CHAPTER 01

INTRODUCTION OF THE PROJECT

A power system is said to be well designed when it gives a good quality of reliable
power supply. Good quality means, the voltage level is within the reasonable limits.
Practically all the equipments in the power system correspond to their rated voltages or at the
most variations are within say ± 5%. If the voltage variation is more than the pre-specified
limits, the performance of the equipments suffers and the life of most of the equipment
sacrificed. Higher the reactive load, greater is the voltage variation. The voltage variation at a
node is an indication of the unbalance between the reactive power generated and consumed
by that node. If the reactive power generated is greater than consumed, the voltage goes up
and vice-versa. Traditional solutions to congestion and voltage security problems were to
install new costly transmission lines that are often faced with public resistance, or
mechanically switched capacitor banks that have limited benefits for dynamic performance
due to switching time and frequency. The introduction of new technologies has lead to some
changes in the linearity of the transmission and distribution. The non-linear loads inject the
harmonics in the transmission line. This affects the loads in the system. Hence, the
compensation is needed to provide the less harmonic power supply to the loads in that
system. For this, I have used hybrid active power filter having active and passive power
filters connected in series to compensate the harmonics.

1.1 POWER QUALITY

Electric Power quality is a term, which has captured increasing attention in power
engineering in the recent years. Even though this subject has always been of interest to power
engineers, it has assumed considerable interest in the 1990's. Electric power quality means
different things for different people. To most electric power engineers, the term refers to a
certain sufficiently high grade of electric service but beyond that, there is no universal
agreement. The measure of power quality depends upon the needs of the equipment that is
being supplied. What is good power quality for an electric motor may not be good enough for
a personal computer. Usually the term power quality refers to maintaining a sinusoidal
waveform of bus voltages at rated voltage and frequency. The waveform of electric power at
generation stage is purely sinusoidal and free from any distortion. Many of the Power

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conversion and consumption equipment are also designed to function under pure sinusoidal
voltage waveforms. However, many devices distort the waveform. These distortions may
propagate all over the electrical network. In recent years, there has been an increased use of
non-linear loads, which has resulted in an increased fraction of non-sinusoidal currents and
voltages in Electric Network.

Figure 01: Typical Voltage Distortions

1.2 TREATMENT FOR HARMONIC PROBLEMS

Harmonic distortion in power system will cause additional power losses and
malfunctioning of protective relay and switchgears. Harmonic treatment can be performed by
two methods: Filtering and cancellation. 

1.2.1 Filtering

A harmonic filter consists of a capacitor bank and an induction coil. The filter is
designed or tuned to the predetermined non-linear load and to filter a predetermined
harmonic frequency range. Usually this frequency range only accounts for one harmonic
frequency. This application is mostly used when specified for an UPS or variable frequency
drive motor in a manufacturing plant. 

1.2.2 Cancellation

Harmonic cancellation is performed with harmonic canceling transformers, also known

as phase-shifting transformers. A harmonic canceling transformer is a relatively new power
quality product for mitigating harmonic problems in electrical distribution systems. This type
of transformer has patented built-in electromagnetics technology designed to remove high
neutral current and the most harmful harmonics from the third through 21st. The technique
used in these transformers is call "low zero phase sequencing and phase shift”. These

2
transformers can be used to treat existing harmonics in buildings or facilities. This same
application can be designed into new construction to prevent future harmonics problems.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Conventional passive filter consists of resistance, inductance, capacitance element

configured and tuned to control the particular harmonic frequencies. The single tuned “notch”
filter is the most economical and common in use. It is connected in parallel with the system &
is series tuned to filter out the specific harmonic current by presenting low impedance path to
it. The drawbacks of conventional passive filters such as bulky, heavy, its resonance
phenomena dependency on source impedance and fixed compensation characteristics
increased losses etc. On the contrary, the active power filter can solve the aforementioned
problems, is widely used to compensate harmonic currents, and will improve power factor.
APF are considered as promising solution for elimination of harmonic current distortion and
reducing reactive power requirement, due to smaller size, non-dependency on power system
impedance and no requirement for tuning. It can be achieve dynamically in case of APF,
despite of various advantages of APF, the complexity and cost have always been drawbacks.
Combining passive element with an active power filter results in a hybrid configuration. It
brings down the cost of active filter drastically. Thus the enhancement of power quality can
be made using HAPF. In this project, I have developed a simple control scheme for hybrid
active power filter, which is formed by connecting the passive inductance and capacitance
filter with the active power filter for providing compensating current to the non-linear load.

3
 CHAPTER 02
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROJECT
2.1 EXISTING SYSTEM

In the existing system, the normal alternating load is connected to three phase supply
with a filtering unit. The hybrid active power filter is used to filter the harmonics. The various
disadvantages of the existing system includes, three phase system increases the complexity in
developing the prototype. Cost of the system is high and additions of passive filters introduce
series harmonics into the line. The transformers make the compensation unit more bulky and
increase the cost of the system. Control Scheme is more complex. No error minimization
concepts were implemented.

Figure 02: Representation of Existing System

2.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM

In the proposed system I have used the hybrid active power filter connected to the load
and the compensation technique is implemented using PIC microcontroller. To balance the
load current we have used proportional controller. The microcontroller gets the input from the
signal conditioning unit which is used to provide processed digital signals and calculates the
current and voltage at any instant which are provided by hall sensor and potential transformer
respectively. The line current is monitored for zero crossing so that the compensation could
be provided. This is done with the help of zero crossing detector. With the output of the
microcontroller, the inverter unit is correspondingly switched on and off so that the inverter

4
acts as converter and rectifier thus providing the sinusoidal waveform as the output. Equal
and opposite current is injected in to the line. Thus the harmonics can be eliminated
effectively using this proposed system.

Figure 03: Representation of Proposed System

2.2.1 Hybrid Active Power Filter

The main advantage of the hybrid active power filter is that it requires a small rated
converter compared to the similar pure active filter. The single phase hybrid active power
filter consists of shunt passive filter and series active power filter. The shunt passive power
filter is connected in parallel with the load and suppresses the harmonic current produced by
the load, whereas the active power filter connected in series to the source acts as a harmonic
isolator between the source and the load. For active filter control, pulse width modulation is
developed and the modulation index is selected by the DC bus voltage of the active filter.
This is helpful in injecting the compensating current or voltage direct to the AC lines. The
utilization of auto transformer to the phase shift section of the load in such a way that cancels
low order harmonics. By replacing the existing power distribution transformers with the
transformer that include phase shifted transformer that include phase shifted winding on the
secondary and/or that have high level of reactance between primary and secondary windings.
This active filter provides fast corrective action even with drastically changing non-linear
loads. The complete cancellation of harmonics will be achieved if the filter generates the
current equal and opposite to the present harmonics or voltage in phase with the system. In

5
practice, ideal compensating would be achieved by PWM methods, which have good
characteristics of harmonic elimination.

Figure 04: Hybrid active power filter

2.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROPOSED SYSTEM

In this project there are various blocks in between the source and the load. The hybrid
technology for filter is obtained by connecting the passive power filter in parallel with the
active power filter.

Figure 05: Block Diagram of the Project

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2.4 LINEAR LOAD

These are the AC electrical loads where the voltage and current waveforms are
sinusoidal. The current at any time is proportional to voltage. Linear loads are power factor
improvement capacitors, incandescent lamps, heaters, etc.

The characteristics of linear loads are as follows:

 In AC circuits, linear loads’ voltage and current waveforms are sinusoidal, so the
current at any time is proportional to voltage and these loads does not change the
shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase)
between voltage and current. 
 Linear loads’ impedance remains fixed with changing the applied voltage. The fixed
impedance means that the current drawn by the linear load will be sinusoidal as like
the voltage and the current at any time will be proportional to voltage. 
 Linear loads do not produce any new frequency (harmonics) or change the applied
frequency. 

The connection of the linear load in the transmission line is simulated as shown
below.

Figure 06: Simulation for Linear load

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2.5 NON-LINEAR LOAD

This applies to those ac loads where the current is not proportional to the voltage.
Foremost among loads, meeting their definition is gas discharge lighting having saturated
ballast coils and thyristor (SCR) controlled loads. The nature of non-linear loads is to
generate harmonics in the current waveform. This distortion of the current waveform leads to
distortion of the voltage waveform. Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no
longer proportional to the current. Examples for Non-Linear Loads are Electronic equipment,
electronic/electric-discharge lighting, adjustable-speed drive systems, computer, LASER
printers, Switched Mode Power Supply, Rectifier, Programmable Logic Controller,
electronic ballast, refrigerator, television and similar equipments.

The Characteristics of Non-Linear Loads are as follows:

 Non-linear loads change the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to some
other form.
 Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original (fundamental
frequency) AC current causing distortion of the current waveform leads to distortion
of the voltage waveform. Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no longer
proportional to the current. 
 Non-linear loads’ impedance changes with the applied voltage. The changing
impedance means that the current drawn by the non-linear load will not be sinusoidal
even when it is connected to a sinusoidal voltage.
 These non-sinusoidal currents contain harmonic currents that interact with the
impedance of the power distribution system to create voltage distortion that can affect
both the distribution system equipment and the loads connected to it. 

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The simulated diagram for the non linear load is shown below.

Figure 07: Simulation for Non-Linear Load with Compensation Circuit

From the above discussion, it is known that there are many differences between linear
and non-linear loads. Some of the important points have been tabulated below.

Table 01: Difference between Linear and Non-Linear Load

S.No Linear Loads Non Linear Loads

1 Ohms law is applicable
2 Load Current does not contain
harmonics.
3 Load types are resistive, inductive
or capacitive.
4 Zero Neutral Current if a phase
loads are equally balanced on 3
phase mains
5 May not demand high inrush
currents while starting.
Ohms law is not applicable
Load Current contains ODD harmonics.
Usually equipment with diode and
capacitor.
Neutral current could be 27 times the line
current even if 1 phase loads are equally
balanced on 3 phase mains.
Essentially very high inrush current (20
time of 1 normal) is drawn while starting
for approximately one cycle.

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 CHAPTER 03

HARDWARE COMPONENTS DETAILS

3.1 LIST OF HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS

The various components used in the project are listed below. The table gives the details
of the major hardware requirements for the project.

Table 02: List of Hardware Details

S.N Hardware details Ranges

o
1 Regulated Power Supply 5V and 500 mA
2 Dual RPS ± 12V and 500 mA
3 Switch MOSFET IRF 540N
4 Boost Inductor 1.2 mH
5 Signal Conditioning Unit 0-3V
6 Opto coupler 6N136
7 Gate Driver Circuit ± 12 V
8 Microcontroller PIC18F4550

The description of the project is provided below. Each and every circuit has its own
function. Functions and details of the various blocks used in the project are also discussed.

3.2 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY UNIT

As we all know any invention of latest technology cannot be activated without the source
of power. So it this fast moving world we deliberately need a proper power source which will
be apt for a particular requirement. All the electronic components starting from diode to Intel
IC’s only work with a DC supply ranging from ± 5v to ± 12v. We are utilizing for the same,
the cheapest and commonly available energy source of 230v-50Hz and stepping down,
rectifying, filtering and regulating the voltage.

STEP DOWN RECTIFIER FILTER REGULATOR LOAD

TRANSFORMER

Figure 08: Block Diagram of Regulated Power Supply Unit

The Specifications are as follows:

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 Resistors R1 and R2 maintain line load regulation. At the secondary side of the
transformer the voltage will be of 15 V AC. The following table shows the various ranges of
voltages obtained from various components used in the project.

Table 03: Specifications of RPS

S.No. Parameter Value

1 Applied voltage 15v
2 Conducting drop across the 2*0.6 = 1.2v
diodes
3 Without capacitor Vavg = (15-1.2) v = 13.8c pulsating DC,
Frequency = 100Hz
4 With capacitor V=Vavg *1.414 (form factor) = 19.51v,
Frequency = 50 Hz
5 With 7805 voltage regulator +5v
6 With 7812 voltage regulator +12v
7 With 7912 voltage regulator -12v

A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and a voltage regulating
device. The output from the ordinary power supply unit is fed to the voltage regulating
device that provides the final output, which remains constant irrespective of the variations in
the ac input voltage or variations in the output current. There are three types of regulated
power supply. They are as follows.

3.2.1 Fixed Voltage Power Supply

The fixed RPS is the one, which produces the output of a positive voltage. Its
magnitude depends upon the regulator IC used. The regulated power supply for
microcontroller unit +5v, 300 mA and its waveform respectively are shown below.

Figure 09: Circuit Diagram of Regulated Power Supply Unit

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 Figure 10: RPS Waveform

3.2.2 Adjustable Power Supply

The adjustable power supply uses a variable resistor of 2.2.k (40%) and LM17 for
getting the power supply as desired. The LM317 is an adjustable three-terminal positive-
voltage regulator capable of supplying more than 1.5 A over an output-voltage range of 1.2 V
to 37 V. It is exceptionally easy to use and requires only two external resistors to set the
output voltage. Furthermore, both line and load Regulation are better than standard fixed
regulators. In addition to having higher performance than fixed regulators, this device
includes on-chip current limiting, thermal overload protection, and safe-operating-area
protection. All overload protection remains fully functional, even if the ADJUST terminal is
disconnected.

Figure 11: LM317

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 The LM317 is versatile in its applications, including uses in programmable output
regulation and local on-card regulation. Or, by connecting a fixed resistor between the
ADJUST and OUTPUT terminals, the LM317 can function as a precision current regulator.
An optional output capacitor can be added to improve transient response. The ADJUST
terminal can be bypassed to achieve very high ripple-rejection ratios, which are difficult to
achieve with standard three-terminal regulators. The LM317 is characterized for operation
over the virtual junction temperature range of 0°C to 125°C.

3.2.3 Dual Power Supply

The dual regulated power supply produces the output of a positive and a negative voltage
to the equipments. The project uses the dual RPS for gate driver unit ± 12v, 500ma, zero
crossing detector ±12v, 500ma, and signal conditioning unit ± 12v, 500ma.

Figure 12: Circuit Diagram of Dual Regulated Power Supply Unit

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 Figure 13: Dual RPS waveform

3.3 POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER

Voltage transformers enable not only measurements but also control of the basic electric
quantities (voltage, power and electric energy, frequency, power factor) and contribute to
increase the reliability of the operation of the electric power systems. Safe operation of the
electric energy loads is not possible without voltage transformers. Voltage transformers are
being used from voltages as low as 400V in power networks on substations of the electric
power system, distribution stations of the power network, distribution stations of the industry
facilities, high voltage laboratories and as supply transformers or test transformers. High
requirements of the contemporary protection circuits (short times of its operation) especially
refer to the voltage transformer operation in transient state. It is necessary to systematically
make laboratory studies of their methological properties in this state. Voltage transformer is
an element of connection between power lines on the primary side of the voltage transformer
and protection circuits and or measurement circuits connected to its secondary side.

14
 Figure 14: Potential Transformer

In connection with this fact voltage transformer is a main coupling path of

conductive disturbances transfer between this two circuits. Electrical connection diagram is
called unipolar due to the neutral point N grounding for the primary winding of the voltage
transformer. Scheme of voltage transformer connection is called bipolar because both
terminals of the primary winding of the voltage transformer are insulated. Conductive
disturbances in the power line on the primary side of the voltage transformer may result in
abnormal operation of measuring and or protection circuits connected to the secondary side
of the voltage transformer.

3.4 HALL EFEECT CURRENT SENSOR

As we are dealing with single phase ac supply, the voltage and the current in the range of
230V and 5A are to be lowered in order to calculate for compensating current. These are
done with the help of Hall Effect current sensors. This sensor works under Hall Effect
principle that is whenever a current carrying conductor is placed into a magnetic field; a
voltage will be generated perpendicular to both the current and the field. If the Hall voltage is
measured when no magnetic field is present, the output is zero. However, if the voltage at
each output terminal is measured with respect to ground, a non-zero voltage will appear. This
is the common mode voltage (CMV), and is the same at each output terminal. The potential is
zero. A differential amplifier can be integrated with the Hall element using standard bipolar
transistor technology. Temperature compensation is also easily integrated. When the
magnetic field is absent, current distribution is uniform and no potential difference is seen
across the output.

15
 Figure 15: Current Flow in Hall Effect Sensor without Magnetic Field

When a perpendicular magnetic field is present, a Lorentz force is exerted on the

current. This force disturbs the current distribution, resulting in a potential difference
(voltage) across the output. This voltage is the Hall Voltage (V H). Hall Effect sensors can be
applied in many types of sensing devices. If the quantity (parameter) to be sensed
incorporates or can incorporate a magnetic field, a Hall sensor will perform the required task.

Figure 16: Current Flow in Hall Effect Sensor with Magnetic Field

In the experimental set-up, the power level current of ±10 A is transduced to ±5V.
The 5 turns are wound to carry a 50 AT mmf in the primary. Let the input current be ii. The
number of turns on the primary side is 5. Thus ampere turns on the primary side is 5 i1. With
the conversion Ratio of 1:1000, the secondary output current is given as i o= (ii*5)/1000=
0.005ii A

Figure17: Pin Diagram of Hall Current Sensor

This output current is producing an output voltage vo across 100 Ω, according to the
equation. vo= iio×Ro = 0.005ii×100 = 0.5ii V. Thus, ±10 A input current is transduced into ±5

16
V with isolation. The printed circuit board (PCB) for Hall Effect current transducer is
developed.

3.5 SIGNAL CONDITIONING UNIT

The analog to digital converter accepts only the signal in the range of 0-3V. Hence, the
bipolar ± 5V output of the sensors is processed to the required voltage level using the signal
conditioning circuit. In electronics, signal conditioning means manipulating an analog signal
in such a way that it meets the requirements is the next stage for further processing. Most
common use is in analog-to-digital converters. In control engineering applications, it is
common to have a sensing stage (which consists of a sensor), a signal conditioning stage
(where usually amplification of the signal is done) and a processing stage (normally carried
out by an ADC and a microcontroller). Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are commonly
employed are to carry out the amplification of the signal conditioning stage.

Figure 18: Signal Conditioning Circuit

3.5.1 Attenuator

An attenuator is an electronic device that reduces the amplitude or power of signal

without appreciably distorting its waveform. An attenuator is effectively the opposite of an
amplifier, though the two work by different methods. While an amplifier provides gain, an
attenuator provides loss, or gain less than 1. Attenuators are usually passive devices made
from simple voltage divider networks. Switching between different resistances forms
adjustable stepped attenuators and continuously adjustable ones using potentiometers. For
higher frequencies precisely matched low VSWR resistance networks are used.

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3.5.2 Level Shifter

In applications requiring a unipolar AC voltage signal, the signal may be delivered

from a bi-polar voltage amplifier / generator and repositioned relative to a zero volt reference
(an earth ground) using a voltage level shifting circuit. In addition, the voltage level shifting
technique is frequently used to generate high voltage DC outputs from lower voltage AC
sources. The maximum voltage (AC or DC) produced at the output of the single stage of the
level shifting circuit is nominally equal to the peak-to-peak value of the AC signal delivered
by the amplifier / generator.

3.5.3 Precision Rectifier

The precision rectifier, which is also known as a super diode, is a configuration

obtained with an operational amplifier in order to have a circuit behaving like an ideal diode
and rectifier. It can be useful for high-precision signal processing.

The signal conditioning unit is use to sense the voltage and current in the circuit. Here
the attenuator reduces the amplitude without distorting its waveform, level shifter acts as
summer and precision rectifier as a clamper.

Thus the output of this circuit will be calculated as

V 2−V 1 V 2+1.5 V 2−Vo

+ + =0(1)
10 k 10 k 10 k
Substituting the value,
V 2=0

The equation (1) becomes,

−V 1+ 1.5=V o
We know that,

V 1= ( −RR 12 )=( 1.539 kk )=−3 Vin

Therefore, the output voltage is
Vo=+3 Vin+1.5

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 Figure 19: Output Waveform of Signal Conditioning Circuit

Types of devices that use signal conditioning include signal filters, instrument
amplifiers, sample-and-hold amplifiers, isolation amplifiers, signal isolators, multiplexers,
bridge conditioners, analog-to-digital converters, digital-to-analog converters, frequency
converters or translators, voltage converters or inverters, frequency-to-voltage converters,
voltage-to-frequency converters, current-to-voltage converters, current loop converters, and
charge converters.

3.6 SYNCHRONIZING UNIT

Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually mot all the signal
frequency spectrum contains valid data. As we are using non-linear loads that are both ac and
dc loads the load current will be distorted. This in turn affects the supply voltage. This will
end by providing multiple zero crossings at the voltage waveforms. So in order to find the
accurate amount of magnitude of filter current and its phase angle, we need to know whether
the current is lagging or leading. For that, we go for synchronous circuit. It does consist of
two low pass filter circuits; all pass filters and a zero crossing circuit.

Figure 20: Block Diagram of Synchronizing Unit

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3.6.1 Low Pass Filter

Low pass filter passes through low frequency AC signals, stops high frequency
signals.The multiple zero crossings caused by the harmonic current, if it is lesser we can use
only one second order low pass filter or else for severe cases we use two such filters. After
that the ripples may also be caused by the second order low pass filter, will be eliminated by
the all pass filter. Then the output is fed to the ZCD circuit.

3.6.2 Zero Crossing Detector

It produces an output stage whenever the input crosses the reference input. It provides
both gain adjust and phase adjust. The ZCD will provide an uprising pulse for positive rising
voltage and down going pulses for negative voltage. This is used for providing compensation
for the circuit. The zero crossing detector has four parts- Phase adjust and gain adjust,
Voltage follower or unity gain, Sine to square wave generator, Precision rectifier or push pull
amplifier. The ZCD, which produces an output state change whenever the input crosses the
reference input. In this case, the reference input is connected to ground. The output of the
comparator can easily drive multiple outputs, which can include a relay, a control gate and a
LED indicator. This circuit works with either open-drain or push-pull types of comparator
output, depending upon the load to be driven.

Figure 21: Circuit Diagram of Zero Crossing Detector

The load, in many cases, can also act as a pull-up device, so that a pull-up resister is not
required. Alternatively, push-pull outputs can actively pull-up the output to shutdown the
load. In either case an output resistor and its associated power consumption are not required.
The IC used here, TL064 is a high speed J-FET input quad operational amplifier.

20
 Figure 22: Pin diagram of TL064

The device high input impedance, low input bias current low input offset current and
low offset voltage temperature coefficient. It finds applications in Audio distribution
amplifier, Precision rectifier, Instrumentation Amplifier, 0.5-Hz Square-Wave Oscillator,
High-Q Notch Filter, Low-Level Light Detector Preamplifier, AC Amplifier, Microphone
Preamplifier with Tone Control, Instrumentation Amplifier, IC Preamplifier. The ZCD
provides gain adjust i.e. adjusts the amplitude value of the input signal as per the reference
value and phase adjust to adjust the angle of the waveform accordingly.

Figure 23: Output Characteristic of Synchronous Circuit

3.7 VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER

IRF540 MOSFETS are used as a voltage source inverter, which is used to switch the
supply from the capacitor to the distribution line. It also consists of a diode connected anti
parallel to the MOSFET inside will charge the capacitor with the supply voltage. Switching
speed depends on the pulse produced by the PIC microcontroller based on the values
obtained for the compensation current. The voltage that is stored in the capacitor is
discharged to the supply line through this inverter circuit.

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 Figure 24: IRF 540 MOSFET

Due to non linear load the current wave form will got distorted by harmonics, so to
eliminate the harmonic current we are injecting the same value of current with the help of an
inverter and the dc storage capacitor. This MOSFET has specifically been designed to
minimize input capacitance and gate charge. It is therefore suitable as primary switch in
advanced high efficiency, high-frequency isolated DC-DC converters for Telecom and
Computer applications. It is also intended for any applications with low gate drive
requirements.

The features of a typical IRF540 MOSFET are as follows:

 Typical Rds (On) = 0.055Ω

 Exceptional dv/dt Capability
 100% Avalanche Tested
 Low Gate Charge
 Application Oriented characterization
 Its turn off time is 90ns
Table 04: Rating of IRF 540

ID
Type VDSS RDS (ON)

IRF540 100V Less than 0.077 Ω 22mA

The switching pulses to the MOSFET gate is provided by the PIC18F4550 on

calculating the compensator current. Then it is fed to the gate as pulses through gate driver
circuit.

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 Figure 25: Pin Diagram of MOSFET IRF540

The VSI used here is a single phase inverter. Four VSI are connected as a common
inverter. This VSI has 120° conduction mode. There are two modes of operation. Each
diagonal pair conducts only for one-half cycle. That is MOSFET S1 and S2 for positive half
cycle and S3 and S4 for negative half cycle. In mode I S1 and S4 switches conduct thus
positive half cycle is generated. In mode II the other switches S2 and S3 conduct to generate
the negative half cycle. During the non conduction mode of the switches, they act as diodes,
forming a bridge rectifier. This DC is used to charge the capacitor which is connected as the
source to the VSI unit. This bridge rectifier gets its supply from the transmission line. When
the switching pulse is provided to the switches, in mode I operation, it gives an output in a
pulsed form to compensate the current.

Figure 26: Circuit Diagram of Common Voltage Source Inverter

3.8 BOOST INDUCTOR

The boost inductor plays an important role in power factor correction (PFC). It provides
Isolation between Shield and Winding: 4.5KVrms. All parts have Faraday Shield (except
Toroid). Also it provides Isolation between Winding: 1500 Vrms.

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Its features are :

 UL 94V-0 Recognized Components

 UL1446 Class B Insulation System
 Up to 100% Maximum Duty Cycle
 Very Large Gap Ferrite

3.9 GATE DRIVER CIRCUIT

For inverter circuit it is necessary to electrically isolate the MOSFET from the control
circuit. The gate driver circuits are used for providing isolation between the high voltage side
and low voltage side. By using the opto coupler, the input signal and the module are isolated
from each other. Also since the opto coupler does not limit the output pulse width; it is
suitable for changing pulse widths or PWM controllers, to wide ranges. It is currently most
widely used. Furthermore, this way the turn-on and turn-off characteristics determined by
gate resistance can be set separately, so it commonly used to ensure the best settings. A gate
driver is a power amplifier that accepts a low-power input from a controller IC and produces
a high-current drive input for the gate of a high-power transistor such as an IGBT or power
MOSFET. Gate drivers can be provided either on-chip or as a discrete module. In essence, a
gate driver consists of a level shifter in combination with an amplifier. The circuit is powered
by using an adjustable power supply which uses LM317.

Figure 27: Circuit Diagram of Gate Driver Unit

24
3.9.1 OPTO ISOLATOR

Since the MOSFET’s used to switch the capacitor voltage into the supply line there
will be switching transients produced by them. These switching transients in turn will affect
the pulses developed by the PIC18F4550 and by time the micro controller itself. So in order
to protect the microcontroller and the control circuit from power circuit we are providing
isolation circuit. Once the logical gate signals G1-G4 are available for four MOSFET
switches, these have to be isolated before giving to the gate terminals of the switches. An
opto-coupler (IC 6N136) is used to provide isolation of logic gate pulse from power circuit.
Since there are four switches in VSI, therefore four units of opto-couplers are used. However,
only three isolated regulated DC voltage supplies are required. Two isolated DC power
supplies for upper two switches of the inverter and one isolated power supply for lower two
switches as emitter is common for these switches. The response of Opto-coupler depends on
the value of output resistance, this is designed based on the value of supply voltage and
current withstand capability of photo transistor in Opto-coupler IC.

Figure 28: Circuit Diagram of Opto Isolator 6N136

The features of opto isolator are as follows

 High speed-1 MBit/s

 Double working voltage-480V RMS
 High speed response tPHL , t PLH (6N135: MAX. 1.5µs at RL= 4.1kΩ)
 (6N136: MAX. 0.8µs at R L= 1.9kΩ)
 High common mode rejection voltage (CMH: TYP. 1kV/ µs)
 Standard dual-in-line package

25
3.10 PIC 18F4550 MICRO CONTROLLER

PIC is a family of modified Harvard architecture microcontrollers made by Microchip

Technology, derived from the PIC1650 originally developed by General Instrument’s
Microelectronics Division. The name PIC initially referred to "Peripheral Interface
Controller”. PICs are popular with both industrial developers and hobbyists alike due to their
low cost, wide availability, large user base, extensive collection of application notes,
availability of low cost or free development tools, and serial programming (and re-
programming with flash memory) capability. They are also commonly used in educational
programming as they often come with the easy to use 'pic logicator' software. The PIC 18x
series are available in a 28 and 40-pin DIP package. They have more ports, more ADC, etc.
PIC 18s are generally considered very high-end microcontrollers, and are even sometimes
called full-fledged CPUs. All are in the PIC18Fx family. The 28 pin PIC18F2450,
PIC18F2455, PIC18F2550 and the 40/44 pin PIC18F4450, PIC18F4455, PIC 18F4550.
PIC18F4550 is an 8-bit microcontroller of PIC18 family. PIC18F family is based on 16-bit
instruction set architecture. PIC18F4550 consists of 32 KB flash memory, 2 KB SRAM and
256 Bytes EEPROM. This is a 40 pin PIC Microcontroller consisting of 5 I/O ports (PORTA,
PORTB, PORTC, PORTD and PORTE). PORTB and PORTD have 8 pins to
receive/transmit 8-bit I/O data. The remaining ports have different numbers of pins for I/O
data communications. PIC18F4550 can work on different internal and external clock sources.
It can work on a varied range of frequency from 31 KHz to 48 KHz. PIC18F4550 has four in-
built timers. There are various inbuilt peripherals like ADC, comparators etc in this
controller. PIC18F4550 is an advanced microcontroller, which is equipped with enhanced
communication protocols like EUSART, SPI, I2C, USB etc.

3.10.1 Low-Power Features

 Run: CPU on, peripherals on
 Idle: CPU off, peripherals on
 Sleep: CPU off, peripherals off
 Idle mode currents down to 5.8 µA typical
 Sleep mode currents down to 0.1 µA typical
 Timer1 Oscillator: 1.1 µA, 32 kHz, 2V
 Watchdog Timer: 2.1 µA typical, 32 kHz, 2V
 Two-Speed Oscillator Start-up

26
3.10.2 Peripheral Features
 High current sink/source 25 mA /25 mA
 Three external interrupts
 Enhanced Capture/ Compare/ PWM (ECCP) module
 Compatible 10-bit, up to 13-channels Analog-to-Digital Converter module
 Dual analog comparators
 Capture 16-bit, max. resolution 6.25 ns
 Compare 16-bit, max. resolution 100 ns

3.10.3 Special Microcontroller Features

 Priority levels for interrupts
 8 x 8 Single-Cycle Hardware Multiplier
 Priority levels for interrupts
 100,000 erase/write cycle Enhanced FLASH program memory typical
 1,000,000 erase/write cycle Data EEPROM memory
 Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
 Single supply 5V In-circuit Serial Programming via two pins
 In-Circuit Debug (ICD) via two pins
3.10.4 Oscillators
 Four Crystal modes
 Two external Clock modes, up to 48 MHz
 8 user-selectable frequencies
 Secondary oscillator using Timer1 @ 32 kHz
 Fail-Safe Clock Monitor

27
 Figure 29: Pin Diagram of PIC18F4550

The PIC 18F4550 is used to provide the switching pulses to the VSI. Due to the reduced
instruction set of this microcontroller, the program can be easily made. In addition, it has a
high ADC sampling as compares to the other families of microcontrollers i.e. 16 family,
8051, ATMEL, etc. It has an operating time of 83ns. Thus, the switching to the VSI is done at
high speed and further compensation is easily acquired.

Table 05: Pin Description of PIC 18F4550

PIN NUMBER DESCRIPTION
1 MCLR/VPP
2 RA0/AN0
3 RA1/AN1
4 RA2/AN2/VREF-/CVREF
5 RA3/AN3/VREF+
6 RA4/T0CKI/C1OUT/C2OUT
7 RA5/AN4/SS/HLVDIN/C2OUT
8 RE0/AN5/CK1SPP
9 RE1/AN6/CK2SPP
10 RE2/AN7/OESPP
11 VDD
12 VSS
13 OSC1/CLKI
PIN NUMBER DESCRIPTION
14 OSC2/CLKO/RA6
15 RC0/T1OSO/T13CKI
16 RC1/T1OSI/CCP2/UOE
17 RC2/CCP1/P1A
18 VUSB
19 RD0/SPP0

28
20 RD1/SPP1
21 RD2/SPP2
22 RD3/SPP3
23 RC4/D-/VM
24 RC5/D+/VP
25 RC6/TX/CK
26 RC7/RX/DT/SDO
27 RD4/SPP4
28 RD5/SPP5/P1B
29 RD6/SPP6/P1C
30 RD7/SPP7/P1D
31 VSS
32 VDD
33 RB0/AN12/INT0/SDI/SDA
34 RB1/AN10/INT1/SCK/SCL
35 RB2/AN8/INT2/VMO
36 RB3/AN9/CCP2/VPO
37 RB4/AN11/KBI0/CSSPP
38 RB5/KBI1/PGM
39 RB6/KBI2/PGC
40 RB7/KBI3/PGD

29
 3.10.5 Tools
 MP Lab IDE
o C and assembly environment
o Debugger included
o C compiler included
 Programmers
o Variable cost
o CCS compiler, Proteus, ICDE2, PICKit2, etc.
 Software Development Tools
o Libraries by Microchip

Here the CCS (custom compute service) compiler is used to program the PIC
microcontroller. To give the input PWM pulses to the VSI the program is done in such a way
that it compares the input current, line current and load current and switches the VSI as
required i.e., when the reference current and the line current coincides the output pulse is
generated and the compensating current is produced. The comparator can be fixed easily in
18F4550. The software coding is given in Chapter 05.

30
 CHAPTER 04

CONTROL SCHEME AND COMPENSATION METHOD

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The active power filter is used for both harmonic elimination and reactive power
compensation. The filter current contains both harmonic and reactive component of load
current. The objective of the control scheme and compensation algorithm is to compute the
sinusoidal reference source current equivalent to the average load power and thereby obtain
the reference filter current.

4.2 PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER

The proportional integral control of capacitor voltage is a widely reported single phase
control algorithm. The block diagram of the proposed control scheme is shown below. Here
the capacitor voltage of VSI is controlled to a reference value using a proportional integral
(PI) controller thereby obtaining power balance between source, load and converter. The
actual capacitor voltage is compared 18 with a reference value and this difference is given as
input to PI controller. The PI controller output is multiplied by a unity sine function in phase
with voltage to generate the reference source current.
Vc ref

Im Imsinωt
Capacitor vc(t) PI Controller
X
Voltage Sensor
- +

Supply Voltage vs(t) Unity sine wave sinωt

Sensor generator

Figure 30: Block Diagram of the Control Scheme

The algorithm is claimed to draw only least compensation current from the source. A
response time of less than one cycle was obtained. It can compensate under both sinusoidal
and distorted source voltage. However, like other indirect methods, the performance of this
method also depends on the careful selection of the control parameters. Also an initial

31
estimate of source current is required as input before starting of the active power filter. It is a
control loop feedback mechanism. The weighted sum of these three is used to adjust the
process i.e. error in process. The proposed algorithm can compute the reference source
current instantaneously over time and also provides a transient response of half cycle (full
cycle) for load current containing odd (odd and even) harmonics under both sinusoidal and
distorted supply voltages with odd (odd and even) harmonics.

4.3 NEED FOR COMPENSATION

If the sending end and receiving end voltages are maintained to be constant the
regulation would be better. To maintain the regulation the distortions made by the non linear
loads are to be eliminated. Since the reactive power required by this loads are heavier, the
generator can’t provide that much power.

4.4 CALCULATION OF COMPENSATOR CURRENT

The reactive power can be compensated either by improving the receiving voltage or by
reducing the line reactance. Since the line reactance is fixed, it can be done only by
increasing the voltage. Hence, on injecting the current into the distribution we can improve
the voltage and compensate the reactive power.

Role of Reactive Power on voltage and its regulation

E2=(V+ΔV)2+δv2= (V+RICOSφ+XISINφ)2+ (XICOSφ-RISINφ)2

Hence, E2= [V+(RP/V)+(XQ/V)] 2+ [(XP/V)-(RQ/V)]2

ΔV= (RP+QX)/V

δV= (XP-RQ)/V

δV<< (V+ΔV)

E2= [V+ (RP+QX)/V] 2

E-V= (RP+QX)/V=ΔV

E-V= [XQ]/V

32
 So the reactive power can be compensated either by improving the receiving voltage or
by reducing the line reactance. Since the line reactance is fixed, it can be done only by
increasing the voltage. Hence on injecting the current into the distribution we can improve
the voltage and compensate the reactive power.

Figure 31: Phasor Diagram

The voltage equation before non linear load is,

Vt(t) = vm1 sin (t)

The voltage and current equation after adding dc load is,

Vt(t)= vdc + vm1sin(t+φv1)+ vm2sin(2t+φv2)+ vm3sin(3t+φv3)+ …+vmnsin(nt+φvn)

il(t)= idc +im1sin(t+φi1)+im2sin(2t+φi2)+ im3sin(3t+φi3)+…imnsin(nt+φin)

The source power can be calculated as, Ps = [vm1imscosφs] / 2

With that the average power can be calculated as the product of vt (t) and il (t),

Plavg= vdcidc+[vm1im1cosφ1] / 2+vm2im2cosφ2] / 2+[vm3im3cosφ3] / 2+…[vmnimncosφn] / 2

Ploss= kp x ev + kievdt ; where, error voltage,ev = vref - vact

The maximum value of source current can be calculated as,

ims = 2[Plavg+Ploss] / (vm1cosφs)

The above equation can be reduced as,

is(t) = imssin(t-φs)

33
With the load current and the fundamental current, the injecting current can be found out as,

ic*(t) = il(t) – is(t)

ic*(t) = il(t) – is(t)

4.5 REALIZATION OF ACTIVE POWER FILTER

The ideal active power filter with no losses and infinite band width has been considered
for the discussion. However, in case of actual circuit the copper and core losses of the circuit
components and the switching losses of the inverter come into picture. In addition, the
bandwidth of filter is limited by the maximum switching frequency of the inverter switches.
An actual filter comprised of full bridge voltage source inverter and a dc storage capacitor.

The filter is connected to load at PCC through interface inductor (Lf). The resistance Rf
models the losses in the inverter. Each MOSFET switch in the inverter has an anti-parallel
diode to allow the current in reverse direction. To realize reference filter current generated
using the above algorithm, the single-phase full bridge voltage source inverter is operated in
a pre-defined hysteresis band (±h) current control.

The general hysteresis law is given as,

If ic> i*c - h, Then S1, S2=ON and S3, S4=OFF

(11)
If ic< i*c + h, Then S3, S4=ON and S1, S2=OFF

Figure 32: A Single Phase Compensated System under Stiff Source

34
 Thus, the diagonal switches pairs (S1− S2) and (S3 − S4) are operated in complimentary
mode in such a way to track the reference filter current.

4.6 BENEFITS OF REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION

 Better efficiency of power generation, transmission and distribution

 Improvement in voltage
 Reduced KVA demand
 Higher load capability.
 Reduced system losses

35
 CHAPTER 05

SOFTWARE CODINGS

5 SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

In this project MATLAB is used for obtaining simulated output for each and every unit
required for compensation. Other than MATLAB, CCS (custom compute service) compiler is
used for PIC programming. We can also se PROTEUS software for obtaining the visualized
results and check the program. We go for CCS compiler which is an embedded C language,
because it is easy to handle with. Now let us discuss about the MATLAB software and the
coding in this section.

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

MATLAB is a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates

computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.

Typical uses include

 Math and computation

 Algorithm development
 Data acquisition
 Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not
require dimensioning. This allows us to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to
write a program in a scalar non interactive language such as C or FORTRAN. The name
MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB was originally written to provide easy
access to matrix software developed by the LINPACK and EISPACK projects. Today,
MATLAB engines incorporate the LAPACK and BLAS libraries, embedding the state of the

36
art in software for matrix computation. MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive
environment that enables us to perform computationally intensive tasks faster than with
traditional programming languages such as C, C++ and FORTRAN. MATLAB features a
family of add-on application-specific solutions called toolboxes. Very important to most
users of MATLAB, toolboxes allow us to learn and apply specialized technology. Toolboxes
are comprehensive collections of MATLAB functions (M-files) that extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems. Areas in which toolboxes are available
include signal processing, control systems, neural networks, fuzzy logic, wavelets,
simulation, aerospace, bioinformatics, image processing and many others. Areas in which
block sets are available include aerospace, communications, RF, signal processing, video and
image processing.

Its features are

 High-level language for technical computing

 Development environment for managing code, files, and data
 Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving
 Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization, and numerical integration
 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data
 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages, such as C, C++, FORTRAN, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel.

5.2 SIMULINK

Simulink is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-Based Design for

dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive graphical environment and a
customizable set of block libraries that let us design, simulate, implement, and test a variety
of time-varying systems, including communications, controls, signal processing, video
processing, and image processing. Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple
modelling domains, as well as provide tools for design, implementation, and verification and
validation tasks. Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an
extensive range of tools that let us develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations,

37
create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal,
parameter, and test data.

Its key features are

 Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks
 Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block
diagrams.
 Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of
design components.
 Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals,
parameters, properties, and generated code associated with your model.

Application programming interfaces (APIs) that connect with other simulation

programs and incorporate hand-written code. Embedded MATLAB Function blocks for
bringing MATLAB algorithms into Simulink and embedded system implementations. A
model can be constructed by assembling design components, each of which could be a
separate model.

5.2.1 Creating and Working With Models

With Simulink, we can quickly create, model, and maintain a detailed block diagram
of your system using a comprehensive set of predefined blocks. Simulink provides tools for
hierarchical modeling, data management, and subsystem customization, making it easy to
create concise, accurate representations, regardless of your system's complexity.

Figure 33: Creating a Model Using Simulink

38
5.2.2 Selecting and Customizing Blocks

Simulink software includes an extensive library of functions commonly used in

modeling a system. These include:

 Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay.

 Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table.

 Structural blocks, such as MUX, Switch, and Bus Selector

We can customize these built-in blocks or create new ones directly in Simulink and
place them into your own libraries. Additional block sets (available separately) extend
Simulink with specific functionality for aerospace, communications, radio frequency, signal
processing, video and image processing, and other applications. We can model Physical
system in Simulink. Simscape, SimDriveline, SimHydraulics, SimMechanics and
SimPowerSystem (all available separately) provide expanded capabilities for
modelling physical systems, such as those with mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic
components.

5.3 INCORPORATING MATLAB ALGORITHMS AND HAND WRITTEN CODE

When we incorporate MATLAB code, we can call MATLAB functions for data analysis
and visualization. Additionally, Simulink helps in using Embedded MATLAB code to design
embedded algorithms that can then be deployed through code generation with the rest of your
model. We can also incorporate hand-written C, FORTRAN, and ADA code directly into a
model, enabling us to create custom blocks in your model.

5.3.1 Building and Editing a Model

With Simulink, we build models by dragging and dropping blocks from the library
browser onto the graphical editor and connecting them with lines that establish mathematical
relationships between the blocks. We can arrange the model by using graphical editing
functions, such as copy, paste, undo, align, distribute, and resize.

39
 Figure 34: Building a Model

The Simulink user interface gives us complete control over what we can see and use
onscreen. We can add your commands and submenus to the editor and context menus. We
can also disable and hide menus, menu items, and dialog box controls.

5.3.2 Organizing the Model

Simulink lets us to organize our model into clear, manageable levels of hierarchy by
using subsystems and model referencing. Subsystems encapsulate a group of blocks and
signals in a single block. We can add a custom user interface to a subsystem that hides the
subsystem's contents and makes the subsystem appear as an atomic block with its own icon
and parameter dialog box. We can also segment your model into design components to
model, simulate, and verify each component independently. Components can be saved as
separate models by using model referencing, or as subsystems in a library. They are
compatible with configuration management systems, such as CVS and Clear Case, and with
any registered source control provider application on Windows platforms. We can reuse the
design components on multiple projects, easily maintaining audit and revision histories.
Organizing our models in this way lets us to select the level of detail appropriate to the
design task.

5.4 PROGRAM

#include <18f4550.h>

#fuses HS,NOWDT,PROTECT,NOPUT,NOBROWNOUT

#use delay(clock=20000000)

unsigned long ref_current=0,load_current=0;

40
unsigned char zcd=0,flag=0,flag1=0;

#INT_COMP

voidisr()

if(C2OUT==1)

flag1=1;

else

flag1=0;}

void main()

io_init(0x0f,0x01,0x00,0x00,0x0f);

portc=0;

delay_ms(200);

setup_comparator(A0_A3_A1_A2);

delay_ms(200);

enable_interrupts(INT_COMP);

enable_interrupts(GLOBAL);

delay_ms(200);

while(TRUE)

if(portb_0==1)

41
 {

portc_0=portc_1=0;

if(flag1==0)

portd_3=portd_2=0;

else

portd_3=portd_2=1;

delay_us(5);

else if(portb_0==0)

portc_2=portc_3=0;

if(flag1==0)

portd_0=portd_1=1;

delay_us(5);

else

42
 {

portd_0=portd_1=0;

delay_us(5);

43
 CHAPTER 06

RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS

6.1 SIMULATION OUTPUTS

The steady state and dynamic performance of the filter are validated through digital
simulation using MATLAB. The switching of the inverter is controlled by monitoring the
reference and the actual currents of the filter. The actual filter current (if) is compared with
reference filter current hysteresis band envelope (i*f ± h). When if is greater or equal to (i*f +
h), the switches S3 − S4 are closed. This corresponds to Switch s = −1. When if is less or
equal to i*f − h, the switches S3 − S4 re open and this corresponds to Switch s = 1.
Accordingly, gates commands are given to the inverter. The simulated system consists of a
distorted source voltage supplying power to load containing a RL load and a full bridge
rectifier with highly inductive load. The PCC voltage is considered distorted with 20% third
harmonic and 3% fifth harmonic components. The total harmonic distortion of supply
voltage and load current are found to be 19.55% and 23.38% respectively. The simulation
uses a hysteresis band of 10% of the peak value of source current. The figure shows the
supply voltage and compensated source current for eliminating harmonics only. The
simulation studies are conducted for both types of compensation i.e harmonic elimination
plus reactive power compensation and harmonic elimination only.

Figure 35: Simulation Result of the System under Stiff Source

44
 The input current is sinusoidal waveforms with distortions.

Figure 36: Waveform of Input Current

The output current will be sinusoidal with more harmonics.Output current

(uncompensated) is shown below.

Figure 37: Waveform of Uncompensated Output Current

The input voltage as shown below is a sinusoidal waveform.

Figure 38: Waveform of Input Voltage

45
 As mentioned before the linear load has the chracteristics of unchanged load current
as shown below. Linear loads do not produce any new frequency (harmonics) or change the
applied frequency.

Figure 39: Simulation Result for Linear Load

The non-linear load changes the shape of the current waveform from a sine wave to
some other form. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the original
(fundamental frequency) AC current causing distortion of the current waveform leads to
distortion of the voltage waveform. Under these conditions, the voltage waveform is no
longer proportional to the current. 

Figure 40: Simulation Result for Non-Linear Load

46
 The passive filter give the output with much limited harmonics, but it is not a pure
sine waveform.

Figure 41: Compensated Current Output from Passive Filter

The combination of passive filter with the shunt active power filter will produce the
compensated current (shown in light shade) and the dark shade shows the output from the
HAPF.

Figure 42: Compensated Current Output from HAPF

The proposed algorithm is tested using a prototype of single phase active power
filter developed in the laboratory. The details of the system parameters for experimental set
up are given in table below. The supply voltage and load current are distorted. The load
current is result of combination of RL load and a rectifier load with an RL load at dc side.

47
 Table 06: System Parameters for Simulation
S.No Parameter Value
1 Supply Voltage 230 V, Stiff source

2 THD in supply voltage 19.55%

3 Load a. Rectifier Supplying 8A Dc
b. RL load, Z= 21-j21

4 THD in load current 23.38%

5 Filter inductance 10mH, 3Ω
6 DC capacitor 2200µF
7 DC capacitor reference voltage 500V
8 Sampling frequency 36kHz
9 Maximum switching frequency 18kHz

6.2 OBSERVATIONS

From the above-simulated results, it is observed that with the application of PI theory,
the total harmonic distortions are much reduced. As compared with passive filter and active
filter output which are obtained separately, the hybrid configuration gives better results.
Further discussions can be made to bring the distortions down. The sampling of 1
sample/second is obtained with the help of PIC18F4550. In the program the PWM pulse is
generated as such to switch the VSI for the sampling. But 1 sample/second is not enough for
perfect harmonic reduction. For simultaneous sampling we have to go for 720
samples/second. This is not possible with PIC. But using dsPIC for the same can give better
results. Also the PI controller provides less stability and the system order is changed. To
overcome this disadvantage we should go for other controller such as PD controller or PID
controller.

48
The comparative analysis of features of various controlling techniques is listed below.

Table 07: Comparison of PD, PI, PID Control Features

S. No Proportional Proportional Proportional
Derivative Integral Controller Integral Derivative
Controller Controller
1 Increase damping System relatively less Improve transient
ratio stability (PD) & improve
2 (ωn) remains (ωn) changing
steady state (PI)
unchanged
3 Type of system Increase order of the
unchanged system
4 Reduced peak Increase type of the
overshoot system

6.3 PHOTOGRAPHY OF THE HARDWARE MODULE

10
6 2

3
7
1

8
9
11

Figure 43: Photography of the Hardware Module

1. PIC 18F4550 microcontroller

49
2. Voltage source inverter
3. Gate driver circuit
4. Dual voltage regulated power supply for the gate driver unit
5. Boost inductor
6. Hall effect sensor
7. Zero crossing detector
8. Dual RPS for signal conditioning unit and ZCD
9. Signal conditioning unit
10. Regulated power supply
11. Potential transformer

6.4 OUTPUT OF THE HARDWARE

(a) (b)
Figure 44: Load Voltage and Load Current (a) Linear Load (b) Non Linear Load

(a) (b)
Figure 45: ZCD Output (a) Linear Load (b) Non Linear Load

50
 Figure 46: Switching Sequence

(a) (b)

Figure 47: Filter Output (a) Active Filter (b) Passive Filter

51
 CHAPTER 07

CONCLUSION

The details of PIC based Hybrid active power filter is presented. The design of
various building blocks such as transducer circuits, signal conditioning circuits and Opto-
isolation circuits are clearly illustrated and explained. Based on the design details illustrated,
a prototype HAPF is developed in the laboratory. The experimental results demonstrate the
compensator effectively compensates harmonic components of the load current and
consequently utility currents are balanced and sinusoidal with unity phase relationship with
their voltages in respective phases. A new single phase active power filter algorithm is
implemented which provides a response time of half cycle / full cycle for load current
containing odd/even harmonics. Also, the method can work irrespective of supply voltage
quality, whether it is sinusoidal or distorted. A prototype model of active power filter is
implemented in laboratory and detailed experimental studies are carried out. It is observed
that the experimental results are consistent with the simulation results.

7.1 ADVANTAGES
 MOSFET is a better choice in terms of cost efficiency.
 Unity power factor can be achieved.
 Harmonic current are greatly reduced.
 Effective power factor correction can be obtained.
 Use of microcontroller facilities flexibility in programming.
 Future modification in the program can be done easily.
 PI controller is used for greater error minimization.

7.2 FUTURE ENHANCEMENT

In the present project, PIC microcontroller PI theory is used to switch the MOSFET
accordingly to produce the compensation current. In future design of a suitable DSP
processor based VSI with IGBT instead of MOSFETS can be implemented. The PID
controller can be used for increased sampling time and by increasing the rating of capacitor
voltage sensor based on the capacitor voltage selection can give improved results. A suitable

52
variable non linear load for testing can be designed. If the testing results are satisfied with
single phase model of STATCOM single phase series compensation can be implemented.

REFERENCES

[1] “Performance Evaluation of Hybrid Active Power Filter”, Narayan Prasad Gupta,
Preeti Gupta, Dr. Deepika Masand, 2012 International Conference on
Communication Systems and Network Technologies.
[2] “A New Hybrid Active Power Filter for Harmonic Suppression and Reactive Power
Compensation”, ZHAO Wei, LUO an, PENG Jianchun, DENG Xia, PENG ke,
CICED 2008.
[3] “An Analysis And Simulation of Shunt Hybrid Active Power Filter”, MA Yue, ZHU
Ling, Proceeding of International Conference on Electrical Machines and Systems
2007.
[4] “A Single-Phase Hybrid Active Power Filter using Extension p-q Theorem for
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[5] “Design and Implementation of A Shunt Active Power Filter with Reduced Dc Link
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