Lecture 3: Particles, Waves & Superposition Principle

DeBroglie Particle-Wave Duality

E-m radiation in Maxwell's theory ≡ e-m waves ⎫

⎬ ambiguity
E-m radiation according to Einstein ≡ particles called photons ⎭

1923: deBroglie – ambiguity occurs also for matter – particles have wave
characteristics!

Particle characteristics (energy E, momentum p) are associated with wave

characteristics (frequency ν , wavelength λ ) → deBroglie relation

E h
ν = ; λ =
h p

Case of e-m radiation:

E h
c = νλ = ⇒ E = pc .
h p

Basis of relativity

Einstein: space-time as 4-dimensional vector space.

For particles: assignment of four-dimensional position and momentum
vectors.

Position 4-vector: ( x µ ) ≡ ( x, y, z , ict )

( x µ ) ⋅ ( x µ ) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − c 2t 2 = s 2 .

Momentum 4-vector ≡ propagation vector:

⎛ iE ⎞
( p µ ) ≡ ⎜ px , p y , pz , ⎟ = (γ m0vx , γ m0v y , γ m0vz , iγ m0c)
⎝ c ⎠
µ µ E2
( p ) ⋅ ( p ) = px + p y + pz − 2 = m02 c 2
2 2 2

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 − 12
⎛ v2 ⎞
Relativistic factor: γ = ⎜1 − 2 ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
For plane waves:
ψ ( r , t ) = A ei ( k ⋅ r − ωt ) = A exp ⎡⎣ i ( k x x + k y y + k z z − ω t ) ⎤⎦

where A = amplitude, ω = angular frequency,

k = wavevector = propagation vector:
2π
k = k n ; k = ,
λ

with n = unit vector normal to wavefront;

phase = coefficient of i in exponent
wavefront = surfaces of constant phases

equal phase
equal phase
n

u = dr/dt

wave
propagation

wavefront

Phase velocity: differentiate phase w.r.t. t:

dr ω
k⋅ − ω = 0 ⇒ n⋅ u = = νλ
dt k
⎛ iω ⎞
Write (k µ ) ≡ ⎜ k x , k y , k z , ⎟ ⇒ (k µ ) ⋅ ( x µ ) ≡ k ⋅ r − ω t
⎝ c ⎠

DeBroglie: wave propagation vector ∝ particle propagation vector

p E
k = ; ω = .
= =

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Existence of Matter Waves

Q: Do wave properties exist for matter?

1925: Davisson-Germer produced diffraction patterns for electrons.

(Source: http://www.physics.brown.edu/Studies/courses/ph56/Lecture8.html)

Similarly, experiments of G.P. Thomson

(Source: http://www.physics.brown.edu/Studies/courses/ph56/Lecture8.html)

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More interesting: Double slit experiment for electrons (Tonomura).

(Sumber: http://www.hqrd.hitachi.co.jp/em/doubleslit.html)

Other interferometric experiments

• neutron (http://www.tcd.ie/Physics/Schrodinger/Lecture6/lecture6.html)
• atoms (e.g. He, Na, Ca atoms), molecules (e.g. He dimers) & clusters
(e.g. noble gas clusters)
(http://www.europhysicsnews.com/full/22/article1/article1.html)
• large molecules (e.g. buckyballs C60, fluorofullerines C60F48)
• biomolecules (e.g. tetraphenylporphyrin found in chlorophyll &
haemoglobin) (http://physicsweb.org/articles/news/7/9/4)

(Sumber: http://rleweb.mit.edu/ifm/pubs/AAMOP/figure13.html)

• atom condensates
(http://www.aip.org/physnews/graphics/html/alaser3.htm)

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Are these interference effects equivalent to that of photons?

Experiments with single photon sources:

(Source: http://rleweb.mit.edu/ifm/pubs/AAMOP/figure13.html)

Similarities between e-m radiation and matter particles:

• deBroglie relations hold for both
• each wave determines the probability of certain processes to occur
(e.g. reaching the detector)

Complementarity principle (1927): The wave and particle attributes are

complementary to each other. If an experiment shows wave characteristics,
then it is impossible for the same experiment to show simultaneously
particle characteristics.

Example: Through which slit in the double slit experiment?

• If employ a light source to watch particle’s path through the slits, the
photon’s momentum p = h / λ will impart disruption to the observed
interference pattern.
• If lower imparted photon’s momentum, must use larger wavelength that
cannot resolve the particle’s path through the slits.
• Related to the famous uncertainty principle – see Bohr-Heisenberg
microscope thought experiment.

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Basics of Superposition

The interference effect is the consequence of wave superposition.

Superposition Principle: Two or more waves can be combined in a linear

way to produce a new wave.

Simplest case: superposition of two plane waves in one dimension

ψ 1 ( x, t ) = A exp [i (k1 x − ω1t )] ;

ψ 2 ( x, t ) = A exp [i (k2 x − ω2t )] .

Superposition = addition:

ψ ( x , t ) = ψ 1 ( x, t ) + ψ 2 ( x , t )
= A exp [i (k1 x − ω1t ) ] + A exp [i (k2 x − ω2t ) ]
= Ae [
i ( k1 + k2 ) x − (ω1 + ω2 ) t ] / 2

× e[ { i ( k1 − k2 ) x − (ω1 − ω2 ) t ] / 2
+ e
− i [ ( k1 − k2 ) x − (ω1 − ω2 ) t ] / 2
}
= 2Ae[ cos { 12 [ (k1 − k2 ) x − (ω1 − ω2 )t ]} .
i ( k1 + k2 ) x − (ω1 + ω2 ) t ] / 2

Two factors: carrier wave × wave modulation

(Source: http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/phys/Class/sound/u11l3a.html)

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Phase velocity (u = νλ = ω / k ) from carrier waves:

(ω1 + ω2 ) / 2 λ λ (ν + ν 2 )
u = = 1 2 1
(k1 + k2 ) / 2 (λ1 + λ2 )

Slower grouped motion – group velocity – from wave modulation:

(ω1 − ω2 ) / 2 ∆ω λ λ (ν − ν 2 )
vg = = = 1 2 1
(k1 − k2 ) / 2 ∆k (λ2 − λ1 )

In general:
dω dν
vg = =
dk d (1/ λ )

determined from dispersion relation ω = ω (k ) .

Example: For light, we have c = νλ ⇔ ω = ck

Modulation wavelength:

2π 2λ1λ2
λm = = > λ1 or λ2
(k1 − k2 ) / 2 (λ2 − λ1 )

These features can be found in many simple superpositions.

Exercise: State the relationship between wavenumbers of the modulation

and the carrier wave.

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