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Mechanical Properties in
MECHANICAL and PHYSICAL Design and Manufacturing
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Mechanical properties determine a material’s
behavior when subjected to mechanical stresses
– Properties include elastic modulus, ductility,
• Stress-Strain Relationships hardness, and various measures of strength
• Hardness • Dilemma: mechanical properties that are desirable to
• Effect of Temperature on Properties the designer, such as high strength, usually make
• Fluid Properties manufacturing more difficult
• Viscoelastic Behavior of Polymers
Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials 1 Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials 2
Stress-Strain Relationships Tensile Test

• Most common test for
• Three types of static stresses to which materials studying stress-strain
can be subjected: relationship, especially
1. Tensile - stretching the material metals
2. Compressive - squeezing the material • In the test, a force pulls
the material, elongating it
3. Shear - causing adjacent portions of the
and reducing its diameter
material to slide against each other
• (left) Tensile force applied
• Stress-strain curve - basic relationship that
describes mechanical properties for all three types and (right) resulting
elongation of material
Tensile Test Specimen and Setup Tensile Test Sequence

• (1) no load; (2) uniform elongation and area
reduction; (3) maximum load; (4) necking; (5)
fracture; (6) putting pieces back together to measure
final length
Video: http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x9v12o_the-
tensile-test-experiment_tech
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Engineering Stress Engineering Strain
Defined as force divided by original area: Defined at any point in the test as
F L  Lo
e  e
Ao Lo
where e = engineering stress, F = applied where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

force, and Ao = original area of test specimen point during elongation; and Lo = original gage
length
Typical Engineering Elastic Region in

Stress-Strain Plot Stress-Strain Curve
• Relationship between stress
and strain is linear
• Typical engineering
Hooke's Law: e = E e
stress-strain plot in
a tensile test of a where E = modulus of
elasticity
metal
• Material returns to its original
• Two regions: length when stress is removed
1. Elastic region • E is a measure of the inherent
2. Plastic region stiffness of a material
– Its value differs for different
materials
Yield Point in Plastic Region in

Stress-Strain Curve Stress-Strain Curve
• As stress increases, a point in the
• Yield point marks the
linear relationship is finally beginning of plastic
reached when the material begins deformation
to yield • The stress-strain
– Yield point Y can be identified relationship is no longer
by the change in slope at the guided by Hooke's Law
upper end of the linear region • As load is increased beyond
• Y = a strength property Y, elongation proceeds at a
– Other names for yield point: much faster rate than
Y is defined as the stress at before, causing the slope of
• Yield strength the curve to change
which a strain offset of 0.2%
• Yield stress dramatically
from the straight line has
• Elastic limit occurred.
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Tensile Strength in
Ductility in Tensile Test
Stress-Strain Curve
• Elongation is accompanied by a
uniform reduction in • Ability of a material to plastically strain without fracture
cross-sectional area, consistent
with maintaining constant volume
• Ductility measure = elongation EL
Lf  Lo
• Finally, the applied load F reaches a EL 
Lo
maximum value, and engineering
stress at this point is called the where EL = elongation; Lf = specimen length at
tensile strength TS (a.k.a. ultimate fracture; and Lo = original specimen length
tensile strength) Lf is measured as the distance between gage marks
F after two pieces of specimen are put back together
TS = max
Ao
True Stress True Strain

• Above we used the original area Ao of the test
specimen to calculate stress and strain. A more • Provides a more realistic assessment of
realistic assessment of the “instantaneous” stress "instantaneous" elongation per unit length
and strain can be obtained by using the
L
instantaneous value of the area A. dL L
   ln
• Stress value obtained by dividing the instantaneous L L o
Lo
area into applied load
F where L = instantaneous length at any moment during

A elongation.
where  = true stress; F = force; and A = actual
(instantaneous) area resisting the load
Strain Hardening in
True Stress-Strain Curve Stress-Strain Curve
• Note that true stress increases
continuously in the plastic
region until necking
– In the engineering
stress-strain curve, the
significance of this was lost
because stress was based
on the original area value
• It means that the metal is
becoming stronger as strain
• Engineering stress- • True stress-strain curve increases
strain curve (more (more important in – This is the property called
important in design) manufacturing) strain (or work) hardening
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True Stress-Strain in Log-Log True Stress-Strain in Log-Log

Plot and Flow Curve Plot and Flow Curve
 Because it is a straight Empirical evidence reveals that
line in a log-log plot, the necking begins for a particular
relationship between metal when the true strain
reaches a value equal to the
true stress and true strain hardening exponent.
strain in the plastic
Therefore, a higher n value
region is
means that the metal can be
  K n strained further before onset of
necking during tensile loading.
where K = strength • True stress-strain curve   K n
coefficient; and n = plotted on log-log scale. where K = strength coefficient;
strain hardening and n = strain hardening
exponent Manufacturing Technology 3 - exponent
3) Mechanical Properties of Materials 19 Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials 20
Categories of Stress-Strain Stress-Strain Relationships:

Relationship: 1) Perfectly Elastic 2) Elastic and Perfectly Plastic
• Behavior is defined • Stiffness defined by E

completely by modulus of • Once yield strenght Y is reached,
elasticity E deforms plastically at same
• Fractures rather than yielding stress level
to plastic flow • Flow curve: K = Y, n = 0
• Brittle materials: ceramics, • Metals behave like this when
heated to sufficiently high
many cast irons, and temperatures (above
thermosetting polymers recrystallization). Example –
lead at room temperature.
Stress-Strain Relationships:
Compression Test
3) Elastic and Strain Hardening
• Hooke's Law in elastic region, • Applies a load that squeezes the

yields at Y ends of a cylindrical specimen
• Flow curve: K > Y, n > 0 between two platens
• Most ductile metals behave • Compression force applied to
this way when cold worked test piece and resulting change
in height and diameter
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Compression Test Engineering Strain in

Compression
• As the specimen is
compressed, its height is Engineering strain is defined
reduced and h  ho
e
cross-sectional area is ho
increased where h = height of the specimen at a particular
moment during the test, and ho = starting height.
e = - F
Since height is reduced during compression, value of
Ao
e is negative (the negative sign is usually ignored
when expressing compression strain)
where Ao = original area of
the specimen
Stress-Strain Curve in Tensile Test vs.

Compression Compression Test
• Shape of plastic region is • Although differences exist between engineering

different from tensile test stress-strain curves in tension and compression, the
because cross section true stress-strain relationships are nearly identical
increases • Since tensile test results are more common, flow
• Therefore, calculated value curve values (K and n) from tensile test data can be
of engineering stress is applied to compression operations
higher • When using tensile K and n data for compression,
ignore necking, which is a phenomenon peculiar to
strain induced by tensile stresses
Testing of Brittle Materials Bending Test

• Bending of a rectangular cross section results in both
• Hard brittle materials (e.g., ceramics) possess tensile and compressive stresses in the material:
elasticity but little or no plasticity (left) initial loading; (right) highly stressed and
– Conventional tensile test cannot be easily applied strained specimen
• Often tested by a bending test (also called flexure
test)
– Specimen of rectangular cross-section is
positioned between two supports, and a load is
applied at its center
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Transverse Rupture
Testing of Brittle Materials
Strength
• Brittle materials do not flex as much as shown in the • The strength value derived from the bending test:
figure in the previous slide. 1.5FL
TRS 
• They deform elastically until fracture bt 2
– Failure occurs because tensile strength of outer where TRS = transverse rupture strength; F = applied
fibers of specimen are exceeded load at fracture; L = length of specimen between
supports; and b and t are dimensions of cross section
– Failure type: cleavage – common for ceramics and
also for metals at low temperatures
Shear Properties Torsion Stress-Strain Curve
Torsion test setup:
Application of stresses in opposite directions on either side of a

thin element: (a) shear stress and (b) shear strain 𝑇
Shear stress: 𝜏=
2𝜋𝑅2𝑡
F
Shear stress
 where F = applied force; and A = area where T = applied torque;
A
over which deflection occurs. R = radius of the tube measured • Typical shear
Shear strain    where  = deflection element; and b = to the neutral axis of the wall; stress-strain curve
b distance over which deflection occurs t = wall thickness. from a torsion test
Shear Elastic Stress-Strain Shear Plastic Stress-Strain

Relationship Relationship
 The shear strain can be • Relationship is similar to flow curve for a tensile test
determined by measuring the
amount of angular deflection of
• Shear stress at fracture = shear strength S
the tube α (in rads), converting it – Shear strength can be estimated from tensile
into a distance deflected, and strength: S  0.7(TS)
dividing by the gauge length L: γ = 𝑅α
𝐿 • Since cross-sectional area of test specimen in torsion
• In the elastic region, the stress-strain relationship is defined as test does not change as in tensile and compression,
  G engineering stress-strain curve for shear  true
where G = shear modulus, or shear modulus of elasticity stress-strain curve
For most materials, G  0.4E, where E = elastic
modulus
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Hardness Hardness Tests

Resistance to permanent indentation
• Good hardness generally means material is resistant • Commonly used for assessing material properties
to scratching and wear because they are quick and convenient
• Variety of testing methods are appropriate due to
• Most tooling used in manufacturing must be hard for
differences in hardness among different materials
scratch and wear resistance
• Most well-known hardness tests are Brinell and
Rockwell
• Other test methods are also available, such as
Vickers, Knoop, Scleroscope, and durometer
Brinell Hardness Test

Brinell Hardness Test
• Widely used for testing • Load divided into indentation

metals and nonmetals area = Brinell Hardness Number
of low to medium (BHN)
hardness 2F
• A hard ball is pressed HB 
into specimen surface Db (Db  Db2  Di2 )
with a load of 500,
1500, or 3000 kg where HB = Brinell Hardness Number
(BHN), kg/mm2, F = indentation load,
kg; Db = diameter of ball, mm, and Di =
diameter of indentation, mm
Typical hardness of selected

Rockwell Hardness Test
metals
• A cone shaped indenter is
pressed into specimen using
a minor load of 10 kg, thus
seating indenter in material
• Then, a major load of 150 kg
is applied, causing indenter
to penetrate beyond its initial
position
• Additional penetration
distance d is converted into a
Rockwell hardness reading by  (1) initial minor load and
the testing machine (2) major load.
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Effect of Temperature on Properties Recrystallization in Metals

Hot hardness – the ability of a
material to retain hardness at • Most metals strain harden at
elevated temperatures room temperature according
• General effect of  Typical hardness as a function of to the flow curve (n > 0)
temperature on
strength and ductility
temperature for several • But if heated to sufficiently
materials high temperature and
deformed, strain hardening
does not occur
– Instead, new grains form
that are free of strain
• The metal has recrystallized
– The metal behaves as a
perfectly plastic material;
that is, n = 0
Recrystallization and
Recrystallization Temperature
Manufacturing
• Recrystallization can be exploited
• Recrystallization temperature of a given metal = in manufacturing
• Heating a metal to its
about one-half its melting point (0.5 Tm) as recrystallization temperature prior
measured on an absolute temperature scale to deformation allows a greater
amount of straining
• Recrystallization takes time
– Lower forces and power are
– The recrystallization temperature is specified as required to perform the
the temperature at which new grains are formed process
in about one hour – Forming a metal at
temperatures above its
recrystallization temperature is
called hot working
Fluid Properties and

Viscosity in Fluids
Manufacturing
• Fluids flow - they take the shape of the container
that holds them Viscosity is the resistance to flow that is characteristic of a
• Many manufacturing processes are accomplished on given fluid
materials converted from solid to liquid by heating • Flow is a defining characteristic of fluids, but the
– Called solidification processes tendency to flow varies for different fluids
• Viscosity is a measure of the internal friction when
• Examples:
velocity gradients are present in the fluid
– Metals are cast in molten state – The more viscous the fluid, the higher the internal
– Glass is formed in a heated and fluid state friction and the greater the resistance to flow
– Polymers are almost always shaped as fluids – Reciprocal of viscosity is fluidity
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Viscosity Shear Stress

• Shear stress is the frictional force exerted by
the fluid per unit area
• Viscosity can be defined using two parallel plates • Motion of the upper plate is resisted by this
separated by a distance d with a fluid filling the frictional force resulting from the shear
space between them viscosity of the fluid
• This force F can be reduced to a shear stress 
by dividing by plate area A: F

A
Shear Rate Shear Viscosity

• Shear stress is related to shear rate, defined as
the change in velocity dv relative to dy
dv
 
dy
where = shear rate, 1/s; dv = change in velocity, m/s; and
dy = change in distance y, m
Shear rate = velocity gradient perpendicular to flow direction • Shear viscosity is the fluid property that defines the
relationship between the shear stress F/A and shear rate
dv/dy; that is,
F

dv   
A dy or
where  = a constant of proportionality called the
coefficient of viscosity, Pascal-seconds (Pa-s)
• For Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a constant
• For non-Newtonian fluids, it is not
Coefficient of Viscosity Flow Rate and

Viscosity of Polymers
• Rearranging, coefficient of viscosity can be
expressed: • Viscosity of a thermoplastic polymer melt is not
constant

    – It is affected by flow rate

– Its behavior is non-Newtonian
• Viscosity of a fluid is the ratio of shear stress to shear
• A fluid that exhibits this decreasing viscosity with
rate during flow
increasing shear rate is called pseudoplastic
• This behavior complicates analysis of polymer
shaping processes such as injection molding
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Newtonian versus Pseudoplastic Elastic Behavior vs. Viscoelastic Behavior

Fluids
Combination of
• Viscous behaviors of viscosity and elasticity
Newtonian and - Material property
pseudoplastic fluids
that determines the
• Polymer melts exhibit
pseudoplastic behavior
strain that the material
experiences when
• For comparison, the
behavior of a plastic subjected to • (a) Response of elastic material;
combinations of stress and (b) response of a viscoelastic
solid material is material
shown. and temperature over • Material in (b) takes a strain that
time depends on time and
temperature
Die Swell Volumetric and Melting

Properties
Viscoelastic behavior manifests itself in shape
memory effects. For example, extruded polymer Properties related to the volume of solids and how
"remembers" its previous shape when in the these properties are affected by temperature
larger cross section of the extruder, tries to • Density
return to it after leaving the die orifice • Thermal expansion
• Melting point
Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials 57 Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials
Density and Specific Gravity Why Density is Important

• Density = weight per unit volume • A consideration in material selection for a given
– Typical units are g/cm3 (lb/in3) application, but it may not be the only property of
– Determined by atomic number and other factors such as interest
atomic radius, and atomic packing
• Strength may also be important, and the two
• Specific gravity = density of a material relative to properties are often related in a strength-to-weight
density of water ratio, which is tensile strength divided by density
– Ratio with no units – Useful ratio in comparing materials for structural
applications in aircraft, automobiles, and other
products where weight and energy are concerns
Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials
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Thermal Expansion Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
• Density of a material is a function of temperature Change in length per degree of temperature, such as
– In general, density decreases with increasing mm/mm/C (in/in/F)
temperature • Length ratio rather than volume ratio because this is easier
– Volume per unit weight increases with increasing to measure and apply
temperature • Change in length for a given temperature change:
• Thermal expansion is the name for this effect of L2 - L1 = L1 (T2 - T1)
temperature on density
where  = coefficient of thermal expansion; L1 and L2 are
• Measured as coefficient of thermal expansion lengths corresponding respectively to temperatures T1
and T2
Thermal Expansion in Melting Characteristics for

Manufacturing Elements
Melting point Tm of a pure element = temperature at
• Thermal expansion is used in shrink fit and expansion which it transforms from solid to liquid state
fit assemblies • The reverse transformation occurs at the same
– Part is heated to increase size or cooled to decrease size to temperature and is called the freezing point
permit insertion into another part
Heat of fusion = heat energy required at Tm to
– When part returns to ambient temperature, a tightly-fitted
assembly is obtained
accomplish transformation from solid to liquid
• Thermal expansion can be a problem in heat treatment
and welding due to thermal stresses (gradients) that
develop in material during these processes
Melting of Alloys:
Melting of Metal Alloys
Solidus and Liquidus
• Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single
melting point
• Instead, melting begins at a temperature called the • Phase diagram
solidus and continues as temperature increases until for the nickel-
converting completely to liquid at a temperature copper alloy
called the liquidus system
– Between the two temperatures, the alloy is a mixture of
solid and molten metals
– Exception: eutectic alloys melt (and freeze) at a single
temperature
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Melting of Noncrystalline
Volume-to-Weight Changes
Materials
• In noncrystalline materials
(glasses), a gradual transition • Changes in
from solid to liquid states occurs volume per
– The solid material gradually unit weight as a
softens as temperature increases,
finally becoming liquid at the function of
melting point temperature
– During softening, the material for a
has a consistency of increasing hypothetical
plasticity (increasingly like a fluid) pure metal,
as it gets closer to the melting alloy, and glass
point
Importance of Melting in
Thermal Properties
Manufacturing
• Metal casting - the metal is melted and then poured • Thermal expansion, melting, and heat of fusion are
into a mold cavity thermal properties because temperature determines
– Metals with lower melting points are generally easier to the thermal energy level of the atoms, leading to the
cast
changes in materials
• Plastic molding - melting characteristics of polymers
are important in nearly all polymer shaping • Additional thermal properties:
processes – Specific heat
• Sintering of powdered metals - sintering does not – Thermal conductivity
melt the metal, but temperatures must approach the – These properties relate to the storage and flow of heat
melting point to achieve bonding of the powders within a substance
Specific Heat Volumetric Specific Heat

The quantity of heat energy required to increase the The quantity of heat energy required to raise the
temperature of a unit mass of material by one temperature of a unit volume of material by one
degree degree
• To determine the energy to heat a certain weight of • Density  multiplied by specific heat C
metal to a given temperature: • Volumetric specific heat = C
H = C W (T2 - T1)
where H = amount of heat energy; C = specific heat
of the material; W = its weight; and (T2 - T1) = change
in temperature
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Thermal Conductivity Thermal Diffusivity

Capability of a material to transfer heat through itself
by the physical mechanism of thermal conduction The ratio of thermal conductivity k to volumetric
• Thermal conduction involves the transfer of thermal specific heat ρC is frequently encountered in heat
energy within a material from molecule to molecule transfer analysis k
K 
by purely thermal motions C
– No mass transfer
It can be used to calculate cutting temperatures in
• Coefficient of thermal conductivity k is generally high machining.
in metals, low in ceramics and plastics
– Units for k: J/s mm C (Btu/in hr F)
Thermal Properties in
Mass Diffusion
Manufacturing
• Important in manufacturing because heat generation Movement of atoms or molecules within a material or
is common in so many processes across a boundary between two materials in contact
– In some cases, heat is the energy that • Because of thermal agitation of the atoms in a
accomplishes the process material (solid, liquid, or gas), atoms are
• Heat treating, sintering of powder metals and ceramics continuously moving about
– In other cases, heat is generated as a result of the – In liquids and gases, where the level of thermal agitation
process is high, it is a free-roaming movement
• Cold forming and machining of metals – In metals, atomic motion is facilitated by vacancies and
other imperfections in the crystal structure
Concentration gradients for metal

Mass Diffusion A during diffusion of metal A into
metal B
• Two blocks brought into contact: (1) at first, each block
has its own composition; (2) after time, an exchange of
atoms begins; (3) finally, uniform concentration occurs
(1) (2) (3)
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Mass Diffusion in Manufacturing
• Surface hardening treatments based on diffusion

include carburizing and nitriding
• Diffusion welding - used to join two components by
pressing them together and allowing diffusion to
occur across boundary to create a permanent bond
Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials
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11/01/2011

Stress-Strain Relationships Tensile Test

Tensile Test Specimen and Setup Tensile Test Sequence

Engineering Stress Engineering Strain

where e = engineering stress, F = applied where e = engineering strain; L = length at any

Typical Engineering Elastic Region in

Yield Point in Plastic Region in

True Stress True Strain

True Stress-Strain in Log-Log True Stress-Strain in Log-Log

Categories of Stress-Strain Stress-Strain Relationships:

• Behavior is defined • Stiffness defined by E

• Hooke's Law in elastic region, • Applies a load that squeezes the

Compression Test Engineering Strain in

Stress-Strain Curve in Tensile Test vs.

• Shape of plastic region is • Although differences exist between engineering

Testing of Brittle Materials Bending Test

Shear Properties Torsion Stress-Strain Curve

Torsion test setup:

Application of stresses in opposite directions on either side of a

Shear Elastic Stress-Strain Shear Plastic Stress-Strain

Hardness Hardness Tests

Brinell Hardness Test

• Widely used for testing • Load divided into indentation

Typical hardness of selected

Effect of Temperature on Properties Recrystallization in Metals

Fluid Properties and

Viscosity Shear Stress

Shear Rate Shear Viscosity

Coefficient of Viscosity Flow Rate and

Newtonian versus Pseudoplastic Elastic Behavior vs. Viscoelastic Behavior

Die Swell Volumetric and Melting

Density and Specific Gravity Why Density is Important

Thermal Expansion Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

Thermal Expansion in Melting Characteristics for

Specific Heat Volumetric Specific Heat

Thermal Conductivity Thermal Diffusivity

Concentration gradients for metal

(1) (2) (3)

Mass Diffusion in Manufacturing

• Surface hardening treatments based on diffusion

Manufacturing Technology 3 - 3) Mechanical Properties of Materials

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