)
bed=D -H
(v) Srability of crest should be (v) Same
checked for drop greater than 1.5m
(vi) Drain holes to drain out the U/S (vi) Same

bed during closure of canal

'r-7-j-i-t . t t't ./4

\rF ' lr't'r'r'$'r'r-.\
/ I t ttt r rt* -\ -\.\.\.1 (vii) Wing wall of radius = 5 to 6 time (vii) Same
r'r't't'\'\ \ \ \ t \ I \ t \ t \ I |\ \ \ \ \ \ \t,
H.
(viii) D/S Protection: (viii) Same
Trapezoidal crest Design on Bligh's creeP theory for
Free flow & from Khosla's
small canals
ttteory in larger canals-
Bligh's concept,
hydraulic gradient

= l. I for mixed loam. And I

for sandy soil
(ix) Total impervious length = 5 to 8 (ix) Same
ties d.
(x) Out of total floor: (x) Same

l\\\a\z Length (minimum) required d/s of

Ittltl
a\\\\a\\a\\
tttttltlll/l
\'\'t_L\-t\ \ t \ \ \
the toe of crest wall ld = 2 (water
\ffi
/tlllrl/l
\\\\\\\l\ depth+1.2)+drop.
k->l
' D+H
or L6 = 2 (D + 1.2) + Hr- (m).
-G- The balance of total floor length
Rectanpular crest may be provided U/S
drowned l'low

-2116- -207 -
(xi) Floor thickness: (xi) Same Exrmplc
Minimum = 0.30 - 0.45 m. Design a'Trapezoidal crest shrada type fall with the fbllowing data:

For large falls = 0.45 to according Q = 0'50 m3/S

to design i.e. Drop height = 1.5m.
thickness of rt=[lh - t
floor Canal bed width = 0.85m.
Water depth in canal0.65m.
where, 'h' is the height of HGL
above floor. G = 2.65 for gravel
Solutionl
boulder, P.C.C. &. 2.0 for
3L
masonry.
e = 0.45. {-ze r.n, (#)t ... ... ... ... (i)

(xii) Vertical cut off: (xii) Same Now, H + d = D + drop in bed level = 0.64 + 1'5 = 2.15m'
1.0 - 1.5m deep below & we have B = 0.55 {H+d = 0.55 {215 = 0'806m.
the d/s end of floor. L = canal bed width = 0'85m.
(xiii) Cistern: U.P. Irrigation (xiii) Same Prom(i)
research fomrula
3- L. - -1
L" = 5t/-EJ{l 0.50 = 0.4s esl x 0.8s x ui.u("+C).
^Ex
x
J
I
= |e.n# Or, H3=0.313
(E = H, neglecting velocity H = 0.50m'
approach) Height of crest above U/S tred = 0.65 - 0.50 = 0.15m.
Also, d = 1.5 + 0.15 = 1'65m.
U/S approaches, radius of curvature of wings,
= 5 to 6 times H = 6 x 0.5 = 3.0m'
Length of impervious Floor, let Bligh's Coefficient 5 to 8 times d'
= 6x d = 6 x 1.65 = 9.90= 10.0m'
.'. Total impervious floor = 10m.
D/S minimum floor length, La=2 (D + 1'2)+ Hl
= 2(0.65 + 1.2) + 1.5
= 5.2m
Provide it as 6.0m.
'///////////tilt The balance = 10 - 6 = 4 m length wilt be provided under and u/s of crest
l.-r-c+l Now length of cistem = Lc = 5 f/f- lfr.
=s {6.0s xll
= 5.0m
-208- -209-
 3
Energy dissipators
Depth of cistem = X =
| Cr.rrl, = ] x (0.65 x 1.5)0.666
= 0.25m. lntroduction:
Floor thiclness, t-J
h-r Dissipation of energy at the d/s basins of dams under sluices, weirs,
'-6 - I spillways, drops, outlets etc. is achieved by transferring supercritical flow
jnto sub critical flow through hydraulic jump, water cushions and allowing
the flow to strike baffle blocks, wdlh and raised sills.
Commonly used dissipaters in irrilation works are:
(i) USBR hydraulic jump basins (Types I to IV)
(ii) Vlugter basin.
(iii) SAF basin.
(iv) Impact bltxk (straight drop)
(v) Slotting gratings.
(vi) Imp4ct ty'1*- stilling basin (Baffle wall)
(vii) Plunge prxrl.
(viii) Stilling u't'I.
t (ix) Batrled sprllu'ay.
Approximatelv: (x) Deflector buckct.

h = drop + x = 1.5 + 0.25 = 1.75m. Dissilater types (l) to (V) and Gb-are mostly used in spillways whereas
types (VI) to (VIII) arc used in outlets. TFe (x) is used in headwork's.
G-l=2.65-1=1.65
Rough[ning devices:
...,=ffi= 1.00m.
(i) Arrows.
(iD Staggeredblocks.
(iiD S.ibbed pitching.
(iv) Teeth & dentate sills
Figures qf roughening devices are as follows:

A
F-r.s--+{<-
-r
o,

J
U/S hotecton,
r dsDlh of wE +
2
J t.sn) o.3o ' n
f t0.50
F-o.ao-+ l.e--r"*s*---N<--z.zs*-4 I
l.o o.l5
<+Totalirup.tengtll of floc- 10.0n+l
o.3g

D Ftow tr
------>
tr
n

tYl
|
FroDt Ele, @
tr \
Sharada tyRe (Trapezoidal) Fall
n
Q=o'sd
3 BBs
Staggered blocks Ribbed pitchiug

Arrows

-211-
-210-
 (-a r
-------------*-
(ii) USBR . II
It is used tbr Fr > 4.5 and V >15 mis. Chute blocks & dentatetl sills
\EPh"",,,,_
\t dillipates energy.
r:_-r:_- --.. - --]: I

l-.-^--.-.^.-.-l
Chute blocks.
Teeth

?>A .\
S"z =.15d^=l-
L,lL
l-o-.'.'a*-.-- \ Wr.?=.15d'r'
Sectior

hl = dl b2=.2d1 Slopc 2:l

t+- L,, ri,

rr ________+{
USBR - II
Dentated Sill (iii) USBR . lll:It is fbr Fr > 4.5, V < 15mis. Short basin. It is
T1'pical drawings of stilling basins, SAF & bzrllled spillways with Fr. nos. complicated by floor & chute blocks. h3 & ha are given in graph
& some dimension. with corresponding value of Fr.

(i) USBR Type I basin:

d1
Jry1,/
' /--=-u,
D------->,
la
7t e*:;il'
'*= *
Hydraulic lump Formates on horiztlntal tloor. In practicet tltis basin
is used for any value of Fr. Generally it is fbr Fr <1.70 & V<1-5
Lru __________J
m/s. It is simple in construction. d2 &. dl can be related as,
III
t= o, t\[I 8F" - USBR.
'].rii
-212- -213-
(rv) USBR ' lV: It is for 2'5 < Fr S 4'5 V <
15 m/s (vr) Eatlle wtll (lmpectl!'W'is witltltof btt^sin'
F-a ---+

Fractional sPaco 0r5x

'tfll
t o

Tailwater dePth
4-r.rh.

sdl.
Note: 0.7d1< x
u=|w' t = l'*' "= l'*,
USBR - IV
o=
i,*, .=l'w d=1'w'
6
This basin is for Fr - 1'7
(v) . SAF (St. Anthony Faltsl basins: f =b.,*,
It is complicated by chute
to 17.0. It is for small low head structures'
& Floor blocks. Eramplel
Design stilling basins with the ttlllowing data:-
Q = 0.5 m3/s.
Drop ht = 1.5
Canal bed width = 0.E5m.
Canal water dePth = 0.65m'
Canal side sloPe = 1;1
n = 0.025

Sloping glacies spillway stilling basin design:

Stilling poot & oest length - 0'90m'
oloo% caS.! Q1007o & Q50Vo cases establish'the length of basin
roquired to contain jump at all stage of normal operation and also provide tr
a
jump
check that ttre tail water depth is adequate to prevent sweepout of the
i.c. Tyy + d4 > d2.

-214- -215-
 H_1.58_"o
basin required to ensure the
And the Q107o case givesthe depth of stilling i:- 0.20- '''
canal is first opened i'e' de>
formation of the jump in the basin when the lironr cncrgy loss in hyd. jump;
d2. tlc dr

Now, Q1007o Case'

;;= l-156, -= o'21(r

'" dl = dc' 0'216

= 0.2x 0.216
o"=i[d=iffio32m = 0.043 m.

HL = 1.5m, the ditTerence between UIS & D/S

energy levels' lz= dt x'13'56
= 0.043 x 13.56
*=d* =4.68
= 0. 58 <(0.65 m = tw)
From energy loss in hydraulic jump table
QlOo/o case:

ft=e.trt$=o.zos q =# = o'056 m3/s/m'

x dc = 0'265 x 0'32 = 0'085
.'. d1 = 0.265
3lr
dz=9.89 Xd1 =0'84m'
,Jc=\t-=o.or..
d1q6 tail water = 0.65m (given)
2
Ifstillingbasinsetat0.20mbelowd/sbedlevel,tailwaterishigherthan r,rrr ero, Hw = (#)'= o.lom.
level d/s of jumP
Tw=0'
Now O5O96 case: I )rll, il) cne'rgy levels,
3f; H = 1.5 + (0.65 - 0) - (044 - 0.10)
e=#*=#fu = 0.28 m3/s/m . ".tlc=!T= 0'20m'
= 1.81m.
t
rw=0.66xrwr00
[ G{l
=
fr siu"
0'oo ractor)
ll
,lt
=
# = 25.85 ror it,
fr =
2e.j

= o.ll
= 0.66 x 0.65
tL'

= 0'43ur' 2
.'. dl = 4x 0.13 =0.07x0.13
= 0 0.0091m
Head across weir,
n* = (fi): t".
d2 = dl x 29.7 = 0.0091x 29.7

= 0.27m.
QtOo+ Hw=0'44m'
QSO + H.r=0.30m' Strlling ba.sin should be set 0.27m below d/s bed level.
Dffierence = 0.14m' larln deeign:
Change in energy levels (in U/S & D/S levels):
1t = 1.5 + (0.65 = 0.43) - 0'14 = 1'58m'

-217 -
-216-
 Figure ({ rrh ! (m, Fl

USBR Stillihg Basins

(b, B..ln ! (F > a.5l

2A

24

xt
16
El" 12
EI

2S 1

24 0
m Faqrclcnunber
Et

El. 15 Rario ol Tw Dspth ro Dt

El- 12 rI! - o.e 7

6
8
-,,.^.
L 5
4 ll
52
0 a
c12
Frcude number 3
ulalmumTwDeplhr 68101214151820
(suospout) Fqr& runbar
trngth ol JumP
L
D2 "i- dlfi so

8r012 E
Froude numbor
Longth ol Jump
[50
.E /i
fso
'2.
'v
h4
s
TO
f
h3
q' Di Fu.nb nrnbcr
:l- Lo.Eo, Enrtgy ln JumP
'€-
# 6Ei012la16
-. ""t'_'-
'.,.-: .'
,,

Flqda nurnbaa
HobmorB.m. Bloclr lnd EndSill3 -218-
-21t-
 li*
rr'l
| \-'l
oc I t-u I z.r
Er
Eq
lr. g
t.tr

"ai
=,
!
6
ilrl \ri-
!lr
I (
Z \
o
o
o
"1
?/
J o
l'1 o
U,
,1
o
rlE
i
q)
a
r6

:,
o

oO
aE
o
o

o
a
o
z'
d
E
-a
ri
€a
t =a
=q

OE
_ do
lr EH
€o
ti1 ol:
E2
bl
E!
o.E
lld
9E
a- g l.u- o.

E?E->g,i
:;,7,il!'oE
€ ;ieaoE+
:EXB
b;E = EL -
E:E =- lr^
8UE : EH I^IT :
EaB EgE ;Hs-ry
EEE EEEi I"*flV
'sov..u;UIil
lt
-d
E*s
ll
5€'i tr tldEld
 Water depth = 0.65m (dz)
F=+&vl=1,u
lgdr Drop = 1.0m (Hr) S. Slope = 1:1
u, tolution:
For Q1007o =
f, = m = 6.58 m/s
V1 6.58 Volume of basin, Oo =
ffi m3
!gdr !q.gt x 0.085 0.50 x 1.0
=
ll5o-
ForType-I Fromgraphs, = 3.33 m3
Length of basin, L = 1.5 to 2.0 HL.
|O2 = 6.25 .'. L = 6.25x 0.84 = 5.25m.
- 2xHy
For Type - III From graphs,
=2x1.0
I
i = 2.00, ... L = 2.6 x 0.84 = Z.tB m. = 2.ZAm. = 2.0m (say)
Depth of basin h = 0.10 to 0.30m.
#Re Utoctrs height= 1.9d1 - 1.9 x 0.085 = 0.16m. .
End sill height = 1.4d1 = 1.4 x 0.085 = 0.12m. = 0.20m (say)
Cross sectional area of the basin along the axis of flow =A
In practice, as F > 4.5
= L (dz+h)
III basin should be used.
= 2.0 (0.65 + 0.20)
= 1.70 m2
Width of basin, B6 =*= lf'=1.96 m = 2.0m.
Width of crest W = Bc - 0.10m (Fof Uapezoidal canal)

ffi;';
& = Bc for rectangular canal.
Ilut it is trapezoidal canal so,
W=Bc-0.10
= 0.85 - 0.10
= 0.75 m. a
Wcir crest discharge,
Ir------+l 11
Q=C.W. (2il2.H2
(vii) Simplified method for sraight drop basins for small canal (Bed width Wlrrs, C = 0.36 U/S wall vertical
from 0.20 - 1.0m, F.S.L. depths from 0.10 to 0.70m). = 0.4O U/S wall round (0.50 - 0.10m radius)
Exampler 0.5m3/s
Datas: I )ischargein =
width of crest
Q = 0.50m3/s 0.s0
Canal bed width = 0.85m. 0.75
= 0.66 m3/s/m.

.221. .222-
 - Figure From graphs, Qvs H"..
C = 0'36 d, q = 0'66 m3/s/m
*"itln#l?L\f ils'3r;*',":'fJBlB'i'siJli3t.tll'3leB5f xtl?8 13
q = c.w. (2il2xr2
13
or,$= c QePxHi
lL
or, Q=0'36 Qx9'81\2x92
1
Or, 0.66 = 0.36 x4.43xHZ

or,H=(drtrt6)I=o.ss''
- 0'55 = 0'10m'
lo Height of crest, Hc = wlter depth - H = 0'65
€a (minimum thic}ness)'
Thickness of cistern pcc slab = 0'45m
.gc
f 0.55 x(drcp+Il.)
= 055 x
(1.0+ 1.0)
E
= 0.60m

I
drcP = l,om

I
I
Io-eo ?o ro
$
q in l/s
loo
rr.'
Width of canal = 0.85m
Width of crest = 0.75m
Width of basin = 2.0m
e = 0.50m m3/s
Straight dron ba\in
For small canal
d = 0.10 to 0.70m.
b = 0.2to 1.0m.

-223-
 IU An aqueduct and a syPhon aquoduc$'
Cross draina works An aqueduct:. The structure which carries or passes the canal
the
water in such a way that the bed of the drainage passes under
lntroduction: canal bed. ths HFL of the drainage is lower than the underside
of the
A canal taking off from a river intercepts the hiil drainages or hill aqueduct
tributaries ftom watershed towards river and it is necessary to carry the czmal A ryphon equeduct: The structure which carries or passes the
across them. The works provided to cross the hill ributaries are called the
canal water in such a way that the bed of the drainage
passes under
cross-drainage works (the C.D. works) A drainage coming across the the canal bed. The drainage flows under pressure at HFL
other wise it
alignment of canal can be disposed off in one of the fbllowing ways: neignt of culvert which is
has also a minimum head way of 1 m or i
(r) Cross the canal over the drainage i.e.
(a) by an aqueduct. less.

O) by syphon aqueduct.
Minimum
(ii) Cross the canal under the drainugc i.e. Headway - 1
m. orof 6
(a) by super passages =l
the culvert t6ight
O) by syphons. which is less.

(iii) Cross the canal by intermingling waters of the canal and drainage at
the same bed level i.e.
(a) by a level crossing.
O) by inlet & outlct.
(iv) Cross the canal by divertrng tlrc drainage into the larger tlrainage.
An aqueduct
Canal

)..
water / hill tributeries
shed '

A syuhon aqueduct
\
Canal crossing the hill tributeries in its alignment.

-224- .225-
t21 fhe suPer Passage and a sYPhon:'
# .#;;"";; It is the reverse
such that
l:u':T"l]:.:'1:.:':::
*"" ttt:Tll:,:::::::::::'
is passed un<ler the drainage
supporting strucures ,f
.lre super p,ssage
touch the underside ofthe
such ftat tltc
passetl untler ille tlrainagc
The syphon: Tlre canal is
passage znd the
the underside of the super
F.S.L of the canal touches

tlows take place under thepressure'

drainage

Level crossing
t4l Design conccpts on an aqueduGtt syphon
ariueduct and syphon:' 1

(1) Minimum headway =1'0m or trre height of the culvert

i
Canal which ever is less in an aqueduct & syphon aqueduct'
(i, Water way, Pw = 4'75 {Q hcey's equation for regime in
'n"
The suuemassage drains, rivers etc.
(iii) Contraction and expansion of water way i'e'
triltnsition:

Contlaction: Shoultl not exceed 207o ot so for rivers'

drains.
aqueduct:
Transition for tlaming of an aqueduct or syplron
Should not steeper than 30' in contraction
in approaches and

should not steeper thanzzf in expansion

in departures i'e'

= C.x2 - parabolic eqn

z*r" o'

A syphon

lvhen the ciutal & drltinlt{c

t3l Level crossing: lt may be providcd
siune hed level'
appronch each other ilt thc

-227 -
-2?6-
(iv) Velocities: 2 to 3 m/s in syphon aqueduct, aqueducts' Mitra s hYPerbolic transition:
(v) contraction of waterway and expansion of waterways in an o =- Bc. Bf'L
B* "" "" "' (r)
aqueduct, syphon, super passages tbllow the Hind's eqn:
LB"iB; Bf)^
(vr)Insomecaseitmaynotbeeconomicallyfeasibletoprovidesmooth
Mitra's eqn which are as follows:
transition as described by Hind, & Mitra's eqn or loss of head may
(a) Hind's Parabolic equation:
... ... ..'(i) not be in consideration. In such cases contraction & expansion with
Av = Cx2 - (Parabolic equ) .'.
Ay
tumetl in wings, the afflux may be determined as follows:

Drop in water surface at entry =b"Jt:t2g

Rise in water surtace at exit = t, =J41Y3:Id
2g
Generally V3 = V2, V4 = V1.
?
To allow the friction losses the rise may be taken as only OhL and

afflux will be:

(n" - 10,)
(vrr) Discharge through inverted syphon:
Unwin's tbrmula;

,=(r*rr*rz.[) V2 v* (0
)o )s
h.
IIFL
Lossof energy,incontraction -r.,J#t"' "' "' (ii)
Yz2 -Yt2 (iii)
Loss of energy in exptutsirxt = 0.3 fig+
ft) Hyperkllic trausitrtrtt tirr canals of constant' deptlt:

Wlrcre,
h = difference in water levels U/S & D/S of syphon'
L = length ofbarrel.
R = hydraulic mean radius of barrel (*)
V = Velo. of flow thro' the barrels
Va =Velo. of approach (this Vu, term is often neglected)

-f t = CoetT. of loss
of head entry. It may be taken as 0'505 fbr an
unshaped mouth & 0'08 for bell mouth'

-228- -229-
 by friction is roof. Bottom reinflrrcement talies the moment created by the lvat.er
f z= acoeff. such that the loss of head thro' the banel
load and slab dead load whereas top reintirrcement of slah takes the
given by:
moment created by uplift pressure.
L rY2
I2'v'E Uplift pressure on the tloor of the culvert:
Where /2 is given Uv u (f . the valucs ol'a & b are A syphon flooring is subject to uplift pressure due to two causes:
*),where
(1) The static uplift pressure due to subsoil water. i.e . static uplifr
given in following table,
pressure =drainage bed level- bottom ofthe tlutr.
(ii) The seepage of water fiom the canal to drainage:- on account
Nature of surtace of the bqgg!
0.(x).197 of difl'erence of head between the canal and the drainage,
Smooth iron PiPe
0.(x)996 seepage flow will take place, The seepage, head will be
Encrusted piPe
0.00316 maximum when the canal is running lull & the drainage is
Smurthetl cement plaster or planed wood
0.00401 dry.
Ashlir or brickwork
0.00507 The uplitts contributed by static head and seepage head
Ruhhle rnas(n)ify 0r stone
arc to hc added together to obtain the totirl uplift pressure on
thc fllor.
aque tlue t or syphon:
(viii) Uplitl pressure tlu the roof of the syphon

yz
Frls

Scr';xrgc line ahc. abc'.

Itt'srthrirl heid at b = diflbreuce of heiid between ciural and drainage.
Sct'prr11r: lines go to the drain thnrugh the width ot ciura.l.

I )t'sr11rr ol iuvcrtcd lill"ers:-Terzaghi's criteria:

lrls ol Iiltcr D1s ol lilter
l) 1,, ol l,,,,,r,l,tti*
t* -
Maximum uplift will be there when HFL is running in the D&, ,,I li*rrrJrri,*
drainage'

Maximum uplift pressure occurs at the U/S end of the

roof' Wlrt'rr | )( l5.tt5) nrclurs [re grain size tlnn which the (Zr
age indicated
of
& top thc
Reinforcement should be provided at the bottom of roof lry llrt'srrlrstrrlrl is l'rncr.

-230- -231-
 ) ('()ncrotc dcsipn ctlnsanls filr balirnced section
rlr{;lt}le Mild steel HYSD steel
on slab & beam
t5l structural design concepts rr:rrlo ost = l40N/mm2 (t+00 Kg/cmz) ost = 23o l'Umm2 (zgoo Kq/cm2)

(D Permissible working stresses: ocb R J ocb R J

(a) In concrete:- t" s lVmm2oR 0.87i'Umm2 0.867 5 N/mm2 0.65lVmm2 0.904

SoKg/ cm2 or 8.7 kg/cm2 = 50 kg/cm2 = 6.5 kg/cm2

M20 M25
M10 M1s 0.91 trUmm2 0.904
Grade 1) 7N/mm2or 1.21lVmm2 0.867 7 N/mm2

7o Ko/cm2 = 12.1 kq/cm2 = 70 ko/cm2 = 9.1 kq/cm2

l"1z-: 1:1:2
1:3:6 1:2'.4
Mix. [C:S:Agg.] l'r,,r, rsrotlAl sizes:
Ko/cm2 N/mm2 Kg/cm2
N/mm2 Ks/cm2 Nimm2 widrh
Nimm2 Ko/cm2 rlrrxlure Depth.
50 b.u 60
# o,
4.0 40 5.0
2.5 25 ',l,rlr HYSD ir M26, HYSD
Direci ComPr. +
'u,
(cc. fcc) span. beam depth - beam depth.
50 7.0 70 8.5 85 I t, r,111
frot I |
3.0 30 5.0
due to bending.
I r'r' lruxl = 2KN/m2 =200kglm2'
(ocb, fcd) {o l9
'1.6 16 1.8 18 t'rr',,\urc on piers or abutments = 200KN/m2 = 20ton/m2'
Maximum shear stress

(oc)
r r ) llcnding stresses in concrete:
0.8 8 0.9 I F 1 6cbJ 1 +ocbi t
0.40 ,4 0.60 6
Average bond Mild 1.26 12.6
1.12 11.2
,h-L-\ Tar 0.5b 5.6 0.84 8.4

50 6.2 62
2.5 25 3.7 3l 5.0
Bearino Pressure dN
28 3.2 32
'1.20 2.0 20 2.8
12
Direct tensile stress

Note: 1 Kg = 10N
Tn cte.e.l:
"'
1 N/mm2 = 10kg/cm2'
I o----o"--o iI

*#* +# +
Temion

High Yield strength deformed t

Mid steel bars and RibbeCleljlgglll9- (i) Sress diagram before (ii) Stress diagram after
Type of stress Srttion of beam
Koicm2 Nlmm2 Kg/cm2
concrete cracks. concrete cracks
N/mm2
*.
^^,1 ostl
Tension in bars' (ost, Pst) 2300
O.bt m > ocbl
1400 2?O
UPto 20mm
Over 20mm inl 1300 23tJ 2300
,r t lrort 0l beflIl (i) stess diagram (ii) Stress diagram after

before concrete c0ncrete cracks.

ComPression in columns
ost'
(osc, Psc)' cracks.
- 1900 m
All bar sizes I 130 I rroo 190 ost'
1750 m
I
I

stirrlD!' Lon I r+0,, t75

-233-

-232-
 [.or hciurrs, Qv < gc
(-l..
nrm:
Mts Mrn Mzs I;or slahs, q, .i
Mix. Mto
14 l1 ( )thcrwise ilre section has to be redesigned with increased dimensions.
31 19
m
13 (v) Main tcnsile steel (Ast) and the additional reinfbrcing steel have to be
rlctcrmined.
* = 2800
Where
3;"b Mtinsteel (Ast) =
-+-J.o ... ... ... (i)
ost.
1
N=...--...-- anoj=r-! 'l'ho total area of tensile steel shoultl not be less than 0.25%, and not
6St
I *;;;b rrrore than 4Vo of the total cross sectional area of concrete. A". the
rnain b:rs should be have a minimum dia. of 12mm (Sometimes
Jd= Lever amt. lOmm).
with UDI the total bending
For simply supported beams &
slab
(iiil F (which is equivalent to
Additional steel reinforcement are:
moment M & maximum reaction In slabs:-
maximum shear force) are:
-top steel =0.17o of A" or 207a of Ast tbr simple RCC slab
^
(w = udl)' andside wall.
Bendingmoment, M =# "' "" (i) -disEibution steel = 0.1% of Ac (top & bottom) or 20% ot
Ast.
or,M=$ t w=w'l') - Stinups - 8 - 12 mm Q bars at 15 - 20 cm lcl

r- w.l
In beams;-
o: ... .... ... (ii)
2.....' - top steel: 0.15% of Ac.
Wherewisunifomrlytlistributedloarlandlistheeft.ectivelengthor - Side steel: 0.I5 7o of Ac (each side)
- Stirrups : Sto 12mm $ bars at 15 - 20 cm c/c
condifions of
T#'urru*"d dimension are checked for balanced
then' lvll Gompression and bending (Gase - l)
concrete and steel with another'
1_6i_______-_+
1yt= R.b.d2. .... "' (ii1) +
+u

"u=(ffi)'
1
t:"
on concrete grade and steel
type (see
Where R = design constant depending

I
of seotion
table) -C.L
- cover) ofbeam or slab'
d = effective depth (overall depth C.G. of composite
AI section.
b= width of beam or slab'
aaI oo
is fbund' it has to be checked
for stress'
(1v) Once a balanc"Ooott *"ttio'
F
-l- a
... ... .... (o -{- +6i.+
ar=tc...
Stress diagram
Qv = Shear stress
F = Maximum shear fbrce The rectangular section be subjected to a central direct thmst, T, and a
b = Width of beam hcnding moment M, then eccentricity, e,
d = Effective depth. able shear M
The calculateO *rrtt be compared with maximum allow
i, e=T .. ... ... ... ... (i)
sress (q") in table'
-r 1(-
-234-
 I
which will have the same ellcct (.[scs whcro cccenEicity is less than trr tne depth of the section
The point of application of ttlrce T' i
tr 'p' a tlistance 'e' fiom the irxis tlro/
as M & T applied centrallywill gcucially covered by this analysis'
C,G.
if the moduleiu (vllt Gompret.lon and bending [lU:
The transtbrmed section in terms rll concrete
area'
DAB
DA
tatio is, m:
Ac'= bD + (m -1) (As" + Ad "' "' "' (ii)
The moment of inertia of transtbrmed section'

M.I.=I=g
"'(iii)
f. 1 d

uo(v1 "Z)' +(m-1) A""(vt-a)2(m-t) A(vz - a)2

I
=

For circular section,

A"l = A" + (m - 1) Asc +2mA6' "' "' (iv)
Where, Ah = volume of spiral/unit length of column
&
T
Mr=I =# +(m-1)Asc.Y "' "' (v) As eccentricity is large the bending stresses are predominant and the
Where, Y = radius of circle on whiclt L-steel is located superimposition of direct stress, which is found by dividing the load
with
D = dia. ol ctllumn scction'
rhe effective area of section, does not materially after the position 0f N -
Theexfiemetibrestressot&ozslttlwninthestressdiagramiuealgebraic
Axis.
sum oi <Iirect antl bending sffesscs i'c'
- T . T.'Yl
o,l=AJ+-T ... .. (vi) Let the section is acting only moment M' Then let xx be the N'A'

T"'Y2 fbr pure BM & the bending stress be calculated as usual. Then the concrete
- T- I
02=fuI ... ... (vii)
will have the stress represented by ABC in the stress diagram. The position
o.' *. hcrttling stress 0"6l = Y in
Where rlirect stress = At' below NA will be creaked. tf the direct stress are superimposed as shown

Tlrestressolwillbecottlsitleretlwithinsaf.elimitsiltlretblltlwing stress diagram by AD, the new distribution of stress is given by BDE' the
contlititn is satisfied; N.A. shifts from xx to xlxl.
o,.] o"bl S 1.0
_:_ +
oc -6ch = ... ... ... (viii)
rf trre thrust t":"'T' " *'l':..
Where oc =Permissible dire'ct stress'
'.]' i:i :^ ... ...,,
--' "'
b.Nd + (m - 1) Ass + m.A'i
ocb = Permissible bending stress'
for'e'= x the depth & more.
. u+-]
This is 1.5
* "' (ix)
in steel, Asc =
Stress
[f;
in steer, A1=nr
*+'] ... ." ... ... (x)
Srress
[*.
-237.
-236-
(viil Gompression and bending (lll):
When the 'e'is in between 0.25 - 1.5 times the depth ot'scctirxr.

1; of steel
--+r
T

TI, j". o
ot,a

i[-- Aqx o.1,x (Yt+Yz) = T (Y2 - e)

U or, osrr=
T(Yz-e)
&Gt+y,
T(y1+e)
or, ost2 =
Atr(yl+y,
Maximum comprcssive stress in conc. = 6chl Provided tensile fbrce'T'is within the section in between two layers
Maximum tensile stress in steel = 6stl. nl slcel.
.'. N = --l--_r ... ... ... (i)
. 6st' Tension and bcnding case (Vl
l+-l
Inocb,
lxl
It is similar to case (II)
As the total fbrces on section balance, we havc;
b.Nd.ochl A*"(*_:_l)gs!](Nq -jl
,=---r-*T-o, _.r,rtAt... ... ... ... (ii) lrll Tension and bending Gase {Vll!

Since moments of all forces on the section also balance then taking
moments about tension steel,
n+nd (o
Y)-o,"(m - r)o"rr tH]
r. (e+ g) = x (d-a)... (iii)

Here b,d, Ar"l, At, T,e & gare lnown. The unknown are N, ostl & ocbl'

Calculate these by the above three equations (i) (ii) and (iii)

(ixl Tension and bonding caso (lVl

If eccentricity is small, the whole section is in tension and the 'T.istensilefbrceapplierlatadistance'e'measuredtromC.G.of
concrete area is ineffective.
\(.(.tron. This is zls case III to analyze i.e. eqn(i) same the other two Q)
e $)
lx'r'orttcs:

-238- -239-
 b.Nd.ocbl
r Ar" (m - jifi-+
l)o"bl (Nd - a) , _
- ostrAt...
T= ... ... (iia)
z (|ll Level Crossing:
,+"d,,(o -
f)*e,"(m-l)o.5r Y, (d - a) = r(e- y)...(iiia)

This case arises in water tanks & aqueducts.

t6I Typical drawings of super passage, level crossing
and aqueduct with lew concepts ol design:
lil Super passage:
RCC stab (1ocm b 15cm)
, (lt2.4t

DcsiEr procedures:

w'H 2
(r) Design weir crest, Q = 1'70
(tt) Construct oritice control d/s of weir. Sizes as canal'
( rri) Spillweirmustbebuiltoppositetheflow.Sizewidthaccordingto
Plan druinug", e* +'zs{-gmin
Design procedures:
=

(r) Q&ain should be detefffned.

(rv) Spill weir crest should be set at FSL level of cattal'
(ii) Waterway, Pw=4.75 {Qd**ir, Pw = Perimeter, m.
(v) A weir must be built at the entrance of drainage'
2t
(iiO Use manning's Velo/ e9n,O = 1ng S2 & Q = OA. (n = 0.025-0,04)
(iv) Design R.C.C. slab structumlly.

-240-
-241-
 (iiil Aqueducts: Solution:
Take velocity of flow in flumed section = 1.05m/s, < 2nfls.
RCC slab
1:1| :3.
o 0.-50m3i s
.'. A = -i = --:-==---- = 0.48m2
d l.u)m/s
Keeping the depth in tlume too, = 0.60m. (zus in canal)

The width then willn.=#= 0.80m (aus in canal)

.'. The flumed section will be,

P=0.8+2x.60=2.0m.
\r,"0 o-r.u ,t two beams
An aqueduct
A = 0.48m2
Stone msonily
over the RCC
Slab
with iwalkway
salb ... R=+=H= 0.24m.

From Manning's equation the

RCC slab
1:1|:3. l<- o.8om--+l
velocity of flow is;
21
$= I pl 52.
n

rrln\2 I-1.05 x o.ot612

()r, S_
l2l=lL , ]
Atr aqueduct
with Full watkway
slab huged at two bemls
[-,]
1
ro.z+rr

slab
s30
Example Heading loss in flamed section = L x slope.
1. Design an aqueduct with the following data: = 10x
I

*,
t+- 2.0m-------*
Q = 0.50m3/S
= 0.0188m.
Velocity at canal = 0.60 m/s.
Head losses in transition;
Bed width of canal = 0.80m.
1

Canal slope =
1000
Water depth at canal = 0.60m
(1:l (Z:l)
Side slope of canal =
Fluming canal be done uP to 501o
Span ofan aqueduct = 10m
Fluntetl Jxnion A l<-
n = 0.025 for earthen canal A ' L=lr)rn I
I
I
---------''{ I

= 0.016 for RCC aqueduct. ('('[lrir(lion

lr,rr\tltrxl
ExPan"-i. n
tr:rusit irlr

-242- -243-
 tlcncc U/S & D/S level difference of canal bed of the aqueducu-
Canal bed at4 4:100.00 (saY)
= 100.038 - 100.000
FSL = 100 + 0.6 = 100.600m.
v2 n<2 = 0.038m.
vet. head =fi=tfi- = 0.018m.
= 3.8cm.
TEL = 100.618m. Trendtlon lengths:
('(,ntraction splay slope is l:2 (26"). Then contraction transition length, L"
canat beO at d-3
TEL at 44 = 100.618m. _T-X
_ Bcanal - Bflume L
Expansion transition = O.l
- x-----Zg-
Vflune2 - Vcanal2
=44r
2
2=t.2om
=oqrfj**$=o.olrm
-v'J 2x9.8r
lixpansion splay slope is 1:3 (18"). Then expansion transition length, L"
TEL at 33 = 100'618 + 0.011 = 100'629
FSL at 33 = TEL at J3 - Velo. head.
_ Bcanal - Bflume -n-xL
2'o-o'8qx
=roo. 62e = #h = 1oo.573rn =-2 3 = 1.80m

<*,
Splay
Canal bet at 33 = FSL - water dePth
d*)z
1:2 1:3 Sptay

= 100.573m - 0.60 Y Y
= 99.973m. t Flumed PortioD -----> 0.80n 2m\
Canal bed a"22 : TFL at 22 =
It\
0.80u1

TEL at 33 = 100.629 m.
I
+Flumed loss = 0.0188m. ]. A
... TEL at22= 100.648m.
1.80 +
*-r.ro *ro* -----)'
FSL at 22 expmsion

== ffi';;:j;q,:'"*., Construction
ttmition
trm$ition

f;::: -H+::::ln'
= 100.59lm.
tr -i:---'t -
Canal bed at22 = 100'591 - 0.60
=99.992m.
\:__J
* I o.som
II
' + o.Btrm f
Erthern Section llumed Section
loss
Canal bed at 1-1: Tel at 11 = TEL at 22 + Contraction Hydraulic design
= 100.648 * o.z r{f;ff = 1n).656m' of an aqueduct

Canal bed at 1. -L = TEL at 1.1 - velocity head - water depth

Span = 10m.
(Q = 0.50m3)
- 1oo.6s6 - --.Qe - 0.60

= 100.038m.
-24s-
-244-
Structural design ol the aqueduct: I .r rlrc hoight of water in canal be 'h' then water pressure acting on sitles

I = lrn2
=r,

F
|

0.15m(F6) I
Aqueduct
= i x 1000 kg/m3. n2
T = ioo rrr. rg
'urrl rts lino of action occurs at \b(\f(h,s)

I
0.60m
tP
+ ;z x slab thickness)m above the
0.80m--+l
irxis of base slah, i.e.
Slab design: Assume the thicknesses of bearns & slab as in drawins:
,1-
I 10.15m
Two
Beams
It.._
,,.
0;30 0.30
1f
The aqueduct consists of two beams spanning across the river or stream and
a slab cost monolithically with them at bottom as shown in figure. The l\l,rxrrnrrrn (-ve) B.M. in base slab
slab spans between the beams and transfer its load to them. = lrlrce x distance.
The water in aqueduct will exert a horizontal pressure on botll side
beams and vertical load on the slab. The horizontal water pressure on the
5(x)rr2 x (l.T) *, ,
will be maximum at the Nlr ( rvc) moment in base slab, M:
side beams will cause a bending moment which
w12
junction between beams and the slab and will be transferred to the base slab
lJ - negattve moment.
as a negative moment. (D'L' of slab + wt' of
- negative moment.
Let the width of side beams be 0.30m. The effective span of beam 8
slab=0.80+0.30 __)uuh.\l* /h 0. l5\
r.t!!l_t_!_QQQD ><_IJ0? .,,n,.)

or, I =1.1.0m.
8 2/
"lt*g-3--':n:
t!q__X_1J3 . {iLQh x t.t2 500 x h3 s00h2 x 0.1-5
Assuming thickness of slab as 0.15m as in figure (above).
Weight of slab = 0.15 x2400kglnf .5.1..15 + 151.25h - 166.67h3 -37.51t2
= 36Akgh2 I ,r [\'{ hc rnirximum 4dlt
11, = ft

-246- -247 -
 x xhz' 2x 37.5.h' = 0
Of'
of,
0 + 151.25 - 3
-500h2-75h+151.25=0
166.67

II -
I
l5cm. C-
L
I:-c ,f
of,

of;
h2+0.15m-0.30=0
[= 2x I I C_
yl
k-b =
[
a=4cmj_
| 7.scm

- 0.15 t "'/ 0.0225 + 1.20

('.( i. of composite section.
2
100 x 15 x 7.5 + 12x 5.23 x :!
_-0.15 11.10 Y - 1AAv1(rl)vS??
2
_-0.15 11.10 :.y = 7.34 cut. from the bottom of section.
2
Monrent of inertia about bottom, I
- 0.15 + 1.10 - 0.1q -1'10
- 2'2 =$* -(B - t)'+ (m - r) At. (v - a)'
= 0.48m, - 0.63m. 100 x 153
Take = 0.48m. =-vlfir+ + 100 x ls (7.s - 1sqz + (13-1) x 5.23 x (7.34-4)
.'. Maximum Cve)B'M' in slab
=28373 wl
= 500 h2(t + 0.07s) 'I'cnsile stress in concrete

= 500 x (o'4E)2 (ry + o'0i5) _ Maximym tgnqion

- *' &Ilru+l)-EI4
I
xt
fuea of equivalent
115.20 x
= 27.10 kg.m. =Tffi+fi* 100 100 -- -
x ^a
'r+
.'.Maximum (+ve) BM in slab
= 0.0737 + 2.586
- - 166.67b3 37.5h2+ 151.25h +54'45
(0'48)2+151'25 x0'48 +54'45 l'crmissible direct tension (6t) = l2kgicm2 and
= - too.oz(0.4t;r -37.5 x
l'crmissible bending tension (o6; 17 kg/cm2 for M20 concrete'
= 100 kg.m.
.'. the tensile sress due to combination of direct tension ol and
.'.Maximum tension in slab due to pressure pull in side bearns'
bcnding tension olbl should satisfy the condition;
= 500h2
= 500 x (0.48)2 d* 4. t.o
= 115.20 kg. Ot 6tb
Let the slab be reinforced with l0.0mm dia. bars at 15cm
c/c at an effective
or, *tr*--ff-0.16<
0.073-1 2.586
1'ooK'
cover of 4cm. Then
. 100 -. fi x-1-.02-
At= l3- < oa^^Z
X- 4- =- r.'l-ur- l.ot cffective depth, d = D - a = 15 - 4 = 1lcm.

Area of equivalent section with M20 concrete fvri- - (r'rla) ort = 1000 kg/cm2o"6 =l()kglw?m = 13 ro, f"rzo(f :f|:l)
= 100 cm x 15cm + (m - 1)' At l='l
= 1500 + (13 - 1) 5.23 Now, N = Neutal axis coefficient
= 1562.76cq?
-249-
-24E-
 __ I = 0.476 firrvtrlr. l(hrrmQ bars @ 15sn c/c = Ast = 5.23cmz > 3.75cm2 OK.
,t+-osr ,''13
r+:--loo
ffiGch x 70 lerl lltcruative bars upwards u,f ro ,p* from ends i.e.
J= Ieverirrr = 1-
t=,- T= o.s+r
f x l.r =0.22m.
.'. jd = 0.841x Ll =9.25"^. Arlltttr ur stccl reinforcement = 0.109o of fu or 207o of Ast which is greater
Eccentricity, e, of tension = Jj) Maximum BM
rylaxtmum lenslon -'l#* 1oo x 15 or,ffix s.z3
_ I00 x 100 kg cm. -., l.-5cm2 or, 1.05 cm2
1t5.20
I rlr, L 5cm2 Using 8mmQ roads (A = 0.5Cm2) 25cm clc (a = 2.5cr?) at
= 87cm. from centre of section
If steel is placed at a cover of 4cm, the eccentricity f.rom steel lr;r rrrttl hottom of slab. Use 6mmQ stirrups @ 25cm clc for tieing the top
= 87 - (7.5-4) = 83.50cm.
irlr
ut$k
I BM
-= \m=3'ocm<
15cm Fnt nllh depth, d = 11 cm'
R.b
II lr,r ntrcir, qr=H
1110 x 1.1
m#Ti= 0.55 tsl"*z (Ori 2= 611 ks)
Taking the moments of extemal forces and tension in g
steel about Which is less than
T=+= tglc*2 Or.
C.G. of compression forces, we have:
Maximum rcnsion x distance A1 os1. id. Itr lx)lld stress,
=
or, _ _a_ 611
100 x (83.5 + 9.25) = At . 1000 (9.25) - Jd:o = 5.25 kglcmz <8 kg/cm2
or, o,=ffi*#= 9.25x nx 1.0 ,,25i;;
100cm
r.ocm2
llem design:
Other simple method: Clear span = 9.0m.
Load on u* Support bearing = 0.6m.
=,olr1i1t36':it* x 0.75 (with rree board)
= 1110 kg. DePth orbeam
Eff. span = 0.80 + 0.30 = 1.10m
Ast= ? =t:r'=
m* 9 = 0.90rn.
^::
Maximum ,, = tr = 1U#( = 168kg.m. widthofbeam

est=ffi=ffi# =t.82cml ffiofbeam.

1
Minimum main reinforcement 0.25Vo
= of Ac. j x 0.e0
=ffi* 100 x 15
= 0.30m.
a
= -J./) cm4

-250-
-2st-
 tlrlng 20mrQ bars,of uea-- 3.14 cmz
0.301
+0.l5,Freeboanl N,rs=fif;=4.33=5nos.
|
T T ('hcck minimum reinfbrcement= 0.25Vo of A'c
depth ofBeam = 0.90m water denth
I
10.60m,
=ffi*e0x30
L'l o.l5m,
= 6.75 wt?
I
thicknclr
J +-
stab oepth or

Wc lnve provided 13.6 cm2 which is greater than minimum reinforcement'

Loads on beam,
llcncc o.k.
D.L. of beam = 0.30 x 0.90 x 1.0 x 2400 = 648 kg/m.
( llrcck need for shear reinfbrcement'
Base slab o.r-. W= 2
141 kg/m
q,=#={3i#=o'sokg/cm?
water touo @= 3oo kg/m.
Pcrmissible shear stress in concrete 9c=2'5 kg/cm2' Hence
calculated qv

Live loa<l =20Okglm2= (r* * of * 1m x 0'30) m2 x 200kglm2 (0.5) is less than perrritted q" (2'5 kg/cm2)
l{once no shear reinforcement is needed.
= 140 kg/m
Total load * 1232kglm. (Nale: If qy >Qc the shear reinforcement is needed. shear reinfbrcement must
Maximum BM = M =# = *r#g= 14193 kg.m be provided to tako a shear of Q - q"'bc' spacing of shear
Maximum reaction = Q = F =* = *+-= 5914kg.
reinforcement is Sv,

Calculate beam depth, D = ?

^ =__d_
... su
Asv'ost'd

For Mru/
-"\ r:rlr)
2. ,t
concrete & steel:
Check nominal shear rei nl t)rcement.
ost =1400kg lcml, o.6 = l[krlcm2m = 13, N = -1- = 0'39
r*ir
m6cb
3+
b.SvW
= IY
*tr.r. Asv = Area of shear reintbrcement'

j = t-T= p= 11.87 kglwl,b = 30cm. For tor steel fY = 4150 kg/cm2

|'N.o"o.J =
0.868,
Fur spacing of 25cm c/c
Etr depthu=\ffi=affi=63cm.
Asv =
Total beam depth = d + cover. 4150
=63+4=67cm. 0.40x30x25
But wehave, D = 0.6 + 0.15 + 0.15 = 0.90m = 90cm > 67cm. 4150
.'. eff. depth according to this = 90 '4 = 86cm = 0.86m.
= 0.07 cm2
steelreinrorcement, o*=#* = r+#lT*H ro
= 13.6 cm2

-253-
-252-
 2xBMxC.G.
Provide 8nrmQ bars stirrups @ 25 cm c/c (Area =ZxUf&= 1cm2 I

=2x14193x100x35
which is greater than 0.07 cm2
Check bond stress =
5914
9f = o;-Gffi * g68 = 2IA kg/cm2<8 3-86 * to6
kg/ur?
,# = 25.44kglcmz <pennissible limit 28 kg/cm2 Or.
Check for tensile stress and compressive sfesses in crlrrcrctc,
Mirxinrum compressive stress in concrete.
Area of vertical beams = 2 nos x 30 x 90 = 5400cm2 antl ils C.G. lies at 45 _2xBMx(D-C.G)
cm above bottom. I
2 x 14193!!Qp0-;.!!)
Area of base slab = 100 x 15 =1500 cm2 & its C.G. tics at 7.5 cm fiom = 3-86 , 106
bottom.
= 40.45 kglcmz < Permissible limit 50 kg/cm2 OK.
Equivalent area of 20mmQ rods = 2 beams x 5 nos x Area of b x (m -1)
( )l lrr r hcam reinforcement
=2x5 x 3.14 (13 - l) 'lirlr rcirrlirrcement=0.L57o of A" or 20%o of Ast.
a
= 5.1I cm''
(l l\,,{ ot ec = x 30 = 4.05 cm2
and its C.G. lies at -5 cnr lrum bottom. ffix 90
Equivalent area of SmmQ at slab
,ro,i ol nst = x 5 nos. of 20 mmQ
x Area x (m -1)
= nos ffi
=4x0.5 x12
20 - nx202
=loox'* o
= 24 cm2 & its C.G. is 4.5 cm from botrom.
5400 x aS + 1SOO x Z.S = 3.14 cm2
Total C.G. 5400+1500+3700+24 f 'rrrvitlc 4.05 cm2 reinfbrcement at top using

= 35 cm from bottom. l.)rrrnr$ ruls, nos = -l'9L

n x l.2L = 3.('r =4 nos.
4
Total equivalcr)t area = 5400 + 1500 + 317 + 24 = 730lcm2 Srrlc distribution bars = 0.15Vn of Ac = 4 nos.
Moment of inertia of the composite section uhout the axis thro' total C.G. I lse l2mm0 rods, 4 nos.
is: Ikrrxls, zurchorage:

I= g + bd(its C.G. - Total C.C.;z + Area of base stab x Anchorage=12x0(mini)

tr) Provide hooks at ends to provide anchorage = 12.0 (min)
(totat C.G. - its CG12 + Eq, area of rods of beams x ( ) rr Minimum Lapping of rods = 40 x dia.
(total C.G. - its C.G.;2 + Eq. area of slab rods x (toral C.G. - its CG)2 (Minimum lap fbr tension =30 x dia.
Minimum lap lor compression = 24x dia.
=3i#+ 5400 (45 - :5;211500(3s-7.5)2+ 377(35-5f+Z4x (3-5 - 4.5)2 Maximum lap = 53 x,11o.
.'. Average tapp9=40 x tlia.
i'I=3.86x106cm4.

.'. Maximum tensile stress in concrele

-254- -r((-
Ilrawings:
0.30m {).3(h ln clcrr waterwaY.
16---: 1<-o.rorn------------{a-- l
l.ct tlrc velocity in barrels be kept = 2.0m/s
a.O.a.rr^,f
'l1rcn height of the barrels = 0'40m'
{ xoN. l2mo 12#'T2^0 =
lirl, hb^.
'nrc ht. of barrel is too less. So assume the velocity in barrel = 1'0m/s
1 {i{ nos. l2Im0
ridc hac.
Agi[n,
I
,--] ht. of barrel =
127* 1^o
= 0.78m
,l.aking
height of barrel = 1.0m. Then actual veltrcity will be 0.78 m/s
S[mps. ErnrtrQ
qu dc
.'. Reclangular barrel has the width = 4'25m
25

5 ros. 20trun0 & height = 1.0m

T main bus (lrcml).

rlaf,,Ul. t S,n
('lnal watcnvaY:
a I

I et contraction splay be 26"& the expansion be 18'

Slab main l,e
lftmo Ca 15m c/(. Splay 26" means sloPe =L:2
Distdbution bds ltttrnro
25ctu dc
at top & bottrn. .' tang = tan 26" = 0.49
Albmdively.
Stimps 6rnrn0

Section of an aqueduct.
sphy 18o means sloPe = l:3
tan0 = tan 18o = 0.33 :'i
For span: 9.0m

a= o.s4
Erampte: Design a syphon aqueduct with the lirllowing data: Bf Flunterl S*tion --->
Canal: Q = 0.50 m3/s bed witlth = 0.80m.
Water depth, D = 0.65m, side slope = l: l, bed level =500.000m.
Drainage : QHr,r-= 1 0m3/s, HFL=5fi ). (XX)m, bed level= 499.000m.
Sohrtionr expilns()n
lril[sltlon
Drainage waterway:
Lacey's regime perimeter =P = 4.75 {Q = a.75 {-t0 = ts-' ('anal

Let clear span of a barrel = 4.25m.

And pier thickness is taken as = 0.75m.
.'. overall sPffi = 4.25 + 0.75 = 5.0m.
Provide 3 spans to give a clear waterway.
=3x4.25 = 12.75m.
Corltraction Idnges tiom 40 tt> 50Vo
Overall waterway = 5 x 3 = 15m.
or\S = l,5qn of B" Remaining is 557o
There is a contraction of about =,'W= 0.15 = l|Vo <204o
i.e.'181= 0'55 X B" = 0.55 x 2'1 = 1'15m'

-256- -257.
 ))
v---.!l-
Length of Contraction , t" =L# x Z, =Z!-LJtrx 2 = 1.0m. "-
.r _ .) A=0.4147m
2
a
P=2.45m
Length of expansion , L.**-x Z"=Mx 3= 1.43 = 1.45m n3

Length of flumed portion, Lf = 3 x span of barrel + 2 width tf piers. = 0.(tlT x 0.0162

(03)1333
( r.rs -)
R=A/p=O.30m
(n=0.016 tor tlumed,
R.C.C. section.
= 3 x 4.25 + 2 x 0.75 = 14.25m. = 0.0006m/m
At section 4.4
Area of section :L ,taq!- 0.65 = 0.94m2 Irrt;rl krss in flumed section = Length x S

= 14.25 x 0.0006
Velocitv =9lonn3ls = o'53 m/s
" o.g4fiP = 0.0085m
y2 l{ 1.. ot TEL 22 = R.L. of TEL33 + Loss of head in flume
Vls.head=2
x 9jl =0.0143m.
= 500.666 + 0.0085
R.L. of FSL = R.L. of bed + water depth.
= 500.674m.
= 500 + 0.65 = 500.650m. l(.1.. of lre,Jzz= R.L. uf TEL 22-Yelo head - waterdepth.
RL of TEL44 = R.L. Of FSL + Velo. head
= 500.674 -8'62.* - o 65
= 500. 650 + 0.014
= 500.664m. = 5(X).(X)2nt
At section 3.3 At rection { -l
Area of section = 1.15 x 0.65 = 0.747m2 A = Sarne irs in 4.1 = 0.94m2
Velocity=*=#= 0.67mls u = Same a"s itt 44 = 0.53m/s

Loss of head between 44 & 33 (expansion) vclo hearr =

*+h = o.ol4m.

= r., *\rM= 0.3 x

*f#= o.oo25m. Loss of head between 2-2 -ll- Contraction)

R.L. of TEL y = R.L. of TEL 44 + Loss of head in expansion = o.z *!4 2g

= o.z *L93=W= o.oorTm

= 500.664 + 0.0025 = 500.666m. l(.1.. of TEL11 = R.L. of TEL 22 + Loss of head in between 22 &- Il.
.'. R.L. of bed at 3.3. = R.L of TEL 3-3 - Velo. head - water depth
= 500.674 + 0.0017
= 500.666 -ffi- r.ut = 500.675m.
l(.1,. ot tredl.l = R.L. of TEL 11 - Velo head - water depth
= 499994m.
At. section 2.2 = 500.675 - 0.014 - 0.65
Area of section = 0.7 47m2 = 500.01lm
.. l)illbrpnce of levels of bed of syphon aqueduct at U/S &
Velo = 0.67mls
r)/s =]500.011- 500.00
Loss of head between 3-3 & 2-2 is by manning's equation
= 0.011 m
= 1.lOcm

-258- -259-
 water klitd deatl
Ganal tmnsition: l'lu. llurnctl chrurnel can be designed structurally czrlcuiating
(l) Hind's equation: Y = cx2 hrrrrl clc. as in aqueduct.
1"1,,1, = 0. l5m (say). Beam depth = 0'65
+ 0'15 = 0'80m
(0 Expansion transition:
R.L. of W.S. at 44 - R.L. of W.S. at 3-3
rr-
tr =
4
Lou ol head through syphon barrels:
/ + f1+f2 L\V2
h= (l ilu
(s00.664 - 0.0141 - fs00.ooc-0.o211 Ircrro, f t = 0.505 tbr unshaped mouth (pier)
-2 .
/z= ^(r ft)
=ry= o.oo3m
t#)
= 0.(x)316 (' .
(see ttre tabte in this ctrapter)

ry=0.725m ('.'Le = 1'45nr)

& xr -
R-A- 1x1'?!,
-P-2(l+4.25)-"""
=o.4om)
.c=Yl==-q!Q3==0.0057
"--*12- (0.72il2- L = length of barrels = witlth of flume + beam thickness
(ii) Contractiontransition: = 1.15 + 2x 0.25
R.L. of W.S.r-r - R'L.of W.S.22
'r= t,
h= (1 + f tf
t i litt*
zil
_ (R.L. of TELIr Velo.
- heatl)-- (R.L. of TELzz - velo'head) rrcnr:c
E
2
Ircrc v=0.78m/s.Then
(500.673 - 0.014) - (500.672 - 0.002)
2 u= (, + 0.505 + o.oo34 - '#) ##"= o'047m
1

=ix0.009=0.0045 U/S HFL = Given HFL + 0.047 = 500'10 + 0'047 = 500'147m

Uplilt on toof:
^1=T=0.475m tr2 n te2
0'015m
vl 0.0045
. r .= __-_; ___--_;
Loss of head atertrv = .l'rfi= 0'505 x
#;^=
= 0.0199
xlt =
0.475)2 R.L. of bottom of roof slab of the barrel at entry
The transitions can be worked out by the Hiutl's eqtr R.L. of flume be4 at )) + R.L. of flume bed at 33
= slab thickness.
=
yl = cx12
Q) Mitra's transition equation:- _ 500.002 t 499.994 - 0.15 = 4gg.gg1- 0.15 = 499.g48m
2
Transition can be worked out by mitra's eqn
Hence uplift on roof = Upstream HFL - Bottom B'L'
o _ Bc. Bf.L
Dx-LBc-(8"-81)x = 500.147 - 499.848
Where, L = length of transition =O.299m
Bc = Canal bed widttt. = 0.30m
Bf = Flumed bed width. = 0.30 ton/m2
Bx = Bed width at'x'fiom flumed sections'

-260- -261-
The slab is 0.15m thick leading to a down ward lopd of 0.15 x 2.4 tJml = Drrwlng lt given--\ below:-
0.25
0.36 ton/m2. Uplift on roof will be balanced by the dead wt. of slab itscll. li F-- r,15

Hence no top reinforcement is necessary fbr this uplitl pressure. As thc

trough zis a whole is heavier tlxrn the total upward tbrce, no zurchorage to [11 lrrr l{7
a
piers is necessary.

Uplift on floor of drain: "+Dftdna8(

R.L. of barrel floor = Bottom R.L. of barrel rutf - H1 of barrel.

= 499.848 - 1.0 *tvo
= 498.848m
Let the floor thickness be kept = 0.30
.'.R.L. of bottom of floor = 498.848 - 0.30 = 498.548.m.
Static uplift on floor = Drainage bed level- R.L. of bottom of floor
= 499.000 - 498.548
= 0.452m
Total seepage hr ,,rrl = R.L. of w.s. at 44 - R.L. ol' draiuage bed.
= 500.650 - 499.00
= 1.65m
Residual seepage at the centre of the first barre I
_ Total sccpage head x creep length
= T,Xat i:rJ.p"f .o'th upto ce ntre line of tirst barrel.
1.65

ffi,.(r+s+ro+ry)
22
1.65 x 4.575
_
5.4
= 1.40m
Total uplift = Static + Residual
= 0.452 + 1.40
= 1.851 mof water.
= 1.851 ton/m2
0.30m thick floor will counteract 0.30 xz.4 = 032 tonrmz The balance (1 .g5 l
- 0.12) = 1.131 ton/m2 is to be taken/by bending and the necessary steel
shoultl be provided ar the rop ot drfi\/genoor stab.

-262- -263-
 Type of soil * (deg.).
HDP PIPE CROSSTNG-
OVER A STREM THROUGH I Loose alluvial soil rl*
SUSPENDED CABLE. Medium compacted soil ........ s;o ')

t Highly compacl.ed alluvium .. <o

HDP pipes with water flowing full can be crossed over a sEearn or river
,l Weathered rock ..... < 30."
through a suspended cable. The wan can be ranged upto l7-5m with somc
t Weathered to sound rock ...... < 37.5".
windguy cables and sometimes tl,e suspended cabres upt() m spans & it (60).
-50 (r Sound rock. ...... < 45"
may bc designed without windguy arrangements.
Wlrt'rc, 0 = Angle of internal friction of soil.
Dosign Goncepts * = angle of base line.
(i) The free.board (F,Bf berween the estimated high fl.txl (llll Loading:
level (HFL) and the lowest point of any cable alignmcrrl Live load :- 400 kg/m2 upto 50m spans. And,
rWindguy also) should not be less than 5m. = (\-'I * +)
t)" - 100 kg/m2 from 50 - 250m spans.

Wrrrrl krad:- 100 kg/m2 to 150 kg/m2.

(ii) Position of main cable anchorage foundationr: I ,r';ul krad:- Weight of all parameters.
The following minimum angles between the foundation tiurrl lit'rsrnic load:- It is included in Live load.
( )rh('r load:- Snow krad, temp. effect etc.
at base and the river bank slope ibot have to be maintained:
(lvl Steel wire ropes (cables|:-
l'r og1'1[i95;
F.-z -----------n I l,,tttttt,tl Approx. Approx. Area Minimum Permissible load
Hand rail cable.
r ll,tl r tr'lr't MASS bad (mm2) breaking (ISi)
rilil (kg/m) (kn/m) load / break load\
\= rrx= : /
Main cable I I

fiaN )
r, tl) 0.14 0.0014 17.0 23.0 7.60
l{ 0o 0.24 0.0024 28.0 34.0 11.30
A
FB 5m I I ()( 0.64 0.0064 73.0 103.0 34.00
l> ,|l t)l r.50 0.01s0 173.0 212.0 70.60
Anchor block. * - upr-
rr' (l( 2.51 0.0251 292.0 386.0 129.00
l,(x 3.80 0.0380 442.0 58s.0 19s.00
1., (){ 4.[t1 0.0481 560.0 740.0 241.00
ili o( s.38 0.0538 624.0 110.0 256.00
lr) (x 5.94 0.0s94 691.0 914.0 305.00

-264- -265-
 }lrlctl tymboh:
Modules of elasticity, E = 110 KN/mm2.
A - ticr:lkrnal area of cable. (r*r2)
(v) Cables may be anchored into the foundation with the trelps of
| - l,$tt8th ol cable between saddles. (m)
bollards (drums made of steel) and secured with cable clampl, l'- r'nhle tcnsion. (KN.)
The cable shoutd be wound 3 times around the tlrum. Minlm lhnnlt . ntinir breaking load of cable (KN)'
diameter of drum = 0.95 m. Friction factor between cable and lr*ur -
.ti)ral
cable tension at higher found#s (all cables) (KN).
ntca.sured in the mid' pt. of the chord'
(m)'
steel=F=0.10. h - SlI,
level !o
(vi) No. of bulldog grips, Gap, overlapping lengths are 8l c - lkrrrzontal distance from the from cable saddle athigher
fol tltc lowest Pt. of Parabola, (m)'

Nominal dia of No. of bull dog Gap'G' Overlapping | - Mtxilll sag, at the lowest pt. of pambola (m).

(mm)
I . l,outt conesponding to an assumed sag (b ) (KN/m)
cablcs. grips. length) y

(m) (mm) y - l,ruttl(KN/m)

ir - rltllr:rcnce in elevation between the cable
satldles at the higher and
upt() 4 80 650
krwcr lbundation saddles, m'
26 5 155 t250. (deg).
fl - t'thlo inclination,
to load'
32 6 190 1700 A - lttenease or decrease of sag, or cable length, due
36 7 215 2100 lntlices : h = hoisting load case'
40 I 240 2550 d = dead load case.
f = full load case.
Gcometrical paramctcs: i = ctlSe either full or hoisting load'
m = main cables.
H = Hand rail cables'
1 = Higher fbundation'
2 = Lower foundation.
ll Cahle inclinntionat saddles:

F1 = arc *, (*#)= tan-l

ffi) .",
. * /4h - h\ *, -1 Ab - h)to.e).
F2=arc
[-, J= fT I
)) I"ocation of lowest pt (distance measured fton higher

.foundaion saddlt):

,=L(t. ft) r'"r

hh2
r=b+i+fu.tm)

-267 -
-266-
3) Length of loafud cables between saddles: ,\) Fuclor of safery, F:-
r=z[r .', .t p = PISE> s.o.

4)
ftf
Total horizontal tension call cables):
ftfl ", r))
lma)(
Anchor block (Drum tlPe): Approximate dimensions are
u.12 given below in tabk.
H =i5-{rm.
5r Total maxim tension (all cables) ur tht higher foundation
saddle.

Tmax =ffi= r. ,uoz g, rKN).

6) The distribution of the tension hetween handrail and main

b- r

cables is calculatedproportionally to rhe cahle Gross area.

Main cable tension (all main cahleg; ./o
rrra=ffi * z*;pffi rxNr'

TM
^a*
= Tmax. ;ffi. (KN).
Asr
= o.o2% of H2XL
(mm2)
Hand rail cable tension (2 cables): Min l6mm$

rx= c*fiIJxA#H(KI'i)
l< B-------|
TH ** = Tmax xffi, ffiNl.
Note: Foundations at the same level (lt = o) the parameters Pt = 0Z Achor block foundatn.
= g. (deg). F'or main cable.
t. Drum type anchor block : Design parameters : Limits ot dimensions
e=, (m) for main cable foundation on
Drum tvpe on soil on. Rock
f=b(m) Soil
Tz =Tmax' (KN) lllln.hm 2 4 6 2 4 6

mrn 1.20 1.50 2.0 1.2 1.50 2.0

I.
7) Maxim cable inclination at saddle of higher foundation saddle lll Max 3.50 4.0 4.50 3.0 4.0 4.50
at D.L, case :- IEIIin--
P1d(maxi)s12". 1.20 1.n 1.24 0,5 0.80 1.0

fFax 3.50 4.0 4.50 3.0 4.0 4.5

.'. M - = sag ar dead load case)
= # *. ll Min. 4.80 6.20 7.90 3.60 5.0 6.70
"u
Recommendetn to obtain better stability; ll Max. 6.50 9.50 11 .90 5.50 8.5 9.50

t 3,30 2.90 2.90 3.30

B1d(recomm.)= 10o. Min 2.90 2.90
I Max. 5.0 5.00 6.50 4.50 5.0 5.50
h,-**
",,,= No' of main cables.
-268- -269-
 Span of crossing = 25m.
Table ol weights and wall thicknesses o, HDP pipes.
llepothene plastics industilos Level difference betn inrake & outlet = 2.5m.
Length of HDP pipe tiom intake to outlet = 65m'
Oder II Seies m series, Meaes. V Series
Velocity of flow in canal = 0'85 M/S'
dhm lZ.Sfglcm2; (+rg t cm2) 1o rgt cm21 (10 kg lcmzl Velocity of fltlw in pipe should be less than' 3m/s'
eter. tolution
(mm) wallthick Av. wallthick. Av. wall thick Av. Wallthick
AV- wl. WI, (mm\ wt. lmm) w1. Max.

lkolml mm. max. (ko/m) min max (ko/m) mrn max. ko/m min max.

't6
0.@2 2.00 2.40

N 0.134 2.3 2,8

% 0.202 2.8 3.3

l<-- 25m----------->t<-- spar25m
------j,t{- I 5n---------}l
a 0.225 2.30 2.80 0.384 3.6 4.3

40 0.251 2.0 2.40 0.35 2.90 3.40 0.514 4.5 5.2

Susnended Crossing
50 0.378 2.4 2.9 0.542 3.60 4.20 0.1 86 5.6 6.4 (Al HydrologicaldcsignF
tt
63 0.403 2.0 2.40 0.585 3.0 0.85 4.50 5.20 1.269 7.1 8.1
I Find the dia. of HDP PiPe ?
75 0.557 2.30 2.80 0,846 3.6 4.3 1.101 5.3 6.10 1.782 8.4 9,5
, Wehave,Q=V.A.
90 0.799 2.80 3.30 1.22 4.4 5.2 1.715 6.4 7.30 2.568 10.1 'I
1.4

'l'10
Taking the pipe velocity, V = 2.5m/s. then
1.185 3.40 4.0 1,703 5.0 5.8 2.545 7.8 8.80 3.801 12.4 13,9

125 1.530 3.90 4.5 2.289 6.0 6.8 3.293 8.9 10.8 4.952 14.1 15.7
A=$=Y=0.08m2.
140 1.897 4.3 5.0 2.901 6.8 7,7 4,15 9.9 11.1 6.209 5.8 '17.6
1
lf the dia of HDP PiPe is Q, then
160 2.453 4.9 5.6 3,n3 7.8 8.8 5.355 11.3 12.7 8.079 18.0 20,0
. nxb2
A=_
180

m
3.148

3.876
5.6

6.2
6.4

7.1
4,762

5.89
8.7

9.7
9.8

10,9
6.80

8.391
12.8

14.2
14.3

15,9
't0.256

12.62
20.3

22.5
22,6

25.0
+_
25 4.822 6.9 7.8 7.445 't0.9 12.2 10.544 15.9 17.7 16.014 25.4 28.2 or,Q-
m 6.012 7.7 8.8 9.187 12.1 '13.6
13,041 17.7 '19.7 1 9.757 28.2 31.3

2N 7.412 8.6 9.7 11.455 13.5 '15.1 '16.327 19.8 22.0 24.108 31.5 34.5
4 x 0.08
TE
315 9,417 9.7 't0.8 14,508 15,2 17.0 20.691 2.,30 24,8 31.16 36,5 39.2

355 '11.957 't0.9 12.2 18.382 17.1 19.1 26.243 25.1 27.9 39.635 39.9 44.1 = 0.319 m. = 319 mm.
400 16;217 12.30 13.8 23.342 19.3 21.5 33.309 28.3 31.4 50.344 45.0 49.7

450 19.1 67 I3.8 15.4 n.251 21,5 23.9 42.065 31.5 35.0 63.591 50.0 55.3 Select III Series 355 mm Q HDP pipe. It^s inner diaureter will he = 355 mm
s00 23.837 15.4 17.10 36.406 23,8 26.4 51.90 34.8 38.6 8.735 55.2 61.0
1
- wall tlticknesses.
Note: Rate ol HDP pipe in F.Y 053/54 was Rs. l?tkg. = 355 mm - 2 x l7 .l mm = 320.80 mm > 319 mm
a.

Design example of a HDP pipe crossing over a stream through Fnrm pipe tlow graphs, fbr Q = 0.20 m''/s'
suspended cable with the following given data: 0 = 320'80mm
Discharge thro'pipe = 0,20m3/S. V = 2.50 m/s.

-270- -271-
Head loss thro' internal friction:
OISCHARGE CALCULAT]ON IN PIPED SECTION
nr=1# =o.otl(m/m).
For 65m long pipe internal friction heatl loss will thcn/be = hfx65m=
0.012x65=0.79m.
)
vpipe-" - vcanal"
1
a
Entry and exit loss = 1.5 x t 0.r
2xg c.1

(2'5)2 - (O'SS)2 I d1

= l'5'**-r;T[i-
- I l'r ' E

= 0.42 m.
Trash rack loss = 0.10m (say).
rq
t, r\-)
'^t
od
Jt
o
a
I ;p' e
,l r.\ r..J Gol
Joint loss = 0.25 m per Joinl. (extra length). lr F"Y.J ,o <t
ra al-
=0.2sx$ l:,:iY al

= 3.25 m of extra pipe. Ii

lrr
la*
f.tr
tl t -.r1;
?
l{
o
Its krss = 3.25 x 0.012 (
= 0.04m. t.l i;fr a
(,
()
Bend losses - Cb.
}f (Cn = 6.1sy
I:: f,
{
=o.ro.*** aa
a
s
rl
= 0.032m. per bend. lta
ara
Suppose we have 5 bends. Then bend loss IB
=5x0.032=0.16m IT
aa,
aa,
Hence the total losses = 0.78 + 0.42 + 0.10 + 0.04 + 0.16 a0,

= 1.5&n. <2.5m.
i,e Head difference 2.5m overcomes the total losses
T i:E ! i iiiit E j :: -r:.!::'?::
F,
.-,-- DIAMETER D (n)
Hence it is ok. --l

.'. Use 355mm 0 GII series 4 kg press) HDp pipe. HoPl,Etasrls

-272- -273-
(Bt Structu:al dosign: Doto:mination ol cable diamrtor Brr(max) = arc. tan(*f') = 14.3s.
sag3, tcnsion and F.O.S lor thc loadsl
Approximate maxim tension under full load;
320.8mm
cf.P 4.345 x 252
Hand rail cable. (20mmQ)
1.
'max - g.bf.cospr, - 8x1.604xcos14.39 =
218.74KN.

tDP pipe, 355mm dia.(outer). but peflnissible tension Tpem;

= 2Main + hand rail) permissible.
Suspendors.
= 2(195 + 70.6)
= 531.20 KN.
('nlculated Tmax is within pennissible value. OK. !
kon channel Again with bd (recommended) = 1.637*.
Main cable. (32mmQ)
t-0'asm+l bl'= 1.22 x 1.087 = t.326m.
FI Loading: B,r =arc*(t+*)=*-' (4ff4)= tr".
(, Hoisting knd, load gh = 2 (Main + Hand rail) cables.
= 2(0 OlE + 0.015) rmax =
sr.& 4345 x 252
&br**6= 8;l:r;;;rt ff ' = 261'72 KN'
= 0.1()6 KN/m.
(ii) D.L. cirsc, gd = hoisting load + other d. LS. Inuu < Tperm. ----- OK !

= 0.106 + 0.250 (say) .')

.i ftr.i ffl]
r Lengttr of dead loaded cables,
= 0.356 KN/m.
(iii) Full load, gf = gd + L.L + pipe load + water load + Wind krad 'u=[,
= 0.356 KN/m + 2 KN/m + 0.18 Kl\/n] +-_4
' '?t x 0'3212
=z+ft+o+t (ry)']
x 1000 kg/m3 x (# -0 + 1.0 KN/m. (say). = 25.t3 m.
( ]) Constant factor, C :!1+'A
= 4.345 KN/m. 1.f.td
D.L Sag, bd: _64xll0x2(442+ 173)

bduax) =i ^u=';-*= 1.315 m. .3x253 x25.13

th25 -; = 7.351
bd (reconun.) = B - i= - 0 = 1.087m. 14) Sag calculation:
with bd (max) = 1.315m, (i) Full load sag by iteration:
Full load sag, bf = 1.22 x bd. = 1.22 x I.315 = 1.604m. lst iteration:
Primary sag fbr tull load, b*:

-27 4- -)1<-
 b*=1.22.xbd. 3rd lteration:
Choosing lxl = recommended one = 1'087 m' b* = tlgw b* = 1.266m.
Then, b* = 1.22 x 1.087' B* = 7.351 x 1.266 (r.zooz - t.0si2) . *+#x 0.356.
= 1.326 m.
= 4.334 KNA4.
Loatl g* = c. b* (n* ' - uu2) * S* ,u.
(r.tzoz - 1'0872) . H# x 0'356
New b* = 1.0d7 + e.266- 1.087) . a#thx
= 7.351 x r.326
= 1.262m
= 6.055 KN/m. Agi=gi-g*
Newb*=o (ol,u - bd) . t+' (gi= gr =4'14s- KN/m) = 4.345 - 4.334
Eokl - 8u = 0.011

= 1.087 + 0.326- 1.0870) .*H*ffi =

0.01, OK!
Stop iteration.
= 1'087 + 0.239. #' = 1'25o rrr'
@
Agi=gi-g* At fuil loatl sagM maxim tnsion in the cable;
= 4.345 - 6.055 $.&
= - l.71KN/m.
Tmax = &bf. .
lAgil > 0.01 Not 0k ! 1
4.345 x 25'
2n iteration: =-8 x 1.262
b* = n9w b* = 274.09 KN.
= 1.250m. ((r) Sat'ety factor lbr cable te'nsicur;
B* = c.bx
(u*2 - to2) +
S. ,u Th.erk 2(5tt5 + 2t2) KN
-' -
(r .zsz ' t oatz) . x 0'356' Tmax 27-t.-lrKN
= 7 .35r x t.zs ## = 5.8 > 3.0 Ttxr muck O.K.
= 3.909 KNA4. I lrc rnirin cable foundaticn, the anchorage block should bc sat'e against:
New b* = brl + (nl,u - b.l) x -s1-:-s4- i) Sliding tailure.
\ vru g,rl,l - gd
ii) Over tuming tailure.

= 1.087 + (1.25 - 1'087) rri) Ground shear f'ailure.

3.898
=tmtl-om iv) Slope tailure.
ll,.rtr1i lltcse concepts we can design the tilundation block. Tentative
= 1.266m. rlurrr'rsions of flre Drum type anchor block has been given abrtve in this
, Agi = gi - g* = 4.?45 - 3'909 = 0'436 KN/m r lt;tplt'r,
lAgil= 0.436> 0.01 Not Ok!

-27 6- -277 -
 Hddtcsh e0m'4)
0hf) /
35snDf

Arurllct is a device at the head of a water course which connects it

lb*
u tlr ir rlrsllilruting channel,
I
Olerror oI outlets:
rlr Modular (Rigid modulesl: Which mainrain a constant discharge
rrrt,spcctive of fluctuations in the water levcls of the supplying
r lurrurcl as well as the water course.
[\{rthrl;rr outlets are not suitable in hill irrrrirtion systems due to their
r ( )nstl.uction complications.
Arched roof c<x,cr
F :s^ .+F-- span = 25n.>F-- t5m -------.-*l

L - SECTION OT'
IIDP pipe crossing thro'
Wator course
Suspended G.L Cable. I rr, rrl ,,rrr,rl *-}.
Q = o.2oo m3/s.
HDP pipe - 355 mm Q

III series, (4 kg/ Press.) Modulr outlet

Full load sag = l./62^. r 'r tomimodular lFlexible modulesf :- Discharge through which is
rrrrlcpondent of the water level .in the watercourse subject to a
Hand tail cable. (20mrnQ)
rrrrrrinrum working head being available, but varies in a characteristic
HDP pipe Suspendors.( l2mm$) rnililncr with . the variation in the water level of the tlistributory.
Crossing
'l
(355mmg) lrcsc are preferred in hills.
(III serics 4 kg press)

\
Iron channcl

Main uable. (32rum$) Pipe with lre old.{

x - Section Semimodular outlets.

OF HDP pipe Crossing lon.modularl Discharge depends on the difference in levc,ls
lrt'twoon the water surface in the distributing channel and the
\\,:tlctu)urse.

-218-
-279-
 Semimodular and non modular outlets are preferred in hill irrigation
r!) il tlD
't) ......... (vl')
,i
system.

FlcxibilirvF=dqr0Q= D m qH
tt,,rrec ^-r.1 'Q-n'H'0'
As rr change in water depth of the chance results in an equal change in head
Submerged weic
orr lltc outlet, dD = dH.
Submerged pipe
or, F =
mD
=. ", ...... (viii)
Non. modular outlets.
Criteria for judging ttre behaviour of SeminxxJules & molules:
Care I
(r) Flexibility: It is the ratio of rhe rare of change of discharge of an lt rho tlexibility is equalto one, then rate of change of outlet discharge is

outlet to the rate of change of dischiuge of parent channel or, r,rpral to the rate of change of channel discharge. Then the outlet is said ttl

- q'a ""'........t,1
F=@/9. lx'
'l'rrportional'. i,e
Where F = flexibility
F=8.D,-=,.0.
q = outlet discharge

Q = parent channel discharge. r)t, Hm

D=;......
(lx).

*q = *," of change of discharge in outlet. ll/D represents the proportion of the depth at which the outlet is tixed and is
t rrlled the setting.
*= *," of change of dischangc iu p:uent canal
t_2 5
, for a parent channel of trapezoidal having ,iO" it,,n",
Now, if 'H' is the head acting on outlet the discharge thro' it mtry be
Now n =
i ] ,

5
expressed as:
l,Q *D
r
q= cl H*. ......(10 1,for an outlet with n orifice type, q * [1 -
and m =
Where C, & m depend on type of outlet. ),
So tlat differentiating we ger and m =7,
.i fbr weir type outlet, g * H '
dq = ct . m. Hm-l dH. ..... (iii)
'fhen,
Dividing (iii) by (ii) we get, I
&dH
i=t , """"" {iv) Seuing =
*= f =?=r^ 1= o.3o o, tr,"
similarly fbr the parent channel also, the discharge e can be related to its 3

depft 'D'by an expression form, outlet is set at 0.30 times the depth below the water surf'ace in case
1
Q = c. o.o ........ (u).
So that dQ = C.n.Dn-1 On. ...... (vi).
of orifice type module antl Similarly
f =?= I *] = O.eO

Dividing (vi) by (v) we get, 3

-280-
-2ttI-
 or the outlet is set at 0.90 times the depth below the water in case of E
weir type module. _
-dD
(.1

Gase ll nD
If H/D .4n th", .... the flexibility is more than one and the outlet is As, dG = dD, then
S = n.F ....... (i0
.hyper-proportional' i,e the discharge in the channel changes by a certain
llcncc sensitivity of a rigid module is zero. The greater the variation in the
percentage, the discharge of outlets changes by a larger percentage. i.e the
rlrschirge ol' an outlet for a given rise or fall in water surface level of
setting is higher than the required lbr pooportionality.
rlrstributing channel the larger is its sensitivity.
Case lll lllal Efliciency :- Efficiency of an outlet is the rario of the head
,t , I thm the flexibility is less rhan one & the change in the outler rt'eovered to Ulc hcad put in.
H
discharge is less than the percentage change in the channel discharge and the (rv) Minim motlular head (MMH) is the minim head required for the
outlet will be sub proportional. (i.e settling is lower than the required firr lrrucl.ioning ol un outlct (= 0.20. D).

proportionality) llydreulic design ot irigation outlets:

For rigid modules flexibility is equalto zero.
lll Pipe outlets:-
(ii) Sensitivity:- It is the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an laf Submerged outlets:
outlet to rate of change in level of the distributory watersurf'ace, FLS
referred to the normal depth of the channel. :A
I
Let 'G'be the reading on a gauge set so as to indicate zero discharge H
when the reading on the gauge is zero. Since the discharge is canal
independent of water level in the water course lbr flexible mrilules it --
A-1
l_
follows that a gauge so fixed can be crrlibrated to show the dischiuge
--+watercourse
corresponding to a mark ur the gauge where the water sulface stauils. E
For a rigid module the discharge is equzrlly independent ot the gauge l*L+l
reading.

E Discharge, Q = CA {rr o
Hence sensitivity (S) =
ft . ... rit Where, C = 2,800 for L > 6m.
D = 3,300 for L < 6m.
E A = cross sectional are ofa pipe,*2.
Also, F= H = diffbrence in water level, m.
fr I
a Q = discharge in
".

-282- -283-
o) Free pipe outlet r
cD.
\ 6.
a
r.s - 2.5 0.63 0.60
2..5- 3.5 0.625 0.60
canal H 3.5 - 5.0 0.625 0.605
I > 5.0 0.4 0.61
*. -"u lbt Submerged flow:
Discharge,Q=C.R r,fi-

Where C=27t,(l
o
Others same as rn (a).

l2l Gated ouilots: For larger outlets.

(al Fleo llow:- Submerged flow

lrlrllrrrgc, Q=Co. A,.Pg,tt l -tl

A v: (m3ls)
l:::l Cv.
li:,| ____*_
I1,r T-v t / Where, CD = discharge coef. = 0.66 (approx.).

IA \J/ CV = Velocity head coeff. = l(approx.)

,/
t*6a h1 = h.ud of water U/S of opening, m.
h2 = head of water D/S of opening, m.
t
Free flow
A = Area of gate opening, m2.
ldcntilication of submerged & free flow is done by the following

Disch:,ge = cD . cv w. ;1ffi- ,;(r,3rs). 4

Where, Cd = discharge Coeff. dependenrdent on h, & a.
,rr/,r a
Cv = Velocity coefficient = 1 (approx.)
Hl = U/S opening head, m. ,,

W - gate width, m
I
6 = conEaction coefficient.
a - gate opening in, m.
0
Relation bbtween-hr, a, 6 & Cr.

-284-
-285.
t3l Ungated weirs:
laf Free lall Hume Pipes (R.C.C. pipes)

Deeign of R.C.G, pipesr

(11 Design of conc:ete pipes subjected to internal

Thickness, t

Discharge, Q= 1.7. W.ttz. (m3/s).

,..--*
Where, W = gate width, m.
H = head over srest, m.

lbl Submerged llow:

P.D.
H(x)p tensi()n,t =i .. ... ... ... ... (i)

Whcre, P = hydrostatic pressure of water.

/,/,/,/,/,/,/,r,/./ /,/./,/
^_1
DischargeQ=iCo. {Zg . w,t 2 + Co.
Where Q = discharge in m3/S
W = Width of gate in m.
Cn = 0.63 for rectangular (approx.)
You can see the flow through different types of notches & Orifices in the
chapter'discharges from notches and orifices'.
(P = head of water x unit wt. of water)
w. r/[trr. tz
Water hammer efl'ect = 4 times the water lrcad.
.'. P = 4 x head of water x urrit wt. of water.
=48xhx1000(kg)
= 4000 h. (kg)
H()op steel = GL'ry*nD
where o51 = tensile stress of sreel ... ... .... (ii)
' 6st
Calculation of thickness 't' of shell:
tx'[-'lension
Limiting tensile slren gth ol' concrete - -FI
Ac+(m - 1) Ast "' "' (iii)
The limiting tensile strength of concrete when tirough ctlmpaction (by
centrifugal process) is done are as:

-246- -287 -
 (i) Strcss on pipes under their orvn weight:
-l( = W.r l.e. lensl0n at top .. ... .. (i)
Gade Lirniting tensile strength m 6
(mix) of concrete in fts/cm2) *,:ry"t; ?] .. . ,. . . . (ir)
.. ..

M1s (1:3:6)
Mrs (1:3:6)
12.00
20.00
31.00
19.00 *,=YtT'r] ... (iii)
Mzo (1:3:6) 28.00 13.00
rrnd hogging moment at any section.
Mzs (1:3:6) 11.00
32.O0
M0 = wr2
[e.
siro*f . Coso - , t].1nwr2 (1 - sinel2 ...iiv)

The values given in this table can be used in the problems

Where the second term is to be used for points where Q > 90'
Where Ac = Area of concrete shell per meter of circumf'erence. (cm2)
Wrcre, W = wt. of pipe/m rum of circumference.
= 100(cm) x (cm). (cm2) 0 = value is radians
Ast - hoop steel area, cm2 Sin0, Cos0 are from 0o values.
Longitudinal steel = 0.3Vo of Ac... ... ... ...(iv)
(This steel is for temperature, shrinkage stresses & for distribution) (ii) Stress in pipe due to \yater inside:-

In case iurangement fbr special compaction of concrete could not be made R=hpr2 ... ... ..(i) (p = density of water)

ordinary value of tensile sEength of concrete.

M2=*(; ?) (ii)

=./O.ZOrc"u ... ... ... .. (v) Ml=f(?'J (iii)

Should be used for design.
and hogging moment at an section.
(21 Design of concrete pipes subiected to external as
well as internal prGSSurG:-
M6 = pr3 (fr c"re + f x e x sino ?) *Looltr- sin0)2 ... (iv)
M1
(iii) Stress in pipe due to earthlill on"t On o"1,"j;r",,".

\
Horiz ntal dia

M2

-289"
-288-
 R = 0.018 Wr2 1i.e. tension ).. (i) (r ) Stress in pipe due to uniform pressure from sides:-
Mr = 0.024 Wlr3 ... . ... .... .(ii)
Mz = 0.047 W'r3....... ... .... (iii)
Hogging moment Mg (0 = 0 to 90")

= - w'r3 (0.006+0.018 Cosg)+w'r3 si^ze - siore x cose] T, perm run

[] I
lr{1 - Cos0) -
+
, j 0. Sin0) ... ... .... (iv) -lM"
Hogging moment Ms (0 = 90 to 180'):-

= - w'r3[0.006 + 0.018 cosg] + w'r3 [0.1075 sin20 - 0.0591 ... ... .,.. (v)
Wrere W' = density of earth fill. B

(iv) Stress in pipe due to UDL :- M" =i T.r2 (sagging) ... ... ... (i)
q per m. run.
Sagging moment at P,
YYYYIYYYYYY = Mc -
A
lt.rz co"ze
=f,r.r, (1 - 2 cos2o) ... .. (ii) /

Reaction R at'A' = - T.r. (i.e. thrust)

Stresses due to side pressure varying uniformly from zero at thc

top:-

Intensity of Prssure
at'x' is. 'kx'
B

t
q/m

R = 0 ... ... ... ... .... (i)

*, =l qrz =M2...... ....(ii)
R= K.r2 1i.e. thrusr) (r)
Sagging moment M6 }i
=f,vz -*rrr. sin2o... ... ... .. (iii) ML = hogging) (ii)
*K.r31i.e.
Mz=*= K.r3 (i.e. hogging) ... ... (iii)

-290- -291-
 lrlrtlont
Sagging moment, *, =; Kr3 [ - 1.5 Sin0] -
Ir,'rr - Cos0)3 ... (iv) Data - Given,
Wl = density of filling earth = 1750 kg/m3
(vii) Stresses in pipe due to a point load at Crown:- q = 4400 kg/m2 (concenrated loa<l)
Assumed,
1
M2 (1: 1;3)
m= 12,
P = density of water = 1000 kg/rn3 '

W = weight of pipe per m run of circumference.

thiclness of prpe shall t = 0.12m

= 300 kg.

W2r perm rum

n=Y
6It
(i)

vr,=*t(?. t) (i0

*z=Yti t] " (iii)

Sagging moment M6 When 0 <90o

=wr [*.* H ry]....(iv)

andWhen0>90"
Mo=wr [*.# ?P ry] Y,, Sino)2 ... ... (v)
Section of pipe
Example:
Design a R.C.C. pipe (Hume pipe) having lm as its diameter to Ths concentrated load of 4400 kg/m will get dispersed ttrrough the earth fill
carry water under a head of 5m. The pipe passes under a road and the rurd cause UDL of 4400 kg/m2 Moment calculation is kg m at point P due

depth of Filling above its crown in lm. The rnaximum live load over t() various load Cases:-

its equivalent to a concentrated load of 4400 kg/m length of pipe.

The weight of earth round the pipe is 1750 kg/m3 and its angle.ol
repose Q, is 30o.
-293-
-292-
 0 Moment due to (kg - m)
t)rrt: t, wr. of warer =*=ry=*rr#d= 145.g3 kg

lletrlorr).
(D M. of Wt. of Earth over UDL on UDL ol Earlh Design mommenl Remark!

(1) ppe (2) Water (3) fEunch top of pipe earth over press +ve ,or sagging (e)
lhr to r.rtrtlr lill over haunch = R = 0.018 Wlr2

(4) (s) pipe (6) (7) -ve for hogging = 0.018x 18 x 1750 x 0.52
{8) = 7.88 kg, (tensiun)
llur. to lrvc krad & earth fill at top = 0.0
0 26 5.25 275 109.40 +437.65 Moments an
.. 'lirurl tension =25 + 145.83 + 7.88 + 0 = l78.7lkg.
O calculated by

45 ditl. casos ol
lltrr c tlrc loads in the above condition are all vertical, there will exist a
60 formulas.
lhlurr crlurl to 178."11kg at the bottom point B, fbr the sake of equilibrium.
s -34 24.54 -1 1.0 .275 -'109.40 -453.90
llott c trrtll lension at A = 8800 + 178,71= 8978.7 kg
ln
150
I trrlrrl lcnsion at B = 8800 - 178.77 = 8621.30kg.
Mr - M 1=437.65 kgmMs -Mz=447.29kgm.
180 33 19.5 10.30 275 t90.40 +447.20

. Eccentricity at A:4ll$ftllftsilq = 4.87cm.

From the moment calculation it is seen that the maximum +ve moment
occurs at top A and bottom B of the pipe while maximum -ve moment . . Eccentriciry at B =*##!q = 5.l8cm
occurs at the ends C of the horizontal diameter. Flrnr tlrc point C, the direct fbrce corresponding to the ma:rimum -ve
The pressure of water in the pipe = 5m head. I
ltrrill('lrl conditions j x total vertical forces onthe pipe.
For water hammer etl'ect this should be taken as 4 times the head. i.c
tl
=4x5=20mofwaterhead. f lrrr' trr wl. of pipe Wx n =1x3fi)x nx 0.5 = 235.62kg. (Thrust).
Tx
= 20x 1000 kg/m2 lhr' t. rrpward pressure of water = - * (r - T)
= 20,000 KG/m2
This will cause hoop tension in pipe wltich will be unititrm througlt =-o.r(, - t)
equal to,
= 20000 x internal radius. = - looo x o.sz (r - f)
=2o.ooo *(Lo'12\
\ f) (.'t=o.l2m) = - 53.65 kg (Tension)
lrrx.to carrh till overhaunches; =\(Zrz *)
= 8800 kg in one m length ofpipe.
For the top point A of pipe, the direct tilrces due to various
derived formulas we have
ca.ses liom
=ry(r*0.t, **{)
= 94kg (tlrust)
Due to wt. of the pipe = R =
Y ='q- = 25 kg (tcrnsi6n)
,,x. ro crutrr fi, u,,,:??to,r#,1,;1;,1::jr,

-294- -295-
Total thrust = 235.62 + 94 + 3075 - 53.65 = 3350.97 \rrrt:c the eccentricity of pull in the pipe at C is 8-33 cm. Its line of action

= 3351 Kg
li ouLside of A1. i.e..

Net hoop tension - 8800 - 3351 = 5M9 kg S+ 8.33 = ll.23m.

2
.'. Eccenricity =N"r h"ft*i"" =AUHffi@ = 8'33 cm
l,r.rn one'layer and,
f - t.r, =- 5.43, i.e. 5.43 from another layer of
Calculation of pipe shall thickness 't' rr.rrrlorcement. The layer of reinforcemdnt which is nearer to this force will
Let the Thickness be 't'. lx. strcssed more. So taking moment of forces about the centre of the other
Use 12mmQ rods @ 15 cm c/c, for hoop dteel, lnycr of steel, we have.
.'. Total area of steel per m length of pipe. ( )rrc
layer A1X osl x 5.80 = 5M9 x 11.23
nx dZ
or, 8.67 x ors x 5.8 = 5449 x 11.23

nxl.22-./l00cm t)x/" .'. ost = l2l7 kgtwrz <1400 kg/cm2. (for tor steel)
=- 4 -x \15". + ,\-. .'. use for tor steel.
.'. Provide hoop steel of 12mmQ @ 15cm c/c in both faces of pipe.
=8.67 xZ = 17.34 cmL.
Equivalert area of section = 100 x t + (n - 1) Ast. cm2 x 2 = 18.10 cm2 (Rt)l
lr) 0-5

= 100.t +(12 - l) x 17 .34 Longitudinal steel (for temperature, shrinkage & distribution purposes) =
= (100.t + 189.20) cm2 tt t0% of As.
And equivalent moment of inertia of the section
=ffi*(100x t2)cml
=r1#= (m- r) - o,, (i)' = 3.60 crr1tmof circumference.
.l'rrrvide 8 mm$ @ 30 cm c/c in both faces. (As116n
e= 4cm2lm)
= 8.33t3 = 11.83 t2
Cover 2.5cm.
Testing the pipe for point C which has maximum moment,
wehave,
5Ms 45390 x,r
+ _
= 28 ks/cm2
1 ooi ; r 8e.20 8i3tt;T1 f-rtP
('.' limiting tensile strength of concrete = 28kgtcm2)
or, 23 x lM.F + 3.26x 104.t2 - 2.29 x 106.t -4.3 x106 = 0
Put, t = 10crn, the above equation gives (-ve) value, not ok' Longitudinal steel
t = 10.25 cm, the above equation give (+ve) value, next Eial. G-0.76m SmmQ 30cm c/c.
(Alternatively).
t = 10.15crn, the above equation gives (-ve) value, next trial
t = 10.20cm, the above equation gives (+ve) value, neady ok.

"'
t=!4iU= 1o'18cm

we have provided, t = 12cm > 10.18cm, o.k.

Distance betw-' -":1iflf
i::% ii, .-
-296- -297 -
 Allowable stresses for desisn are:
Masonary Wall Design. Type ol Compressive stress Tensile Slress (N/mm2) Permissible
masonry 1tumm2) slrength in

(I) Slendemess rario (S) = ... ... ... (i)

& shear
=#!yl!eF!t-
Effective thickness Concrele Tvpe of masonrv Slress Tvpe of loadino Slress
In a buildins:
1 Stone For well For normal Load 107r of lhe
The slendemess ratio should not usually exceed 18 for the walls built
rnasonry
in cement mortar and 8 for walls built in muld mortar. t conslructed new case 0.05 allowable
(l:a CM) masonry 0.70 strength in
ln lrrigation Systems:- The walls. & retaining walls in irrigarirrr
For poorly For extreme loading Compression
systems should have the minimum requirements as shown in the tigure conslructed old case 0.10 for exlreme

*l
below tenlatively:-
masonry 0.40 loading
_Top,width,t.
I

F--Y---+l 0r

,l Brick For common bldg. For normal load 3% Ior

Front batter: rnas0nry bricks. U.J5 case 0.03 normal
(1:Z):-1:10 For upto 2.0nt
1:5 for higher (l :4cm)
thm 2.50m
1
loading
For 2nd class For exlreme load
h = heiqht of wull- nr
, lMaiinl wall heiglrt = 5m1 brick 0.70 case 0.06
I

I A fro4r toe is pr{,\'irle,l t(, rc,lurc For First class

I rtaxiur prcssurc [L'r tlrc ulrlls
higher than 3.Lhr brick
Foundation | (D) I 1.05
depth
I :1, Mas For direct 4.0 For normal loading
({t.}U.r r,

not lcss than

; e",r
l :lnr
l<--------3-----+l
Buc witlth I
r;oncrete case 0.30
Retainins wall (Mrs)

For compressive For extreme load

Where the Minimum values are as:. bendino 5.0 case 0.60
B = 0.55h Notc: 1 kg Force = 10N. force.
t = 0.25h (0.30 m irs minimum) ,,r, l-\ = 10 ks/m2
D = 0.20h (0.20m as minimum) mmz
Slenderness ratio = Shoukl not exceed 4.0 Gravity retaining walls:
For cement mortar and2.0 wirlls used t() support water, earth, krose stones or anyother such materials
fbr mud morLu. rrrc tcrrmed as retaining walls. Dims are big retaining walls. Loads which the

The design procedures of gravity retaining wall is given belolv in thi re laining walls have to support are:
chapter. r) active eifih (soil) pressure due to horizontal ground.

-298- -299-
 (iii) Eailh Pte3sure at rsst:'
ii) Surcharge of 10kn/m2 on the soil behind the walls, for hill schemes
Ko=1-Sin0
this can be reducetl to 2 }n/m2
iiD hytlrostatic pressure behind the wall. Theory ol design ol gravity retainang wall:'
iv) Self weight of the wall. A gravity retaining wall is the one which resists the lateral pressure
in
by its weight in conuast to the cantilever and countcrtirrt retaining walls
(al Earth Presure:
which the pressure is resisted by bending action. A gravity retaining wall is
(, Active earth PTGSBuBe!' The pressure of the soil which or
therefore thicker in section. They are consfiucted clf mass concrete, brick
cause the wall to move away from the backfill
stone masonary. The criteria of design of gravity retaining walls are
as
ward movement
fbllows:
(i) tlnt the maximum pressure
The base width of the wall must be suclt
exertetl on the foundation soil does not exceed the safe bearing
capacitY of soil
(ii) No tension should be developed anywhere in the wall'
(iii) The wall must be safe against sliding.

<_ (iv) The wall must be safe against overtuming.

away fiom lfll

vr'lrvr'e^.*fu =
Active earth pressure coetlicient, l;#
l+SinQ
Where Q is angle of internal tiiction of soil.
(ii) Passive earth ptessute: The pressure of the soil that
causes the wall t0 move in wards.
Upward movment
F-Bi-B--l
Flc (a)

\
resisting forece

_+
To wards till

Passive earth pressure Coeff. Kr,1*i# Fis 0) Ec (c)

PNre dbklbution

-301-
-300-
Where Pa = Resultant active pressure acting on wall face.
wnen e>| (fig (d)) tension tension is developed at B. Since soil is
Ph = Resolved component in horizontal direction.
PO = Resolved component in vertical direction.
generally considered incapable of resisting tension, the pressure will
be redistributed along the intact base, of width 3bt, where b1 is the
W = Weight of wall acting flro' its centroid.
R = Resultant of W and pa. distance of the point of application of R from end c. The intensity
Rh, Rv = Resolved components of R in horizontal & vertical. ft will then be given bY:
i - 2Rv
Jl =
= Distrnce of the point of application of R. 3b1
f t
fZ= Pressure intensities at the ends of base h
Substituting b1= e,
b = base width of wall. ,-
e = eccentricity = distrurr.. from mid point of the base to flre poiat of ^
1z=1r_$,
2Rv
application of R.
Resolving the forces into vertical and horizontal directions The following are the criteria ol.rlesign of gravity retaining wall:
we get, (, The maximum pressure ft
should not exceed the bearing capacity of
RO=W+Pv soil.
Rh = Ph.
f, (il) For no tension to develop in wall, . .| o, ; ,T
i
To find the distance of the point of application of R, equate the moment (iir) For no sliding to occur, R6 < RO p.
of forces to the moment of their resultant about point B;
, Where, lr=tan6' = Coefficient of friction between the base of the wau
RO i- = Wx1 + pn. x2 + p6Z and the soil. i.e. factor of safety against sliding
.-_Wxt+PuxZ+pn.Z_IM F.o.S. against sliding =U*T> 1.50'
W+p, - EV
Since the resultant vertical force RO (=IV) acts eccenticity on the base, the (1v) For wall io be stable against overturning R must pass within the
bearing pressure on the soil beneath the base are combination of direct and base width. For no tension to develop and not to overturn R rnust
bending stress. Assuming a linear distribution of pressure, the pressure pass within middte third i.e. wmrin il
intensities at the ends on the base are given by:
{'
,'o
r,=* (, . f)
i.e. F.o.S. against overturning =
bmffift =
Example:
r, =Y (, t-) Design a stone masonry gravity retaining wall'
Data: Unit wt' of wall ww = 22'10 KN/mr
e=x.-ih Unit wt' of moist soil' w' =16'70 KN/m3
Fig (b), (c) show three cases ofpressure disfibution below the base. Angle of internal friction, 0 = 30o
Bearing capu ity of soil =19 tor/*z = 100KN/m2
When R strikes the base wirhin the midtlte UrirO
(i.e. ..*), ./r and
Angle of wall fiiction, 6 = = 20'
lQ
.fzwlll be compressive as shown in fig (b). The fig (c) shows thc
special case when. = .o that/1 =
t. o=|o for smooth walls,
| T*U fz= 0
')
for ordinary walls.
= i Q,

-302- -303-
 ? Table
=;0, for rough walls wirh well drained backfill.
Goefficientr ol Activo Eailh Precsure K1
= 0, for backfill subjected to vibration)
Angle of wall inclination, cr =90o (vertical)
ro=|ol
Angle of surcharge, B = I,Jo
Wall dimensions.

700 f 0.24 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.13 0.ll 0.09 0.06

70P 50 0.25 0.22 0.18 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.06

7tr 100 0.27 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.06

700 150 0.30 0.25 0.21 0.r8 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.07

7tr W 0.35 0.28 0.23 0.le 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.07

700 250 0.57 0.35 0.27 0.22 0.18 0.14 0.11 0.07

7tr 300 0.47 0.28 0.21 0.16 0.13 0.08

7tr 350 0.37 0.15

80" CP 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.18 0.16 0.14 0.10

I 800 50 0.32 0.28 0.25 0.22 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.1I

0.35
900 100 0.34 0.30 0.26 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.15 0.1 I

t E00 150 0.38 0.33 0.2E 0.25 0.2r 0.19 0.16 0.12

800 ztr 0.44 0.37 0.32 0.27 0.23 0.20 0.17 0.t2
800 250 0.70 0.46 0.37 0.31 0.26 0.22 0.19 0.1 3

Now Coefficicnr ol active earth pressure, K4: 8tr 30" 0.61' 0.39 0.31 0.25 0.2r 0.14
350 .0.53 0.25 0. r6
800

*=[ 850 tr 0.33 0.29 0.26 0.24 0.21 0.19 0.17 0 13

ISin (o-6)]1/2 +
85' 50 0.35 0.31 0.28 O.Zs 0.22 0.20 0.1tt 0.I't
850 100 0.38 0.34 0.30 0.27 0.24 0.21 0.18 0.14
850 150 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.29 0.2s 0.22 0.20 0.15
850 W o.4s 0.42 0.36 0.32 o'.27 0.24 0.21 0.16
850 250 0.7'1 052 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.26 0.23 0.17

85" 300 0.70 0.45 0.36 0.30 0.26 0.r8

= 0.49 35" 0.62 0. 0.30 0.21

-304- -305-
 The active earrh prcssure, eo =IA.-Is-'h2
900 r 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.24 0,22 0.20 0.16
0.49x16.70x3.852
900 50 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.26 0.21 0.21 0.17 =z
90" 100 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.18
= 60.65 KN.
900 150 0.47 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.30 0.26 0.24 0.19
Horizontal component of P4. is PAh = PA. Cos (o + 6 -90")
900 w 0.55 0.47 0.41 0.36 0.32 o.2g 0.25 0.20
900 250 0.86 0.58 0.49 0.42 0.36 0.32 0.28 0.21 = 60.65 Cos (90 + 20 - 90)

900 300 0.80 0.52 0.43 0.36 0.31 0.23 = 57.01 KN.
Vertical component of P4, is Pny = PA . sin ( cr + 6 - 90")
q)o 350 0.73 0.49 0.3',7 0.26
= 60,65 Sin (90'+ 20 - 90')
950 f 0.40 0.37 0.33 0.31 0.28 0.26 0.24 0.20
= 20.62 KN.
95" 50 0.43 0.39 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.2L
100 0.47 0.42 0.39 0.35 0.32 0.29 0.26 0.22
P4 is acting ( =T = t.zsnr) trom bottom, is lever nrm (l) of
950 "l
950 150 0.52 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.31 0.28 0.23 horizontal component. Becausc thc hlck of the wall is vertical. the lever
950 w 0.61 0.53 0.47 0.42 0.38 0.34 0.30 0.24 arm of P6y is equivalent to the lirundrtron width of 2.51m.
950 250 0.96 0.66 0.56 0.48 0.42 0.37 0.33 0.26
950 300 0.91 0.61 0.50 0.43 0.38 0.29
t"
950 35o 0.86 C.55 0.45 0,31 lt
lt
L00" r 0.44 0.41 0.38 0.35 0.32 0.30 0.28 0.24 I
I

1000 50 0.48 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.34 0.32 0.29 0.25 I

I

1000 10" 0.52 0.48 0.44 0,40 0.37 0.34 0.31 0.26 I

1000 150 0.58 0.53 0.48 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.33 0'28 l@
1000 w 0.68 0.60 0.54 0.49 0.44 0.40 0.36 0.30 I

1000 25" 1.08 0.75 0.64 0.56 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.32
I

1000 300 1.05 0.71 0.59 0.51 0.45 0.36

l(no 350 1.01 0.66 0.54 0.41 o
110" cP 0.54 0.51 0.48 0.45 0.43 0.40 0.38 0.34
Gravitational forces of wall:
1100 50 0.59 0.55 0.52 0.49 0.46 0.43 0.41 0'36
Pafi (1) + Force = (2.15 x 0.35) x22.L0 = 16.63 KN.
1100 10" 0.65 0.61 0.57 0.53 0.50 0.41 0.44 0.39
110' lso 0.74 0.68 0.63 0.58 0.54 0.51 0.41 0.41 Part (2) + Force = (3.5 x 1.2) (22.10) = 92.82 KN.
1
Part (3)
110' ?fro 0.87 0.78 o:tl 0.66 0.60 0.56 0.52 0.45 = Force =)x 0.70 x 3.5 x 22.70 =-Z-07-I(N
tr100 zso 1.40 0.99 0.85 0.76 0.69 0,63 0.58 0.49 136.52 KN.
110" 30' 1.43 0.97 0.83 0.74 0.66 0.55
110' 35" L45 0.95 0.80 0.63
-306- -307-
 From (1) egn = FsL =H#* tan 30o =. 1.60 > 1.50 OK
P4y=20.62KN

<a-P41 =57.{)lKN
F.o"S. againstoverrurning = For=
S =ffi = 6.33 > 2,0
Lever arm / of the base resultant
I
I
,=il=T nn__
o-M_181.32-28.64=U.y/.m.

"=t'|.,=0,g7
-ry
=- 0.1Im.
*= 0.ae Or
Maximum & Minimum base pressures,
P=+(,-tf)
kver arm of:
Pmax=ry#[,.%f#]
Part (1) 1.08 From krc.
=?f= t1
=73.0911+0,3071
= 95.53 KN/m2
Part (2) + +
2.15 - = l'55m From toe' Pmin = 73.09 (1- 0307) 50.65 KN/m2
;
Part (3) + 0.25 + ] x t).70 = 0.72m. From toe' Whiclt are within pennissible ba.se Pressure (bearing capacity of soil) is 100
KN/m2 hence OK
Taking the moments ilt toe;-
overturning momcnL M - ) = - PAh x 1'28 + P6v x 2'15
= - 57.01 x 1.28 + 20.62x 2.15
=-28.(AKN-m
Restoring Moment M+ =parr.(2) x 1.55+piut(l)xl.0g+part (3)x0.72

=92.82x 1.55 + 16.63 x 1.08 + 27.07 x

0'72

=181.32 KN-m.

F.o.S. against sliding, trl- =&[T4 "' "" "" (i)

Where Rv = Forces t(1) + (2) + (3)l

= 136.52 + 20.62
= 157.14 KN
Rn = PAh = 57.01 KN.

-308- -309-
 Columns or"=permi ssible reinforcemenl stress in compre ssirnr
!!!!!!= in Kg/cm2.
columns are an important pafi of a structure which
transmit the (iv) The longitudinal reintbrcement must be in the range
of 0.g0,/o
superstructure loads to the foundations.
to 0.607o of column (gross area) area.The bars must not
less
(1) Types of column: than 12mmQ & minimum nos. 4.
(i) Short columns: Column length L< 15 times the column size
(v) Calculate t}e link sizc (Lateralties)
D'r 1
of dia of mainbars or not less than 5mm.
7
i.e.; s ls. (vi) Calculate link spacing (pitch oflateralties):
(ii) Long columns: Column Length L > 15 times the
column Pitch should be least of the following:
Size D. a) Least dimcnsionof compression members.
I
i.e.
f,-
> 15 b) 16 times rhe smallest dia. of long. bars.

Generally we have to design short colunurs. Long

c) 48 times thc dia. of lateral ties.
corumns are to be (viii) the link reinlirrccnrcnt area shoukl not be less that r,
designed wherever necessary and care must be
taken in proper design. Ac.
Columns are axially loaded columns and eccentrically
l<laded (ix) Average bond antl anchorage length (L6):
columns. Axialry roaded corumns have no moment
where. as =I2x dia or 300mm which is larger.
eccentricaly roaded columns have moment (i.e. the
efrect of bending 'L6' can be calculated as by using the formula.
and daect load on such corumn is equivalent
to a road placed on it . d. fst
Lh- = ;--- ntm
eccentdcally.) 4.oabc
@ Design concepts on short, axially loaded columns: Where 0 = dia. of blr (mm)
(0 Short column length L < 15 times the column size D. /51 = actual tensile stress in reinfbrcepe,l ,t lrre _seetror.
r N/mm2
i,e. slende.
rness ratio,;s 15.
oabc = Permissihle average bond stress in curcrete (N/nrm2)
(ii) Calculate axial load p. (x) Hooks: 16 x dia fbr U. hooks
(iii) Calculate reinforcementarea:
8 x dia for L. hooks
p=Ac.occ*Asc.osc
Where, P = axial load, Kg.
Ac = orea of column, cm2
Asc = orea of steel incompression,cm2
occ = Permisible concrete stress in compresslon,
Kglcmz
l<- roa
m
l<- Equivatent straight tengrh-N
--+{
U - hook
Eq.st. length----J
L-hxllr
-310-
-31 1-
 (xD Overlap length:- Lovertap
+# Wherc I = moment of inertia of equivalent section about an axis
and Lsvs116p should not be less than 49 x dia. thro'its C.G.
(x) Anchorage at supports:- Y = distance of extrerne tibres fiom C.G. of the section.
Length of anchorage LAncho =l?x dia. beyond the 0 of .'. Maximum combined stress in the section,
W . W.e. y
__+
support. -__X
A'|- I
(xii) Localbond sfiess:
The column will be considered sal'e, if
- =A
flbc La'QWhere Q = LO (i.e. sum of dia,) o" * o"b ar.o
oc Gcb
Q = Local shear tbrce at the junction (N).
Where oc =Cdculatedtgrect stress.
La = Jd (Lever arm)
oci = Calculatd bending stress.
"'fib"=# oc = Permissibledirect sness.
(3) Design concepts on eccentrically loaded columns: 6cb = Permissible <lirect stress.
If a column is loaded eccentrically at P (say).with a load W, it
equivalent to a column subjected to a load W axially & a bending
is
I3l Design concepts on long columns!
(0 Long column length I > 15 times the column size D.
moment M equal to w.e. I
i.e. "O > 15.0

w (ii) The total load that a long column, of the same sectional area as a
short column, can ciury is reduced in the proportion of:
/ (. \ / / r
(.,.-r*.,)-[''-mr*]
Where Km = least radius of gyrutin . (t .5 - -i- )
100KmJ
'\
is more
rr\,rv vA4vL *^, (
exacr than ,.,t -- 3O.D
. '
\.. )
D = least lateral dimension.

(iii) / = eff'ective length of column.

oP=e=M = 0.75 L (for properly restrained at both ends in position &

w direction)
Stress due to direct 16xf, =
$, where A' is the equivalent area of the column. = L (fbr properly restrained at both ends in position but not in
direction)
M or W.e. =
Stress due !o bending moment
+U y. which may be tensile
iurd compressitm,

-312-
-313-
 '= In betweenL &2L (For properly restrained at one end in positirxr
Pitch or spacing o[ ties:
& direction & imperfectly restrained in both the pbsifion and
spacing of the fies shall be at least of the following
direct at the other end)
(iv) (i) Least lateral dimension of ttre column = 3(X)mm
Others same in short columns.
a^s
(ii) K times the dia. of longitudinal bars whcrc.
,.
A=-_
L2 x
maximum permissible loatl on column
Example.l Design of a short column, and its footing. actual load on the colurrrrr
12 x 51.8
Data:
= -- 50 = 12.40
Load on column = 50 ton.
But K = 16(minimum) = 24 (maximum)
Size = Square of 30 x 30 cm.
.'. Spacing = 16 x 20 = 321mm
Bearing capacity of soils = 15 ton/m2
(iii) 40 x dia of lateral reinforcement.
Material: M.150, Grade - I steel.
os = 1300 Kgtrtn2 =48x5=240mm
Hence use 5mm ties at240mn clc.
oc = 40 kgtmcz
Golumnr Footingr
Column load = 50 ton = p. Load on the column = 50 ton.
P = os. A* + o"(A" - A.) Wt. of fboting @ 107o of column toad = 5 ton.
Ac=30x30=900cm2 total load = 50 + 5 = 55 ton.
We have, Size: Footing areareqd=4
' Bearing capacity ol soil
50,000 Kg = 1300 A" +-10 (900 - As)
n.=#=10.8t.n,,
Footing sir" = {176-=1.91m
Use 4 nos of 20mmQ 1A. = 12.57 cm2)
Say2x2m=4mz
Minimum reinfbrcement stce I = (').87a otA". = x 30 x 3O = 7.20 cm2
ftt Upward pressure of soil =
i = 2$7 = 12.50 tonlml
steel provided is greater tharr rrrinimum steel. OK
B.M.: Maximum cantilever projection of fboting fiom the face of column.
Maximum permissible load on column: 2 - 0.30 1,7
P = 1300 x 12.57 +40 (900 - 12.57) =T=T= 0.85m.

= 51900 kg W
51.80 ton > 50 ton. OK
witlth = 12.5x 0.85 x
ry = 4.5 m-ton.
Depth reqd for BM:
Lateral reintbrcement:
Depth of footing at the face of column:
Least dia. of ties = wne.e d is the dia of kngitudinal bars or 5mnr
$ 4.5x100x1000
=dc= -- 8.2+ = 22.60cm.
()r, d20 t00 x
A- 4 =)rnm Tryrl= 3&:m
= Use -5 mm ties. Depth of tboting at critical section for S.F.:

-314-
-315-
S.F. at critical scction = (2 x 2 - 0.9 x 0,9) x t2.s
4 - 20mmg
= 39.70 ton.
Y
.-
ll=+
sF
Mater width T
0.3(
_
=+
39700 _
lll00kg.
, m

qt=bx&5dc
x OS=
ordc=
11100
t
5x100x0.865
= 25.8 cm
Total depth required at critical section lbr share, 16tnmQ@17cm c/c;
at both sides
= 25.8 + 7 .5 = 33.3 cm (say 34cm)
Total depth required at the tace of column assuming l-5 cm tlepth at the edge
of footing

= 15 +(34 - l5) x
ffi = 44.50cm I T
I
0. 40m
0.15m
Shear str6ss!
Try d= 40cm at the tace of the column depth available at critical section fbr T
shear. Cover 7.5 cm.
l-_zm-_-_-+l
nd< Section
d=15+25xtd=28.20cm
de = 28.20 - 7.5 = 20.10 cm
l6mm$ @
S..f'. ut criticat section = (2x2-l.lx 1.1) x 12.5 170 cm. c/c

= 34.8 ton.
sF/meter wi<tth =
#*l 2m

= 7.9 trxr.
7900
Share stress =
100x0.865x20.10
= 4.4 kg/cm2 < 5 kg/cm2 0K I
Used=d=40cm
Footing
de = 32.5 at the face of column Plan
d = 15cm at the edge of footing. Column & its footing

Main steer, o, =
##X#H# = tt.4ocml
Usb 16mmQ @r 17cm c/c in both the direction.

-316- -317 -
 Examptc'2
Design of an eccentrically loaded colurur
Effective momenr of inertia I =$ *(m-l)A, x (C.G. - cover)2
44 \-443 +(19-1)
Data: Axial load, P = 45 ton = 45000 kg. - 12 ' \r- t9.64x (zz-2,5- 1.2il2
Bending moment, M = 45000 kg -cm.
('.' clear cover = z.scnl=Tt= 1.25cm)
M15 grade concTete, m = 1.9
oc = 40kg/cm2, o.b = 50kg/cm2 = 430086 cm4
The method of designing such column is gsssntiaily one of trial and
error. Combined srress = 1* @
Assuming that there is no ercentricity oesign the column for direct
A_ I
45000 . 450000x22
load with reduced stresses and then superimpose the stress due to
bending
= zzgo = 4300g6
and make sure that the combined stresses do not exceed the safe stresses. = 19.65 t 23.02
This works out to be satisfactory if the eccentricity is very small and = 42.66 & - 3.37 kgtcm2
the
entire section is under compressive stresses or tle tension developed is i.e. Compressive = 42.66kglcmz
within allowable limit. tensile = 3.37 kgtcm2
Let section be a square, The stress in concrete in case ofdirect and bending sEesses is considered to
4s0000
-t _M_
=F = ;5ixfi= = locm' be permissible ifl
o"b
We }now, 6cb*9coc
< t.o
23.02* 19.6s
the case: e is not more rhan
I rf, ,fr. depth of section. or,-6= -ffi = 0.95 <1.0 OK
... depth = 4 times e.
There can be any no. of designs possible depending upon the shape gf
=4x 10 =40cm
column and proportions of steel area. A few trials in each case will h<lwever
So ttrat the tensile stress developed is small.
give suitable design..
Let concrete be allotted a reduced stress of 25 kglw?& steel not taken into
account. If 'a be the side of square, we have, Examplc€ Design a long column.
P=oc.A. Data: Load on column = 40ton.
or, A=l=a5.oroo= lgoo
og 25
effective-[ength of column = 5m
Column size'= 25 x 30cm
.'. a= 42.43cnr Materials: M156, Grade I-steei.
Therefbre adopting a 44cm column, let us so adopt the steel that stresses
remain within the safe limit We know. minimum steel 0.g% of A". Permissible stress:
rettuction coefficient = Cr = tt
. .'. use 25mmQ 4 nos bars then Ar1
,
= 19 .64 cm2 which is 1Zo of As
-
# = 1.5 - #s5 = 0.g3
(cross sectional area) oc = 0.83 x 40 = 33.20Kglc:m2
Effective area of reactio\= 44x 44+(m-1)Ar1 osc = 1300 x 0.83 L079 kgtc,mz
=
= 1936 + (19-L) 19.64
=2290cm2

-318- -319.
 We know,
T
Timber and Steel beams.
For a short column;. 15

Timber and steel beams are mostly used to support HDp piptis, Hume pipes
nere|=#=2orrs. etc. for aqueducts. They will usually be of thc simply supported type with

.'. It is long column unifonnly distributed load.

Steel beams: Channels, angles but most conrnronly rolled steel joists (RSJ)
Load on a column.
will be used as steel baams. Indian srand:utt iunior beams (ISJB) are
P = oc(Ac - Ar") + osc Asc
particularly suitable.
or, 40000 = 33.2 (750 - Asc) + 1079 Ar".
Timber beams: These are usually made tiom srud, a hard wood which is the
or, A," =
#* = 14,40 cm2 most common durable timber in Nepal.
:
Derign concoptt!
Use 4 nos. of 22mmQ (Asc = 15.21 cmz) (r) Allowable stresses and design paramcrers for steel and saal wood are
P = Actual load that tle column can cary. as
= osc Asc + os (A, - Ar.) Material Densily Bending slress Shear Young's modulus Allowable

=1079 x 15.21+ 33.2 (750 - 15.21) (Kt'Ums) obc stress, /q of elasticity, E deflection
/l,l/mm2l
= 40900 Kg firUmm4 N/mm2)

Steel 77 165
I
110 2,10,000
= 40.90 ton > 40 ton 0k 5A
Softwood 5 5 5,6 7,000
lat e r al r e info r c e mE nt : 1
Saal 7.8
Least dia of tie = 5.5mm
11 .20 9.4 12,700
m
\=T= Teak 6,3 9,4 9.8 c 600
.'. use 6mm tie.
Pitch: Spacing shall be leasr ol':
Note: 4-10kg-(f)
mmz cmz
0 Least lateral dimension of column 250 mm
I KN _ 100 ke.f
= m3 m3
ii) 16 rimes the Q of L.hars
(i0 Possible beam size:
or, 16 x 22 352nm. (1)
iii) 48 :imes the dia of lateral ties:
m= 24 fbr steel beam and saat woorl
(2) Timber beam, width > $ of snan.
or,48x6=288mm
width
-:T
Hence Use 6mmQ @ 250mm c/c. depth = 0.60 to 0.75
(iii) ttffi*
Beams buckling: is more than 40.

(iv) Maximum B.M. = qi I

-321-
-320-
 I
wL (viii) Maximum carrying capacity (KN/m) UDL of simply supporred steer
Maximum reacti
onF=f- and timber beams:-
(v) Bending stress is checked with the equation. Typc Stt furl Wt o( lqx Efbctvegil (m)
- _1*
Juc =
M.v
(/6" or o6") d b6am rol

Where, .fU" = 6bc = Maximum bending stress in N/mm2.

d b bcam XNiin ,14 't.0 2.0 3,0 J_b 4,2 4.8 5.{ 6.O

y = distance from neutral axis (mm)

sEd.
(*.' symmetrical uea*) BB 't50 50 80t 0.07 022.1 56.56 I 4.09 5.85 3.3q

I = Moment of inertia mm4 BB t75 50 '1028 0.079 70.3 72.26 't8.0'l 7.96 5.02 3,13
663 s8
=rz 200 OU 1261 0,097 780.7 103.0 25.68 1 1,36 7.86 5,13 3.41

sa
(rr) Beamdeflection(6): Timbs
225 80 1628 0,125 1308.5 I 53.39 38.25 't6.93 11.72 8,58 5.75 4.0

-
o=
wL3
mm tor central point load on beims.
4gEi Sml t00 75 7500 0.059 625 11.t 4 2.74 0.88

^=
O
wL3
mm for LIDL heams.
Sml '125 75 9375 0.073 1221 t6.80 4.30 1.76
aS+pt Sml 150 't00 I 5000 0.1t7 28t3 26.88 8,28 3.62 2.03

For steel allowable tlctlccrirur =

fr -*. Sml 175 125 21875 0.t71 5583 39.20 14.12 6,18 4.25 2.89

Saal 200 150 30000 0.294 I 0000 s3.77

For saal allowahle rjellection = 22.17 9.72 6.68

rfu --.
4.48 3.44

Saal 225 150 3S750 0.263 I 4258 50.49 28.00 12.34 8,40 6.r7 4.66 3,41

,(d t,E ItTqo 0 3dt 78.41 a0 0a lt rt :l0E

Where, 6 = deflection in mm. 1IA{
lVote: 100 kg(f)/m.
W = Toral wt. of beam (N) m =
-
F.:rample.l
L = eff. span of beam (mm) Design a steel beam with the following data:
E = Young's modulus of elasticity ltrUmm2) Data: A single row of Hume pipe for an aqueduct is to pass over a drain
I =Moment of inertia (mma;. from a group of steer beams. concrete pipe is of lm in dia (intemar)
and a thickness of 0.05m. The clear span of the beam is 5m A lm
(vii) Maximum shear stress in checked with, wide foot bridge is to be built over it and a live load of 5KN/m2 can
be considered.
,q-A
E _F

Where,
Solution: Assume D.L. = SKN/m
Fq = Maximum shear stress (N/mm2)
L.L. = 5 KN/m
F = Maximum reaction (N)
Total = 13KN/m fbr two beams
A = Section area (mm2)
Effective spon = 5 + 0.30 = 5.30m (... 0.3 m is support width).
Maximum BM = M J+f = 45.65 KN.m

-322- t -323-
i
 Allowable deflection is 16.3. So it is OK
Maximum reaction, F =
ry =ry = 34.4s KN.m, Hence choose ISLB 2Nrs.225 x 100 nm beams
Wehave, Checkfor hear
From tables, beam area =Z99}nrm2 = 29.92cm2
ffi=ro Reaction is one beam =4# fi
= .225 Kll.
Or, oepth=S =# = 0.22m = 220mm. z

Use ISJB : 2 No of 225 x 88mm I beams. .'. shear stress = fn =i =ffiff

Check bending stess in beam
<ll0 N/mm2
= 4.3 N/mm2
- _l*
Jtrc =
M.v
Lateral restraintwill be provided along the beanr le ngrh, so buckling cannot
()ctcur.
For orrc beam,
I rrr * itle wcxrden foot bridge
ry.106 N.mm x t12,5
./'hc= = 196.24 N/run2 > 165 N/mm2
1308.5 x 104
[Jsrng 2 Nos. 200 x 100mm I beams.
For one beam,
45.65
t-
#=x 106 x 100 1rl < \r/* I
'ft'c = *;;-16- =- 134'5 N/mmz< 165 N/mm2 0K
(llrrxrse 2 Nr. 200 x 100 mm I-bcams,
{- lm
Steel channels.
Checkfor deflection:
For one beam,
/ 13 x 1000 s.a) x s.33
^
x-- 5WL3
5x
\z*
"-384EI 384x210000x1697x104
18,74mm. steel beams.
= (ISLB steel beams
or spiil, = 2 nos.225 x 100 mm size)
Allowable deflection =
1| # = 16.3mm
Deflection is more than allowahle one. So use another
l+_ r.zm _+l
I beam.
Section
Use ISLB, 2Nn 225 x 100mm beams.
Example.2 Design a tiinberbeam with the following dati:
^a -.225
45.65 -. ,
. M.v 2-x 2
ru" x Data:
/u"=f =-2sozxlo4J- = lo3N/mm2< 165 N/mm2 oK
Span = 5m (clear) eff span = 530m (say)
HDP 0 = 0.30m is ro cross (2 rows)
5x U#3x looo x 53003 A foot-bridge over it is to laid
x^_ 5wL3_-
-
U--^.--
384Er -- 384 x 210000 x 2502 x I(14 L.L = 5 KN/m2
Tqke saal wood
= -12.7 nvrr.

-324- -1' (-
Solution:
Allowable is 11.2 N/mm2 OK
Depth,o=S= fi =O.Zt^
(lneck bema dflection, 6 =
Width, b = 0.60 to 0.75 of depth #
= 0.60 x 0.210 t , U#x 1000 x s3oo3

= 0.12m
=M
Assume 2Nr.225 x 120mm beams. = 20.70um
D.L. = 2KN/m Assumed
L.L. = 5KN/m
Allowable deflecrion 6 =*H=#) = 22.10m

7KN/m .'. Accepable.

Miuinrumr*=ry J"# Check for shear, Beam area = 250 x 120 = 30(XX) mm2
Reaction in one beam =ry= 10.60KN.
= 24.6 KN.m

2) -Z+!l
.'. shear.n r,
I\{lximum reaction F =nIL = ##= 0.35 N/mm2

Allowable is 9.4 Ntrun2 Ot<

= 37.10KN.
Clreck bending stress in beam:
Worden Foot bridge (lm wide)
Afxrc6x 2E
-
Jbc =
M.v
-1-= 2
120 x 2253
12 (0.30m0 HDPpipes
(two rows)
= 12.10 N/mm2
Allowable stress = 11.20 N/mm2
Try largerbeams
So try two no. 250 x 120 mm beams wooden planks
Total revised load = 8 KN/m
*-z
Revised ,, --0-xi'r3
g ?r r r(N
= zo.r m
t\l\.lrl. wooden beams.
Q5Ax 120mm)
Revisert reacrion F
jill = 21.2 KN.

= * =ru4#E
r-t2tL = 156.25x 106 KMm4
'l+ 120rt
F-120+t
for one beam, rlm mm
- 1 28.1x106x125 l.F-1.2m---)
Ibc = 2.15625 *106-
Section
= ll.2 N/mm2

-326-
-327 -
 Discharges Through Notches &
Orificies.

tr1 Discharge through notches:

(1) Rcctangular notches: Free call

(2\ Bell mouthed orifice: Free fall

Q = C.A. ./rcH
or, Q = 0.97,4. {rgH ... ... ... (i)
F-s +l ryfflt'/////////t/t.
1

S
DischargeQ= l.ti-I. SH 2 .,., ... ... . ... (i) HN
r2) Rectangular notchcs: Submerged notchcs: t W=-
A = CAV ... ... ...(i)
WhereAre4 A=B xH
C = 0.6 to 0.62
-4
O = velocity
(3) Triangular notches:- (3) Submerged orifices:
a 1+B-}I (a) X'ully submerged:

ru
1
-
a=frc.B.{2gH2 (1) &
e = cA .,. ... ... (1)
5. Where C = 0.60
^/4,
a=*.{E,o,$H 1
('.2) (average 0.62 for rectangular)

We can use any one equation.

C = 0.60 fin sharp edged.
C=0.62fbrQ>90"
E] Discharge through orifices:
(1) Sharp edged orifice: Free call
-__+
Q = C.A. {rsH
/ ?\
0r, e- 2.75 {u (t ) ... ... ... (i)
W|lrcre C = 0.62 o) Partially submerged:
Q.c.a. {lelr ... ... ... G)
-328-

-329-
 Where
C = 0.62 (for sluice of moderate size in lock gates) River Training Works.
= 0.72 (for rectangular openings between Z - 4 m
wide) lntroduction: The purpose of river training is to stabilize tle river
= 0.82 (for rectangular openings above 4 m wide) channel along a certain alignment with a certain cross - section for the
Itrllowing main objectives:
= 0.92 (very lar&e sluice & bridge openings)
(i) To provide a safe passage to flood discharge without overflowing of
the banks fbr protection of cultivated or inhabited areas.
(ii) To prevent outflanking of a ttre works like bridge, weir, aqueduct

A
constructed across the'river and to bring the river on to tle wcnks in a
straight non-torturous approach keeping the river within its natural
limits.
(iii) To deflect the river away from bank which it might be attacking.
(4) Large vertical openings-@rifices) with small heads:- (iv) To provide minimum depth of flow and a good course for navigation
(a) Ht = 0.60m or around this. purposes.

_(?.
e=i^c.B. ./zg [nz - u])
1\ Gla*ification of river training:
... ... ... (i) (A) HiSh water training (B) Inw water training (C) Mean water Training.
Where C = 0.6 to 0.63
(A) High water training: It is disposal of maximum flood keeping the
river in natural limits. Marginal embankments are of this training.
(B) Low water training: It is designed to provide minimum water depth
fbr navigation during low water reason.
(C) Mean water training: It is most important of all. Any efforts to alter
the river cross section and alignment must obviously designed in
l+-s ----+l accordance with that stage of the river at which rraximum movement
Rectangulat
of sediment takes place over a period of one year or more. This stage
is somewhere near the mean water. The mean water training is
o) e=cnR./rr,(, +#). (z\ concerned with efficient movement of the sediment load of the river
and may therefore, be called'training of sediment'.
Where r = radius of vena contacta llcthods of river training:
C = 0.60 nearly. l) Marginal embankments or levees and gtride banks.

I-l--*l> 2l
1)
4)
Permeable spurs and impenneable spurs or grayness.
Cut off.
Pitching ofbanks, provision of launching aprons.

@i tk_ I
J)
6)
I
Pitched islands.
Sills and closing dykes.
brlcl dlrcussion oil oach follows:
Circular l) Mrrginal embankments or levees: These are provided to confine the
llorxl water of tlp river to the cross-section permitted to it in between
thc embanlonents.

-330-
-331-
2) Guide banks: These are provided to confine the flood water of 3) Spurs or groyness: These are the structures built transverse to river
alluvial rivers within a reasonable waterryay and provide a straight flow extending from the bank to the required extent, usually the limit
non-torturous approach towards the engineering works constructed
across the river. They prevent the river from changing its course and of nromal flow of the river. They are constructed to protect the bank
oudlanking the works. The approximate drawings are given below:- froni which frrey are projected and to deflect the current away fromthe
bank. The type of spurs is given below with sketch. The inclination
0 varies fiom 10 to 30'.
River flov
4
t. t Bank (Right)
lll.= r.rr. 7 t
,t,
tZ ,t

t,r
,1,
1
Attracting Normal Repelling
Spurs spur spur.s

?,
,l
tJ

vel' atstrai,(htx= l.z5

h
Denehey's
sDus
a

,/,
,4

Hockey
spur

of boulde$ - {X)23 to a
Types of spurs
1.25 to 150 of.T. (O
=
0.046 of
llmd velon
O'
/s ) 4) Cutoffs: When the meander of a river reaches extreme conditions and
develops into a horse shoe bend, it is likely that the river may cut
ill*adx -2.25 across tle neck at high flood & create a straight channel fbr itself.
At head section at BB Artificially induced cutoffs may be utilized to divert the river fiom a
curved flow which may be utilizetl ttl divert the river tiom a curved
Guide Bank
flow which may be endangering valuable land or property.

-332- -333-
 Bell mouthed cut
R = hychaulic mm radiu.
. (pilot cut)

j
D

Launching Positiop of loose anron

Cut off
Y = 1.25 at shaight course.
Pilot cuts should be designed to a rather deeper secrion such that
+ Lz = 1.50 at moderate bend.
is greater for the cut than tirr the original course. = 1.75 tt severe bend.
s) Bank pitching and launching apron: River banks are damaged
by = 2.0 at right angled bend.
the weaves of flowing water. To protect the bank, a pitching wortr
oi = 2.25 atnoses of guide banks.
stones, bricks, concrete blocks can be used. To prevent the
undercutting of the banks a launching apron is provided. The Where, R = Scour depth calculation H.M.R.
bank to I
be protected should be cut in a slope varying frbm 1:1
to 2:1.
R= 1.35 (flt
Boulder pitching
.f = Silt factor.

eN_ q = discharge per meter, m3/s

% (6) Pitched islands: These are an artificially created island in the riverbed
protected by reyeunent or stone pitching on all sides. On account tlf
the turbulence created by the islands in their vicinity the river channel
is deepened & concentration of flow is increased in their direction.
They may thus be utilized to attract the current towards themselves
'to reduce undue' concentration on the opposite side or to direct &
maintain the approach to some engineering work inthe desired
direction.
t) Sills and closing dykes:- These are utilized to counter act the
tendency to excessive scour and large depths in a part of the river
cross section. The situation may arise at a sharp curve or adjacent to
natural or artificial length of hard inerodible bank in a river.
r,/ l././ -/././ "/,/

-334- -335-
 (c) Collsction & screenlng of

Cum
Rate analysis norms of some aggrBgates and hauling

(d) Breaking 13mm to 19 mm

Unsk-80.00

important items. aggregatss & haullng Cum Unsk-120.00

(e) Hauling by mule al tlE rate ol

(11 Haulage: 72kg uplo I3km dislanco sveryday Cum Unsk-20.00

Norms Code Desc@llonolworh Unlt Labourno. Bsmarlc

(t) Haullng sand & pebblss from

(man days) rlver

2 (t) Haufingby hbourusingbasksts -upto 5 km dist Cum Unsk 20.00

such as doko, Tokarl, Kharpani, -lpto 5 - 8km Cum Unsk-40.00

thunse otc. -upto 8 - l3km Cum Unsk 40.00

(1 .1 ) Loadingi haullrE and unbading chy, For13lo1skm Cum Unsk 60.00

sand ard stone di,slr tzl Site preparation:-

(a) Flnt 10rrr haulage & piling Cum Unsk 0.40 1(t) Fell trqes cutw & disposal 15m

(b) For every addltionat 0m Cum away rrom construction sile (the
1 UrEk.0.12

0.2) Loadiu lEuthg and unloadim dla. ol troo is measured 1 m abovs

pebbtos, gravel, a aggregatos: the ground)

(a) Filst tom hautage aM piting Cum unsl( . 0.30 (a) 12-30 cm dia Each Unsk{.13

(b) For svery additiomt 10m Cum Unsk-0.1 3

(b) 31-60cm dia Each Unsk-0.39

0.3) Loadng, haullng & unloading rubble (c) 61-90cm dia Each Unsk-0.98

blockstone, dressed stone: (e) 121-1 80 cm dla Each Unsk-4.00

(a) First 10m haulage and piling Cum unsk-1.1 0

(f)241-300 cm dia Each Unsk-10.40

(b) For every additonal 10m Cum Unsk-0.19

(g) above 301 cm dia Each Unsk-41.67

0.5) Loading, hauling & unbadlng 2(2\ Uprooting trees & disposal 0f 1 5cm

cem€nt & llmor fat:

(a) First 10m hautage and piting Cum Unsk 0.50

(a)12€0 cm dia Each Unsk-0.40

(b) For every additional 10m Cum Unsk -0.1 3

(b)3160 cm dia Each Unsk-0.53

22(41 Malerial collection and haulage, (c)61-90 cm dia Each Unsk-2.s?

(a) Collecflon and scBening of river (d)121-180 cm dia Each Unsk-12.00

sand & tnullng assumlng that a le) 241-30ocm dla Each Unsk-29.60

poner can carry 40

kg & can walk

eto jg Km eveqday Cum Unsk 40.00

(b) Collecton o, broken stones or

0% 0l labour

river bed stones & hauling Cum Unsk-60.00 cost for T&P
-337 -
-336-
 2(3) Cutting thick vegetafion, groLblng

their roots, and disposal 25m (Ihe

vegelation dia <= 30cm & densily >

T
{
214\ Excavation ol medium rocks

without blasting diqosal (upto 10m

lead and 1.5m lift) Cum Unsk-3.00

Add 3% as T

&P

15 Nr/100m2) sq.M Unsk 0.04

2lsl. All kinds ol escavation ol medium Unsk-0.05 Gelaiiono.lSlq Add 3% as

2(4\ Cutting thick vegetation, gDubtng

rocks with drilling blasting & skiil-2.00 D-nator-2.0nos T&P

disDosal (uDto 10m lead & 1.5m litt) Cum F-Wire-zom

their roots, and disposal 25m Ohe
2(6) Excavatlon ol hard rocks without
vegelation dla <-30 cm & density
blasling, disposal (upto 10m lead &
<=15Nf/1oom2) sqM unsk.o.o3 1.5m litt):
2(51 Cutting uprooting & disposal ot
a) without chisel Cum Unsk-5.00

grasses with light compaction,

b) with chisel Cum Unsk-24.00 Add 3% as

leveling and clearing the site Sq.M Unsh0.023 T&P

2(6) Cutting, uprooting & disposal ot 217) Excavalion ol hard Iocks with Unski-1.00 GelatirEo.25kg

bomboo drilling, blasting & disposal (ryto skifl{.20; Dnator-2.0n0

10m lead an d1.5m litt Crm Fwire-2.0m

(measure volume of excavation) Cum Unsk-2.80
2(8) Breaking of boulders by drilling & Unski-3.35 Geletine0.l5kg
20 Surface dressing works includlng
blasting disposal upto 10m Iead and skilt.0.05' D-natorl.0no
f illing depressions, cutttng mounds
1.5m litt Cum Fwire-1.0m
& ground leveling (seruice ioad
2(e) Excavalion of solt soils disposal Add 396 as
etc.) Sq.M Unsk 0.01 upto 10m lead &l .5m litt Cum unsk-l.00 T&P

2(8) Bemoval of top soils & dlsposal 2(r0) Excavation of fractured and soft

away ltom the construction site rocks disposal upto 1 0m lead &1 Add 3% as

(thickness .l5 -20cm) Sq.M Unsk 0.16

.5m lin Cum Unsk-2.50 T&P

13] Earth works 201) excavation(pitetc) in medium rocks Unsk-3.00 Gelatineo.lSkg

using blasting in, disposal upto 10m skiil4.0s D-nalor.2.0nos

2(1) Excavation of soft ctay and silty Add 3% as
lead and 1.5m lift Cum F. wire-2.0m
soils inctuding disposat (tom tead & T. & p
2i.12], Ditch cutting inhered soils disposal
1.5m lift) Cum Unsk-0.70 upto 10m lead and 1.5m lift Cum Unsk-'I.25 Add 3% as
2(21 soils
Excavation oriard clay & Add 3% as T T&P

mked wlth soft moonrum slones &p 2(13) Trench cutting in hard rocks wlth Unsk-4.5 GeletirEo.25kg

teto 30cm slze lncluding disposal drilling and blasting, disposal upto skilt-o.0s " D-nator-2.0nos

10m & l/sm lift

((plo 10m lead and 1.5m litt) Cum Unsk-0.80
Cum t-wire-2.0m

2(14\ Excavation lor foundation drain,

2(3) Removal of stones and disposal
Add 3% as

pipe line etc, in GBM soils, disposal T&P

(upto tom tead & t.sm tift) Gum Unskt.o0
10m lead & 1..5m lifl Cum Unsk-1.59

-338- -339-
 2(1s) Excavallon tor loundatlon draln,
alall Foundation excavation under Add 3% as
ppe lins etc. h tollowlng solls,
shallow water depth in hard gravel T&P
disDosal.l0m lsad & 1.5m lift- mixed soil (dia of gravel > 1ocm

a) Sott moorum rocks Cum Unsk 3.00 Add 3% as with 10m lead & 1 ,5m lift Cum LJnsk-2.50

2e3l Foundalion excavalion under Add 3% as

T&P
shallow water depth in hard gravel T&P
b) trrodlum tErd rocks wltllout Add 370 as
mixed soil (dia of gravel <10cm)
blas:tlno Cum Unsk 4.50 T&P
{dia of cravel <10cm} Cum Unsk-2.30
2fl6) Excavatlon lor loundatlon work 2124\ Foundation exca\ation under water
dralns, tunnsls stc, hhored worlc in boulder and gravel mixed soils

including dlsposals 10m lsad & includlno 10m lead & liftts of:
eto
1,5m lilt a) 1m deep excavation & m litl Cum Llnsk-s.51 Add 3% as
T&P
a) Ddlllng & blasllng used Cum Unsldll.4.70 Gehtbn 0.25
b) lm deep and 4m litt Cum unsk-3.60 Add 3% as
sHll{.05 kg
T&P
D-nato12.0nos Add 3% as
c) 3m deep excavation and
F-wire-2.0m T&P

b) W$ourt bhstlng bul wlth chisel Cum Unsk-25.20 Add 3% as 4m lift Cum LJnsk-3.70 Add 3% as

T&P
T&P
d) 4m deep excavation & 4m lift Cum Unsk-3.80 Add 3% as
20n Box cutllrc ln solls lncludlng Add 3% as
T&P
dioosal rnto lom & 1/5m lflr T&P
e) 5m deep excavation & 7.5m litl Cum Unsk-4.20 Add 3% as
a) Sott sotb Cum Unsk-0.78 Add 3% as T&P

T&P l) 6m deep excavation & 7.5 llll Cum Unsk-4.30 Add 3% as

B) Hard soil Cum Unsk{.94 T&P

Add 3% as

T&P Nol4 Reduce one labour fbr fbundation excavation in gravel and boulder in
2(1 E) Dry loundallon box cutllng in solt Add 3% as dry condition.
moorum rocks dlsposal upto 1 0m & T&P 2(251 Filling with ordinary soils in 15cm

16m litt Cum Unsk 2,0 thick layers and hand compactlon
(haulage 10m):
2n9) Box cutlng ln m6d roclc Cum Unsk 2.5 Add 3% as
a) with sprinkling water Cum Unsk-o.50
T&P
b) no sprinkling water Cum Unsk-0.25
2Q0) Dry loudatlon oxcavaton ln had Add 3% as (Note: Haulage o, water not
grav6l mhod soil (dla ot giavsl > T&P ircluded)

locm wlth l0m lsad & 1.5m litt Cum Un6ldll-1.6s 2126\ Filling with stones in 40cm thick
layers sprinkling water & hand
2e1l Dry toundalion oxcavallon ln had Add 3% as
compaction (with 10m lead) Cum Unsk-1.0
gravelmhrdsoll T&P (Haulage of water not included)
(dla ol oBvBl <1ocm) Cum Unsk-l.36 2127]| Each additional haulage distance of

10m (50% by basket & 50% by

wheelbonow) Cum Unsk-o.'12

21281 Each additional li{t of 1.0m using

labour Cum Unsk-0,08

-340-
-341-
 2\291 Foundation excavalion in ordinary
Ur) Collection ol slone gravel including

soils under shallow waler deplhs scresnlng & screenlng & staking

(10m lead and 1.5m litt) Cum Unsk-2.25 (10m lead)i

2(30) Foundation excavation in sotl rocks a) 40 - 70mm Cum Unsk-5.00

under shallow watff depths (10m b) 70 - 100mm Cum Unsk-4.00

lead & 1.5 fin) Cum Unsk-3.33 1(a) Collectlon of rubble stone ol

2(31) Foundation Excavation in hard Unsk 7.30 Golatin6-0.25k9 roqulrsd size including stacking

rock under shallow water deplh ski[{.05 d-nalor.2.0nos. (10m lead) Cum Unsk-1,40

uslng drilling bhsting dlsposal Wto F-wlre-2.0m l(h) Brsaking, Colleclion & screerlng ot

10m and 1.5m litt Cum stons (to make gravol aggregate)

2(421 SandFlllingwod(sincludingwater Cum Unsk-0.70 Sand1.1 m3 includlng slacking & 10m lead:

sprinkllng & hand compaction

a) 70 - 100mm Cum Unsk-7,00

2(45) Prevenlion (clearing) ol hnd slides

b) 40 - 70mm Cum Unsk-9.00

ln various types ol soils: c) 20 - 40mm Cum Unsk-l5.00

a) Odlnary soils Cum Unsk-0.42 3%asT&P d) 10 - 20mm Cum Unsk-21.50

bIGBM soil Cum Unsk-0.53 3%asT&P €) 5 - l0mm Cum Unsk-29.00

c)Solt rocla Cum Unsk 0.88 3%asT&P l(fr) Maklng rsquked size bloclc from

d) Hard roclc Cum Unsk-l.10 49'" as T &P boddlng roclc, hammer dressing

(4) Collection and providing of stacklnb & 10m lead Cum Unsk-5.88

materials: 1(l I ) Maklng rubble stone ol required

3(1) Collectlon screening & providing ol slzo lncludlng brealdng using chisels

sand (haulage distance 1ocm):- wlth l0m lead and stacking Cum Unsk-5.50

a) Source capacity < 30% Cum Unsk 4.54 r(l 7l Wa8hlng and clearing by waters:

b) Source capacity < 3l-50% Cum Unsk-3.45 n) Sand Cum Unsk 2.00

c) Source capacity < 51.65% Cum Unsk 2.50 b) Cut stones Cum Unsk-1.75

d) Source capaclty < 65% Cum Unsk 1.43 c) Rubblo stones Cum Ljnsk-0.50

e) Hilly area (excavating deposits) Cum Unsk-1.49 d) gravel Cum Unsk-l.75

3(2) Collection, secreening and providing r(lI) Plllng aggEgates, stones bricks,

ol gravel (haulage distance t0m) olc. ln consl slle:

a)5-70mm&above Cum Unsk-2.50 i) brlcks 1000 Unsk- 0.30

b)5-40mm&upto Cum Unsk-4.00 nr.

c)5-20mm&upto Cum Unsk-5.88 b) A0grogatos Cum Unsk-0.34

d)5-8,0mm&upto Cum Unsk-1' c) Comont Bag Unsk-0.05

-342- -343-
5) Brick works:
5(1) brlck masonary worlG along with
(a)Addlilonal woilG ln ground lloor Cum Unsk 0.20 Planl6, bamboo 3% ol labour
Brick Size:-
wo*ing mpos cost.
supplying bdck, makng sand in marking suppofts for
224 x 108 x 57 mm for other
rEih
monars & construction of brlck size bricks the quantities
etc.
walh including haulage dist. Iom may be increased &
b) Additlonal worlc lor more than Cum unsk-0.70
decreased accordingly.

a) Machine made bricl(s one stray

c) Additional works ror construction CUm Unsk I 0

-1:3 cemenl sand mortat Cum Skill-l.50 Bricl$-530Nr.

wBlb
Unsk-2.20 Csment.o..l3Mt.

Sand=0.27 cum
(6) Stone works:
-1:4 cement sand mortar Cum Skill-1.50 Bdck.s30Nr
60) Rubble masonaryworks includlng Add 1.17 m-d o, unsl(lled

supply of hard slone bloclc, labours lor 5-10m high

Unsk-2.20 Cent-o.]0M1.
preparing cement mortil and
Sand-0.27 mO

construclion ol wall upto 5m highl

-1:5 cemenl sand mortar Gum Sklll-1.5 Bricks-530Nr.
(haulage 10m)
Unsk-2.20 Cement.0.09ilt
a) 1:3 cernent mottar cum Skrll-].5 Cement ' 0.194 mt
Sand-0.30 m3

-1:6 cement sand mortar

Unsk-5.0 Sand'0.42m3
Cum Skill-1.50 Bricks-530Nos
Blockstone'1.0m3
Unsk-2.20 Cement.o.o7Mt
Bondstone'0.1 0m3
Sand-0.30m3

b) Chimney (Bhana) Bdctc: b) 1:4 cemont motuI Cum Skill-1.5 Cement ' 0.159 mt

Unsk-s.0 Sand'0.45m3
-1:3 coment sand mortar Cum Skilll.S BriclG-560N0.
Blockstone'1.0m3
Unsk-2.2 Cement - 0.1OMt
Bondstone0.l0mO
Sand.0.27m3

c) 1:6 cemenl moilar Cum Sklll-1.s Cement - 0.105 Mt

-1:4 cement sand mortar Cum Skill-1.5 Bricks-560N0.
Unsk-s.0 Sand'0.47m3
Unsk 2,2 Cement -0.1 oMt
Blockstone-1/0mO
Sand0.2Bm3
Bondslone'0.1 m3
-1:6 cemenl sand mortar Cum Skill-l.s Bricks.560Nr.

Unsk-2.2 Cemsnt-o.o7Ml
6(2) ALbble masonary works including . Add 1.17 Md o{ unskilled

sLpply ol hard stones and labourslor5.l0mhigh

Sand.O.30m3

. Mud mortat construction of walls uPto 5m hlgh

Cum skill.I.o Bricks-560 Nr.
(haulage 30m)
Unsk-l.70 Soils{.42m3

5(2) Brick works in cemenl mortar: a) Drywall Cum Sklll-1.0 Bloclatone'1.0m3

Unsk-2.o Bondstone.0.1m3

-344-
-345-
 b) Mud moilar wall Skilll.0 BloclGtone - 1.0m3 7(4) Concreting works of

Unsk 2.25 Bondstor,c-v, rmJ superstructures, deck slabs,

Soil.o.4Zm3 beams including sWply ol matedals

6(5) Filling the toundallons by stones & Cum Unsf-t.so Blockstone-t.0m3 and haulage dlsl-Wto 30m:
leve$ng it (lead=30m)
Bondstone-o.20m3 a) PCC 1:2:4 Skill4.80 Coment-o.32Mt(6.4bags)
(7) Cement concrete works:
Unsk 7.00 Aggr:
7(21 Concreling o, foundations venjcal
4omm - 0.52m3

laces, walls, hcluding sl4py o,

20mm-0.22m3

mateilals & haulage of gom

10mm{.11m3

a) PCC. 1:5:10 Cum Skill- 1.0 Course sand-o.445m3

Cement 0.1 3 Mt (2.6 bags)

b) PCC 1:1123
Unsk-4.0 Aggre: Skill.0.80 Cement-o.4o Mt (8 bags)

4omm-0.65m3 Unsk-7.00 Aggrl

2omm.0.2qm3 4omm - 0.57m3

Course sand.0.47m3 20mm-0.29m3

b) PCC 1:4:8 Cum Skill.t.0 Cement . 0.1 7 Mt(3.4 bags) 10mm{.11m3

Unsk-4 0 Aggr: sand{.425m3

oomm - 0.65m3 c) PCC 1:1:2 Skill.0.80 Cement-0.6lMt(l2.2bags)

20mm - 0.24m3 Unsk-7.00 Aggr

Course sand-0.47m3 40mm - 0.64m3

c) PCC t:3:6 Skill-].o Cemento.22 Mt (4.4bags) lomm{.11m3

Unsk.4.o Aggr: sand{.c25m3

40mm - 0.65m9 7(5) Cutting, bending placing in position Skill-I2.0 M.S.bars-1.05M

20mm.0.24m3 as shown is the dlawings and Unsk12.0 Blndingwire-10.0k9

Course sand-0.47m0 bindlng by Gl wire ol relnlorcemenl

d) PGC 1:2:4 Cum Skill.1.0 Cement-o.ozMt(6.4bags) steel barc ol Rcc worlG including

Unsk-4.0 Aggr: haulage 30m Mt

40mm - 0.52m0 l8I f,'oom works:

20mm-0.22m3 80) Makingwoodenlormsincludlng Conslderation lor r€uss

10mm-0.'11m3 selection ol materlal measudng should be talcn. (Salvage

Course sand.0.47m3 cutting, FixirE nailing as per value ol timbershall be 25%

specilied drawings & hauling 30 m ol its original cost alior using

& placing in piles: then 6 times)

-346- -347 -
 a) Simple standard lorms Unsk-3.33 c) Petimeler of column skill-2.4
1ed'cn form < tm2; 'rom2 skiil.2,22 (3 -4m) t0m2 Unsk-g.o
b) Simple form Unsk-2.375
8(4) Making lorms lor structure beam
(each lorm <1 m2) 1omz skilt-l.s84
includlng, Selection of material,
c) Form ,or clrcular arch (radius Unsk-6.0
tixing nailing, oiling, dismantling,
upto 1m) 1om2 ski[.4.0
removal & haulage 30m
d) Foms lor circular arch (radius Unsk-4.5
a) Depth ot beam: skiil-4.0
upto 1m) lomz skiil.3/o (upto 0.30m) 10m2 Unsk-6,0
8(21 Making wooden forms including
b) Depth ol beam: skiil.2.67
supply & selection ol matedal,
(0.3 .0,8m) 'I
omz Unsk-4.00
lixing, nailing according to drawing,
c) Depth of beam: skiI.2.4
placing separators dis manillng
(0.8 - 1.2m) 1on2 Unsk.3,6
,orms & haulage of 30m

a) Flooring & slab work

(9) Plastering works
10m2 Unsk-2,57 Timbero.526m3
l2(l) l250mm tlrick cement sand plastering works:-
skiil.1,72 Nails-2.5k9

b) Vertical surlace wall etc. (4m Unsk.Z,10

(a) 1:2 ralio 100m2 skiil-l2 Cement - 0.90M1. (Add 25% more
Timber"0.526m3
Unsk-16 Sand-1.22m3 labour for ceiling
high & 0.5m wide) 1om2 skiill .44 Nails-2.5k9
plaster work)
c) Venicat surtaLe wall etc. (4.Sm Unsk-3.19 Tlmber-o.5gm3

high & 0.5m wrde) 1om2 sktil-3.10

(b) 1:3 ratio 100m2 skiil-12 Cement - 0.625Mt.
Naib.3.13kg
Unsk-16 Sand-1.28m3
d) Vertical surlace, wall etc. (5 skiil.s.1 9 Timber-1,478m3
-10m high & up to O.sm wide)
10m2 Unsk-7.50
(c) l:4 ratio 100m2 skiil-12 Cement - 0.538Mt.
Naib.6.93kg
Unsk-16 Sand-1.46m3
e) Venical surface, wall etc. (upto
skiil.2.16

5m high & 0.5.10m wide) 10m2 Unsk-g.z4

Timber.0.526m3
(d) 1:6 ratio loom2 skiil-12 Cement - 0.382Mt.
Nails-2.5k9
Unsk-16 Sand-1.57m3
f) Vertical sudace, wall etc. (upto 5
ski[-s.1 6 Tlmber-1.346m3
- 10m high & 0.5 -1 .0m wide)
10m2 Unsk.7,64 Nails-6.3k9
12(4) 20mm thick cement sand plaster works:
8(3) Erection, adjustment and nailing of
(a) 1:3 ralio 100m2 skill-14 Cement - 0.96Mt.
Iorms lor column including.
Unsk-19 Sand-1.05m3
dismantle, removal& haulage Oom
(b) 1:4 ratio 100m2 ski[-14 Cemenl - 0.81Mi.
a) Perimeter o, column skiil-3.748
Unsk-19 Sand-2.20m3
'10m2
(0-2m)
Unsk.5.622 (c) 1:6 ratio 100m2 ski[-14 Cemenl - 0.57Mt.
b) Perimeter of column
ski[-3.0
Jnsk-19 Sand-2.35m3
(2.3m) '10m2 Unsk.45

-348- -349-
l2(5) 2.5 cm thick Mud plaster work: Selvage wire - 7SWG skilF 0.70 G.I.wire-
1oom2 skiil-2o soib-5m3 Unsk-0.44 33.30k9
Unsk-25 Grain cells{0kg (b) mesh size 150 x150mm(15 xlScm)
Cowdungl20ltg
Mesh wire = 10SWG

l10l Pointing works: Salvage wire-7SWG each Skrll-0.50 G.I.wire 20kg

14(1) Flush pointing in brick masonary: Unsk-0.20

(a)1 :1(can:sand) t oorz Skill-1 0.50 Ceml-0.316Mt. (Add 50% more (c) Mesh size 150 x150mm (15 x15cm)

Unsk-12 Sand{.22m3 labourforrules Meshwire-8SWG

pointing) SSelvedge wire - 6SWG each skill-0.60 G.I.wire

(b)1:2(cem:Sand) 1oom2 Skill-10.50 Cemt-0.21il1t. Unsk-0.30 3 1 .75k9

Unsk-l2 Sand{,29m3 16(10) Making rectangular gabin boxes (3 x 1.5

(c)1:3 (cem:Sand) 100m2 Skill-10.50 Ceml-0.155lrrlt. x0.75m) with two aye knol incl. wire

Unsk-12 Sand4.32m3 culling. nelling & complete:

l4(2) Flush rules pointing in boulder stone masonary wall:

(a) Mesh size -150x 150mm(l5x15m)

Mesh wire - 8SWG

(a)1:1(C:S) 100m2 Skill-1o Cemr.0.612Mr
Selvage wire-6SWG each skill-0.70 G.I.wire-36K9.
Unskill{4 Sand-0.43m3
Unsk-0.30
(b)1:2(C:S) 100m2 Skill-1o Cemt.0.408Mr (b) Mesh size (10 x 10cm)
Unskill-14 Sand-0.57m3
Mesh wire -10SWG
(c)1:3(C:S) t00m2 Skill-1o cemt0.306Mr Selvedge wire - 7SWG each skill-0.80 G.l.wire - 36kg
Unskill-14 Sand-0.63m3 Unsk-0.50
14(4) 1:3 cement sand pointing 16(11) Filling stone in gabion box Cum Unskill-0.50
on flat stone pavemcnt 16(12) Making launching apron by lilling stone in skill- 0.26 (slone collection
works (stone size 45 x -l5cm) gabion crale inclu. ol haulage ol consl. Unskill-3.50 is included)
100m2 skifl-s Cemr 0.042Mt malerial uplo 150 m distance. Cum
Unskill-5 Sard-0.03m3
(12) Pipe and sewer laying works:
(11) Rivertrainingworks: l7(1) Laying of RCC pipe and its
16(9) Making reclangular gabion box (3 x 1.5 x accessories with 1:2 cement
0.75m) with two way knol inclusive ol wire
sand mortar, Jute etc. inclusive
culting, netting etc. complete of haulage upto 100m:
(a) Mesh size 100 x 100mm (10 x 10cm)

Mesh wire - 10SWG

-3s0- -351-
 l1(2) llDP pipe laying works (with butt weldedioints) irrcluding fitting:-
(d) 40cm dia ptpe - 32m skiil -6.0 RCC pipe-32m
Outer dia Labour Tools Machineru Fuel Flemarks
Unskill-22.0 cemt-0.083mt
in mm for Plum Help Cool Rent of T Full cost Misc
Sand-0.13m3
1000m length ber er ie &P, equivalent multiplier
Jute-3.63k9,
electric lo petrol of labour
bitumen-Approx
(e) 50cm dia pipe - 32m skill -8.0 RCC pipe-32m
generat0r cost (Litre) cosl.

& mech
Unskill-30.0 cemt-0.143mt
Jack
Sand-0.22m3
n&25 1.0 1.0 2.0 one dav 0.25 2.51 Estimate of rent
Jute-5.40k9.
32 1.0 1.0 3.0 0.25 2.51 of elect. oen. &
bilumen-Approx,
60cm dia pipe - 32m skiil -e.0 40&50 1.5 1.5 3.0 0.37 2.51 mech. Jack is
RCC pipe-32m
Rs. 30/dav
UnskilF35.0 cemt-0.218mt
For 50mm
Sand-0.30m3
Lenoth
Jute-7k9.

bitumen-Approx. 63, 75 &90 1.0 1.0 2.0 one dav 0.05 2.51 Deduct rent of

0) 75cm dia pipe - 32m skill-10.0 110 & 125 1.5 1.5 3.0 0.50 2.51 tools from bill
RCC pipe-32m
Unskill-40.00 cemt-0.225ml of contractor if
'140,160 & 180 2,0 2.0 4.0 1.0 2.51 lools are laken
Sand-0.35m3

Jute-9kg. from offices.

bitumen-Approx.
(h) 90cm dia pipe-32m
l13l Demolition & maintenance works:
skll -11.0 RCC pipe-32m
19(1) Demolishing and mortar masonary
Unskill-50.0 cemt-0.29mt
wal and removing demolished
Sand-0.40m3
material 10m away Cum Unskill-1.06
Jute-1 2kg.
Q) demolishing cement morlar
bilumen-Approx.
masonary wall and removing
120cm dia pipe - 32m skill-12.0 RCC pipe-32m
demolished material 10m away Cum Unsk-2.12
Unskill-75.0 cemt-O.363m1
(s) Demolishing RCC or RBC
Sand-0.50m3
works & removing demolished
Jute-t 6kg.
mterial 10m away Unsk- 11.0
bitumen-Approx.
(4) Demolishing PCC or mortared

concrele works & removing

demolished material 10m away Cum Unsk - 4.0

-3 53-
-352-
(5) Domilishing cement plaster works
(Z=Rate of mobil per litre.
away. (3=
& removing it 10m Cum Unsk - 0.108 'r Ru," of gearoil per litre.

-!4= Rate of grease per kg.

l14l Roof works:
L5=Rate of tyres per piece.
9(1) CGI sheet roofing works with supply f material complete:-
L6=operator's wage per hour.
10m2 skill- 1.10 cGl sheel:
L7 = Assistant's wage per hour.
Unskitt-1.25 Z2xZ4SWG-12n2
Note:
Nut bolt - 30Nr.
l) Assumed useful lif'e of tuck in hours = 10,000 hrs.
8mmJhook-25Nr.
2) Assumed annual working hours of truck = 2000 hrs.
Biimenwasher - 55Nr.
(2) Making ridge of CGI ptain
3) Take V = 40 Km/hr for metalled road.

sheeti
V = 2OKM/hr for rough road.
4) Transport cost per m3 =R x haulage factor x two way distance.
10m Skilled - 2.0 Plain sheet - 12m
(haulage factor, Sand - m3 -1.84 (Relative density)
Unskilled - 3.0 Nul boli -Approx.
(5) Making slate roof
gravel-m3-1.72 (Relative density)
:

'Boulder -m3 - 2.85 (Relative density)

tom2 Skill -4.0 State - 24m2
Stone - m3- 2.& (Relative density)
Unskill - 5.0 Nails - Approx.
Crushed aggr - nf - Z.ZS (Relative density)
(6) Making clay tile roof:

1om2 Skilt- o,so Tite-125 Nr.

UnskilF1.50
(7) Making ridge ot clay tile:

10m Skill-0.s0 Ridge - 80 Nr.

Unsk- 0.50

llq Transporrirrion by truck-

Transporr eost per ton per Km (R)

= #,. (0.00028 A + 5.5 (1 + 0.1 (z * o.or(g

+ 0.01sG + 0.0033(s+0.30G+0.s0(zl
Where,
R = transport cost frer ton per km.
W = capacity of ruck (5 tonne diesel)
V = Speed of vehicles in km/hr.
A = Cost of truck.
(1 = Rn,. ot HSD (Diesel) per lirrc.

-3 54- -3s5-
 Conversion Tables l.ll Weight:
I kg (0 = 10N(0
(1) I Dharni =2.40k9.
F'ield areas:
1 Tola = 100 Lals.
4Dam=1paisa.
4paisa=trAana.
16Aana=lRopani l.ll Volume:
1m3 = 35.287 ft3
I Bigha = 13.31 Ropanies
=20 Katthas.
= 1760 manas.
1 Katha = 20 Dhur = 220Pathi.
1 Ha = 1.48 Bighas. = 11 Muri.
= 2.47 Acres
- I Muri = 20 Pathi
1ft3 = 49.85 Mana.
= 19.63 Ropanies.
= 6.23 Pathi
Areas in m2:- \0 Kg bag of cement = 0.40 x 0.35 x 0 25nrl
1 Dam l.4l x l.4l m2= ZrP
= 0.035m3
1 Paisa = 2.82 x 2.82 m2 = gm2
I litre = 1.76 Mana.
1 Aana = 5.64x 5.64m2 = 32m2
= 1000 Milliliter
1 Ropani = 2257 x 22.57m2 = 509.40m2
=1000 c.c.
1 Bigha = 82.30 x 82.30 m2 = 6773.30m2
1 Kattha = 18.40 x 18.40m2
= 33g.60m2 l5l Densities of different materials:
I Dhur = 4.11 x 4.ll m2 = 16.90m2 Dry soil = 1350 kg/m3
I Ha = 100 x 100m2 = 1000m2
Moist soil = 1700kg/m3
1 Acre = 63.66 x 63.66m2= 4052.50m2
Saturated soil = 1850 kg/m3
@ Lengths: Submerged soil = 850kg/m3
1 inch = 2.54 cm Sand = 1840 kg/m3(Rivcry
I ft = lZ inches = 1600 kg/m3(Khlni)
lyard=3ft. Gravel = 1720kglm1
I mile = 1760 yds = l.61km Boulders = 2850 kg/m3
I Kosh = 2.27 mile = 3.65km. Stone = 2640 kg/nF
1m=3.28ft. Crushed aggregate = 2250 kg/m3
I ft = 6.395 n, stare = 2320 kglm3
Structural timber (saal) = 800 kgim3
Brick = 1600 kg/m3

-356-
-3 57-
 Plastics = 1330 kg/m3
kon = 7850 kg/m3 llrrato = 62.20kg.
Cement packed in bags = l440kglm3 l'arbolied rice = 73.35 1t.
Mass concrete = 2300 k9lm3 Ilice coarse =72.64kg.
R.C.C. = ?,400 to 2500 kg/m3 l(ice medium = 70.70kg.
Dry stone masonary = 2000kg/m3 Itice fine= 68.10kg.
Cement stone masonary =2250k81m3 ilal.tened ncn
I
= 36.32yf .
Brick work 1800 kg/m3 Itice flour = 51.30kg.
Gabions = 1700 kg/m3 What flour = 44.50kg.
Maize flour = 48.54kg.
16I Weight of commodities (kg per muri):- Millet flour = 49.44kg.
Paddy coarse= 52.Nkg
Paddy medium = 49.94k9.
Paddy fine = 47.63k8.
Wheat = 68.10kg.
Maize = 68.10kg.
Black gram = 63.56 kg.
Pigeon Pea(Arhar) = 70.40kg.
intel (masure) - 69.0kg.
Mustard seed = 56.75kg.
Millet = 68.10 kg.
Green gram(mugi) = 62.56*.
Peas = 65.83kg.
Soyabeen = 63.56kg.
Kaguno =72.63k9.
chinno = 72.6?kE.
Bmley = 45.63k9.
Chana = 65.70k9.
Bean=58.50kg.
Masyang =72.58k9.
Gahat = 72.60kg.
Kalotil= 62.20k9.
Patato = 62.20kg.

-358-
-359-
 Reference books
Some notes
1) Fundamentals of irrigation engineering by Bharat shing - 7th revised
edition. 11] Position of bending of rods in a beam/slab:
l2dminm 0.05L 0.1L 0.25L

,4/. /
0.15L
2) Manuals of survey, Design & construction of small hill inigati,n
systems in Nepal - Sinkalama irrigation prograrnme _ 204g Magh.
3) Surveying norms, construction woks rate analysis norms - 2L)41 H* // ,

(with 1st 2nd revision)

4) Irrigation manuals -By Mac Donald
s) Open channel flow kg, Rangaraju, Rookee.
6) Design guidelines fbr surface inigation is the Terai & hills ,f Nepal.
Vol-IL
7) I.L.O papers ctxrcerning in hill inigation system in Nepal.
8) Open channel flow- By ven to chou.
e) Soil mechanics & fbundations-By Dr. B.C. punimia.
10) Plain & Re intirrcdd concrete tlesign Vol.l,2 - Jaikarishan, O.p, Jain.
Curtailment of bar:
11) Elementary structural design antl drawing vol; By Dr. Krishna
murthy.
(L2) Civil engineering handbook by p.N. Khanna.
13) Trail bridge construction manual -suspension bridge division
(SATA) 19e2, Nepat.

-360- -s61-
 Itx design ofLaunching apronr The scour depths:

,.=tu\F......... 1.5 R + For u/s of concrete floor.

(1)
2.0 R+ For D/S of concrete floor.
Where, x = distance from centre. 2.25R=r At noses of guide banks,
L = Span, 1.50R+ In transition, from nose to straight portion of guide banks.
n = Total no. of rods. 1.25R+ In straight portion of guide banks.
nl = curtailed rods no.
l5l Design of a trench type trash rack-
t3l Scour depth @):- Q* =.. *.c.u. {2gE ... ... ... ri)
.^. I Where Qw = discharge entering the trench, m3/S
R = r.34 (f), .. ... ... . (1)
r = ratio of opening area to the total area of trashrack
Wh€re ,f = silt factor surface.
q = discharge per m width x = width of trash rack.
R = nr)rma] depth of scour. c = Coefficient ol'discharge thro'opening = 0.435.
b = total length ol traslrack.
14t D/S protection & launching apron: E = Specific energy of water before entering the ftench.
t-
Where E= { v'y + -.The
zE
value of 'y'can be taken a.s 0.l.5nr
y2
neglectlng;;-.

Thickners of bottom trench of trashrack (tl+

4h
t=3'G -l
4
=, x
River bed leel - R.L. of botrom trench.
Specific *t. of .oocr"te - 1
4h
inverted
filters
-=- 3',-t (2.2s-t)
Launched position
of krose apron. = 1.07h.
-
D/S Protection
"XR" decides the scour depth below HFL where the varues of X,are 16l X'lood estimation of rivers:
a.s follows: lif Dicken's formula:
3
Value of 'X' River condition or Reach
Qpeak = c.A.a... ... .. .. (i)
1.25 For snaight reach.
Where, Q = H.F. Oiscnarge,
1.50 For Moderate bend. $
1.75 For severe bend. C = 11.40 (CoefI.)
2.00 Right angled bend. A = catchemnt area. Km2
2.25 At noses of guide banks.

-363-
-362-
lr

(iil Ryve's empirical tomula:

Qpeak =C.A.3... .., ... (0 )

1
Where C = 10.10 i
l
(ii.l Fanning's lormula:-
1
QPeat = C'A'6
Where C = 2.54
(ivl B-gtggjormula:
A
Qpeak = lL).6 Where L = Length of dtrin in Km
in
(vl Manning's formula:
2t
.9=1B3
'I) 52... ... ... .. (1) (n=0.03)

Qpeak = V.A. ... ... .. (2) A = cross section area of river.

U = velooity

A Ogee spillway:

Uppcr nappe
' .a-
*'
( -.--fr = ur(,i,1
)-
7Hd

-364-