Respiratory System

 humidifies and warms the air; normal body temperature: 37 C

 immunologic in nature: secretion of mucus, ciliary action of airways

Functions

 gas exchange
 regulation of blood pH (Henderson-Hasselbach’s Equation; pH = power of Hydrogen, inverse logarithmic scale: more
Hydrogen, lower number) 
o retained CO2 can make blood acidic; when H ions elevate, CO2 can be used as a countermeasure
 voice production
 olfaction
 innate immunity
 ventilation

- when the blood is acidic, it releases CO2 to balance.

- When CO2 increases, mobilization of Hydrogen happens.

Upper Respiratory Tract

Opening of Nose - Nares 

 divided by the Nasal Septum - made up of cartilage and bones like palatine and sphenoid) >> Vestibule
 Vibrissae - hairs in the nose 
 External Nose - composed of more than half or mainly of hyaline cartilage
 Nasal Cavity- extends from the nares to choanae
 Paranasal Sinuses- air-filled space within the bone; open into the nasal cavity and lined with mucous.

Conchae - after cartilage areas of septum beneath ethmoid, humidify air

 superior part - olfactory nerve 

 squamous epithelial lining has mucus cells/glands - exocrine glands that secrete mucus, which traps odorant (molecules
necessary for us to smell) and bacteria, viruses or any foreign materials; irritants trigger sneezing or coughing, but most
are involuntarily swallowed (as it enters stomach, HCl burns or kills it)
 Conchae- each side of the nasal cavity; increase area of nasal cavity; helps in cleaning, humidifying, and warming of
air; cause air to churn.
 Nasolacrimal duct- carry tears from the eyes; dirt on the eyes to be disposed, mucous captures it and swallows it; open
into nasal cavity.
 opens into bones in the skull — has open air pockets, sinuses; opening to sinuses(air pockets) may get clogged and
infection sets in — sinusitis
o ethmoid, sphenoid, frontal, maxillary sinuses (locations where sinuses are found)

Hasselbach’s Plexus

 network of blood vessels found in the nose

Pharynx (Throat) - common passageway for respiratory and digestive system

  Nasopharynx - has an opening to the eustachian tube (equalizes pressure inside the ear); takes in air
 Oropharynx - has adenoids or tonsils (lymphoid tissues)
o voluntarily swallowing to esophagus
o anterior to the esophagus is the windpipe; to prevent foreign materials or food molecules, at the base of the
tongue is the epiglottis, a flaplike structure
 Waldeyer’s Ring - protective ring found in naso and oropharynx. In tonsils located in nasopharynx 
 Laryngopharynx- passes posterior to the larynx and extends from the tip of epiglottis.
 anterior 1/3 - hard palate, posterior 2/3 - soft palate (necessary for phonation, make sound, and articulation, to speak);
divides nose and mouth
 Uvula - “little grape,” extension of soft palate
 Pharyngeal Tonsil - aids in defending against infection
 Posterior- esophagus
 Anterior- airway

Lower Respiratory Tract

- Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
- lining is composed of ciliated columnar epithelium (cilia sweep back up foreign material; if irritating, it causes
coughing reflex)

Larynx - voice box, level of glottis; in front of throat. comprises of bone mostly cartilage

 production of speech (some words that we utter are already produced by the voice box)
 Thyroid Cartilage - Adam’s apple, largest piece of cartilage
 Epiglottis 
 Vocal Folds/Cords - source of voice production; has the ability to oppose each other (contract or relax)
o air moves past them, they vibrate and sound is produced
o production of speech (some words that we utter are already produced by the voice box)
o force of air determine loudness
o tension determines pitch
 Laryngitis - inflammation of vocal folds 
 Vocal Folds - has the ability to oppose each other (contract or relax) 
 Thyroid cartilage- largest piece of cartilage. (Adam’s apple, not prominent in women), cricoid cartilage 
 Hyoid Bone - only bone which does not articulate with another bone; anchor for the muscles and ligaments of mouth
and neck; unusual bone. w/o articulation.

Epiglottis- closes airway.

 Laryngitis - inflammation of vocal folds 

Trachea – windpipe; complete- front, not in the back (open and the esophagus is attached)

- 16 to 20 C-shaped cartilages, since it is connected to the esophagus

- passageway 
- lining is composed of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
- w/ cilia which sweeps it back up.
- Coughing reflex- dislodges foreign substances from the trachea
- Smoking kills cilia

Bronchi

 divide from trachea, connect to lungs, lined with cilia

  contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage - continues but becomes smaller distally till it disappears 
 right bronchus slightly larger and more vertical than left bronchus (more horizontally oriented) - because of the heart
 smooth muscle layers have receptors for parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulations 
 smooth muscles- open bronchus; have receptors, sympathetic and parasympathetic
 tertiary branch- no cartilage at this point


Lungs

 Primary organ for respiration

 cone shaped, rest on diaphragm, contains many air passageways
 contains lots of elastic connective tissue (like balloons) - have a natural tendency to recoil/collapse
o water has surface tension which may act as glue - since mucous is mainly composed of water, when the lungs
collapse and mucous has built up, or may adhere to each other
 Pleural Space - produce negative pressure, hold in air; prevents lungs from collapsing
 R. lung - 3 lobes (upper, middle and lower lobes); L. lung - 2 lobes (no middle because of heart)
o lobes has bronchopulmonary segments
o has own circulatory system
 Hilum 
 Alveoli - small air sacs, where actual gas exchange occurs, surrounded by capillaries
o 300 million in lungs
o interstitial space between alveoli and capillaries is very thin 
 Capillaries - Pneumocytes (Type 1 and Type 2)
o produce surfactants - have hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends; reduces surface tension of fluid lining and
alveoli, to prevent lung collapse
o when surface tension in alveoli is high, it would not expand
 Asthma Attack - contraction of terminal bronchioles leads to reduced air flow

Diaphragm - main muscle for breathing or respiration

 Phrenic Nerve - innervated Diaphragm; when irritated develops hiccups 

Special Properties of Lungs

- Lots of elastic connective tissue, like balloon. (will collapse and recoil) (contains elastic rubber). Lungs tend to collapse
like a balloon. Dry balloon is easier to inflate than balloon w/ water. Water has special property called surface tension.
Mucous is mostly water.
1. Lungs is filled w/ pleural space, potential space and fluid between them. Potential space-
prevents lungs from collapsing.
2. Pneumocytes- produces surfactants. Has Type 1(larger) and Type 2(smaller). Surfactant-
reduces surface tension. Alveoli can open up when surfactant is reduced.

 Parietal pleura- out

 Visceral pleura- in
 We can survive with only one lung. Ex. Pope Francis

Air Passageways of Lungs

 Primary Bronchi
 Lobar (secondary) Bronchi
 Segmental (tertiary) Bronchi
 Bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveoli - actual gas exchange
Ventilation – breathing; process of moving air in and out of the lungs

 uses diaphragm: skeletal muscle that separates thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Inspiration (ACTIVE); Expiration (PASSIVE)
 lungs has negative internal pressure
 to breathe/take in air, atmospheric and chest wall pressure are the same but internal pressure must become more
negative than usual 
o when diaphragm contracts, it moves inferiorly; the chest wall becomes bigger and therefore, more negative
pressure than atmosphere; air goes in 
o when diaphragm relaxes, it moves up; the chest wall becomes smaller, and pressure becomes more positive
than atmosphere; air is pushed out

Phases of Ventilation (Inspiration and Expiration)

- Inspiration- breathe in; uses intercostal muscles; diaphragm descends and ribcage recoils.
- Expiration- breathe out

-Ribs have joints and thus, can move a little

 during expiration, it becomes slightly more vertically oriented (and vice versa)

Lungs can expand infinitely until it explodes but a reflex signals the brain in the phase of exhalation — reflex?

Lung Recoil - tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size; occurs during quiet expiration; due to elastic fibers

Pleural Pressure- pressure in pleural cavity; less than alveolar cavity; keeps alveoli

Breathing IN is ACTIVE : Breathing OUT is PASSIVE

Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation

 small balloon is harder to blow

 Lung Elasticity - lungs need to recoil between ventilations, decreased by emphysema (lungs may be permanently
inflated which means that air is not replenished) 
 Lung Compliance - expansion of thoracic cavity, affected if rib cage is damaged 
 Respiratory Passageway Resistance – occurs during an asthma attack, infection, tumor; larger, lesser resistance
o Asthma - airway becomes smaller, greater resistance
 Big hole- less resistance; small hole- air way resistance

Pulmonary Volumes

 Spirometer - device that measures pulmonary volumes of air that goes in and out

Total Capacity of Lungs - 6 L of air; but in reality, only 500 mL is needed to replenish air

 Tidal volume (TV)- just breathe in and out (500ml) lung capacity is 6L
 Inspiratory Reserved Volume (IRV)- peak breathing {=TV+IRV}
 Inspiratory Capacity - total capacity of lungs; tidal volume + inspiratory reserved volume)
 Expiratory Reserved Volume- keep breathing out.; still have air inside your lungs no matter how hard you breathe out.
Still have air in the dead space.
  Residual Volume (Net Space) - after maximum expiration, more or less a liter of air remains; something your body
cannot really use. A liter of air left.
 Functional Residual Capacity- amount of air remaining in the lungs at the end of normal expiration (2300mL)
{=ERV+RV}
 Total Lung Capacity- also equal to VC+RV {=IRV+ERV+TV+RV}

Factors Influencing Pulmonary Volumes

 Gender
 Age
 Height
 Weight
 Physical condition