Calculus1 PDF

Calculus I with Review
Differential Calculus
Lecture Notes
Veselin Jungic & Jamie Mulholland

Department of Mathematics
Simon Fraser University
c
Jungic/Mulholland, August 8, 2018
License is granted to print this
document for personal/educational use.
Contents
Contents i
Preface iii
Greek Alphabet v
1 Review: Functions and Models 1

1.1 Four Ways to Define a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 New Functions From Old Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 Exponential Functions & Inverse Functions and Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Review: Preparation for Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2 Limits and Derivatives 37

2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.2 The Limit of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.4 The Precise Definition of Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.5 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6 Limits at Infinity: Horizontal Asymptotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Review: Problem Solving and Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.7 Derivatives and Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8 The Derivative as a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3 Differentiation Rules 87
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.4 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.5 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
i
ii CONTENTS
3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Review: Preparation for Related Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.9 Related rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.10 Linear Approximation and Differentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.11 Hyperbolic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4 Applications of the Derivative 149

4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
4.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.6 Optimization Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.7 Newton’s Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.8 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
5 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 189

5.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.2 Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.3 Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
5.4 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6 Review Material 219

6.1 Midterm 1 Review Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6.2 Midterm 2 Review Package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
6.3 End of Term Review Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
6.4 Final Exam Checklist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
6.5 Final Exam Practice Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Bibliography 257
Index 258
Preface
This booklet contains our notes for courses Math 150/151 - Calculus I at Simon Fraser University. Stu-
dents are expected to use this booklet during each lecture by follow along with the instructor, filling in the
details in the blanks provided, during the lecture.
Definitions of terms are stated in orange boxes and theorems appear in blue boxes .
Next to some examples you’ll see [link to applet]. The link will take you to an online interactive applet to
accompany the example - just like the ones used by your instructor in the lecture. Clicking the link above
will take you to the following website containing all the applets:
http://www.sfu.ca/ jtmulhol/calculus-applets/html/appletsforcalculus.html
Try it now.
No project such as this can be free from errors and incompleteness. We will be grateful to everyone
who points out any typos, incorrect statements, or sends any other suggestion on how to improve this
manuscript.
Veselin Jungic
vjungic@sfu.ca
Jamie Mulholland
j mulholland@sfu.ca
August 8, 2018
iii
iv
Greek Alphabet
lower capital name pronunciation lower capital name pronunciation

case case
α A alpha (al-fah) ν N nu (new)

β B beta (bay-tah) ξ Ξ xi (zie)
γ Γ gamma (gam-ah) o O omicron (om-e-cron)
δ ∆ delta (del-ta) π Π pi (pie)
ε E epsilon (ep-si-lon) ρ P rho (roe)
ζ Z zeta (zay-tah) σ Σ sigma (sig-mah)
η H eta (ay-tah) τ T tau (taw)
θ Θ theta (thay-tah) υ Υ upsilon (up-si-lon)
ι I iota (eye-o-tah) φ Φ phi (fie)
κ K kappa (cap-pah) χ X chi (kie)
λ Λ lambda (lamb-dah) ψ Ψ psi (si)
µ M mu (mew) ω Ω omega (oh-may-gah)
v
Part 1
Review: Functions and Models
1
PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE 1.0 B ASIC S ETS OF N UMBERS 2
Basic sets of numbers

• natural numbers: the set of counting numbers
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
(Some authors include 0 in this set.)

• integers: the set of natural numbers with their negatives
Z = {. . . , −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}
• rational numbers: the set of ratios of integers

n a o
Q= : a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0
b
• real numbers R:
These are more difficult to define, but we already have an intuitive idea of what they are.
They include all the rational numbers Q and all the numbers which fill in all the gaps between the
rational numbers.
PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE 1.1 F OUR WAYS TO D EFINE A F UNCTION 3
1.1 Four Ways to Define a Function
1. Definition. A function (or map) is a rule or correspondence that associates each element of a set
X, called the domain, with a unique element of a set Y , called the codomain.
2. The range of f is the set of all elements in Y which correspond to an element of X:
range f = {f (x) : x ∈ X}.
3. Example. The following function maps each person to their age.
domain = codomain =
range =
4. Reminder. In calculus we will only consider functions whose domain and codomain consist of real numbers.
Functions can then be described in various ways:
(a) verbally (word description)
ex. The area of a circle is π times the radius squared.
(b) algebraically (by a formula)
ex. A(r) = πr2
(c) numerically (by a table of values)

ex.
time (s) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
velocity (m/s) 0 0.2 0.5 0.8 1.0 0.6 0.2 0 -0.1
or by a set of ordered pairs
{(0, 0), (0.2, 0.2), (0.4, 0.5), (0.6, 0.8), (0.8, 1.0), (1.0, 0.6), (1.2, 0.2), (1.4, 0), (1.6, −0.1)}
(d) visually (by a graph)
5. Example. Let f (x) = x2 .

√
(a) Find the following values: f (2), f (−1), f (0), f (2/3), f ( 2), f (π), f (a + h).
(b) Sketch the graph of f .
6. A 10-ft wall stands 5 ft from a building and a ladder of variable

length L, supported by the wall, is placed so it reaches from the
ground to the building. Let y denote the vertical distance from
the ground to where the tip of the ladder touches the building,
and let x denote the horizontal distance from the wall to the
base of the ladder.
(a) Find an expression for the height y as a function of x.
(b) Find an expression for the length L as a function of x.
(c) Determine the domain and range of the function L(x)
found in part (b).
7. Reminder. If a function is given by a formula and the domain is not stated explicitly, the convention
is that the domain is the set of all numbers for which the formula makes sense and defines a real
number.
(a) Find the domain of the function

1
g(x) = .
x2 − x
(b) Find the domain of the function p

h(t) = 16 − t2 .
What is the range?
8. Reminder. The graph of a function f is defined to be the set of all points (x, y) in the Cartesian
plane satisfying the equation
y = f (x).
Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = x + 1
(b) g(t) = t2 + 1
(
2x + 3 if x ≤ 0
(c) h(x) =
x2 + 3 if x > 0
(d) f (x) = |x|
9. Reminder. Vertical line test for testing whether a curve is the graph of a function.
If every vertical line intersects the curve at most once then the curve is a graph of a function.
Which curve is the graph of a function?

10. Additional Notes

PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE 1.2 C ATALOG OF E SSENTIAL F UNCTIONS 9
1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

1. Lines (linear function):
A line is determined by two bits of information: and .
Or, equivalently, by .
2. Find the equation of the line in each of the following cases.
(a) slope = 2, containing P = (1, 3).
(b) containing the points (1, 3) and (−2, 7).

3. Some Common Functions:
(a) Power Functions: A power function is a function of the form
f (x) = xa
where a is a fixed real number.

(b) Polynomials: A polynomial is a function of the form
f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0
where n is an integer and the ai are fixed real numbers, which are called the coefficients of f .
(c) Rational Functions: A rational function is the ratio of two polynomials:
p(x)
f (x) =
q(x)
where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.

4. Trigonometric Functions: Let us recall the trigonometric functions sine, cosine, and tangent.
Why are there 360◦ in a full rotation? (◦ is read ”degrees”)
Radian measure of an angle:
5. Sketch the following angles (radians) in standard position and give the measure of the angle in
degrees:
π π 5π 13π
a) b) c) − d)
2 4 6 3
6. Determine the coordinates of the point where the terminal side of the angle intersects the unit circle.
π π
a) b)
4 3
7. Definition: The sin and cos of an angle:

8. We can fill out the following table
θ sin θ cos θ tan θ
0 0 1 0
√
π 1 3 1
(30◦ ) √
6 2 2 3
π 1 1
(45◦ ) √ √ 1
4 2 2
√
π 3 1 √
(60◦ ) 3
3 2 2
π
(90◦ ) 1 0 −
2
9. Sketching the graphs of sin and cos.


PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE 1.3 N EW F UNCTIONS F ROM O LD F UNCTIONS 18
1.3 New Functions From Old Functions

1. Sketch the graphs of y = x2 + 2, y = (x − 1)2 , and y = (x − 1)2 + 2.
2. Sketch the graph of y = 3x2 − 6x + 1.

3. Vertical & Horizontal Shifts:

Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph of
y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units upward
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units downward
y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the right
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to the left
4. Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x.
5. Vertical and Horizontal Streching and Reflecting

Suppose c > 1. To obtain the graph of
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = 1c f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor of c
y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis
y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y-axis
6. Given the graph of f sketch the graph of 21 (f (x − 4) − 8).

7. Algebra of Functions
We can combine functions in different ways to create new functions.
Let f and g be two functions. The sum f + g, the difference f − g, the product f g, and the quotient
f
are defined as follows:
g
(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f − g)(x) = f (x) − g(x) domain = A ∩ B
(f g)(x) = f (x) · g(x) domain = A ∩ B

f f (x)
(x) = domain = {x ∈ A ∩ B | g(x) 6= 0}
g g(x)
8. Example. If f (−1) = 1, f (2) = 3, g(−1) = −5 and g(2) = 17 find (f + g)(−1), (f g)(−1) and (f /g)(2).
9. Composition of Functions
Another way we can define new functions from old ones is by composition. If f and g are two functions
we write
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
for the function obtained by applying f to the output of g. The function f ◦ g is called the compostion
of f with g.
The domain of the composite function f ◦ g is the set of all x such that
(a) x is in the domain of g,
(b) g(x) is in the domain of f .
10. Example. If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1 find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .
√
11. Example. If f (x) = 2x , g(t) = 3 t and h(θ) = sin θ find h ◦ f ◦ g. What is the domain of h ◦ f ◦ g?
12. Example. Given F (x) = (1 + 2 sin x)3 find functions f , g and h such that F = f ◦ g ◦ h.

PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE 1.4 EXP, LOG, AND INVERSES 23
1.4 Exponential Functions & Inverse Functions and Logarithms

(This lecture corresponds to Sections 1.4 and 1.5 of Stewart’s Calculus.)
1. Reminder. For all a ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) and all x, y ∈ R:

(a) ax+y = ax · ay
ax
(b) ax−y = y
a
y
(c) (ax ) = axy
(d) (ab)x = ax · bx
2. Reminder. Sketch the graphs of the functions f (x) = 2x and g(x) = 3x .
x
1
3. Reminder. Sketch the graph of the function F (x) = .
2
4. Reminder. Evaluate f (2), f (−2), f ( 12 ) and f ( 23 ) if f (x) = 4x .
√
5. BIG Question. What is 4 2
?
6. Reminder. Napier’s constant:
e ≈ 2.718281828459045235360287471352
(John Napier, 1550-1617)

7. Definition. A function f is called a one-to-one function if it never takes on the same value twice;
that is
if x1 6= x2 then f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ) .
8. Example. Which of the following functions are one-to-one?

(a) f (x) = x2
(b) g(x) = x3
(c) h(x) = ex
(d) i(x) = sin x
(e) j(x) = sin x, x ∈ − π2 , π2

9. Horizontal Line Test. A function is one-to-one if and only if no horizontal line intersects its graph
more than once.
10. Definition. Let f be one-to-one function with domain A and range B. Then its inverse function
has domain B and range A and is defined by
f −1 (y) = x ⇔ f (x) = y
for any y ∈ B.
x
11. Example. Find a formula for the inverse of f (x) = .
3x + 1
12. Logarithmic Function. The inverse function of the exponential function f (x) = ax is called the
logarithmic function with base a.
13. All You Need To Know. For any a > 0, a 6= 1, any x > 0, and any y ∈ R
loga x = y ⇔ ay = x
14. Example. Determine log2 (16), log2 ( 81 ) and log2 (1).
15. Example. Can you find log2 (−32)?
16. Reminder. For all a ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) and any positive x and y:
(a) loga (xy) = loga x + loga y

(b) loga xy = loga x − loga y
(c) loga (xr ) = r loga x (r is a real number)
17. Notation.
log10 x = log x
loge x = ln x
18. Reminder. Sketch the graph of the function y = ln x
3
−3
19. Example. Solve the equation ex − 9 = 0 for x.
20. Inverse Trig Functions. Here we will limit our discussion to sin.
21. Definition. The inverse function of the sine function f (x) = sin x, − π2 ≤ x ≤ π
2, is called arcsine
and is denoted by either sin−1 or arcsin.
22. All You Need To Know. For any −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, and any − π2 ≤ y ≤ π

2
sin−1 x = y ⇔ sin y = x
23. Determine the following.

√
(a) sin−1 ( 3
2 )
(b) sin(sin−1 ( 13 ))
(c) sin−1 (sin( 3π

4 ))

PART 1: F UNCTIONS AND M ODELS L ECTURE R P REPARATION FOR L IMITS 32
Review: Preparation for Limits

(This lecture corresponds to Chapter 1 of the Companion Guide available on Canvas website.)
1. Algebraic Simplification of Functions: Give the domain and a simplified expression for
x2 − 4
f (x) = .
x−2
Sketch the graph of f .
2. Consider the function g(x) = x + 2. Does f (x) = g(x)?

3. Factor Theorem. Let P (x) be a polynomial and r a real number. If P (r) = 0, then x − r is a factor of
P (x), i.e. P (x) = (x − r)Q(x) for some polynomial Q(x). Also, if x − r is a factor of P (x), then P (r) = 0.
4. Example. Factor x3 − 3x2 − 13x + 15.
5. Example. Consider the rational function
x3 + 5x2 + 5x + 4
f (x) = .
x2 + x − 12
Give the domain of f . Find any common factors of the numerator and denominator, and write f (x) in
a simplified form.
6. Quotients with Radicals: Give the domain and a simplified expression for
√
9+h−3
m(h) = .
h
7. Quotients with Absolute Values: Give the domain and a simplified expression for
|3 − 6x|
h(x) = .
2x − 1
Sketch the graph of h.
8. Additional Notes
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE R P REPARATION FOR L IMITS 36
Part 2
Limits and Derivatives
37
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.1 T ANGENT AND V ELOCITY P ROBLEMS 38
2.1 The Tangent and Velocity Problems

(This lecture corresponds to Section 2.1 of Stewart’s Calculus.)
1. Quote. If I were again beginning my studies, I would follow the advice of Plato and start with math-
ematics.
Galileo Galilei, Italian philosopher and astronomer, 1564-1642.
2. The Tangent Problem. Find an equation of the tangent line ` to a curve with equation y = f (x) at
a given point P .
3. Three Questions.
(a) What is the tangent line ` to a curve with equation y = f (x) at a given point P ?
(b) If a curve with equation y = f (x) and a point P on the curve are given, does the tangent `
exist?
(c) If a curve with equation y = f (x) and a point P = (x0 , f (x0 )) are given and if the tangent line `
exists then an equation of ` is given by
y − f (x0 ) = m(x − x0 ) .
How do we calculate the slope m?
4. Hint. Find the slopes of the secant lines to the parabola y = x2 through the points (1, 1) and:
(a) (2, 4)
(b) (1.5, 1.52 )
(c) (1.1, 1.12 )
(d) (1.001, 1.0012 )
5. BIG Question. What if the second point is VERY, VERY close to the point (1, 1)?
6. Velocity Problem. By definition
distance traveled
avarage velocity =
time elapsed
What if the period of time elapsed is very small?
7. Example. The position of the car is given by the values in the table.
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
s 0 10 32 70 119 178
where t is in seconds and s is in feet.

Find the average velocity for the time beginning when t = 2 and lasting
(a) 3 seconds
(b) 2 seconds
(c) 1 second
8. Question. What is the meaning of the number that we see on the car speedometer as we travel in
city traffic?
9. Answer. The number represents the instantaneous velocity.


PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.2 T HE L IMIT OF A F UNCTION 42
2.2 The Limit of a Function

1. Quote. “Black holes are where God divided by zero.”

Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-
x2 − x − 2
2. Problem. Let f (x) = .
x−2
(a) Determine the domain of f .
(b) Complete the table

x f (x) x f (x)
1 3
1.9 2.1
1.99 2.01
1.999 2.001
1.9999 2.0001
3. Definition. We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
and say
”the limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a (on either side of a) but not equal to a.
4. Example. Guess the value of

sin x
lim .
x→0 x
5. Problem. What can we say about

|x|
lim ?
x→0 x
6. Definition. We write
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
and say
”the right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a, equals L”
if we can make the values of f (x) arbitrarily close to L (as close to L as we like) by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a and x greater than a.
7. Example. Sketch the graph of the function



 x+1 if x ≤ −1
 x2 if x ∈ (−1, 0)


f (x) = 1 if x=0
2
x if x ∈ (0, 1]




x+1 if x>1

Find
(a) lim f (x)

x→−1−
(b) lim f (x)

x→−1+
(c) lim f (x)

x→0−
(d) lim+ f (x)

x→0
(e) lim f (x)

x→0
8. Fact.
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ ( lim f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L)
x→a x→a− x→a+
1
9. Problem. Sketch the graph of f (x) = .
(x + 1)2
10. Definition. Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = ∞
x→a
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily large (as large as we please) by taking x
sufficiently close to a, but not equal to a.
11. Examples. Sketch the graph of the following function.

x+3
g(x) =
x−1
12. Read Example 10 in text regarding f (x) = tan (x)
13. Definition. The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if at least one of
the following statements is true:
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.3 C ALCULATING L IMITS 47
2.3 Calculating Limits Using the Limit Laws

1. Quote. “Laws are like sausages. It’s better not to see them being made.”
Otto von Bismarck , German statesman, 1815 - 1898)
√
t+9−3
2. Example. Guess the value of lim .
t→0 t
3. Limit Laws. Suppose that c is a constant and the limits
lim f (x) and lim g(x)

x→a x→a
exist. Then
(a) lim (f (x) + g(x)) = lim f (x) + lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
(b) lim (f (x) − g(x)) = lim f (x) − lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
(c) lim (c · f (x)) = c · lim f (x)
x→a x→a
(d) lim (f (x) · g(x)) = lim f (x) · lim g(x)
x→a x→a x→a
f (x) limx→a f (x)
(e) lim = if limx→a g(x) 6= 0.
x→a g(x) limx→a g(x)
(f) lim [f (x)]p/q = [ lim f (x)]p/q
x→a x→a
4. Two Special Limit Laws.

(a) lim c = c
x→a
(b) lim x = a
x→a
5. Example. Evaluate lim (x3 + 3x2 − 4x + 5).

x→2
6. Direct Substitution Property. If f is a polynomial or a rational function and a is in the domain of

f , then
lim f (x) = f (a) .
x→a
7. Examples. Find the following limits.

x+1
(a) lim
x→−1 x3 + 1
√
t+9−3
(b) lim
t→0 t
f (x + h) − f (x)
(c) lim if f (x) = x2
h→0 h
x2
8. Example. Find lim
x→0 |x|
Reminder.
lim f (x) = L ⇐⇒ ( lim− f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L)
x→a x→a x→a+
9. Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and the limits of f and g both exist
as x approaches a, then
lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x) .
x→a x→a
10. Squeeze Theorem. If f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x) when x is near a (except possibly at a) and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L

x→a x→a
then
lim g(x) = L .
x→a
11. Example. Show that

1 1
lim x2 sin + cos =0.
x→0 x x

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.4 T HE P RECISE D EFINITION OF L IMIT 52
2.4 The Precise Definition of Limit

1. Quote.
“There’s a delta for every epsilon,

It’s a fact that you can always count upon.
There’s a delta for every epsilon
And now and again,
There’s also an N.”
(Tom Lehrer, American singer-songwriter, satirist, pianist, and mathematician, 1928 - .)

2. The , δ Game. Consider the function f (x) = 3x − 1 and the point x = 1. There are two players in
this game: Player A and Player B. The game is played as follows. Player A chooses a number, say .
The object of Player B is to find a number δ so that all values in the interval (1 − δ, 1 + δ) have image
in the interval (f (1) − , f (1) + ). The winner is determined as follows:
1) If Player A can pick a number such that Player B cannot find such a δ then Player A wins.
2) If Player B can find a δ for any given by Player A then Player B wins.
Who wins Player A or Player B?

3. Definition. Let f be a function defined on some open interval that contains the number a, except
possibly at a iself. Then we say that the limit of f (x) as x approaches a is L, and we write
lim f (x) = L
x→a
if for every number ε > 0 there is a δ > 0 such that
|f (x) − L| < ε whenever 0 < |x − a| < δ .
[link to applet]
4. Example. Prove the statement using the , δ definition.
lim (2 − 5x) = −13

x→3
5. To Be Continued ... ... in Math 242.

PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.5 C ONTINUITY 56
2.5 Continuity
1. Quote. “If I were asked to name, in one word, the pole star round which the mathematical firmament
revolves, the central idea which pervades the whole corpus of mathematical doctrine, I should point
to Continuity as contained in our notions of space, and say, it is this, it is this! ”
(JJ Sylvester, English mathematician, 1814-1897)
2. Example. What is the difference between the two graphs?
3. Definition. A function f is continuous at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a
4. Note.
(a) a belongs to the domain of f
(b) lim f (x) exists
x→a
(c) lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
5. Definition. If
(1) f is defined on an open interval containing a, except perhaps at a, and
(2) f is not continuous at a
we say that f is discontinuous at a.
6. Example. Where are each of the following functions discontinuous?

(a) 
 x2 − 4
f (x) = if x 6= 2
 x− 5
2
if x=2
(b) ( 1
if x 6= 2
g(x) = x−2
5 if x=2
(c)
1 if x ∈ [1, 2)
h(x) =
2 if x ∈ [2, 3)
7. Definition. A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+
and f is continuous from the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a) .

x→a−
8. Definiton. A function f is continuous on an interval if it is continuous at every number in that

interval. We understand continuous at the endpoint to mean continuous from the right or continuous
from the left.
9. Example. Find the number c that makes f (x) continuous for every x.
 4
x −1


3−1
if x 6= 1
f (x) = x

c if x = 1

10. Fact. The following types of functions are continuous on their domains:
(a) polynomials
(b) rational functions
(c) root functions
(d) trigonometric functions
(e) inverse trigonometric functions
(f) exponential functions
(g) logarithmic functions
11. More Facts. If f and g are continuous at a and c is a constant, then the following functions are also
continuous at a:
f
f + g, f − g, cf, f g, if g(a) 6= 0 .
g
12. Example. For which a, b ∈ R is the function

 √
1−x−1
if x ∈ (0, 1]






 ax
f (x) = 1 if x=0


4
bx + bx


if x ∈ (−1, 0)



x2 + x
continuous on (−1, 1]?
13. Theorem. If f is continuous at b and lim g(x) = b then

x→a
lim f (g(x)) = f ( lim g(x)) = f (b) .

x→a x→a
14. Example. Evaluate √

1−x−1
lim e x .
x→0
15. Theorem. If g is continuous at a and f is continuous at g(a), then the composite function f ◦ g given
by (f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) is continuous at a.
16. Intermediate Value Theorem. Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] and let N
be any number between f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then there exists a number c in (a, b) such
that f (c) = N .
√
17. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to prove that 2 exists, i.e., prove that there is c ∈ R
such that c2 = 2.
18. Example. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the equation
ex = 2 − x
has at least one real solution.


PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.6 L IMITS AT I NFINITY 64
2.6 Limits at Infinity: Horizontal Asymptotes
1. Quote. “Infinity is a floorless room without walls or ceiling. ”

(Anonymous)
2. Definition. Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
means that the values of f (x) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking x sufficiently large.
3. Problem. Sketch the graphs of the following functions
1
(a) f (x) =
x
(b) g(x) = ex
(c) h(x) = tan−1 x
1
(d) i(x) =
1 + x2
4. Definition. The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y = f (x) if either
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L .

x→∞ x→−∞
5. Fact. If r > 0 is a rational number, then

1
lim =0.
x→∞ xr
If r > 0 is a rational number such that xr is defined for all x then
1
lim =0.
x→−∞ xr
6. Example. Evaluate
(a)
3x3 − 4x2 − 1
lim
x→∞ 6x3 + x + 2
(b) √
3x2 − 5 − 1
lim
x→−∞ 2x + 5
(c) p p
lim ( x2 + ax − x2 + bx)
x→−∞
7. Problem. Find the following limits.

(a) lim x2
x→∞
x2 + 2x − 1
(b) lim
x→∞ x3 + 3
x4 + 5x3 − 1
(c) lim
x→∞ x2 + x + 1
(d) lim ex
x→∞
ex
(e) lim
x→∞ x2
8. Additional Notes
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE R P ROBLEM S OLVING, R ATES OF C HANGE 68
Review: Problem Solving and Rates of Change

1. Quote. ”If you can’t solve a problem, then there is an easier problem you can solve: find it.”
(George Polya , Hungarian Mathematician, 1887- 1985)
2. Polya’s Approach to Problem Solving:
Polya developed a four-step approach to problem solving. The steps are:
(a) Define the problem.

(b) Devise a plan for solving the problem.
(c) Carry out the plan.
(d) Test and evaluate the results.
3. A 10-ft wall stands 5 ft from a building. Suppose a ladder is placed on the ground so that it leans
against the building and touches the top of the 10-ft wall as indicated in the picture. How much does
the length of the ladder need to be adjusted by if the distance from the base of the ladder to the wall
increases from 5 ft to 7 ft?
4. Average Rate of Change.

The average rate of change of a function f over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is defined as
f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
.
x2 − x1
Notice that this can be interpreted as the slope of the secant line through the points (x1 , f (x1 )) and
(x2 , f (x2 )).
5. Example. If a cylindrical tank holds 100,000 gallons of water, which can be drained from the bottom
of the tank in an hour, then Torricelli’s Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank after
t minutes as 2
t
V = 100, 000 1 − 0 ≤ t ≤ 60 .
60
Find the average rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank between:
(a) 0 and 10 minutes,

(b) 40 and 50 minutes.
What is the average rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank over the entire 60 minute time
period?
6. Additional Notes
PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.7 D ERIVATIVES AND R ATES OF C HANGE 71
2.7 Derivatives and Rates of Change

1. Quote. ”The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking new landscapes, but in having new eyes.”
(Marcel Proust, French author, 1871- 1922)
2. Definition. The tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point P (a, f (a)) is the line through P
with slope
f (x) − f (a)
m = lim
x→a x−a
provided that this limit exists.
f (x) − f (a)
3. Note. If lim exists then
x→a x−a
f (x) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)
lim = lim
x→a x−a h→0 h
4. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x3 at the point
i. x = 1
ii. x = 2
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at each of the points above.
5. Example.
(a) Find the slope of the tangent to the curve
1
y=√
x
at the point where x = a.
(b) Find the equation of the tangent line at the point (1, 1).
6. The Most Important Definition in This Course.
Definition of Derivative. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
if this limit exists.
f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a) f (a + h) − f (a)

7. Note. If lim exists then f 0 (a) = lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a h→0 h
8. Example. Find the derivative of the function

1
y=
x−1
at the point where x = 3.
9. Example. The following limit represents the derivative of some function f at some number a. State
f and a.
2h+3 − 8
lim
h→0 h
10. Example. Let f (x) = |x|. Does f 0 (0) exist?
11. Must Know! An equation of the tangent line to y = f (x) at (a, f (a)) is given by
y − f (a) = f 0 (a)(x − a) .
1
12. Example. Find the equation of the tangent line to f (x) = at the point where x = 3.
x−1
13. Compare the derivatives at each of the points on the graph.

14. Reminder. By definition

displacement
average velocity =
time
15. More Precisely... Suppose an object moves along a straight line according to an equation of motion
s = f (t), where s is the displacement of the object from the origin at time t.
The average velocity of the object in the time interval from t = a to t = a + h is given by
f (a + h) − f (a)
average velocity = .
h
16. BIG Question. What if h is small?
17. Definition. We define the velocity (or instantaneous velocity) v(a) at time t = a as
f (a + h) − f (a)
v(a) = lim .
h→0 h
18. Example. If an arrow is shot upward on the moon with a velocity of 58 m/s, its height (in meters)
after t seconds is given by
H = 58t − 0.83t2 .
(a) Find the velocity of the arrow when t = a.

(b) When will the arrow hit the moon?
(c) With what velocity will the arrow hit the moon?
19. Rates of Change. Let f be a function defined on an interval I and let x1 , x2 ∈ I. Then the incre-
ment of x is defined as
∆x = x2 − x1
and the corresponding change in y is
∆y = f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) .
The average rate of change of y with respect to x over the interval [x1 , x2 ] is defined as
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
= .
∆x x2 − x1
20. Must Know! The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x is defined as
∆y f (x2 ) − f (x1 )
lim = lim .
∆x→0 ∆x x2 →x 1 x2 − x1
21. Example. If a cylindrical tank holds 100,000 gallons of water, which can be drained from the bottom
of the tank in an hour, then Torricelli’s Law gives the volume V of water remaining in the tank in
gallons after t minutes as
2
t
V = 100, 000 1 − 0 ≤ t ≤ 60 .
60
Find the rate at which the water is flowing out of the tank (the instantaneous rate of change of V
with respect to t) as a function of t. What are the units?
22. Example. The quantity (in pounds) of a gourmet ground coffee that is sold by a coffee company at a
price of p dollars per pound is Q = f (p).
(a) What is the meaning of the derivative f 0 (8)? What are the units?
(b) Is f 0 (8) positive or negative? Explain.


PART 2: L IMITS AND D ERIVATIVES L ECTURE 2.8 T HE D ERIVATIVE AS A F UNCTION 80
2.8 The Derivative as a Function

1. Quote. “I turn away with fear and horror from this lamentable sore of continuous functions without
derivatives.”
(Charles Hermite, French mathematician, 1822-1901.)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f at a number a, denoted by f 0 (a), is
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
3. Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x2 at
(i) x = 0,
(ii) x = 1,
(iii) x = 2,
(iv) x = 10.
4. Problem. If a function f : I → R is given, find the set J ⊂ I such that f 0 (x) exists for each x ∈ J.
If J 6= ∅ then this new function f 0 : J → R is called the derivative of f .
5. Example. Let √
2 3
f (x) = x 3 = x2 .
(i) Determine the domain of f .
(ii) Determine the formula for f 0 (x). What is the domain of f 0 ?

(iii) Sketch graphs of f and f 0 .

6. The graph of f is given. Sketch the graph of f 0 .
7. Notation. For y = f (x) it is common to write:

dy df d
f 0 (x) = y 0 = = = f (x) = Df (x) = Dx f (x)
dx dx dx
Also,
dy dy
f 0 (a) = = .
dx x=a dx x=a
8. Definition. A function is differentiable at a if f 0 (a) exists. It is differentiable on an open

interval (a, b) [or (a, ∞) or (−∞, a) or (−∞, ∞)] if it is differentiable at every number in the interval.
9. Two Questions.
(i) Is every continuous function differentiable?
(ii) Is every differentiable function continuous?
10. Three Cases. A function f is not differentiable at a number a from its domain if:
(i) The graph of f has a corner at the point (a, f (a));
(ii) f is not continuous at a;
(iii) The graph of f has a vertical tangent line when x = a.

11. Higher Derivatives. Suppose that f is a differentiable function. The second derivative of f is
the derivative of f 0 .
Notation.
(f 0 )0 = f 00
(y 0 )0 = y 00
d2 y

d dy
= 2
dx dx dx
12. Example. Find f 00 (x) if f (x) = x2 .
13. Acceleration. The instantaneous rate of change of velocity with respect to time is called the
acceleration of the object.
a(t) = v 0 (t) = s00 (t).
14. Example. The figure shows the graphs of three functions. One is the position function of a particle,
one is its velocity, and one is its acceleration. Identify each curve.

Part 3
Differentiation Rules
87
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.1 D ERIVATIVES : P OLYNOMIALS AND E XP 88
3.1 Derivatives of Polynomials and Exponential Functions

1. Quote. “Young man, in mathematics you don’t understand things, you just get used to them.” (John
von Neumann, Hungarian mathematician and polymath, 1903-1957)
2. Reminder. The derivative of a function f is the function f 0 defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
for all x for which this limit exists. Recall that we also use the notation d
dx (f (x)) = f 0 (x) for the
derivative.
3. Must Know!
(a) Derivative of a Constant.

d
(c) = 0
dx
(b) We have already seen that the following are true:

d d 2 d 3
(x) = 1, (x ) = 2x, (x ) = 3x2 .
dx dx dx
You may be able to see a pattern. In fact, we have the following rule.
The Power Rule. If n is any real number, then

d n
(x ) = nxn−1
dx
(c) Constant Multiple Rule. If c is a constant and f is a differentiable function, then

d d
(cf (x)) = c · f (x)
dx dx
(d) Sum Rule. If f and g are differentiable functions, then

d d d
(f (x) + g(x)) = f (x) + g(x)
dx dx dx
(e) The Derivative of a Polynomial. If

p(x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
where n is a nonnegative integer and an 6= 0 then
p0 (x) = nan xn−1 + (n − 1)an−1 xn−2 + . . . + a1 .
4. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve y = 2x3 − 7x2 + 3x + 4 at the point (1, 2).
5. Example. Find an equation for the straight line that passes through the point (0, 2) and it is tangent
to the curve y = x3 .
6. Fact. If f (x) = ax , a > 0, a 6= 1, is an exponential function then
ah − 1
f 0 (0) = lim
h→0 h
exists.
7. Fact It is straightforward to show that if f (x) = ax then
f 0 (x) = f 0 (0) · ax .
8. Must Know! e is is the number such that

eh − 1
lim =1.
h→0 h
e ≈ 2.71828
9. Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function. If f (x) = ex is the natural exponential function
then
f 0 (x) = f (x) .
Thus
d x
(e ) = ex .
dx
10. Example. Differentiate the function

2
f (x) = 2x3 + 3x 3 − ex+2 .
11. Example. At what point on the curve y = ex is the tangent line parallel to the line y = 2x?

PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.2 T HE P RODUCT AND Q UOTIENT R ULES 94
3.2 The Product and Quotient Rules
1. Quote. ”Five out of four people have trouble with fractions.”
(Steven Wright, American comedian, 1955-)
√
3
2. Problem. Suppose we have two functions f (x) = x2 and g(x) = ex and we want to compute the
derivative of their product
d √3
( x2 ex ).
dx
How do we do this?
3. Product Rule. If f and g are both differentiable, then
d d d
[f (x)g(x)] = f (x) [g(x)] + g(x) [f (x)] .
dx dx dx
In Lagrange’s notation this is written as (f g)0 = f · g 0 + g · f 0 .
4. Examples.
√
3
(a) Differentiate f (x) = x2 · ex .
(b) Differentiate g(x) = (x + 1)(2x2 − x + 1).
5. Quotient Rule. If f and g are differentiable, then
g(x) d [f (x)] − f (x) d [g(x)]

d f (x) dx dx
= .
dx g(x) [g(x)]2
0
f g · f 0 − f · g0
In Lagrange’s notation this is written as = .
g g2
6. Examples.
2t2 − 1
(a) Differentiate y = .
t3 + 1
(b) Differentiate f (x) = e−x .

(c) If f (3) = 4, g(3) = 2, f 0 (3) = −6, and g 0 (3) = 5, find the following numbers.
i. (f + g)0 (3)
ii. (f g)0 (3)
0
f
iii. (3)
g
0
f
iv. (3)
f −g
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.3 D ERIVATIVES OF T RIG F UNCTIONS 98
3.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

1. Quote. ”Trigonometry is the mathematics of sound and music.”

(Frank Wattenberg, American mathematician, 1952-)
2. Problem. What is the derivative of sin x?
3. Must Know!
(a)
d
(sin x) = cos x
dx
(b)
d
(cos x) = − sin x
dx
(c)
d
(tan x) = sec2 x
dx
(d)
d
(sec x) = sec x tan x
dx
(e)
d
(csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx
(f)
d
(cot x) = − csc2 x
dx
4. Problem. Prove that

d
(sin x) = cos x .
dx
5. Trigonometric Limits. Above we used the very important results

sin θ cos θ − 1
lim =1 and lim = 0.
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ
We now prove these results.
6. Examples.
1 + tan x
(a) Differentiate y = .
x − cot x
(b) Find the points on the curve

cos x
y=
2 + sin x
at which the tangent is horizontal.
7. A ladder 10 ft long rests against a vertical wall. Let θ be the angle between the top of the ladder
and the wall and let x be the distance from the bottom of the ladder to the wall. If the bottom of the
ladder slides away from the wall, how fast does x change with respect to θ when θ = π/3?
8. Examples. Evaluate
sin 2x
(a) lim
x→0 x
sin 2θ
(b) lim
θ→0 cos θ − 1
9. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.4 C HAIN R ULE 103
3.4 Chain Rule

1. Puzzle. A duck before two ducks, a duck behind two ducks, and a duck in the middle. How many
ducks are there?
2. Reminder. The composition of the functions f and g is defined by
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) .
3. Example. Let f (u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x2 . Find F = f ◦ g.
4. Chain Rule. If f and g are both differentiable and F = f ◦ g is the composite function defined by
F (x) = f (g(x)), then F is differentiable and F 0 is given by
F 0 (x) = f 0 (g(x)) · g 0 (x) .
In Leibniz notation, if y = f (u) and u = g(x) are both differentiable functions, then
dy dy du
= · .
dx du dx
5. Examples.
(a) Let f (u) = sin u and g(x) = 1 + x2 and let F = f ◦ g. Find the derivative of F .
dy
(b) Find y 0 = . if
dx
i. y = (2 − 5x)3
ii. y = (x + sin x)5 (1 + ex )2
iii. Express the derivative dy/dx in terms of x if
(4x − 1)2
y = u5 and u = .
x
6. Examples. Find f 0 .
(a) p
f (x) = 2 + 5x2
(b)
f (x) = (tan (x2 ))3
(c)
f (x) = ecos x
7. Must Know!
d x
(a ) = ax ln a .
dx
8. Examples.
(a) A pebble dropped into a lake creates an expanding circular ripple. Suppose that the radius of
the circle is increasing at the rate of 2 in/s. At what rate is its area increasing when its radius is
10 in?
(b) Suppose that f (0) = 0 and f 0 (0) = 1. Calculate the derivative of f (f (f (x))) at x = 0.
(c) Under certain circumstances a rumor spreads according to the equation

1
p(t) =
1 + ae−kt
where p(t) is the proportion of the population that knows the rumor at time t and a and k are
positive constants.
i. Find lim p(t).
t→∞
ii. Find the rate of spread of the rumor.
9. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.5 I MPLICIT D IFFERENTIATION 108
3.5 Implicit Differentiation

1. Dictionary. implicit
adjective
Definition:
1. implied: not stated, but understood in what is expressed
Asking us when we would like to start was an implicit acceptance of our terms.
2. absolute: not affected by any doubt or uncertainty
implicit trust
3. contained: present as a necessary part of something
Confidentiality is implicit in the relationship between doctor and patient.
2. Problem. The curve
x3 + y 3 = 3xy
3 3

is called the folium of Descartes. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point 2, 2 .
3. Implicitly Defined Function. An equation in two variables x and y may have one or more solutions
for y in terms of x or for x in terms of y. These solutions are functions that are said to be implicitly
defined by the equation.
4. Example
(a) x2 + y 2 = 1
(b) x3 + y 3 = 3xy
5. Implicit Differentiation.
(a) Use the chain rule to differentiate both sides of the given equation, thinking of x as the indepen-
dent variable.
dy
(b) Solve the resulting equation for dx .
6. Example. The curve

x3 + y 3 = 3xy
3 3

is called the folium of Descartes. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point 2, 2 .
7. Example. Suppose that water is being emptied from a spherical tank of radius 10 ft. If the depth of
water in the tank is 5 ft and is decreasing at the rate of 3 ft/sec, at what rate is the radius r of the top
surface of the water decreasing?
8. Differentiation of an Inverse Function. Suppose f is a one-to-one differentiable function and its

inverse function f −1 is also differentiable. Use implicit differentiation to show that
1
(f −1 )0 (x) =
f 0 (f −1 (x))
provided that the denominator is not 0.
9. Must Know!
(a)
d 1
(sin−1 (x)) = √
dx 1 − x2
(b)
d 1
(cos−1 (x)) = − √
dx 1 − x2
(c)
d 1
(tan−1 (x)) =
dx 1 + x2
(d)
d 1
(cot−1 (x)) = −
dx 1 + x2
10. Example. Determine the points on the circle
(x − 1)2 + (y − 2)2 = 4
where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
11. Example. For the curve

x2 + y 2 = 5
find y 00 by implicit differentiation.
12. Orthogonal Trajectories.

(a) Two curves are called orthogonal if at each point of intersection their tangent lines are perpen-
dicular.
(b) Two families of curves are orthogonal trajectories of each other if every curve in one family
is orthogonal to every curve in the other family.
(c) Show that the given families of curves are orthogonal trajectories of each other:
x2 + y 2 = ax and x2 + y 2 = by .

PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.6 D ERIVATIVE : L OGARITHMS 114
3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

1. Quote. “One real estate development company advertised that an investment with it would grow
logarithmically.”
(From Ed Barbeaus column, Fallacies, Flaws, and Flimflam, in College Math. Journal 36 (2005),
394-396.)
2. Must Know!
d 1
(loga x) =
dx x ln a
3. When a = e this becomes

d 1
(ln x) = .
dx x
4. Examples. Differentiate
(a) y = log2 (3x2 + ex )
√
(b) y = ln(x + x2 − 1)
√
(c) y = ln x
√
(d) y = ln x
x2

(e) y = ln
(x + 3)4
5. More Examples. Differentiate
(a) √ √
4
x3 5 x3 + 1
y=
(2x + 1)3
(b) 2
y = xx
(c)
y = ln |x|
6. Must Know!
1
lim (1 + x) x = e
x→0
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.7 R ATES OF C HANGE IN S CIENCE 118
3.7 Rates of Change in the Natural and Social Sciences

1. Quote. ”If you want to see practical applied mathematics, read chemical engineering; if you want to
see theoretical applied mathematics, read electrical engineering.
And if you want to read pure math, read economics.”
(Unknown blogger.)
2. Example (Physics). The equation of motion for a particle is given by
s = 2t3 − 3t2 − 12t, t ≥ 0
where s is in meters and t is in seconds.
(a) Find the velocity and acceleration as functions of t.

(b) The graph of s = s(t) is shown. Sketch the graphs of the velocity and acceleration functions for
0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
(c) When is the particle speeding up? Slowing down?
(d) What does the expression s000 (t) = a0 (t) represent?
[link to applet]
3. Exercise.
Let v(t) be a function which gives the velocity of a particle at time t. Consider the speed function
w(t) = |v(t)|.
(a) The particle is speeding up when w0 (t) > 0. Show that this is equivalent to the condition that
v(t) and a(t) have the same sign.
(b) Similarly, the particle is slowing down when w0 (t) < 0. Show that this is equivalent to the
condition that v(t) and a(t) have opposite signs.
[Hint: Remove the absolute value signs by writing w(t) as a piecewise defined function. Then differ-
entiate the piecewise function, paying careful attention to the conditions which define each piece.]
4. Example (Chemistry). If one molecule C is formed from one molecule of the reactant A and one
molecule of the reactant B, and the initial concentrations of A and B have a common value [A] =
[B] = a moles/L then
a2 kt
[C] =
akt + 1
where k is a constant.
(a) Find the rate of reaction at time t.

(b) Show that if x = [C], then
dx
= k(a − x)2
dt
(c) What happens to the concentration as t → ∞?
(d) What happens to the rate of reaction as t → ∞?
5. Example (Economics). Suppose that the cost (in dollars) for a company to produce x pairs of a new
line of jeans is
C(x) = 2000 + 3x + 0.01x2 + 0.0002x3
(a) Find the marginal cost function.

(b) Find C 0 (100) and explain its meaning. What does it predict?
(c) Compare C 0 (100) with the cost of manufacturing the 101st pair of jeans.
6. Example. The height of a certain cylinder is always twice its radius r. If its radius is changing, show
that the rate of change of its volume with respect to r is equal to its surface area.
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.8 E XPONENTIAL G ROWTH AND D ECAY 124
3.8 Exponential Growth and Decay

1. Quote. “It’s the whole issue with exponential growth, it’s very slow in the beginning but over the
long term it gets ridiculous.”
(Drew Curtis, Founder and chief administrator of Fark.com, 1973 - )
2. Exponential Growth and Decay: A quantity q is said to be growing (or decaying) exponentially if
q = Aekt
where A and k are constants.
3. Natural Growth Equation. The solution of the initial-value problem

dy
= ky, y(0) = y0
dt
is
y(t) = y0 ekt .
4. Example. Calculopolis had a population of 25000 in 1980 and the population of 30000 in 1990.
What population can the Calculopolis planers expect in the year 2020 if the population grows at a
rate proportional to its size?
5. Radioactive Decay. Radioactive material is known to decay at a rate proportional to the amount
present. This means, if N is the amount (mass) of radioactive material at time t then it must satisfy
the model:
dN
= −kN, k > 0.
dt
6. Example. It takes 8 days for 20% of a particular radioactive material to decay. How long does it take
for 100 grams of material to decay to 50 grams? 40 grams? 0 grams?
7. Remark. Usually k is specified in terms of the half-life of the isotope

ln 2
τ= .
k
This is the time required for half of any given quantity to decay.
8. Newton’s Law of Cooling and Heating. If a warm object is put in cooler surroundings its tempera-
ture will steadily decrease. A law of physics known as Newtons law of cooling says that the rate at
which the object cools is proportional to the difference between its temperature and the surrounding
temperature. This law is modeled by the differential equation:
dT
= k(T − M )
dt
where
• T (t) is the temperature of the object at time t

• M is the temperature of the surroundings (ambient temperature - which is constant)
• k a constant (called the cooling constant)
9. Example. When a cold drink is taken from a refrigerator, its temperature is 5◦ C. After 25 minutes
in a 20◦ C room its temperature has increased to 10◦ C.
(a) What is the temperature of the drink after 50 minutes?

(b) When will its temperature be 15◦ C?
10. See Stewart’s textbook on page 241 for an example involving compound interest.
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE R P REPARATION FOR R ELATED R ATES 129
Review: Preparation for Related Rates

1. Quote. ”Oh, yes these problems can be nasty. Lots of students fear related rates problems. Why?
Maybe because they are word problems, and students just don’t like word problems. Having to change
English into mathematics intimidates many people. It’s as if when they hear it in words, the mathe-
matical sides of their brain shut down.”
Colin Adams, Mathematician, author of How to Ace Calculus: The Streetwise Guide
2. Setting Up Equations for a Related Rates Problem:
A related rates problem is a problem that has an equation relating two or more things which change
over time, and we want to find the derivative of one of the functions at a particular time. We’ll begin
with looking at how to set up these problems, as this is usually the part students find to be the most
difficult, even though, surprisingly, it involves no calculus.
3. Example. A 6-ft tall man walks away from a 15-ft lamppost and the man’s shadow is cast on the
ground.
(a) Draw a picture to represent this situation, and identify and label all constants and variables.
(b) Determine the relationship between the distance x from the man to the lamppost and length of
the man’s shadow.
4. Example. An airplane is flying at a constant altitude of 9km above the ground and is approaching
a camera on the ground. Let θ be the angle of elevation above the ground at which the camera is
pointed. Find a relationship between the horizontal distance from the plane to the camera and the
angle of elevation of the camera θ.
5. Example. Suppose the wood nymphs and satyrs are having a hot party and the wine is flowing
freely from the bottom of a giant cone-shaped barrel which is 10-ft high and 6-ft in radius at the top.
Determine the relationship between the depth and the volume of the wine in the tank.
6. Example. A baseball player runs from home plate towards first base. Determine the relationship
between the distance x from the player to first base and the distance y from the player to second base.
7. Example. A plane flying at a constant speed of 300km/h passes over a ground radar station at an
altitude of 1km and climbs at an angle of 30◦ . If P denotes the location of the plane when the plane
passes directly over the radar station determine the relationship between the distance from the radar
station to the plane and the distance from the plane to point P .
8. Interpreting a Rate of Change:

In a related rates problem, statements are made about rates of change of certain quantities. Let’s
look at how to interpret such statements.
9. Example. For each of the following statements, draw a picture, assign a letter name to each quantity
that is changing over time, and interpret the statement about rate of change in terms of symbols.
(a) After fueling up at a gas station a car drives west at 50 km/h.
(b) Water is being pumped out of a rectangular tank at a rate of 2m3 /min
(c) A baseball player is running from home plate to first base and when the player is exactly halfway
to first base the distance from the player to second base is changing at a rate of 8m/s.
(d) A plane is flying at a constant speed 300km/h and climbing from a point P at an angle of 30◦ .
10. Solving for a Rate of Change:

In solving a related rates problem, once a relationship is found between all quantities and their rates
of change (i.e. derivatives) then the unknown rate (derivative) can be found by substituting in all the
given information.
11. Example. If x and y are both differentiable functions of the variable t, and are related by the given
equation, then find the requested rate of change under the given conditions.
dy dx
(a) sin x + cos y = 1. Determine when x = π/6, y = π/3 and = 2.
dt dt
dx dy
(b) x3 + y 2 − xy = 8. Determine when y = 0 and = 8.
dt dt
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.9 R ELATED RATES 133
3.9 Related rates

1. Quote. “If you want to increase your success rate, double your failure rate. ”
(Thomas John Watson, Sr., Founder of IBM, 1874 - 1956.)
2. A spherical balloon is being inflated. The radius r of the balloon is increasing at the rate of 0.2 cm/s
when r = 5 cm. At what rate is the volume V of the balloon increasing at that moment?
3. The Method of Related Rates

When two variables are related by an equation and both are functions of a third variable (such as
time), we can find a relation between their rates of change. In this case, we say the rates are related,
and we can compute one if we know the other.
We proceed as follows:
(a) Identify the independent variable (usually time) on which the other quantities depend and as-
sign it a symbol, such as t. Also, assign symbols to the variable quantities that depend on t.
(b) Find an equation that relates the dependent variables.
(c) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to t (using the chain rule if necessary).
(d) Substitute the given information into the related rates equation and solve for the unknown rate.
4. A rocket is launched vertically and is tracked by a radar station located on the ground 5 km from the
launch pad. Suppose that the elevation angle θ of the line of sight to the rocket is increasing at 3◦ per
second when θ = 60◦ . What is the velocity of the rocket at that instant?
[link to applet]
5. A man 6 ft tall walks with a speed of 8 ft/s away from a street light that is atop an 18-ft pole. How
fast is the tip of his shadow moving along the ground when he is 100 ft from the light pole?
[link to applet]
6. A lighthouse is located on a small island 3 km away from the nearest point P on a straight shoreline
and its light makes four revolutions per minute. How fast is the beam of light moving along the
shoreline when it is 1 km from P ?
[link to applet]
7. Additional Notes
PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.10 L INEAR A PPROX . AND D IFFERENTIALS 139
3.10 Linear Approximation and Differentials

1. Quote. It is the mark of an instructed mind to rest satisfied with the degree of precision to which
the nature of the subject admits and not to seek exactness when only an approximation of the truth
is possible.
(Aristotle, Greek philosopher, 384 BC - 322 BC.)
2. Problem. If f (1) = 4 and f 0 (1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f (x) at x = 1 to approximate
f (2).
3. Idea. Instead of evaluating f (x) evaluate L(x) where L is the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x)
at a known point (a, f (a)) that is close to the point (x, f (x)).
4. Linear Approximation. The linear function
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
is called the linearization of f at a.

For x close to a we have that
f (x) ≈ L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
and this approximation is called the linear approximation of f at a.
5. Example. If f (1) = 4 and f 0 (1) = 1 use the linear approximation to f (x) at x = 1 to approximate
f (2).
√
6. Example. Use linear approximation to approximate 37. What is the accuracy of this approxima-
tion?
7. Differential. Let f be a function differentiable at x ∈ R. Let ∆x = dx be a (small) given number.

The differential dy is defined as
dy = f 0 (x)∆x .
8. Important!
f (a + dx) ≈ L(a + dx)

f (a + dx) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)(a + dx − a)
f (a + dx) ≈ f (a) + f 0 (a)dx = f (a) + dy
dy ≈ f (a + dx) − f (a)
Small differential means good approximation.

9. Example. The equatorial radius of the earth is approximately 3960 mi. Suppose that a wire is
wrapped tightly around the earth at the equator. Approximately how much must this wire be length-
ened if it is to be strung all the way around the earth on poles 10 ft above the ground. (1 mi = 1760
yards = 1760 · 3 ft.)

PART 3: D IFFERENTIATION R ULES L ECTURE 3.11 H YPERBOLIC F UNCTIONS 144
3.11 Hyperbolic Functions

1. Quote. “You could rewrite it in terms of hyperbolic functions, but I don’t know if it’d be easier.”
(Posted by Dave at S.O.S. Mathematics CyberBoard, http://www.sosmath.com, )
2. Must Know! Definitions of the hyperbolic functions:
ex − e−x
(a) sinh (x) =
2
ex + e−x
(b) cosh (x) =
2
sinh x
(c) tanh (x) =
cosh x
cosh x
(d) coth (x) =
sinh x
1
(e) csch (x) =
sinh x
1
(f) sech (x) =
cosh x
3. Identities.
(a) sinh(−x) = − sinh x
(b) cosh(−x) = cosh x
(c) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
(d) 1 − tanh2 x = sech2 x
(e) sinh(x + y) = sinh x cosh y + cosh x sinh y
(f) cosh(x + y) = cosh x cosh y − sinh x sinh y
4. Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions.

d
(a) dx (sinh x) = cosh x
d
(b) dx (cosh x) = sinh x
d 2
(c) dx (tanh x) = sech x
5. Inverse Hyperbolic Function.

(a)
y = sinh−1 x ⇔ sinh y = x
p
sinh−1 x = ln(x + x2 + 1), x ∈ R
(b)
y = cosh−1 x ⇔ cosh y = x ( where y ≥ 0, x ≥ 1)
p
cosh−1 x = ln(x + x2 − 1), x ≥ 1
(c)
y = tanh−1 x ⇔ tanh y = x

−1 1 1+x
tanh x = ln , −1 < x < 1
2 1−x
6. Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions.
d −1 1
(a) dx (sinh x) = √
1 + x2
1
d
(b) dx (cosh−1 x) = √
x2 − 1
1
d
(c) dx (tanh−1 x) =
1 − x2
7. Example. At what point of the curve y = cosh x does the tangent have slope 1?
8. Additional Notes
Part 4
Applications of the Derivative
Image Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair.jpg
149
PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.1 M AXIMUM AND M INIMUM VALUES 150
4.1 Maximum and Minimum Values

1. Quote. “I feel the need of attaining the maximum of intensity with the minimum of means. It is this
which has led me to give my painting a character of even greater bareness.”
(Joan Miró, Catalan-Spanish artist, 1893 - 1983)
2. Definition. A function f has an absolute maximum at c if
f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x ∈ D, the domain of f .
The number f (c) is called the maximum value of f on D.

A function f has an absolute minimum at c if
f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x ∈ D, the domain of f .
The number f (c) is called the minimum value of f on D.
3. Definition. A function f has a local maximum at c if
f (c) ≥ f (x) for all x in an open interval, in the domain, containing c .
A function f has a local minimum at c if
f (c) ≤ f (x) for all x in an open interval, in the domain, containing c .
4. Extreme Value Theorem. If f is continuous on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains an absolute
maximum value f (c) and an absolute minimum value f (d) at some numbers c, d ∈ [a, b].
5. Fermat’s Theorem. If f has a local maximum or minimum at c, and f 0 (c) exists, then f 0 (c) = 0.
6. Examples. Find all local extrema of

(a) f (x) = 3x4 − 16x3 + 18x2 , −1≤x≤4
(b) f (x) = |x|, −1<x<1

7. Definition. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
8. Problem. Find the maximum and minimum values of the function
f (x) = x2 + 4x + 7, −3 ≤ x ≤ 0
9. Closed Interval Method. To find the absolute maximum and minimum values of a continuous
function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
(a) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
(b) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
(c) The largest of the values from Step (a) and Step (b) is the absolute maximum value; the smallest
of these values is the absolute minimum value.
10. Examples. Find the maximum and minimum values of the given functions on the indicated closed
intervals.
4
(a) f (x) = x + , x ∈ [1, 4]
x
√
(b) g(x) = 2 − 3
x, x ∈ [−1, 8]

PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.2 T HE M EAN VALUE T HEOREM 155
4.2 The Mean Value Theorem

1. Quote. “The Mean Value Theorem is the midwife of calculus - not very important or glamorous by
itself, but often helping to deliver other theorems that are of major significance.”
(Edwin Purcell and Dale Varberg, American mathematicians)
2. Rolle’s Theorem. (Michel Rolle, French mathematician, 1652-1719) Let f be a function that satisfies
the following three hypotheses:
(a) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(b) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(c) f (a) = f (b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f 0 (c) = 0.
3. Example. Check if the following functions satisfy the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem.
(a) f (x) = x1/2 − x3/2 on [0, 1].
(b) f (x) = 1 − x2/3 on [−1, 1].
4. The Mean Value Theorem. Let f be a function that satisfies the following hypotheses:
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
or, equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a).
5. Example. A car is driving along a rural road where the speed limit is 70 km/h. At 3:00 pm its
odometer reads 18075 km. At 3:18 its reads 18100 km. Prove that the driver violated the speed limit
at some instant between 3:00 and 3:18 pm.
6. Show that the equation x4 = x + 1 has exactly one solution in the interval [1, 2].
7. Must Know! If f 0 (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is constant on (a, b).
8. Fact. If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for all x in an interval (a, b), then f − g is constant on (a, b); that is,
f (x) = g(x) + c
where c is a constant.
9. Example. Prove the identity

√

x−1 π
arcsin = 2 arctan ( x) −
x+1 2

PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.3 S HAPE OF A G RAPH 160
4.3 How Derivatives Affect the Shape of a Graph

1. Quote. “The spread of civilization may be likened to a fire; First, a feeble spark, next a flickering
flame, then a mighty blaze, ever increasing in speed and power.”
(Nikola Tesla, American inventor and engineer, 1856 - 1943)
2. Increasing/Decreasing Test.
(a) If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
(b) If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
3. Example. Find the open intervals on the x-axis on which the function
f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5
is increasing and those on which is decreasing.

4. The First Derivative Test. Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f .
(a) If f 0 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(b) If f 0 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
(c) If f 0 does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.
5. Example. Find all local extrema of the function
f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5
6. Examples. Find all local extrema of

f (x) = |x|
7. Definition. If the graph of f lies above all of its tangent lines on an interval I, then it is called
concave upward on I. If the graph of f lies below all of its tangents on I, it is called concave
downward on I.
8. Concavity Test.
(a) If f 00 (x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
(b) If f 00 (x) < 0 for all x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
9. Definition. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called an inflection point if f is continuous there and
the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to concave
upward at P .
10. The Second Derivative Test. Suppose f 00 is continuous near c.

(a) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f 00 (c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.
11. Example. Sketch the graph of the function
f (x) = 3x4 − 4x3 − 12x2 + 5


PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.4 L’H OSPITAL’ S R ULE 165
4.4 Indeterminate Forms and L’Hospital’s Rule

1. “Proof”. Let a = b.
a2 = ab (Multiply both sides by a.)
a2 + a2 − 2ab = ab + a2 − 2ab (Add a2 − 2ab to both sides.)
2(a2 − ab) = a2 − ab (Factor the left, and collect like terms on the right.)
2 = 1 (Divide both sides by a2 − ab.)
2. Indeterminate Forms.
(a) Indeterminate form of type 00 .
sin kx
Example. Evaluate lim for k ∈ R.
x→0 x
(b) Indeterminate form of type ∞

∞.
ax + 1
Example. Evaluate lim for a, b ∈ R.
x→∞ bx + 1
3. L’Hospital’s Rule. Suppose that f and g are differentiable and g 0 (x) 6= 0 near a (except possibly at
a.) Suppose that
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞
x→a x→a
Then
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is ∞ or −∞).
4. Examples. Find
ex − 1
(a) lim
x→0 sin 2x
ex
(b) lim
x→∞ x2 + x
ln x
(c) lim √
x→∞ x

x−1
5. Indeterminate Form 0 · ∞. Find lim x ln .
x→∞ x+1

1 1
6. Indeterminate Form ∞ − ∞. Find lim − .
x→0 x sin x
7. Indeterminate Form 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ .
8. Examples. Find
2
(a) lim (cos x)1/x
x→0
9. Additional Notes
PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.5 S UMMARY OF C URVE S KETCHING 169
4.5 Summary of Curve Sketching

1. Puzzle. Connect the nine dots with four (only four) straight lines without ever lifting your pen or
pencil from the paper.
2. Guidelines
(a) Domain
(b) Intercepts: For the x-intercepts set y = 0 and solve for x. For the y-intercept calculate f (0).
(c) Symmetry:
i. Even function - symmetric about the y-axis.
ii. Odd function - symmetric about the origin.
iii. Periodic functions.
(d) Asymptotes:
i. Horizontal Asymptotes: y = L if lim f (x) = L; y = M is lim f (x) = M .
x→∞ x→−∞
ii. Vertical Asymptotes: x = a if at least one of the following is true
lim f (x) = ∞ lim f (x) = ∞

x→a+ x→a−
lim f (x) = −∞ lim f (x) = −∞.
x→a+ x→a−
iii. Slant Asymptotes: y = mx + b if
lim (f (x) − (mx + b)) = 0.

x→∞
(e) Intervals of Increase and Decrease:

f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval I means f increasing % on I.
f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval I means f decreasing & on I.
(f) Local Maximum and Minimum Values:
- First Derivative Test
- Second Derivative Test
(g) Concavity and Points of Inflection:
f 00 (x) > 0 on an interval I means f concave up on I.
(
f 00 (x) < 0 on an interval I means f concave down on I.

)
Inflection points occur where there is a switch in concavity.

(h) Sketch the curve.
3. Examples. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

2 + x − x2
(a) f (x) =
(x − 1)2
(b) f (x) = x2 ex
4. In this example we will focus just on asymptotes in the guidelines outlined in (2).
x2 + x − 1
Determine the asymptotes of the function f (x) = .
x−1
5. Additional Notes
PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.6 O PTIMIZATION P ROBLEMS 174
4.6 Optimization Problems

1. Quote. “There is no branch of mathematics, however abstract, which may not someday be applied to
the phenomena of the real world.”
(Nikolai Lobachevski, Russian mathematician, 1792 - 1856)
2. Examples.
(a) Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder with greatest volume that can be inscribed in
a right circular cone of radius 8 cm and height 12 cm.
(b) A painting in an art gallery has height 3 m and is hung so that its lower edge is about 1 m above
the eye of an observer. How far from the wall should the observer stand to get the best view?
(i.e. the observer wants to maximize the angle θ subtended at the eye by the painting.)
[link to applet]
For an interesting paper connecting this problem to exponential functions click here. [2]
(c) The frame for a kite is to be made from six pieces of wood. The four exterior pieces have been
cut with the lengths indicated in the figure. To maximize the area of the kite, how long should
the diagonal pieces be?
(d) Maya is 2 km offshore on a boat and wishes to reach a coastal village which is 6 km down the
straight shoreline from the point on the shore nearest to the boat. She can row at 2 km/hour and
run 5 km/hour. Where she should land her boat to reach the village in the least amount of time?
[link to applet]
3. Additional Notes
PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.7 N EWTON ’ S M ETHOD 179
4.7 Newton’s Method

1. Quote. “Sometimes, close enough is good enough.”

(Math Girl, Episode I - Differentials Attract)
2. Newton’s Method.
(a) Problem. Find a solution, say x = r, to
f (x) = 0.
(b) Idea.
i. Let x1 be a ”good” estimate of r.
ii. Consider the tangent line L to the curve y = f (x) at the point (x1 , f (x1 )). Look at the x-
intercept of L, call it x2 . If x1 is close to r then x2 seems to be even closer to r, and we use x2
as a second approximation to r.
How do we find x2 in terms of x1 and f ?
iii. Repeat this procedure to get a third approximation x3 from our second approximation x2 :
If we keep repeating this process we obtain a sequence of approximations for r:
x1 , x2 , x3 , . . . .
iv. If the numbers xn become closer and closer to r as n becomes large then we say that the
sequence converges to r and we write
lim = r.
n→∞
(c) Method.
i. Begin with an initial guess x1 .
ii. Calculate
f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − .
f 0 (x1 )
iii. If xn is known then
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f 0 (xn )
iv. If xn and xn+1 agree to k decimal places then xn approximates the root r up to k decimal
places and f (xn ) ≈ 0.
3. Example. Solve
5x + cos x = 5
for x ∈ [0, 1] correct to 6 decimal places.
√
4. Example. Use Newton’s method to find 2 accurate to eight decimal places.
5. Example. Use Newton’s method to solve x1/3 = 0 by taking x0 = 1.

6. Example. Let f (x) = x3 + 3x + 1.

(a) Show that f has exactly one root in the interval (− 12 , 0). Explain.
(b) Use Newton’s method to approximate the root that lies in the interval ( −1
2 , 0). Stop when the
next iteration agrees with the previous one at two decimal places.
7. Additional Notes
PART 4: A PPLICATIONS OF THE D ERIVATIVE L ECTURE 4.8 A NTIDERIVATIVES 184
4.8 Antiderivatives
1. Quote. “In school I had a friend named Cos Davis. We nicknamed him the Antiderivative of Sin
Davis. He actually liked it.”
(Posted by SLD on May 14, 2004, 10:39 PM, at Stupid math or science jokes thread (again),
http://www.iidb.org/vbb/archive/index.php/t-85561&e=747
”Wouldn’t the antiderivative of Sin Davis be Negative Cos Davis?”
(Posted by LVLLN on May 15, 2004, 03:30 PM)
2. Problem. For a given function f find all functions F with the property that
F0 = f .
3. Definition. A function F is called an antiderivative of f on an interval I if
F 0 (x) = f (x)
for all x ∈ I.
4. Example: Find an antiderivative of the following.

(a) f (x) = x2
1
(b) f (x) =
x
5. Example. Show that all antiderivatives of f (x) = xn , n 6= −1, are given by

1
F (x) = xn+1 + C
n+1
where C is an arbitrary constant.
6. Theorem. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative of f

on I is
F (x) + C
where C is an arbitrary constant.
7. Table of Antiderivative Formulas.

(f = Function, F = Particular antiderivative)
f F f F
cg(x) cG(x) sin x − cos x
g(x) + h(x) G(x) + H(x) sec2 x tan x
1
xn , n 6= −1 xn+1 sec x tan x sec x
n+1
1
1/x ln |x| √ sin−1 x
1 − x2
1
ex ex tan−1 x
1 + x2
cos x sin x
8. Example. Find all antiderivatives of

√ 4
f (x) = x3 + 3 x − 2
x
9. Example.
(a) Find f if f 0 (t) = 2 cos (3t) + 5 sin (4t) + 3et .
(b) Which of the functions in (a) satisfies f (0) = 0?
10. Example. Find f such that f 00 (x) = 2e−2x + 5, f (0) = 3/2 and f 0 (0) = 1.
11. Rectilinear Motion.

(a) Position function - s = f (t)
(b) Velocity function - v(t) = s0 (t)
(c) Acceleration function - a(t) = v 0 (t)
12. Example. The skid marks made by an automobile indicate that its brakes are fully applied for a
distance of 160 ft before it came to a stop. Suppose that the car in question has a constant deceleration
of 20 ft/s2 under the condition of the skid. How fast was the car traveling when its brakes were
applied?

Part 5
Parametric Equations and Polar

Coordinates
189
PART 5: PARMETRIC E QNS, P OLAR C OORDS L ECTURE 5.1 PARAMETRIC E QUATIONS 190
5.1 Curves Defined by Parametric Equations

(This lecture corresponds to Sections 10.1 & 10.2 (Tangents part only) of Stewart’s Calculus.)
1. Quote. “When you get to the top of the mountain, keep climbing.”
(Zen proverb)
2. Motivation: Particle moving in plane
3. Problem. In the xy-plane draw the set P = {(t2 , t) : t ∈ R}.

4. Vocabulary. Let I be an interval and let f and g be continuous on I.

(a) The set of points C = {(f (t), g(t)) : t ∈ I} is called a parametric curve.
(b) The variable t is called a parameter.
(c) We say that the curve C is defined by parametric equations
x = f (t), y = g(t).
(d) We say that x = f (t), y = g(t) is a parametrization of C.
(e) If I = [a, b] then (f (a), g(a)) is called the initial point of C and (f (b), g(b)) is called the terminal
point of C.
5. Example. Find two parametrizations of the unit circle x2 + y 2 = 1 .
x2 y2
6. Example. Find parametric equations for the ellipse 2
+ 2 =1.
a b
7. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve defined by parametric equations
x = sin t, y = sin2 t, −∞ < t < ∞
8. Some neat examples:

Lissajous Curve:
x = cos at, y = sin bt, t ∈ [0, 2π]
Knotty Curve:
x = t + 2 sin 2t, y = t + 2 cos 5t, t ∈ [−2π, 2π]
9. Cycloid. The curve traced by a point P on the edge of a rolling circle is called a cycloid. The circle
rolls along a straight line without slipping or stopping. Find parametric equations for the cycloid if
the line along which the circle rolls is the x-axis but always tangent to it, and the point P begins at
the origin.
10. Derivatives of Parametric Curves. The derivative to the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t) is
given by
dy
dy dt g 0 (t)
= dx = 0 .
dx dt
f (t)
11. Example. Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve
x = cos t, y = sin t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
at the point corresponding to t = π/4.
12. Example. Determine the points on the cycloid where the tangent line is horizontal or vertical.
PART 5: PARMETRIC E QNS, P OLAR C OORDS L ECTURE 5.2 P OLAR C OORDINATES 195
5.2 Polar Coordinates

1. Ancient math joke:

Q: What’s a rectangular bear?
A: A polar bear after a coordinate transform.
2. Motivation: Given a point in the plane how can we describe its position?
3. Polar Coordinate System.
(a) Choose a point in the plane. Call it O, which we also call the pole.
(b) Choose a ray starting at O. Call it the polar axis. (Usually taken as positive x axis.)
(c) Take any point P , except O, in the plane. Measure the distance d(O, P ) and call this distance r.
(d) Measure the angle between the polar axis and the ray starting at O and passing through P going
from x in counterclockwise direction. Let θ be this measure in radians.
(e) There is a bijection between the plane and the set
R+ × [0, 2π) = {(r, θ) : r ∈ R+ and θ ∈ [0, 2π)}
This means that each point in the plane is uniquely determined by a pair (r, θ) ∈ R+ × [0, 2π).
(f) r and θ are called polar coordinates of P .
4. Example. Plot the points whose polar coordinates (r, θ) are given.
(a) (1, π/4) (b) (2, 5π/4) (c) (2, −π/3) (d) (−1, 5π/6)
5. Example. Plot the three points whose polar coordinates are (1, π/2), (1, 5π/2), and (−1, 3π/2).
6. Example. Plot the point given by the polar coordinates (3, π/3). Then find two other pairs of polar
coordinates of this point, one with r > 0 and one with r < 0.
7. Example. Find the connection between polar and Cartesian coordinates.

8. Example. Convert the point (2, π/6) from polar to Cartesian coordinates.
√
9. Example. Plot the point whose polar coordinates are (2 2, 3π/4). Find the Cartesian coordinates of
this point.
10. Example. Represent the point with Cartesian coordinates (−1, 1) in terms of polar coordinates.
√
11. Example. The cartesian coordinates of a point are (−2 3, −2). Find polar coordinates (r, θ) of this
point, where r > 0 and 0 ≤ θ < 2π).
12. Example. Sketch the region in the plane consisting of points whose polar coordinates satisfy:
π 3π
1 ≤ r < 2, ≤θ< .
4 4
13. Polar Curves: The graph of a polar equation r = f (θ) consists of all points P that have at least one
polar representation (r, θ) whose coordinates satisfy the equation.
Some examples of polar curves are:
14. Example. What curve is represented by the polar equation r = 3?
15. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve r = 2 sin θ.

16. Example. Sketch the graph of the curve r = 2 cos 3θ.
17. Derivatives of Polar Curves. Suppose that r = f (θ) is a differentiable function of θ. Then from
the parametric equations
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
it follows that
dy dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ
= dθ = dθ
dx dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ dθ
18. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve r = 2 cos 3θ when θ = 2π/3.
19. Example. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve r = 1 + cos θ if θ = π/6.
20. Consider the curve given by the polar equation
r = 1 + 2 sin θ.
Find the point(s) on the curve which are furthest from the x-axis.

PART 5: PARMETRIC E QNS, P OLAR C OORDS L ECTURE 5.3 C ONIC S ECTIONS 204
5.3 Conic Sections

1. Quote. “If I am given a formula, and I am ignorant of its meaning, it cannot teach me anything, but
if I already know it what does the formula teach me? ”
(St. Augustine)
2. Objective:
We are going to give geometric descriptions of parabolas, el-
lipses and hyperbolas and derive their equations in Cartesian
coordinates. These types of curves are called conic sections,
or just conics, because they arise from intersecting a cone and
a plane.
3. Reminder.
• The distance d between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by

p
d = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
• The midpoint M between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is given by

x1 + x2 y1 + y2
M= , .
2 2
4. Geometric Definition of a Parabola.

A parabola is the set of points in a plane that are equidistant from a fixed point F and a fixed line.
5. Terminology:
• The point F is called the focus and the line is called the directrix.
• The line through the focus perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the parabola.
• The intersection of the parabola and the axis is called the vertex. (Note: The vertex is halfway
between the focus and the directrix.)
6. Deriving the Equation for a Parabola:

We get a simple equation for a parabola in Cartesian coordinates, if we start by making the axis of
the parabola the y-axis.
Then we place the vertex of the parabola at the origin O, and the x-axis parallel to the directrix.
With the focus at (0, p), the equation of the directrix is .
7. Theorem. An equation of the parabola with focus (0, p) and directrix y = −p is
y = ax2
1
where a = .
4p
When p > 0 the parabola opens upward, and when p < 0 it opens downward.
8. If we interchange the x and y in the equation x2 = 4py, we obtain y 2 = 4px which is the equation of a
parabola opening to the right if p > 0, or to the left if p < 0. (Interchanging x and y means reflecting
about the line y = x.)
All four cases for the parabola and the equation are shown below.
9. Example. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola and sketch its graph.
2y 2 = 5x
10. Example. Find an equation of the parabola. Then find the focus and directrix.
11. Geometric Definition of an Ellipse.

An ellipse is the set of points in a plane the sum of whose distances from two fixed points F1 and F2
is a constant. (F1 and F2 are called foci.)
12. Deriving the Equation for an Ellipse:

To get a simple equation for an ellipse, let the foci be at (−c, 0) and (c, 0).
This means the origin is halfway between the foci.
Let the sum of the distances from a point on the ellipse to both foci be the constant 2a > 0.
y
P (x, y)
F1 (!c, 0) F2 (c, 0) x
13. Theorem. The ellipse

x2 y2
+ = 1, a≥b>0
a2 b2
has foci (±c, 0), where c2 = a2 − b2 , and vertices (±a, 0).
14. Terminology:
• The points (a, 0) and (−a, 0) are both on the ellipse, and are called vertices.
• The line segment joining the vertices is called the major axis. The length is 2a.
• The line segment joining the center to one of the vertices is called the semimajor axis. The
length of the semimajor axis is a which is also called the long radius of the ellipse.
15. If we interchange x and y then the equation for the ellipse becomes
x2 y2
+ = 1, where a ≥ b > 0.
b2 a2
The foci are (0, ±c), and the vertices are (0, ±a).
(Remember, interchanging x and y is the same as reflecting in the diagonal line y = x.)
y
(0, %)
(0, c)
(!(, 0) ((, 0)
(0, !c)
(0, !%)
16. Example. Find the vertices and the foci of the ellipse and sketch its graph.
100x2 + 36y 2 = 225
17. Geometric Definition of a Hyperbola.

A hyperbola is the set of points in a plane the difference of whose distances from two fixed points F1
and F2 is a constant. (F1 and F2 are called foci.)
F1 (!c, 0) F2 (c, 0)
Notice the similarity to the definition of the ellipse. The only change here is that the sum of distances
has become a difference.
18. This similarity to the ellipse means that the method of construction of an equation for the hyperbola
is very similar to that of the ellipse.
If we let the foci lie on the x-axis at (±c, 0), and the distance difference be 2a then the equation of the
hyperbola is:
x2 y2
− = 1,
b2 a2
where c2 = a2 + b2 .
The x-intercepts (±a, 0) are called the vertices and the lines y = ±(b/a)x are the asymptotes.
(!', 0) (', 0)
(!c, 0) (c, 0)
19. If the foci of the hyperbola are on the y-axis, then we switch x and y to get the equation
y2 x2
− = 1,
a2 b2
with foci (0, ±c) where c2 = a2 + b2 and vertices (0, ±a) and asymptotes y = ±(a/b)x.
(0, c)
(0, ')
(0, !')
(0, !c)
20. Conics That Are Shifted: So far, we have been constructing formulas for the conics by placing the
origin at the simplest possible location. What happens if we shift the conics?
In general, we replace x and y by x − h and y − k , for constants h and k.
21. Example. Find an equation of the ellipse with foci (2, −2) and (4, −2), and with vertices (1, −2) and
(5, −2).

PART 5: PARMETRIC E QNS, P OLAR C OORDS L ECTURE 5.4 C ONIC IN P OLAR C OORDS. 214
5.4 Conic Sections in Polar Coordinates

1. Math Joke.
Q: Why do pirates work in polar coordinates?
A: So their work involves lots or AARRR!!!!
2. Objective: We’re going to look at parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas again, but this time in polar
form. To begin with, we can give a more unified description of all three types of conic sections in
terms of a focus and directrix. This will allow us to see that conic sections can be easily described in
polar coordinates.
3. Definition.
Let F be a fixed point, called the focus, and l be a fixed line, called the directrix. Suppose e is a
fixed positive number, called the eccentricity.
|P F |
The set of all points P in the plane such that = e is a conic section.
|P l|
If e < 1 the conic is an ellipse.
If e = 1 the conic is a parabola.
If e > 1 the conic is a hyperbola.
This definition of the conic sections is equivalent to the geometric definitions given earlier. The proof
of this is in the text, and involves some algebra.
Notice that when e = 1, we have |P F | = |P l| for the definition of the parabola, as before.
4. Using the definition for conic sections given above find equations in polar coordinates which describe
the curves.
F
x
x=d
5. If the directrix is chosen to be on the left of the focus, at x = −d, then the conic section is
ed
r= .
1 − e cos θ
See the first figure below.
% % %
%#$ directrix
! # !$
directrix
F ! F ! F !
% # !$ directrix
6. If the directrix is chosen parallel to the x-axis then the conic section is as shown in the second two
figures of the diagram above.
7. Theorem. A polar equation of the form

ed ed
r= or r=
1 ± e cos θ 1 ± e cos θ
represents a conic section with eccentricity e. The conic is an ellipse if e < 1, a parabola if e = 1, or a
hyperbola if e > 1.
8. Example. Find a polar equation for an ellipse, with eccentricity 21 , that has its focus at the origin
and whose directrix is the line y = 4.
9. Example. A conic is given by the polar equation

3
r= .
2 + 2 cos θ
Find the eccentricity, identify the conic, locate the directrix, and sketch the conic.
10. Example.

PART 6: R EVIEW M ATERIAL C ONIC IN P OLAR C OORDS. 218
Part 6
Review Material
219
PART 6: R EVIEW M ATERIAL M IDTERM 1 R EVIEW PACKAGE 220
6.1 Midterm 1 Review Package

1. Make sure you know the definitions of the terms: function, one-to-one, inverse of a function, compo-
sition, even function, odd function, limit of a function, continuous function, asymptote, squeeze law,
intermediate value property, derivative, etc.
2
2. Write sin2 (ex −x
) as a composition of (elementary) functions.
3. Compute the following limits.
(a) lim (x2 − 1)3

x→2
2
−1
ex + sin x
(b) lim
x→0 x+1
x2 − 9
(c) lim
x→3− |x − 3|
√
1− 1 − x2
(d) lim
x→0 x
f (4 + h) − f (4) 1
(e) lim where f (x) = √
h→0 h x
2 − 3x3

(f) lim ln 3
x→∞ x + 5x − 4
4. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f (s) = f (t) then s = t.
(b) If f is an odd function and f (3) = 6 then f (−3) = −6.
(c) If x1 < x2 and g is a decreasing function then g(x1 ) > g(x2 ).
(d) If f and g are functions then f ◦ g = g ◦ f .

2x 8 2x 8
(e) lim − = lim − lim .
x→4 x−4 x−4 x→4 x−4 x→4 x−4
f (x)
(f) If lim f (x) = 2 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim does not exist.
x→5 x→5 x→5 g(x)
f (x)
(g) If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim does not exist.
x→5 x→5 x→5 g(x)
(h) If g(1) = −1 and g(2) = 5 then there exists a number c between 1 and 2 such that g(c) = 0.
(i) If 1 ≤ f (x) ≤ x2 + 2x + 2 for all x near −1, then lim f (x) = 1.

x→−1
(j) If the line x = 1 is a vertical asymptote of y = f (x), then f is not defined at 1 .
(k) The equation x + ln (x + 1) = x4 − 1 has a root in the interval (0, 2).
(l) If f is continuous on [1, 5] such that f (2) = 8 and the only solutions of the equation f (x) = 6 are
x = 1 and x = 4 then f (3) > 6.
5. Determine the constant c that makes f continuous on (−∞, ∞).

(
c2 + sin (xπ) if x < 2
f (x) = .
cx2 − 4 if x ≥ 2
6. Is there a number b such that

3x2 + bx + b + 3
lim
x→−2 x2 + x − 2
exists? If so, find the value of b and the value of the limit.
√
6−x−2
7. Evaluate lim √
x→2 3−x−1
1
8. Let f (x) = .
x2 − x
f (2 + h) − f (2)
(a) Calculate lim .
h→0 h
(b) Find the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at the point (2, f (2)).
9. A rancher intends to work off a rectangular plot of

land that will have an area of 1000m2 . The plot will
be fenced and divided into two equal portions by and
additional fence parallel to two sides. (See diagram.)
(a) Find the total length of fence used as a function of y.
(b) What is the domain of the function found in part (a)?

Answers:
Only answers are provided here. You are expected to provide fully worked out solutions. If you need help
with solving any of these problems please visit the Calculus Workshop.
1. Know the precise statements of definitions and theorems as found in the textbook and the notes.
2. f ◦ g ◦ h ◦ k where f (x) = x2 , g(x) = sin x, h(x) = ex , h(x) = x2 − x.
3. (a) 27
(b) e−1 = 1
e
(c) −6
(d) 0
−1
(e) 16
(f) ln 3
4. (a) F (b) T (c) T (d) F (e) F (f) T (g) F (h) F (i) T (j) F (k) T (l) T.
5. c = 2
6. b = 15; limit is −1
1
7. 2
8. (a) −3/4 (b) y = (−3/4)x + 2

2000
9. (z) P (y) = 3y + y (b) {y ∈ R : 0 < y < ∞}
6.2 Midterm 2 Review Package

1. Compute the following derivatives. You do not need to simplify your answers.
(a) f 0 (x) if f (x) = (2x6 − 4x + 3)4 .
sec x
(b) g 0 (x) if g(x) = .
xex
3 + 2 sin x
(c) h0 (x) if h(x) =
x3 + 1
(d) y 0 if y = x2 log3 (x2/3 )

ds 2
(e) if s = 2t
dt
(f) h(51) (t) if h(t) = ln (t2 ). (Compute the first few derivatives to find a pattern.)

dy x
(g) if 2 − ln (x + y) = 0
dx x=0 y
(h) y 0 if y = xcos x .
1
2. Suppose f is a differentiable such that f (g(x)) = x and f 0 (x) = 1 + [f (x)]2 . Show that g 0 (x) = .
1 + x2
3. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f and g are differentiable then the derivative of f (x)g(x) is f 0 (x)g 0 (x).
(b) The function f (x) = |x| is differentiable for all real numbers.
d p f 0 (x)
(c) If f is differentiable, then f (x) = √ .
dx 2 x
d
(d) (10x ) = x10x−1 .
dx
4. The graph of f is given below. Sketch the graph of f 0 and f 00 (x) on coordinate axes below. You do NOT
need to justify your answers.
5. If a hemispherical bowl of radius 10 in. is filled with water to a depth of x inches, the volume of water
is given by V = π(10 − x3 )x2 . Find the rate of increase of volume per inch increase in depth.
6. Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative y 0 of the following function (you do not need to
simplify your answer)
√
x2 + 1 (3 − 4x)5
y=
2(3x − 1)1/4 (x − 2)4
7. Consider the curve defined by y 2 = x3 + 5x2 . The graph of the curve is shown below.
(a) Show that the point (−1, 2) is on the curve.
dy
(b) Use implicit differentiation to find .
dx
(c) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point (−1, 2).
8. The position of a particle moving along a straight line is given by the function
15 2
s(t) = t3 − t + 3t + 2, t≥0
4
(a) What is the particles starting position?
(b) When is the particle speeding up? When is it slowing down? When is it stopped?
(c) Find the total distance the particle travels in the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 4.
9. The position at time t ≥ 0 of a particle moving along a coordinate line is
s(t) = 10 cos (t + π/4).
(a) What is the particles starting position (t = 0)?
(b) What are the points farthest to the left and right of the origin reached by the particle.
(c) Find the particles velocity and acceleration at the points in (b).
(d) When does the particle first reach the origin? What are its velocity and acceleration at this
point?
10. At 12:00 an apple pie is removed from the oven and placed on a table to cool. The temperature of the
room is 24◦ C. At 12:20 the temperature of the pie is 36◦ C and is decreasing at a rate of 2◦ /min. What
was the temperature of the pie when it was brought out of the oven?
11. The designer of a 30-ft-diameter spherical hot-air balloon wishes to suspend the gondola 8 ft below
the bottom of the balloon with suspension cables tangent to the surface of the balloon. Two of the
cables are shown running from the top edges of the gondola to their points of tangency, (−12, −9) and
(12, −9). How wide must the gondola be?
12. A girl facing North is standing next to a river which flows East. She tosses a stick into the water
exactly 4 meters North of where she stands. The river carries the stick East at the constant rate of 3
m/s. How fast is the stick moving away from the girl after 2 seconds?
13. A cup of coffee, cooling off in a room at temperature 20◦ C, has cooling constant k = 0.09min−1 .
(a) How fast is the coffee cooling (in degrees per minute) when its temperature is T = 80◦ C?
(b) Use linear approximation to estimate the change in temperature over the next 6 seconds when
T = 80◦ C.
(c) The coffee is served at a temperature of 90◦ . How long should you wait before drinking it if the
optimal temperature is 65◦ C? Note: You may leave your answers in the exact form, i.e.,
as an expression that contains powers of e and/or logarithms.
Answers:
Only answers are provided here. You are expected to provide fully worked out solutions. If you need help
with solving any of these problems please visit the Calculus Workshop.
1. (a) f 0 (x) = 4(2x6 − 4x + 3)3 (12x5 − 4)

sec x
(b) g 0 (x) = (x tan x − x − 1)
x2 ex
2(x3 + 1) cos x − (3x2 )(3 + 2 sin x)
(c) h0 (x) =
(x3 + 1)2

0 2/3 2 2x
(d) y = 2x log3 (x ) + x= (2 ln x + 1)
3 ln 3 3 ln 3
ds 2
(e) = 2 ln (2)t2t
dt
(f) h(51) (t) = 2 · (50!)t−51

dy
(g) =1
dx x=0
cos x
(h) xcos x − ln (x) sin x
x
2. Use implicit differentiation on f (g(x)) = x and solve for g(x).
3. (a) False (b) False (c) False (d) False
dV
5. = πx(20 − x)
dx
√
x2 + 1 (3 − 4x)5

0 x 20 3 4
6. y = − − −
2(3x − 1)1/4 (x − 2)4 x2 + 1 3 − 4x 4(3x − 1) x − 2
x(3x + 10) −7 1
7. (b) y 0 = (c) y = x+
2y 4 4
8. (a) 2
1 5 1
(b) stopped at t = 1/2 and 2. Speeding up when < t < or 2 < t. Slowing down when 0 < t < or
2 4 2
5
< t < 2.
4
(c) 155/8
√
9. (a) 10/ 2
(b) Point furthest to the left are s = −10 and these occur when t = (2n + 1)π − π4 , where n ∈ Z. Point
furthest to the right are s = 10 and these occur when t = 2nπ − π4 , where n ∈ Z.
(c) For leftmost points v = 0 and a = 10. For rightmost points v = 0 and a = −10. (d) t = π/4.
v(π/4) = −10 and a(π/4) = 0.
10. 12e10/3 + 24 degrees.

11. 3 feet
12. √9 ≈ 2.5 m/s
13
−1
13. (a) −5.4◦ C/min (b) −0.54◦ C (c) t = 45

0.09 ln 70
PART 6: R EVIEW M ATERIAL E ND OF T ERM R EVIEW N OTES 240
6.3 End of Term Review Notes

1. Special Limits:
n
sin x 1/x 1
lim =1 lim (1 + x) =e lim 1+ =e
x→0 x x→0 n→∞ n
2. Definition of Derivative: The derivative of a function f at a number a, denote by f 0 (a), is
f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim
h→0 h
3. Differentiation Rules: (Part 3)
(a) General Formulas:

d
dx (c) =0 d
dx [cf (x)] = cf 0 (x)
d n
dx [x ] = nxn−1 d
dx [f (x) ± g(x)] = f 0 (x) ± g 0 (x)
f 0 (x)g(x)−f (x)g 0 (x)

h i
f (x)
d
dx [f (x)g(x)] = f (x)g 0 (x) + f 0 (x)g(x) (product rule) d
dx g(x) = [g(x)]2 (quotient rule)
d
dx [f (g(x))] = f 0 (g(x))g 0 (x) (chain rule)
(b) Exponential and Logarithmic Functions:

d x d
dx (e ) = ex x
dx (a ) = ax ln a
d 1 d 1
dx (ln |x|) = x dx (loga x) = x ln a
(c) Trigonometric functions:

d d d
dx (sin x) = cos x dx (cos x) = − sin x dx (tan x) = sec2 x
(d) Inverse Trigonometric Functions:

d −1 √ 1 d −1 1 d −1 1
dx (sin x) = 1−x2 dx (cos x) = − √1−x2 dx (tan x) = 1+x2
4. Natural Growth Equation: (Lecture 3.8) The solution of the initial-value problem
dy
= ky, y(0) = y0
dt
is
y(t) = y0 ekt .
Radioactive Decay problems: Usually k is specified in terms of the half-life of the isotope
ln 2
τ= .
k
This is the time required for half of any given quantity to decay.
Newton’s Law of Cooling/Heating problems: The temperature T of an object is modeled by:
dT
= k(T − M ) −→ T (t) = Aekt + M
dt
where
• M is the temperature of the surroundings (ambient temperature - which is constant)
• k a constant (called the heating/cooling constant)
5. Linear Approximation and Differentials: (Lecture 3.10) The linear function
L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
is called the linearization of f at a.

For x close to a we have that
f (x) ≈ L(x) = f (a) + f 0 (a)(x − a)
and this approximation is called the linear approximation of f at a.
The differential dy is defined as
dy = f 0 (x)∆x = f 0 (x)dx .
6. L’Hospital’s Rule: (Lecture 4.4) Suppose that f and g are differentiable and g 0 (x) 6= 0 near a
(except possibly at a.) Suppose that
lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0

x→a x→a
or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞
x→a x→a
Then
f (x) f 0 (x)
lim = lim 0
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)
if the limit on the right side exists (or is ∞ or −∞).
7. Example. Compute the following limit:

(ln x)2
lim
x→∞ x
8. Newton’s Method for approximating solutions to f (x) = 0: (Lecture 4.8)
i. Begin with an initial guess x1 .

ii. Calculate
f (x1 )
x2 = x1 − .
f 0 (x1 )
iii. If xn is known then

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − .
f 0 (xn )
iv. If xn and xn + 1 agree to k decimal places then xn approximates the root r up to k decimal places
and f (xn ) ≈ 0.
9. Example. (a) Show that the equation ex = 5x has exactly two solutions.
(b) Use Newton’s Method to find the two solutions to the equation in (a) to three decimal places.
10. Increasing/Decreasing Test.

(a) If f 0 (x) > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing % on that interval.
(b) If f 0 (x) < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing & on that interval.
11. Definition. A critical number of a function f is a number c in the domain of f such that either
f 0 (c) = 0 or f 0 (c) does not exist.
12. The First Derivative Test. Suppose that c is a critical number of a continuous function f .
(a) If f 0 changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local maximum at c.
(b) If f 0 changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local minimum at c.
(c) If f 0 does not change sign at c, then f has no local minimum or maximum at c.
13. Concavity Test.
(a) If f ”(x) > 0 for all x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave upward on I.
(
(b) If f ”(x) < 0 for all x ∈ I, then the graph of f is concave downward on I.
)
14. Definition. A point P on a curve y = f (x) is called an inflection point if f is continuous there
the curve changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave downward to
(
)
concave upward at P .
(
15. The Second Derivative Test. Suppose f ” is continuous near c.

(a) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f ”(c) > 0 then f has a local minimum at c.
(b) If f 0 (c) = 0 and f ”(c) < 0 then f has a local maximum at c.
16. The Mean Value Theorem. (Lecture 4.2) ) Let f be a function that satisfies the following hypothe-
ses:
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) =
b−a
or, equivalently,
f (b) − f (a) = f 0 (c)(b − a).
17. Closed Interval Method for finding Absolute Extrema: To find the absolute maximum and
minimum values of a continuous function f on a closed interval [a, b]:
(a) Find the values of f at the critical numbers of f in (a, b).
(b) Find the values of f at the endpoints of the interval.
(c) The largest of the values from Step 1 and Step 2 is the absolute maximum value; the smallest of
these values is the absolute minimum value.
18. Example. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of f (x) = e−x − e−2x on the
interval [0, 1].
19. Derivatives of Parametric Curves: (Lecture 5.1) The derivative to the parametric curve x = f (t),
y = g(t) is given by
dy
dy dt g 0 (t)
= dx = 0 .
dx dt
f (t)
The second derivative is given by

d dy
2
f 0 (t)g 00 (t) − g 0 (t)f 00 (t)

d y d dy dt dx
= = = .
dx2 dx dx dx
dt
(f 0 (t))3
20. Derivative of Polar Curves: (Lecture 5.2) Suppose that r = f (θ) is a differentiable function of θ.
Then from the parametric equations
x = r cos θ y = r sin θ
it follows that
dy dr
dy sin θ + r cos θ
= dθ = dθ
dx dx dr
cos θ − r sin θ
dθ dθ
21. Example. True or False. Justify your answers.
(a) If f (x) is differentiable at x = a then f (x) is continuous at x = a.
(b) If f 0 (c) = 0 then f has a local max/min at c.
(c) If f 0 (x) < 0 for 1 < x < 6, then f is decreasing on (1, 6).
(d) If f 00 (2) = 0 then (2, f (2)) is an inflection point of f .
(e) If f 0 (x) = g 0 (x) for 0 < x < 1, then f (x) = g(x) for 0 < x < 1.
(f) There exists a function f such that f (x) > 0, f 0 (x) < 0, and f 00 (x) > 0 for all x.
(g) If f is periodic then f 0 is periodic.

(h) If f is even then f 0 is even.
(i) If the parametric curve x = f (t), y = g(t) satisfies g 0 (1) = 0, then it has a horizontal tangent line
when t = 1.
(j) The equations

r = 2,
x + y2 = 4
2
and
2π
x = 2 sin (3t), y = 2 cos (3t) (0 ≤ t ≤ )
3
all have the same graph.
(Answers: 7. limit is 0 21. (a) T (b) F (c) T (d) F (e) F (f) T (g) T (h) F (i) F (j) T )
PART 6: R EVIEW M ATERIAL F INAL E XAM C HECKLIST 246
6.4 Final Exam Checklist

(Page numbers refer to Stewart’s Calculus [3].)
Definitions:
Chapter 2:
1. Limit (page 83)
2. Left-hand (right-hand) limit (page 88)
3. Infinite limit (pages 89 and 90)

4. Vertical asymptote (page 90)
5. Function continuous at a number (page 114)
6. Function continuous from the right (left) at a number (page 116)

7. Function continuous on an interval(page 117)
8. Limit at infinity (page 127 and 128)
9. Horizontal asymptote (page 128)
10. Tangent line (page 141)

11. The derivative of a function at a number (page 144)
12. Function differentiable on a set (page 155)
13. Vertical tangent line (page 158)

Chapter 3:
14. The number e (page 178)
15. Linear approximation (page 252)
16. Differential (page 254)
Chapter 4:
17. Absolute maximum/minimum (page 276)
18. Local maximum/minimum (page 276)
19. Critical number (page 280)
20. Function concave upward/downward (page 296)

21. Inflection point (page 297)
Chapter 10:
22. Parameter, parametric equations, parametric curve (page 640)
23. Initial and terminal points (page 641)
24. The Cycloid (page 643)

25. Polar coordinate system, pole, polar axis, polar coordinates (page 658)
Theorems/ Formulas/ Procedures:

Chapter 2:
1. lim f (x) = L if and only if lim− f (x) = L and lim f (x) = L’ (page 88 and 99)
x→a x→a x→a+
2. Limit Laws (Page 95-102)
3. Direct Substitute Property (page 97)

4. Theorem about the monotonicity and limits. (page 101)
5. The Squeeze Theorem (page 101)
6. Continuity and combinations of functions (page 117)

7. Continuity of polynomials and rational functions (page 118)
8. Continuity and the combination of functions (page 120)
9. Continuity and the composition of functions (page 120, 121)
10. The Intermediate Value Theorem (page 122)

11. Limits at infinity of the power functions with negative rational exponents (page 129)
12. Relationship between differentiable and continuous functions (page 156)
Chapter 3:
13. Derivative of a constant function (page 172)
14. Power rule (pages 173 and 174)
15. The Constant Multiple Rule (page 175)
16. The Sum Rule (page 176)
17. The Difference Rule (page 176)

18. Derivative of the natural exponential function (page 179)
19. The Product Rule (page 184)
20. The Quotient Rule (page 186)

21. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions (pages 192 and 193)
22. The Chain Rule (page 198)
23. Derivative the exponential function f (x) = ax (page 202)
24. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions (page 214)

25. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions (page 218 - 220)
26. e as a limit (page 222)
27. The solution of the initial-value problem (page 237)
Chapter 4:
28. The Extreme Value Theorem (page 278)
29. Fermat’s Theorem (page 279)
30. The Closed Interval Method (page 281)

31. Rolle’s Theorem (page 287)
32. The Mean Value Theorem (page 288)
33. The relationship between two functions implied by the equality of their derivatives (pages 291)
34. Increasing/Decreasing test (page 293)

35. The First Derivative Test (page 294)
36. Concavity Test (page 296)
37. The Second Derivative Test (page 297)
38. L’Hospital’s Rule (page 305)

39. Newton’s Method (page 346)
Examples:
Chapter 2:
1. Function with neither left-hand nor right-hand limits at the given point (Example 4 page 86)
2. Function with the left-hand and right hand limits that are not equal (Example 6 page 91)
3. Function with infinite left-hand and right hand limits (Example 8 page 89)
4. Function with an infinite number of vertical asymptotes (Example 10 page 91)
5. Function F = f · g so that the limits of F and f at a exist and the limit of g at a does not exist.
(Example 11 page 105)
6. Function F = f + g so that the limit of F at a exists and the limits of f and g at a do not exist.
7. Function F = f g so that the limit of F at a exists and the limits of f and g at a do not exist.
8. Function with a removable (infinite, jump) discontinuity. (Example 2 page 115-116)
9. Function with the graph that intersects its horizontal asymptote (page 127)
10. Function with two horizontal asymptotes (page 128)
11. Function that is continuous but not differentiable (Example 5 page 156)
12. Function with a vertical tangent line (page 158)
13. Function with a “corner” (page 158)

Chapter 3:
14. Function that is the same as its derivative (page 179) [Can you find THREE different functions
with this property?]
Chapter 4:
15. Function f with no minimum, no maximum but such that f 0 (a) = 0 for some a. (page 277)
16. Function with a local minimum that is not the global minimum. (page 277)
17. Function(s) that does not satisfied the hypothesis of the Extreme Value Theorem. (page 278)
18. Function with a critical number but no maximum or minimum. (page 280)
19. Sketch the graph of a function that is increasing for x < 0, decreasing for 0 < x < 1, and increas-
ing for x > 1. Also, suppose this function has a horizontal asymptote when x → −∞ and a slant
asymptote when x → ∞.
20. Function that is concave upward (concave downward) (page 296)

21. Function with an inflection point at which the first derivative equals 0.
22. Function with a local minimum at which the second derivative equals 0.
Limits:
Are you able to do most of the following:
1. Exercises 2.3: 1-32, 37-52

2. Exercises 2.6: 1-65
3. Exercises 3.3: 39-50
Differentiation:
Are you able to do most of the following:
2. Exercises 2.8: 21-32, 41-44, 47-52, 56-63

3. Exercises 3.2: 3-35, 41-50
4. Exercises 3.3: 1-34, 51-53
5. Exercises 3.4: 1-54, 59-78
6. Exercises 3.5: 1-32, 35-40, 44-60, 73-80

7. Exercises 3.6: 1-34, 37-50
Applications:
1. Tangent lines (throughout the text)
2. Velocity (throughout text)
3. The Intermediate Value Theorem (Section 2.5: Exercises 50-56)

4. Rates of change (Section 2.7: Exercises 45-54, Section 3.7: Exercises 7-26)
5. Exponential growth and decay (Section 3.8: all exercises)
6. Related rates (Section 3.9: all exercises)

7. Linear Approximation and Differentials (Section 3.10: Exercises 11-22, 33-40)
8. Maximum and minimum values (Section 4.1: Exercises 47-62, 69-73)
9. Mean Value Theorem (Section 4.2: Exercises 17-33)
10. Graphs of functions (Section 4.3 and Section 4.5)

11. Optimization (Section 4.7)
12. Newton’s method (Section 4.8: Exercises 5-8, 11-22)
Miscellaneous:
1. Section 10.1: Exercises 1-28
2. Section 10.2: Exercises 1-30
3. Section 10.3: Exercises 15-46, 55-64

PART 6: R EVIEW M ATERIAL F INAL E XAM P RACTICE Q UESTIONS 251
6.5 Final Exam Practice Questions

Please refer to the final exam checklist (section 6.4) for an indication of what you will need to know for
the final exam (in short, the material from any section we covered this term will be on the exam, with the
exception of lecture 2.4).
To prepare for the exam you should: (i) read all sections of the textbook again; (ii) go through all the
homework questions again and make sure you can do every single one of them, (iii) work through more
problems from the textbook; (iv) work through the final exam checklist (this can be done in conjunction
with (i) through (iii)). Only once you have done all this should you attempt the following questions.
The following is a list of practice exam questions. This will give you an idea of the types of questions you
will be asked on the exam.
Instructions: No calculators, books, papers, or electronic devices shall be allowed within the reach of
√
a
student during the examination. Leave answers in ”calculator ready” expressions: such as 3 + ln 7 or e 2 .
Questions 1-3 are on the statements of definitions and theorems and on your ability to give ex-
amples of functions with specified properties..
1. Define the following terms.
(a) Limit
(b) Function continuous at a number
(c) Function continuous on an interval
(d) Tangent line
(e) The derivative of a function at a number
(f) Function differentiable a on a set
(g) The number e
(h) Differential
(i) Absolute maximum and absolute minimum
(j) Local maximum and local minimus
(k) Critical number
(l) Function concave upward and concave downward
(m) Inflection point
2. State the following theorems.
(a) The Squeeze Theorem
(b) The Intermediate Value Theorem
(c) Fermat’s Theorem
(d) Extreme Value Theorem
(e) Rolle’s Theorem
(f) The Mean Value Theorem
(g) L’Hospital’s Rule
3. Give an example for each of the following.
(a) Function with an infinite number of vertical asymptotes.
(b) Function F = f · g so that the limits of F and f at a exist and the limit of g at a does not exist.
(c) Function with a removable discontinuity.

(d) The most general form of a function with the property that its second derivative is the zero
function.
(e) Function that is continuous but not differentiable at a point.
(f) Function with a critical number but no maximum or minimum.
(g) Function with a local minimum at which the second derivative equals 0.
Questions 4-16 are short answer questions. The questions are given in no particular order.
dy
4. Find the derivative y 0 = of each of the following:
dx
(a) y = cos−1 (x2 ) − ln (1 + x3 ) [Note: Another notation for cos−1 is arccos.]
(b) y = xsin(x) .
y
1
(c) arctan = 2 ln (x2 + y 2 ).
x
5. Let f (x) = tan x. Find f 00 (x), the second derivative of f .
6. Find the tangent line to the curve y + x ln y − 2x = 0 at the point (1/2, 1).
2x3 + 3x − 1
7. Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 1 − 2x2 + 5x3
x2 − 1
8. Evaluate lim .
x→1 x2 − 3x + 2
2x
9. Let f (x) = .
x2 + 3
(a) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = f (x) at x = 1.
(b) Use linear approximation to give an approximate value for f (1.2).
10. A particle moves along the x-axis so that its position at time t is given by x = t3 − 4t2 + 1.
(a) At t = 2, what is the particle’s speed?
(b) At t = 2, in what direction is the particle moving?
(c) At t = 2, is the particle’s speed increasing or decreasing?
11. The curve y = x4 e−x has two inflection points. Find the x-coordinate of both points.
x3 + 2x2
12. Find an equation of the slant asymptote to the curve y = .
x2 + 3x + 2
13. Find a number x0 between 0 and π such that the tangent line to the curve y = sin x at x = x0 is
parallel to the line y = −x/2.
1
14. Evaluate lim x sin .
x→0 x
ex − 1 − x
15. Evaluate lim .
x→0 x2
16. Evaluate lim xsin x .
x→0
Questions 17-33 are full-solution problems. Justify your answers and show all your work. The
questions are given in no particular order.
5
17. Let f (x) = . Calculate f 0 (2) directly from the definition of derivative.
3x − 1
18. A water-trough is 10m long and has a cross-section which is the shape of an isosceles trapezoid that
is 30cm wide at the bottom, 80cm wide at the top, and has height 50cm. If the trough is being filled
with water at the rate of 0.2 m3 /min, how fast is the water level rising when the water is 30cm deep?
[Recall: The area of an isosceles trapezoid as shown in the diagram is A = 12 (a + b)h.]
19. Use differentials to estimate the amount of paint needed to apply a coat of paint 0.05cm thick to a
hemispherical dome with diameter 50m.
20. At 2:00 p.m.a car’s speedometer reads 30 mi/h. At 2:10 p.m. it reads 50 mi/h. Show that at some time
between 2:00 and 2:10 the acceleration is exactly 120 mi/h2 .
21. A piece of wire 10m long is cut into two pieces. One piece is bent into a square and the other is bent
into an circle. How should the wire be cut so that the total area enclosed is minimum.
22. A turkey is put into an oven that has a constant temperature of 200◦ C. A thermometer embedded in
the turkey registers its temperature. When the turkey is put into the oven, the thermometer reads
20◦ C, and 30 minutes later it reads 30◦ C. The turkey will be ready to eat when the thermometer reads
80◦ C. How many minutes after being put into the oven will the turkey be ready to eat? Assume that
the turkey’s temperature satisfies Newton’s law of cooling/heating.
23. Sketch the graph of the function
−2x2 + 5x − 1
f (x) = .
2x − 1
24. Let f (x) = 2x3 − 6x2 + 3x + 1.
(a) First show that f has at least one zero in the interval [2, 3] and then use the first derivative of f
to show that there is exactly one root of f between 2 and 3.
(b) Use Newton’s method to approximate the root of f in the interval [2, 3] by starting with x1 = 5/2
and finding x2 .
25. Find the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed inside a semicircular region of
radius 5 such that one side of the rectangle is parallel to the base of the semicircular region.
26. (a) A metal storage tank with fixed volume V is to be constructed in the shape of a right circular cylin-
der surmounted by a hemisphere, without a base. What dimensions will require the least amount of
metal?
(b) Suppose the metal for the hemisphere costs twice as much as the metal for the lateral sides. What
are the dimensions for the tank that minimizes cost?
(Recall: The volume of a sphere of radius r is 34 πr3 and the surface area is 4πr2 .)
27. (a) Show that Newton’s Method applied to the equation x2 − a = 0 yields the iterative formula

1 a
xn+1 = xn +
2 xn
√
and thus provides a method for approximating the square root a which uses only addition and
multiplication.
√
(b) Approximate 3 by taking x1 = 3/2 and calculating x2 .
28. Find f if f 00 (x) = 2 + cos x, f 0 (0) = −1 and f (π/2) = 0.
29. Sketch the curve which is given by the parametric equations
x = cos (πt), y = sin (πt), 1 ≤ t ≤ 2.
Clearly label the initial and terminal points and describe the motion of the point (x(t), y(t)) as t varies
in the given interval (i.e. indicate the direction the point is traveling).
30. A curve called the folium of Descartes is defined by the parametric equations
3t2 (t + 1) −3t(t + 1)2

x= , y = , − ∞ < t < ∞.
3t2 + 3t + 1 3t2 + 3t + 1
(a) Show that a Cartesian equation of this curve is x3 + y 3 = 3xy.

(b) Find the point on the curve corresponding to t = −1/2.
(c) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point corresponding to t = −1/2.
(d) Find the values of the parameter t which correspond to the point (0, 0) on the curve.
(e) Find equations of the tangent lines to the curve at the point (0, 0).
31. Consider the curve given by the parametric equations
x = 2 sin t, y = 4 + cos t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Determine the points on the curve which are closest to the origin and those which are furthest away.
32. Sketch the curve with the polar equation r = 2 cos 4θ.
33. Consider the curve given by the polar equation
r = 1 + 2 sin (3θ), 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.
(a) Determine the points on the curve which are furthest from the origin.
(b) Find the slope of the tangent line to each of the points found in part (a).
Answers:
2x 3x2 x+y
4. (a) y 0 = − √ − (b) y 0 = xsin x ( sinx x + ln x cos x) (c) y 0 =
1−x 4 1 + x3 x−y
5. f 00 (x) = 2 sec2 (x) tan (x)
6. y = 34 x + 1
3
7. 2/5
8. −2
9. (a) y = 14 x + 1
4
(b) f (1.2) ≈ 41 (1.2) + 1
4
= 11
20
= 0.55
10. (a) −4 (b) to the left (c) speed is decreasing
11. x = 2 and x = 6
12. y = x − 1
13. 2π/3
14. 0 (Hint: use Squeeze Theorem since sin(1/x) is bounded)
15. 1/2
16. 1
17. −3/5
1
18. 30
m/min = 10
3
cm/min
19. 5
8
π ≈ 2 m3
20. Hint: use Mean Value Theorem
40
21. The length of wire used to make the square should be π+4
ln (2/3)
22. t = 2 ln (17/18)
≈ 3.55 hours ≈ 3 hours 33 minutes
24. (b) x2 = 16/7 ≈ 2.285714286
√ √
25. base is 4 5 and height is 5
p p
26. (a) hemisphere (b) r = 12 3 3V /π and h = 3 3V /π.
7
27. (b) 4
28. f (x) = − cos x + x2 − x + π/2(1 − π/2)
29. Consists of points on the unit semicircle in quadrants 3 and 4. Points are moving counterclockwise along curve
with initial point (−1, 0) and terminal point (1, 0).
30. (b) (3/2, 3/2) (c) y = −x + 3 (d) t = −1, 0 (e) There are two lines: the first is when t = −1 and the tangent is
the horizontal line y = 0, the second occurs when t = 0 and is the vertical line x = 0.
31. closest point is (0, 3), furthest point is (0, 5)
√ √
33. (a) The three points are (r, θ) = (3, π6 ), (3, 5π
6
), (3, 3π
2
). (b) slopes of tangents at these points are − 3, 3, and 0,
respectively.
B IBLIOGRAPHY 256
Bibliography
[1] C. Adams, A. Thompson, and J. Hass. How to Ace Calculus: The Streetwise Guide. W.H. Freeman and Company,
1998.
[2] B. Ćurgus. An exceptional exponential function. The College Mathematics Journal, 37(5):344–354, 2006.
http://myweb.facstaff.wwu.edu/curgus/Papers/ExcExpFinal.pdf.
[3] J. Stewart. Calculus: Early Transcendentals. Cengage Learning, 8th edition, 2012.
257
Index
N, set of natural numbers, 2 of trigonometric functions, 98

Q, set of rational numbers, 2 power rule, 88
R, set of real numbers, 2 second, 85
Z, set of integers, 2 sum rule, 89
e, see natural number e differentiable, 84
differential, 141
absolute extrema, 150 differentiation
absolute maximum, 150 implicit, 109
absolute minimum, 150 logarithmic, 115
acceleration, 85
antiderivative, 184 exponential growth and decay, 124
asymptote Extreme Value Theorem, 150
horizontal, 65 extremum
vertical, 45 absolute, 150
average velocity, 75 local, 150
chain rule, 103 Factor Theorem, 33

concavity, 162 Fermat’s Theorem, 151
Concavity Test, 162 First Derivative Test, 161
conic sections, 214 folium of Descartes, 108, 109
function, 3
directrix, 204
algebra, 20
ellipse, 207
codomain, 3
foci, 207
composition, 20
focus, 204
domain, 3
hyperbola, 210
graph, 6
major axis, 209
horizontal line test, 27
parabola, 204
implicitely defined, 108
polar curves, 215
inverse, 27
semimajor axis, 209
inverse trigonometric functions, 29
vertex, 204
linear, 9
vertices, 209
logarithm, 28
continuity
one-to-one, 26
from the left, 58
polynomial, 12
from the right, 58
power, 10
of a function, 56
range, 3
on an interval, 58
rational, 13
critical number, 152
transformations, 19
trigonometric, 14
decreasing test, 160
vertical line test, 7
derivative, 73, 80, 81
definition of, 73, 80, 88 global extreme, see absolute extrema
higher, 85
of a logarithmic function, 114 implicit function, 108
of a polynomial, 89 increasing test, 160
of a product, 94, 103 inflection point, 162
of a quotient, 95 instantaneous velocity, 75
of an inverse function, 110 Intermediate Value Theorem, 61
of exponential functions, 91, 105
of inverse trigonometric functions, 110 L’Hospital’s Rule, 166
258
I NDEX 259
limit, 43
at infinity, 64
infinite, 45
laws, 47
precise definition (epsilon-delta), 53
right-hand limit, 43
line
tangent, 71
vertical tangent line, 84
linear approximation, 139
local extrema, 150
local maximum, 150
local minimum, 150
maximum
absolute, 150
local, 150
Mean Value Theorem, 156
minimum
absolute, 150
local, 150
natural growth equation, 124

natural number e, 25, 91
Newton’s law of cooling and heating, 127
orthogonal curves, 112

orthogonal trajectories, 112
polar coordinates, 195

Polya’s approach to problem solving, 68
polynomial, 12, 14
product rule, 94
quotient rule, 95
radioactive decay, 126

half-life, 126
rate of change
average, 69, 76
instantaneous, 76
rational function, 13
Rolle’s Theorem, 155
Second Derivative Test, 163

Squeeze Theorem, 49
tangent line, 71, 74

vertical, 84
velocity
average, 75
instantaneous, 75
vertical asymptote, 45

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Calculus I with Review

Veselin Jungic & Jamie Mulholland

1 Review: Functions and Models 1

2 Limits and Derivatives 37

3.6 Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

4 Applications of the Derivative 149

5 Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates 189

6 Review Material 219

lower capital name pronunciation lower capital name pronunciation

α A alpha (al-fah) ν N nu (new)

Review: Functions and Models

Basic sets of numbers

(Some authors include 0 in this set.)

Z = {. . . , −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, . . .}

• rational numbers: the set of ratios of integers

1.1 Four Ways to Define a Function

2. The range of f is the set of all elements in Y which correspond to an element of X:

range f = {f (x) : x ∈ X}.

3. Example. The following function maps each person to their age.

(a) verbally (word description)

ex. The area of a circle is π times the radius squared.

(b) algebraically (by a formula)

ex. A(r) = πr2

(c) numerically (by a table of values)

(d) visually (by a graph)

5. Example. Let f (x) = x2 .

(b) Sketch the graph of f .

6. A 10-ft wall stands 5 ft from a building and a ladder of variable

(a) Find the domain of the function

(b) Find the domain of the function p

(d) f (x) = |x|

Which curve is the graph of a function?

10. Additional Notes

1.2 Mathematical Models: A Catalog of Essential Functions

2. Find the equation of the line in each of the following cases.

(a) slope = 2, containing P = (1, 3).

(b) containing the points (1, 3) and (−2, 7).

3. Some Common Functions:

(a) Power Functions: A power function is a function of the form

where a is a fixed real number.

(b) Polynomials: A polynomial is a function of the form

f (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a2 x2 + a1 x + a0

(c) Rational Functions: A rational function is the ratio of two polynomials:

where p(x) and q(x) are polynomials.

Why are there 360◦ in a full rotation? (◦ is read ”degrees”)

Radian measure of an angle:

7. Definition: The sin and cos of an angle:

8. We can fill out the following table

θ sin θ cos θ tan θ

9. Sketching the graphs of sin and cos.

10. Additional Notes

1.3 New Functions From Old Functions

2. Sketch the graph of y = 3x2 − 6x + 1.

3. Vertical & Horizontal Shifts:

4. Sketch the graph of y = sin 2x.

5. Vertical and Horizontal Streching and Reflecting

6. Given the graph of f sketch the graph of 21 (f (x − 4) − 8).

10. Example. If f (x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1 find f ◦ g and g ◦ f .

13. Additional Notes

1.4 Exponential Functions & Inverse Functions and Logarithms

1. Reminder. For all a ∈ (0, 1) ∪ (1, ∞) and all x, y ∈ R:

4. Reminder. Evaluate f (2), f (−2), f ( 12 ) and f ( 23 ) if f (x) = 4x .

6. Reminder. Napier’s constant:

11. Example. Show that

4. Example. Prove the statement using the , δ definition.