Water Contamination Test Apparatus

Team A:
Daniel Bradford
Hriday Doshi
Nikhil Gupta
Eliot Youssef

EK210: Introduction to Engineering Design

Spring 2019
Professor Giles
Section A8
Executive Summary:
This report details the design process and results of a water contamination test apparatus
targeted for use in refugee camps, specifically in the Middle East. The product was taken from
the initial conceptual design through a fully functional prototype, all of which is detailed in this
report. Using three sensors, the apparatus can measure the pH, electrical conductivity, and
turbidity of a sample of drinking water with accuracy of 95% or better. These values are then
compared to the accepted ranges published by the United Nations and the Environmental
Protection Agency to indicate if the water is drinkable. This test apparatus displays the sensor
values and cleanliness of the water in English on an LCD display as well as uses red and green
LEDs to indicate the potability of the water without needing to read English. The device is
battery powered and charged via a 5W solar panel, which allows for over 26 hours of continuous
use with one charge. This apparatus will allow refugees to easily test water samples for
contamination, which will reduce illness and improve sanitation conditions in refugee camps.

Table of Contents

Introduction and Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Design Alternatives Considered . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Basis for Design Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Evaluation of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Supporting Materials

Appendix I: Design Sketches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Appendix II: Modeling Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Introduction and Problem Statement:
With almost 70 million people being forcibly displaced from their homes in 2018,
refugee camps have become highly populated and the sanitation standards have failed to keep up.
Along with food and shelter, clean drinking water is a vital resource that is often hard to come by
in these camps, especially in hot, dry areas like the Middle East. To solve this problem, a test
apparatus is needed to be placed in refugee camps that will allow people to screen their water for
contaminants and tell them if it is drinkable. This report outlines the design process and results of
this Water Contamination Test Apparatus.
This apparatus will be portable and battery-powered to allow it to be relocated or
recharged when needed. It will be able to process a small water sample to test it for chemical and
sediment contaminants that pose a risk to the consumer and the device will be accurate enough to
prevent the user from drinking water with any unsafe level of contamination.
While fulfilling the problem stated above, the product is subjected to the set of
constraints shown below in Table 1.

Table 1: List of Design Constraints for the Water Contamination Test Apparatus
Design Constraints
Must have a cost of less than $400
Must be completed in 8 weeks or less
Must have no risk for user injury

The project objectives and the corresponding metrics off which they will be evaluated are
listed below in Table 2.

Table 2: Objectives and Respective Metrics for Water Contamination Test Apparatus
Objective Metric
Accurately Detect High-Risk Detect contaminants with an accuracy of 90% or better
Contaminants (6.5<pH<8.5, 200uS<EC<800uS, Turbidity<5NTU)
Portable Under 50 pounds in weight and smaller than 8 cubic feet
Reusability Measured by number of uses per charge (Minimum: 50).
Provide Results Quickly Measured by time taken to process a 16oz. sample of water.
Goal: Process 16oz. in under 2 minutes
Display Results of Test Signal user if the water is drinkable or not and display values
Have a Simple User Measured by the complication of the user interface.
Experience Goal: Limit to just one or two buttons
Resist Environmental Must withstand temperatures of above 130°F and humidity above 60%
Conditions

Design Alternatives Considered:

After establishing the project objectives, the design space for the project had to be
established. Given only that the apparatus should test for potential contamination in drinking
water, the exact tests to be performed were left to us to be decided. To give the widest range of

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coverage while staying under the budget specified for the project, we decided to test the pH,
electrical conductivity, and turbidity of the water sample to gauge if it was drinkable. While
there are other sources of contamination, like bacteria and viruses, they are not as simple to test
for and require equipment out of the price range for this project. Although this design is not an
all-encompassing test for water contamination, the three tests chosen cover the likely sources of
contamination that will be seen in the context of the device’s use.
Along with the primary functions of measuring pH, electrical conductivity, and turbidity,
the design also must accomplish secondary functions such as displaying the results to the user
and storing the water during the test. A complete list of desired functions and the possible means
to achieve them are shown below in Table 3.

Table 3: Function and Means Chart for Water Contamination Test Apparatus
Nephelometer LEDs and Light
Measure Turbidity Turbidity Tube Secchi Disk
(Turbidity Probe) Sensor
Precipitation
Measure pH pH Paper pH Probe -
Reaction
Measure
Conductivity Probe Potentiometric Test Toroidal Sensor -
Conductivity
Stir Water Mechanical Rod Pump Vibration -
Display Results LED Lights LCD Display Sounds -
Store Water Box Bag Tube Sloped Chamber
Dispense Water Spigot Tube Solenoid Valve -
Start Test Button Switch Lever -
Removable
Clean Chamber Flush Cycle Steady Flow Design -
Chamber
Power Device Wall Outlet Battery - -
Charge Device Wall-Outlet Solar Panels Hand Crank -

This function and means table defines the preliminary design space used to produce the
conceptual design for the water contamination test apparatus.

Basis for Design Selection:

After considering all possible means to achieve the desired primary and secondary
functions, the conceptual design was chosen by selecting the best or most feasible option for
each function. These selections are highlighted in Table 4 and sketches of the conceptual design
can be seen in Appendix I.

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Table 4: Function and Means Chart with Conceptual Design Elements Highlighted
Nephelometer LEDs and Light
Measure Turbidity Turbidity Tube Secchi Disk
(Turbidity Probe) Sensor
Precipitation
Measure pH pH Paper pH Probe -
Reaction
Measure
Conductivity Probe Potentiometric Test Toroidal Sensor -
Conductivity
Display Results LED Lights LCD Display Sounds -
Store Water Box Bag Tube Sloped Chamber
Dispense Water Spigot Tube Solenoid Valve -
Start Test Button Switch Lever -
Removable
Clean Chamber Flush Cycle Steady Flow Design -
Chamber
Power Device Wall Outlet Battery - -
Charge Device Wall-Outlet Solar Panels Hand Crank -

To measure the turbidity of the water sample, the nephelometer was chosen because of its
high accuracy and easy integration with the arduino, which is the backbone of the design. The
turbidity tube and Secchi disk lack accuracy and are not feasible for this application. The LEDs
and light sensor would be slightly more accurate but require more intense calibration and do not
integrate as easily with the arduino.
To measure pH, a pH probe was selected because of its speed, accuracy, and reusability.
While pH paper or a precipitation reaction would work, the readings are not very accurate, and
the materials cannot be reused.
To measure electrical conductivity, an analog electrical conductivity probe was chosen
because of its accuracy and ability to interface with the arduino. The potentiometric test and
toroidal sensor would also provide accurate results, but do not integrate easily with arduino,
making them less desirable in this application.
When choosing the means for the secondary functions, practicality was prioritized over
all else. To display the results of the test, a combination of LED lights and an LCD display allow
the results to be communicated clearly even to those who can’t speak English. To store the water,
a chamber with a sloped bottom was chosen over a simple box to allow the tank to empty easier
and prevent the buildup of sediments in the back corners, keeping the tank cleaner between tests.
To dispense the water following a test, a spigot was selected because of its simplicity and ease of
use compared to a tube or solenoid valve. For initiating the test, an on-off switch provided the
simplest user experience only requiring the device to be turned on to run a test. Finally, a
combination of a battery and solar panel were used to power the device to allow the design to be
portable and able to charge even when an electrical outlet is not available. Note the function of
stirring the water sample during the test was removed as it was deemed unnecessary for a small
sample size. The specific parts chosen are listed in the bill of materials shown in Table 5.

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Table 5: Bill of Materials for Water Contamination Test Apparatus
Item Part Price Per Total
Number Part Description Company Supplier Number Quantity Unit Cost
Frame
1 80/20 1.00” X 1.00” T-Slotted Profile McMaster-Carr McMaster-Carr No. 1010 158 $0.23 $36.34
10 Series 10-32 Standard Anchor Fastener
2 Assembly McMaster-Carr McMaster-Carr No. 3395 18 $2.90 $51.20
Chemical-Resistant PVC Sheet: 1/8"
3 Thick, 12"x36" McMaster-Carr McMaster-Carr 8747K135 1 $15.46 $15.46
Tank

4 24" x 24" 1/8" Thick Cast Acrylic Sheet McMaster-Carr McMaster-Carr 8560K290 1 $24.61 $24.61
Brushed Stainless Steel Beverage
5 Dispenser Spigot SUCASA Amazon 9901-C 1 $8.90 $8.90
Sensors
6 Analog Turbidity Sensor for Arduino DFRobot Amazon SEN0189 1 $14.90 $14.90
7 Gravity Analog pH Meter Kit DFRobot Robotshop RB-Dfr-483 1 $29.50 $29.50
Gravity Analog Electrical Conductivity
8 Meter DFRobot Robotshop RB-Dfr-663 1 $79.00 $79.00
Power
9 Waterproof Solar Charge Controller SolarSynthesis Amazon 1 $13.99 $13.99
10 Rechargeable Lead Acid Battery ExpertPower Amazon EXP1270 1 $19.99 $19.99
11 Solar Panel Module NewPowa Amazon 1 $13.97 $13.97
Electronics
12 Arduino Uno R3 Arduino Amazon 1 $20.69 $20.69
LCD2004 Module with 3.3V Backlight for
13 Arduino Uno SunFounder Amazon 1 $7.99 $7.99
14 On/Off Switch COOLOOdirect Amazon kagu001-22 1 $0.80 $0.80
15 Miscellaneous Parts/Shop Cost BU EPIC 1 $5.00 $5.00
Total
Cost: $342.34

Evaluation of Results:
As can be seen in part in Table 5, the project satisfied all design constraints. The total
cost of $342.34 is less than the allotted $400 to complete the project. In addition, the prototype
was completed on time and in working order and poses no risk of user injury, therefore meeting
all the constraints.
In addition to meeting the design constraints, all the project objectives were met or
exceeded in the final prototype. The actual performance is listed in comparison with the original
objectives and metrics below in Table 6.

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Table 6: Actual Prototype Performance Compared to Established Metrics
Objective Metric Prototype Specifications
Accurately Detect Detect contaminants with an accuracy of 90% All probes calibrated using standard solutions
High-Risk or better of known value to accuracy of 95% or better
Contaminants (6.5<pH<8.5, 200uS<EC<800uS, within applicable range
Turbidity<5NTU)
Portable Under 50 pounds in weight and smaller than 8 Weight: ~25 pounds
cubic feet Volume: 0.778 cubic feet
Reusability Measured by number of uses per charge Approximately 26 hours of continuous use or
(Minimum: 50). 800 uses per charge
Provide Results Measured by time taken to process a 16oz. 16oz. sample can be fully processed in under 1
Quickly sample of water. minute and 30 seconds
Goal: Process 16oz. in under 2 minutes
Display Results of Signal user if the water is drinkable or not and Red/Green LED indicates status and LCD
Test display values displays sensor values
Have a Simple Measured by the complication of the user Only one switch needed to run test
User Experience interface.
Goal: Limit to just one or two buttons
Resist Must withstand temperatures of above 130°F All materials used can withstand the specified
Environmental and humidity above 60% conditions
Conditions

For the main objective, accurately detecting high-risk contaminants, the established
metric was exceeded as all sensors were calibrated using multiple standardized solutions of
known value such that the error at any point is 5% or less. This gives the apparatus an overall
accuracy of 95% or better, which exceeds the original goal set at 90% accuracy.
In addition to being accurate, the device is portable as well. With a total weight of
approximately 22 pounds and a total volume of 0.778 cubic feet, the apparatus is well under the
established metrics of 50 pounds and 8 cubic feet respectively.
In terms of reusability, the prototype vastly exceeded the desired performance. With the
7Ah battery, the apparatus can be run for 26 continuous hours or about 800 uses with a single
charge; however, with the addition of the 5W solar panel, the device can operate periodically
almost indefinitely without needing additional charging assuming the solar panel is given proper
light exposure.
The objective of providing results to the user quickly was achieved as well. At the start of
the project, the goal was set to process a 16-ounce sample of water in under 2 minutes. Under
optimal conditions, the prototype can fully process a sample in under a minute and a half;
however, the limiting factor of this aspect is not the time taken to run the test, as this completes
in under ten seconds, but rather the time it takes for the sample to be loaded and unloaded from
the holding tank.
The metric of displaying the test results to the user was met on two levels. Primarily, two
LEDs, one red and one green, indicate the status of the sample without the need to understand

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any sensor values or words in English. Additionally, the LCD displays the sensor values and if
they are in the appropriate range as well as the status of the sample as either “Clean” or “Dirty”.
Perhaps one of the more subjective goals of the project, we believe the user interface of
the apparatus is simple enough to satisfy the established metric. Running the test requires only
one switch and the rest of the interface serves to display the results and requires no user input,
making the experience as simple as possible.
Finally, although we were unable to test it directly, the apparatus should meet the
objective of resisting the expected environmental conditions. All the materials used, including
the sensors and other electronic components, are specified by the manufacturer to be able to
operate in the established conditions of up to 130°F and 60% humidity.
To demonstrate the full function of the prototype, three separate tests were conducted to
evaluate the device’s ability to quantify changes in each the pH, electrical conductivity, and
turbidity of the sample. The results of the first test for pH, which can be seen in Figure 1 below,
were achieved by adding orange juice to a one-liter sample of water in 100mL increments and
recording the pH reading after each addition. The plot shows a relationship with a negative
decreasing slope, which is to be expected because the acidic juice should lower the pH, but the
additions will have less effect as the total volume increases.

Figure 1: Plot of pH vs Amount of Orange Juice Added

The second test was run to qualify the ability to measure conductivity. To accomplish
this, a one-liter sample of water was placed in the tank and salt was added in 1gram increments
with the electrical conductivity value being measured after each addition. The results, shown
below in Figure 2, indicate a linear relationship between the amount of salt added and the
electrical conductivity of the sample, which is to be expected and indicates proper performance
of the apparatus.

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 Figure 2: Plot of Conductivity vs Amount of Salt Added
The final test was run to qualify the ability to accurately measure changes in turbidity.
Just as in the prior tests, a one-liter sample of water was loaded in the tank and 5mL increments
of milk were added with the turbidity reading being recorded after each addition. The results
below in Figure 3 show peculiar results. The reading increases as expected until the turbidity
peaks at around 5 NTU, after which the increase in the amount of milk caused the reading to
plunge into the negatives, which is not possible. This indicates a flaw with the conversion factor
that we were unable to figure out; however, given that the acceptable range of turbidity for
drinking water is less than 5 NTU, the probes function will still produce a valid classification of
the sample as any value theoretically larger than 5 NTU will produce a negative value, which
will be rejected by the system and mark the sample as “dirty”.

Figure 3: Plot of Turbidity vs Amount of Milk Added

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 While the prototype satisfies all the established objectives for the project, it is not without
limitations. The largest limitation of the design is that the tank cannot be completely emptied via
the spigot on the tank. The design of the tank necessitated a small gap between the inlet of the
spigot and the bottom of the tank, which causes the liquid that resides in this space to be stuck in
the chamber. This condition means that, when testing multiple samples in a row, the residual
liquid left in the tank could contaminate new samples and nullify the readings of the sensors. To
combat this issue, we suggest that a pump should be implemented to fully evacuate the tank after
each test. Another possible solution would be to make the tank removable such that it could be
cleaned after a negative result to prevent contamination of following samples.

Overall, this project was a success. As a result of this prototype, this device could be
further refined and manufactured on a larger scale such that it could be implemented in refugee
camps across the world. Using the apparatus, users can have additional security in knowing that
their drinking water does not contain any high-risk contaminants for which this device tests.
Although it does not provide a complete screening of the water, this fast, efficient test apparatus
will allow for an inexpensive method to prevent refugees from drinking highly contaminated
water. This will improve living and sanitation conditions in these camps by reducing illness
caused by consuming dirty water.

Appendix I: Design Sketches:

Figure 4: Sketch of Design Top View (Left) and Front View (Right)

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 Figure 5: Sketch of Water Storage Tank Side View

Appendix II: Modeling Results:

Two physical models and three mathematical models were created to prove the feasibility
of the project before the prototype was created. The physical models, accurately reading the pH
and displaying the results to the LCD, can be seen in the final prototype. The first mathematical
model was for the power consumption of the device to determine the number of possible uses per
charge. These results are shown below:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 = 0.250 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑠
𝐵𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 7 𝐴𝑚𝑝 − 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 7 𝐴ℎ / 0.250 𝐴 = 28 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒
This estimate of 28 hours of continuous use was rounded down to 26 hours to account for
the idle degradation of the battery charge. The second mathematical model was the conversion
factor for the pH probe, shown below in Equation (1), which was found by performing a linear
regression on the analog input vs pH data given by the manufacturer.
𝑝𝐻 = 0.016903 ∗ (𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡) + 𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑠𝑒𝑡 (1)
The final mathematical used was the conversion for the turbidity probe. This relationship
was given by the manufacturer; however, it required adjustment to fit our specific set up and
return the correct values. The equation, Equation (2) below, is the result of a quadratic fit across
three different voltage vs turbidity data sets.
𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 = −1.1204(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒)2 + 5.7423(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒) − 4.3529 (2)

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References:
(1) "Analog Electrical Conductivity Sensor DFR0300." DFRobot. Accessed March 15, 2019.

https://wiki.dfrobot.com/Gravity__Analog_Electrical_Conductivity_Sensor___M
eter_V2__K=1__SKU_DFR0300.

(2) "I²C LCD1602." Sunfounder Wiki. Accessed March 25, 2019.

http://wiki.sunfounder.cc/index.php?title=I²C_LCD1602.

(3) "PH Meter SEN0161." DFRobot. Accessed March 8, 2019.

https://wiki.dfrobot.com/PH_meter_SKU__SEN0161_.

(4) "Turbidity Sensor SEN0189." DFRobot. Accessed March 15, 2019.

https://wiki.dfrobot.com/Turbidity_sensor_SKU__SEN0189.

(5) "What Are Water Quality Standards?" EPA. July 23, 2018. Accessed March 2, 2019.

https://www.epa.gov/standards-water-body-health/what-are-water-quality-
standards.

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