1.2.1 Networks

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2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AHMED THAKUR
1.2.1 NETWORKS
 Explain the client-server model of networked computers
The history of computing started off with centralised computers (in many cases mainframes) or
servers performing all the calculations. Client computers were then attached to these centralised
computers (servers) and if you wanted to calculate something, you would have to wait for the
central computer to respond. As computing power got cheaper client nodes became more
powerful and the central computer less important. However, with the growth of the internet, there
has been a shift back to a client server model. Powerful central computers store information such as
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emails, documents, music and videos or offer services such as file hosting, printing, game hosting
and internet access; client computers fetch information and use services from these central servers.
In the next few years you are likely to see more and more software moving away from running on
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your desktop to running on remote servers and you accessing it as a client, this is called software as
a service.
The Client-Server Model

As an example of modern client server model consider a video sharing website. The website, let's
call it mutube, has a server that stores all the videos that are uploaded to the site. The website is used
by millions of clients a day and each of them connects to the server to watch videos. When a client
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connects to mutube the server and asks for a particular video, the server loads the video into RAM
from a large array of hard disks and mutube sends the video to the client. The client on receiving the
video, presses play and watches the video.
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Other examples of servers might be a shared printing service in a college. The print server will be
hosted on a single computer, and when anyone in the college wants to print, the request is sent to
the server. In this case the server will keep track of how much printing credit each user has and make
sure that the print queue is dealt with properly.
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Cloud Computing
The current client-server model is starting to change, with companies being less likely to offer services
with a centralised server. Increasingly internet firms are reaching a global clientèle, it makes little
sense to have a server or servers based in one location as if your servers are in America and some of
your users in Armenia, these users will experience slow access to your services. Another problem is if
a power cut affects your server or the connection to that one server or set of servers goes down then
the service you are offering the internet will also stop
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With cloud computing the services may be distributed all over the globe, meaning that wherever
you are, you'll have a server reasonably close to you offering access to the data and services you
need. It also means that if one server goes down other servers in different locations can keep the
service running. Keeping databases synchronised across the globe, so your mail client has the same
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mails in Switzerland as in Swaziland, is a complex task and firms such as amazon and Rackspace
offer services to help you handle this. One downside with cloud computing is you are never quite
sure where your data is, and if you're not careful you might find data being stored in countries that
have less stringent data protection laws than your own.
Server - a computer program running to serve the requests of other programs, the "clients"
Servers are software programs that in most cases run off normal computing hardware. Server
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software includes:
 Printing
 File sharing
 Game hosting
 Websites
 Other web services
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Client - an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server
Clients are software programs and processes that connect to servers, sending requests and receiving
responses. Client examples include:
 Web browser page requests
 Chat systems on mobile phones
 Online games
Exercise: Client – Servers

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1. Give an example of where a server might be used:

Serving websites, hosting games, file sharing, printer sharing
2. What is a server and what is a client?

Server - a computer program running to serve the requests of other programs, the "clients"
Client - an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server
3. Describe the process involved in a web server delivering a web page to a client:
The Client sends a web request to the web server for a web page

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The server fetches the page items from secondary storage

The server sends the page data back to the Client
4. Describe a situation where having a single server and many client model might not work too well:
When all the clients try to access the server at once, it will have too many requests and fail
When the clients are a long distance from the server, meaning response times will be slow
When the location housing the server suffers a power outage or other disruption, there is no other
way for the client to get the data.
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 Give examples of applications which use the client-server model
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When a bank customer accesses online banking services with a web browser (the client), the client
initiates a request to the bank's web server. The customer's login credentials may be stored in a
database, and the web server accesses the database server as a client. An application server
interprets the returned data by applying the bank's business logic, and provides the output to the
web server. Finally, the web server returns the result to the client web browser for display.
In each step of this sequence of client–server message exchanges, a computer processes a request
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and returns data. This is the request-response messaging pattern. When all the requests are met, the
sequence is complete and the web browser presents the data to the customer.
This example illustrates a design pattern applicable to the client–server model: separation of
concerns.
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More:
 Specific types of clients include: web browsers, E-mail clients, and online chat clients.
 Specific types of servers include: web servers, FTP servers, database servers, E-mail servers, file
servers, print servers. Most web services are also types of servers.
 Describe what is meant by the World Wide Web (WWW) and the Internet
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What is The Internet?

The Internet is a massive network of networks, a networking infrastructure. It connects millions of
computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any
other computer as long as they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the
Internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols.
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The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the Internet protocol
suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is a network of networks[1] that consists of
millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope,
linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet
carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext
documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), electronic mail, telephony, and peer-
to-peer networks for file sharing.
What is The Web (World Wide Web)?

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The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of accessing information over the medium of the
Internet. It is an information-sharing model that is built on top of the Internet. The Web uses the HTTP
protocol, only one of the languages spoken over the Internet, to transmit data. Web services, which
use HTTP to allow applications to communicate in order to exchange business logic, use the Web to
share information. The Web also utilizes browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Firefox, to access Web
documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. Web documents also
contain graphics, sounds, text and video.
The Web is just one of the ways that information can be disseminated over the Internet. The Internet,
not the Web, is also used for e-mail, which relies on SMTP, Usenet news groups, instant messaging

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and FTP. So the Web is just a portion of the Internet, albeit a large portion, but the two terms are not
synonymous and should not be confused.
The Internet
The Internet - a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
Protocol suite (TCP/IP)
The internet impacts heavily upon the way that we live, study and work. But it hasn't always been
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that way. In the 1960s ARPA, a part of the American Department of Defence, funded several large
computing projects. These projects were very expensive and situated in different parts of the USA. It
was unreasonable to expect research groups to travel to each of these sites, and it was far too
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expensive to build more of them, what was needed was a method to link them together so that
information could be easily exchanged. ARPANET was created, basing communication on packet
switching. This system of communication broke messages into chunks which were then passed to
other sites using a network of interlinked computers. Due to the unreliable nature of connections, if
any link in the network broke, a packet could be re-routed around the problem to reach its
destination. The concept is similar to how drivers can take different routes when they meet a blocked
off road.
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Internet access connects individual computer terminals, computers, mobile devices, and computer
networks to the Internet, enabling users to access Internet services, such as email and the World
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Wide Web. Internet service providers (ISPs) offer Internet access through various technologies that
offer a wide range of data signalling rates (speeds).
Consumer use of the Internet first became popular through dial-up Internet access in the 1990s. By
the first decade of the 21st century, many consumers in developed nations used faster, broadband
Internet access technologies. As of 2014, broadband was ubiquitous around the world, with a global
average connection speed exceeding 4 Mbit/s
Most broadband services provide a continuous "always on" connection; there is no dial-in process
required, and it does not “hog” phone lines.[9] Broadband provides improved access to Internet
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services such as:

 Faster world wide web browsing
 Faster downloading of documents, photographs, videos, and other large files
 Telephony, radio, television, and videoconferencing
 Virtual private networks and remote system administration
 Online gaming, especially massively multiplayer online role-playing games which are interaction-
intensive
Availability
 Speed
 Network Congestion

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 Outages
Technologies
 Dial-up access
 Local area networks
 Hardwired broadband access
o Multilink dial-up
 Integrated Services Digital Network
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 Leased lines
 Cable Internet access
 Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)
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 DSL Rings
 Fiber to the home
 Power –line Internet
 ATM and Frame Relay
 Wireless broadband access
o Wi-Fi
o Wireless ISP
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o WiMAX
o Satellite broadband
o Mobile broadband (2G, 3G, 4G)
o Local Multipoint Distribution Service
Pricing and spending

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More: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_access
World Wide Web (WWW)

World Wide Web - a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet
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The first thing to notice is that the World Wide Web is not the internet, but a subset of what the internet
offers. The internet hosts all forms of data, including games, video, telecommunications etc. while
the WWW only transmits hypertext documents. The WWW is accessed through a web browser linking
files together using hyperlinks and was invented by a British computer scientist, Sir Tim Berners-Lee in
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1989.
 Explain how hardware is used to support the Internet: networks, routers, gateways, servers
Network (Intranet)
A private network within an organisation which may offer printer sharing, file sharing,
communication, private websites etc...which uses internet technologies such as TCP/IP and web
browsers.
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Routers
Router - a device that interconnects with two or more computer networks, which then interchange
packets with each other
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To link multiple computers together we need to use devices called routers or switches. These devices
co-ordinate sending messages from one system to another, making sure that packets get to their
destinations
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Gateway
A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the Internet, a node
or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. Both the computers of
Internet users and the computers that serve pages to users are host nodes.
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Servers
A server is a running instance of an application (software) capable of accepting requests from the
client and giving responses accordingly. Servers can run on any computer including dedicated
computers, which individually are also often referred to as "the server". In many cases, a computer
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can provide several services and have several servers running.
What is an Internet server?

Internet server (web server) - this is a special computer, which is constantly switched on and
connected to the Internet so that each Internet user around the world can access your website at
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all times. This computer is built up with selected high quality components, which can endure
incessant work and high load.
Types of Servers
The multiple types of servers or types of network servers are as follows:
 Server Platform: Server platform is the fundamental hardware or software for a system which acts
as an engine that drives the server. It is often used synonymously with an operating system.
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 Application Server: Also known as a type of middleware, it occupies a substantial amount of

computing region between database servers and the end user, and is commonly used to
connect the two.
 Audio/Video Server: It provides multimedia capabilities to websites by helping the user to

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broadcast streaming multimedia content.
 Chat Server: It serves the users to exchange data in an environment similar to Internet newsgroup
which provides real-time discussion capabilities.
 Fax Server: It is one of the best options for organizations that seek minimum incoming and
outgoing telephone resources, but require to fax actual documents.
 FTP Server: It works on one of the oldest of the Internet services, the file transfer protocol. It
provides a secure file transfer between computers while ensuring file security and transfer control.
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 Groupware Server: It is a software designed that enables the users to work together, irrespective
of the location, through the Internet or a corporate intranet and to function together in a virtual
atmosphere.
 IRC Server: It is an ideal option for those looking for real-time discussion capabilities. Internet
Relay Chat comprises different network servers that enable the users to connect to each other
through an IRC network.

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 List Server: It provides a better way of managing mailing lists. The server can be either open
interactive discussion for the people or a one-way list that provides announcements, newsletters
or advertising.
 Mail Server: It transfers and stores mails over corporate networks through LANs, WANs and across
the Internet.
 News Server: It serves as a distribution and delivery source for many public news groups,
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approachable over the USENET news network.
 Proxy Server: It acts as a mediator between a client program and an external server to filter
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requests, improve performance and share connections.
 Telnet Server: It enables the users to log on to a host computer and execute tasks as if they are
working on a remote computer.
 Virtual Servers: A virtual server is just like a physical computer because it is committed to an
individual customer's demands, can be individually booted and maintains privacy of a separate
computer. Basically, the distance among shared and dedicated (hosting) servers is reduced
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providing freedom to other customers, at a less cost. Now, it has become omnipresent in the
data center.
 Web Server: It provides static content to a web browser by loading a file from a disk and
transferring it across the network to the user's web browser. This exchange is intermediated by
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the browser and the server, communicating using HTTP.
Other types of servers include Open source servers, Gopher server (like a plain document, similar to
WWW and the hypertext being absent) and Name server (applies name-service protocol).
The various servers can be categorized according to their applications. Servers along with managing
network resources are also dedicated, i.e., they perform no other task other than their server tasks.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/different-types-of-servers.html
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More: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/different-types-of-servers.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)
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 Explain how communication systems are used to support the Internet: The Public Service
Telephone Network (PSTN), dedicated lines, cell phone network
Acronym Definition
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
PSTN Position
PSTN Public Switched Telecommunications Network
PSTN Public Service Telephone Network (less common)
PSTN Pesticide Safety Team Network
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PSTN Postal Satellite Training Network
PSTN – PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK

The public switched telephone network (PSTN) is the aggregate of the world's circuit-switched
telephone networks that are operated by national, regional, or local telephony operators, providing
infrastructure and services for public telecommunication. The PSTN consists of telephone lines, fiber
optic cables, microwave transmission links, cellular networks, communications satellites, and
undersea telephone cables, all interconnected by switching centers, thus allowing most telephones
to communicate with each other. Originally a network of fixed-line analog telephone systems, the

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PSTN is now almost entirely digital in its core network and includes mobile and other networks, as well
as fixed telephones.
The technical operation of the PSTN adheres to the standards created by the ITU-T. These standards
allow different networks in different countries to interconnect seamlessly. The E.163 and E.164
standards provide a single global address space for telephone numbers. The combination of the
interconnected networks and the single numbering plan allow telephones around the world to dial
each other.
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The Difference between VoIP and PSTN Systems
To understand how VoIP, short for Voice over Internet Protocol, works, it's helpful to compare it to
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how conventional phone calls operate. When you place a "regular" phone call using the Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), also known as Plain Old Telephone Service (POTS) you use
what's called circuit-switched telephony. This system works by setting up a dedicated channel (or
circuit) between two points for the duration of the call. These telephony systems are based on
copper wires carrying analog voice data over the dedicated circuits.
This is in contrast to newer Internet telephony networks based on digital technologies. VoIP, in
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contrast to PSTN, uses what is called packet-switched telephony. Using this system, the voice
information travels to its destination in countless individual network packets across the Internet. This
type of communication presents special TCP/IP challenges because the Internet wasn't really
designed for the kind of real-time communication a phone call represents. Individual packets may
— and almost always do — take different paths to the same place. It's not enough to simply get VoIP
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packets to their destination. They must arrive through a fairly narrow time window and be assembled
in the correct order to be intelligible to the recipient. VoIP employs encoding schemes and
compression technology (see G.7xx for more information) to reduce the size of the voice packets so
they can be transmitted more efficiently.
PSTN vs VoIP: A Feature Comparison

PSTN VoIP
 Dedicated Lines  All channels carried over one Internet
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 Each line is 64kbps (in each direction) connection

 Features such as call waiting, Caller ID and  Compression can result in 10kbps (in each
so on are usually available at an extra cost direction)
 Can be upgraded or expanded with new  Features such as call waiting, Caller ID and
equipment and line provisioning so on are usually included free with service
 Long distance is usually per minute or  Upgrades usually requires only bandwidth
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bundled minute subscription and software upgrades

 Hardwired landline phones (those without  Long distance is often included in regular
an adapter) usually remain active during monthly price
power outage  Lose power, lose phone service without
 When placing a 911 call it can be traced to power backup in place
your location  911 emergency calls cannot always be
traced to a specific geographic location
DEDICATED LINES
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In computer networks and telecommunications, a dedicated line is a communications cable or

other facility dedicated to a specific application, in contrast with a shared resource such as the
telephone network or the Internet.
In practice, such services may not be provided by a single, discrete, end-to-end cable, but they do
provide guarantees of constant bandwidth availability and near-constant latency, properties that
cannot be guaranteed for more public systems. Such properties add a considerable premium to the
price charged.

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As more general-purpose systems have improved, dedicated lines have been steadily replaced by
intranets and the public Internet, but they are still useful for time-critical, high-bandwidth applications
such as video transmission.
 Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)
 DSL
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) service provides a connection to the Internet through the telephone
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network. Unlike dial-up, DSL can operate using a single phone line without preventing normal use
of the telephone line for voice phone calls. DSL uses the high frequencies, while the low (audible)
frequencies of the line are left free for regular telephone communication.[9] These frequency
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bands are subsequently separated by filters installed at the customer's premises.
DSL originally stood for "digital subscriber loop". In telecommunications marketing, the term digital
subscriber line is widely understood to mean Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL), the most
commonly installed variety of DSL. The data throughput of consumer DSL services typically ranges
from 256 kbit/s to 20 Mbit/s in the direction to the customer (downstream), depending on DSL
technology, line conditions, and service-level implementation.
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 ADSL
In ADSL, the data throughput in the upstream direction, (i.e. in the direction to the service
provider) is lower than that in the downstream direction (i.e. to the customer), hence the
designation of asymmetric.
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 SDSL
With a symmetric digital subscriber line (SDSL), the downstream and upstream data rates are
equal.
 VDSL
Very-high-bit-rate digital subscriber line (VDSL or VHDSL, ITU G.993.1)[38] is a digital subscriber line
(DSL) standard approved in 2001 that provides data rates up to 52 Mbit/s downstream and 16
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Mbit/s upstream over copper wires[39] and up to 85 Mbit/s down- and upstream on coaxial
cable.[40] VDSL is capable of supporting applications such as high-definition television, as well
as telephone services (voice over IP) and general Internet access, over a single physical
connection.
WIRELESS BROADBAND
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Wireless broadband is used to provide both fixed and mobile Internet access.
 Wi-Fi
 WiMAX
 Satellite broadband
 Cell phone Network
Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a trade name for a wireless local area network (WLAN) that uses one of the IEEE 802.11
standards. It is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Individual homes and businesses often use Wi-Fi to
connect laptops and smart phones to the Internet. Wi-Fi Hotspots may be found in coffee shops and
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various other public establishments. Wi-Fi is used to create campus-wide and city-wide wireless
networks.
Wi-Fi networks are built using one or more wireless routers called access points. "Ad hoc" computer
to computer Wi-Fi networks are also possible. The Wi-Fi network is connected to the larger Internet
using DSL, cable modem, and other Internet access technologies. Data rates range from 6 to 600
Mbit/s. Wi-Fi service range is fairly short, typically 20 to 250 m or from 65 to 820 feet. Both data rate
and range are quite variable depending on the Wi-Fi protocol, location, frequency, building
construction, and interference from other devices.[58] Using directional antennas and with careful

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engineering Wi-Fi can be extended to operate over distances of up to several km, see "Wireless ISP"
below.
WiMAX
Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX ) is a set of interoperable implementations
of the IEEE 802.16 family of wireless-network standards certified by the WiMAX Forum. WiMAX enables
"the delivery of last mile wireless broadband access as an alternative to cable and DSL".[61] The
original IEEE 802.16 standard, now called "Fixed WiMAX", was published in 2001 and provided 30 to
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40 megabit-per-second data rates.[62] Mobility support was added in 2005. A 2011 update provides
data rates up to 1 Gbit/s for fixed stations. WiMax offers a metropolitan area network with a signal
radius of about 50 km (30 miles), far surpassing the 30-metre (100-foot) wireless range of a
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conventional Wi-Fi local area network (LAN). WiMAX signals also penetrate building walls much more
effectively than Wi-Fi.
Satellite broadband
Satellite Internet service provides fixed, portable, and mobile Internet access. Data rates range from
2 kbit/s to 1 Gbit/s downstream and from 2 kbit/s to 10 Mbit/s upstream. Satellite antenna dishes
require a clear line of sight to the southern sky. Service can be adversely affected by moisture, rain,
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and snow (known as rain fade). The system requires a carefully aimed directional antenna.
Satellites in geostationary Earth orbit (GEO) operate in a fixed position 35,786 km (22,236 miles) above
the earth's equator. At the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second), it takes
a quarter of a second for a radio signal to travel from the earth to the satellite and back. When other
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switching and routing delays are added and the delays are doubled to allow for a full round-trip
transmission, the total delay can be 0.75 to 1.25 seconds. This latency is large when compared to
other forms of Internet access with typical latencies that range from 0.015 to 0.2 seconds. Long
latencies negatively affect some applications that require real-time response, particularly online
games, virtual private networks, and remote control devices. TCP tuning and TCP acceleration
techniques can mitigate some of these problems. GEO satellites do not cover the earth's polar
regions. HughesNet, Exede, AT&T and Dish Network have GEO systems.
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Satellites in Low Earth orbit (LEO, below 2000 km or 1243 miles) and Medium earth orbit (MEO,
between 2000 and 35,786 km or 1,243 and 22,236 miles) are less common, operate at lower altitudes,
and are not fixed in their position above the earth. Lower altitudes allow lower latencies and make
real-time interactive Internet applications feasible. LEO systems include Globalstar and Iridium. The
O3b Satellite Constellation is a proposed MEO system with a latency of 125 ms. COMMStellation™ is
a LEO system, scheduled for launch in 2015, that is expected to have a latency of just 7 ms.
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Cell phone Network (Mobile Network)

Mobile broadband is the marketing term for wireless Internet access delivered through mobile phone
towers to computers, mobile phones (called "cell phones" in North America and South Africa), and
other digital devices using portable modems. Some mobile services allow more than one device to
be connected to the Internet using a single cellular connection using a process called tethering. The
modem may be built into laptop computers, tablets, mobile phones, and other devices, added to
some devices using PC cards, USB modems, and USB sticks or dongles, or separate wireless modems
can be used.
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New mobile phone technology and infrastructure is introduced periodically and generally involves
a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission
technology, higher peak data rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in
Hertz becomes available. These transitions are referred to as generations. The first mobile data
services became available during the second generation (2G).

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 Explain the benefits and drawbacks of using copper cable, fiber-optic cabling, radio waves,
microwaves, satellites
Baud Rate
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The rate that voltage changes is called the baud. In the simple case described above, if the voltage
changes 10 times every second the baud is said to be 10.
Bit Rate
The bit rate is the term given to the rate that bits are transmitted. In the simple case described above
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the bit rate is the same as the baud. If we could generate four voltages, instead of two, we could
use each change in signal to represent two bits.
TYPES OF NETWORK CABLES
Copper Cable
One of the key things that determines bandwidth is the physical nature of the cable being used.
A signal becomes weaker the longer it travels along a cable, eventually becoming so weak that it is
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no longer detectable above natural noise. Therefore the length of cable determines the bandwidth
of the link.
For instance the bandwidth of broadband to the home is determined by the length of copper cable
between the house and the nearest telephone exchange. This is the so called 'last-mile' bottleneck.
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 Coaxial cable
This consists of a solid copper core surrounded by insulation which is then surrounded by a copper
shielding and finally covered with a plastic sheath. Coaxial cable is widely used for television
wiring as it has enough bandwidth to handle a television signal over a typical run from antenna
to television.
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Early computer networks also used coaxial cable with a bandwidth of 10Mbps. But for high speed
networks (100 Mbps and above) coax cable is no longer sufficient
 Twisted Pair
In order to gain enough bandwidth another form of copper cable is used. Namely twisted pair
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There are 8 colour-coded wires with each related pair twisted around one another. Twisting it in
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this way reduces signal loss over any given length of cable.
Twisted pair cable is widely used in 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps networks. In order to guarantee the
performance of the cable, standards have been created such as CAT 5e and CAT 6. A 'Cat 5e'
UTP cable is sufficient for bandwidths up to 1 Gbps for reasonable run lengths. For networks
needing to run up to 10 Gbps then a Cat 6 cable should be used. Of course, this is more
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expensive so cable selection should be based on what bandwidth is actually required.
 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

In order to improve performance even more, shielded twisted pair cable (STP) has copper
shielding wrapped around each twisted pair and another shield wrapped around the whole
cable.
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This reduces electrical interference and so allows the bandwidth to be higher for any given
length.
FIBRE-OPTIC CABLE
Copper cable is adequate for network cable runs for up to a 100 metres, but above that the signal
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becomes too weak, therefore an alternative technology is needed.
Fibre-optic cable has an astounding bandwidth, it is limited more by the electronics either side of
the cable than the bandwidth of the cable itself. For instance in recent experiment, a 160 km length
of high performance fibre-optic cable carried up to 14 Tera bits per second!
Fibre optic cable uses light to transmit information rather than electrical signals. Unlike copper cable
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it is not prone to electrical interference.

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Fibre optic cable works by a light signal being 'launched' at one end of the glass thread core. The
light is reflected internally down the fibre until it reaches the other end. Light sensitive electronics
then pick up the signal.

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The downside of fibre is the cost - it is more expensive that ordinary UTP network cable therefore it is
only cost-effective if there is a very high bandwidth requirement or if the network has very long cable
runs.
If fibre-optic could be laid from the telephone exchange right up to the house then broadband
bandwidth of 100 Mbps is quite possible. A number of countries have now invested to make this a
reality. Perhaps the UK may one day have fibre to every house as well. At the moment fibre-to-
cabinet is the norm in the UK, where it is fibre from the exchange to the nearest junction box, then
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normal copper cable to the home.
RADIO WAVES
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Radio waves are part of a larger group of waves classified all together as electromagnetic radiation.
This large group of waves is broken down into smaller groups based upon their frequencies and
wavelengths. Two examples of electromagnetic radiation (other than radio waves) are:
 Light -- which is the group of electromagnetic radiation you can see with your eyes
 X-rays -- which are a group from a higher frequency and they are what is used by doctors to see
inside of you
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How is data put on radio waves?
There are two common ways to put information in a radio wave, and you've likely run into them
yourself. They are called A.M. and F.M. just like the two choices you've always known are on a radio.
To understand these two ways of sending information it is important to know that radio waves, by
themselves, have very regular patterns. Generally they keep the same amplitude or frequency all
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the time. (Amplitude is the "height" of the radio wave, frequency is how close the waves are to each
other.)
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A.M. stands for amplitude modulation. In this method, the information is put into a radio wave by
varying the amplitude. For example, if all we wanted to do was send 1's and 0's, we could have just
two different levels of amplitude that correspond to these numbers--1 being high, 0 being low.

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What is frequency?
Frequency describes the number of waves that pass a fixed place in a given amount of time. So if
the time it takes for a wave to pass is is 1/2 second, the frequency is 2 per second. If it takes 1/100 of
an hour, the frequency is 100 per hour.
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Usually frequency is measured in the hertz unit, named in honor of the 19th-century German physicist
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. The hertz measurement, abbreviated Hz, is the number of waves that pass by
per second. For example, an "A" note on a violin string vibrates at about 440 Hz (440 vibrations per
second).
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MICROWAVES
The term microwave refers to electromagnetic energy having a frequency higher than 1 gigahertz
(billions of cycles per second), corresponding to wavelength shorter than 30 centimeters.
Microwave signals propagate in straight lines and are affected very little by the troposphere. They
are not refracted or reflected by ionized regions in the upper atmosphere. Microwave beams do
not readily diffract around barriers such as hills, mountains, and large human-made structures. Some
attenuation occurs when microwave energy passes through trees and frame houses. Radio-
frequency (RF) energy at longer wavelengths is affected to a lesser degree by such obstacles.
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The microwave band is well suited for wireless transmission of signals having large bandwidth. This
portion of the RF electromagnetic radiation spectrum encompasses many thousands of megahertz.
Compare this with the so-called shortwave band that extends from 3 MHz to 30 MHz, and whose
total available bandwidth is only 27 MHz. In communications, a large allowable bandwidth translates
into high data speed. The short wavelengths allow the use of dish antennas having manageable
diameters. These antennas produce high power gain in transmitting applications, and have
excellent sensitivity and directional characteristics for reception of signals.
Microwave transmissions
Wireless technology uses microwaves and radio waves to transmit information. Advantages are:

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 We can receive phone calls and email 24 hours a day

 No wiring is needed to connect laptops to the Internet, or for mobile phones or radio
 Communication with wireless technology is portable and convenient.
Radio waves vs Micro waves

Radiowaves Microwaves
Radio waves are the lowest-energy, lowest- Microwaves are sometimes considered to be
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frequency and longest-wavelength very short radio waves (highfrequency and
electromagnetic waves. They are produced high-energy radio waves).
when an alternating current flows in an aerial
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and they spread out and travel through the Some important properties of microwaves are:
atmosphere. They are not strongly absorbed by  They are reflected by metal surfaces.
the atmosphere. Another aerial is used as a  They heat materials if they can make atoms
detector and the waves produce an or molecules in the material vibrate. The
alternating current in it, with a frequency that amount of heating depends on the intensity
matches that of the radio waves. Anyone with of the microwave radiation, and the time
a receiver can tune it to this frequency to pick that the material is exposed to the radiation.
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up the radio waves so they are suitable for  They pass through glass and plastics.
broadcasting (for example, radio and TV  They pass through the atmosphere.
programmes) to large numbers of people. An  They pass through the ionosphere without
advantage is that this method of being reflected.
communicating does not require wires to  They are absorbed by water molecules,
transmit information. A disadvantage is that
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radio stations using similar transmission (energy) of the microwaves.
frequencies sometimes interfere.  Transmission is affected by wave effects
such as reflection, refraction, diffraction
A common mistake is to think that we can hear and interference.
radio waves. We cannot hear any
electromagnetic radiation. The radiation is used
to carry a signal that is converted into a sound
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wave by the receiver.
Medium wavelength radio waves are reflected

from the ionosphere, a layer of charged
particles in the upper atmosphere, so they can
be used for long distance communication.
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Digital radio has better-quality reception as it

uses digital signals and so does not have
problems of noise and interference.
This video looks at Radio Waves and

Microwaves in more detail
SATELLITE
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A satellite is a moon, planet or machine that orbits a planet or star. For example, Earth is a satellite
because it orbits the sun. Likewise, the moon is a satellite because it orbits Earth. Usually, the word
"satellite" refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around Earth or another body
in space.
In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an artificial object which has been intentionally placed into
orbit. Such objects are sometimes called artificial satellites to distinguish them from natural satellites
such as Earth's Moon.

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Satellites are used for a large number of purposes. Common types include military and civilian Earth
observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and
research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellite orbits
vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-
known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit.
Types of Non-Military Satellite Services

There are three basic categories of non-military satellite services:
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1. Fixed satellite services
Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks
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across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth's surface.
2. Mobile satellite systems

Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to
other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to
serving as navigation systems.
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3. Scientific research satellites (commercial and noncommercial)
Scientific research satellites provide meteorological information, land survey data (e.g. remote
sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different scientific research applications such as
earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research.
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SATELLITE BROADBAND
(Mentioned above)
 Show understanding of bit streaming (both real-time and on-demand)
Bit Streaming
A bitstream or bit stream is a sequence of bits. A bytestream is a series of bytes. Typically, each byte
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is from a range of 256 distinct values (octets), and so the term octet stream is sometimes used to refer
to the same thing.
Here's a look at the differences between the streaming formats.

On-Demand Webcasting
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 Digital video tape, analog video tape, or digital files on your computer are converted to
streaming media files for broadcasting on the net. This is done on your computer and known as
encoding.
 These encoded streaming video files are then uploaded from your computer via FTP to your own
account on one of our dedicated streaming servers.
 You then place a link for the encoded streaming video on your web site.
 A web surfer clicks on the link for your encoded streaming video. The streamed video is then
played broadcasted to the web surfer with smooth crisp streaming content and is available for
viewing 24 hours per day!
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Live Webcasting
 An event is captured live with a video camera at its location
 The video camera is connected to a computer via a firewire (IEEE) or USB cable. This cable feeds
the video signal directly in to computer.
 The video signal is converted to streaming media files (encoded) on the computer.
 The encoded feed is then uploaded from the on-site computer to one of our dedicated
streaming servers via cable, DSL, or a high-speed internet connection.
 Our streaming servers then duplicate the feed and send it to all users requesting it in real time
video streaming.

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 Show understanding of the importance of bit rates/broadband speed on bit streaming
Bit Rate
Bitrate is a term used to describe the amount of data that is being passed within a given amount of
time. Depending on the context, common measurements of bitrate includes kbit/s and Mbps,
respectively meaning kilobits per second and megabits per second. No matter the units being used,
a higher number is generally good, indicating high speed or high quality.
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Importance of Bit rates on Bit Streaming
However, it’s also important to realize that lower numbers may put less strain on your hardware, which
may become important for devices such as smartphones and netbooks.
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When it comes to audio and video, bitrates acquire a different definition.
Audio
In this context, bitrates refer to the amount of data stored for each second of media that is played.
For example, a 320 kbps MP3 audio file has a higher quality than the same file at just 128 kbps,
provided that both files were created from the same, ideal source. You will have to remember that
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you can’t make a crappy-sounding audio file get better by copying into an audio file with a higher
bitrate, as the source was bad to begin with. Therefore, the higher bitrate is a general rule, but not
100% true.
Video
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The same applies to videos – a higher bitrate will have a higher quality when comparing the same
video with the same resolution. Bitrates should be expected to go up whenever the resolution goes
up, as more data is being processed. Therefore, high bitrates for audio and video may provide
excellent quality, but it can also place a major strain on your hardware which can result in stutters.
Hard drives & SSDs

Last but not least, it’s also important to know the bitrate of your hard drive or SSD. The bitrate in this
context determines the read and write speeds of the device, which heavily impacts the loading and
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saving times of large files, programs, or games. Traditional hard drives generally have roughly the
same read and write speeds, so the only difference comes from their RPM: 5,400, 7,200, or 10,000.
However, SSDs don’t rely on RPM speeds for read and write speeds – their flash-based storage uses
controller chips for reading and writing data.
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It’s important to know the bitrates for both read and write – mid-range SSDs tend to have read speeds
of 500 Mbps and write speeds of 200 Mbps, while higher-end SSDs have roughly 500 Mbps both ways.
Even if you have a great CPU, high-frequency RAM, and a fast graphics card, your system’s overall
performance can still be affected by your hard drive’s speeds.
Bandwidth and storage

A broadband speed of 2.5 Mbit/s or more is recommended for streaming standard definition movies,
for example to a Roku, Apple TV, Google TV or a Sony TV Blu-ray Disc Player, 5 Mbit/s for High
Definition content and 9 Mbit/s for Ultra-High Definition content.
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Unicast connections require multiple connections from the same streaming server even when it
streams the same content
Streaming media storage size is calculated from the streaming bandwidth and length of the media
using the following formula (for a single user and file):
storage size (in megabytes) = length (in seconds) × bit rate (in bit/s) / (8 ×
1024 × 1024)
Real world example:

One hour of video encoded at 300 kbit/s (this was a typical broadband video in 2005 and it was
usually encoded in a 320 × 240 pixels window size) will be:

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(3,600 s × 300,000 bit/s) / (8×1024×1024) requires around 128 MB of storage.

If the file is stored on a server for on-demand streaming and this stream is viewed by 1,000 people at
the same time using a Unicast protocol, the requirement is:
300 kbit/s × 1,000 = 300,000 kbit/s = 300 Mbit/s of bandwidth

This is equivalent to around 135 GB per hour. Using a multicast protocol the server sends out only a
single stream that is common to all users. Therefore, such a stream would only use 300 kbit/s of serving
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bandwidth. See below for more information on these protocols.
The calculation for live streaming is similar.
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Assumptions: speed at the encoder, is 500 kbit/s.
If the show lasts for 3 hours with 3,000 viewers, then the calculation is:
Number of MBs transferred = encoder speed (in bit/s) × number of seconds × number of viewers /
(8*1024*1024)
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Number of MBs transferred = 500 x 1024 (bit/s) × 3 × 3,600 ( = 3 hours) × 3,000 (number of viewers) /
(8*1024*1024) = 1,977,539 MB
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HM
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1.

2 COMMUNICATION AND INTERNET TECHNOLOGIES AHMED THAKUR

 Explain the client-server model of networked computers

The Client-Server Model

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

Client - an application or system that accesses a service made available by a server

Exercise: Client – Servers

1. Give an example of where a server might be used:

2. What is a server and what is a client?

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

The server fetches the page items from secondary storage

What is The Internet?

What is The Web (World Wide Web)?

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

services such as:

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

Pricing and spending

World Wide Web (WWW)

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

What is an Internet server?

 Application Server: Also known as a type of middleware, it occupies a substantial amount of

 Audio/Video Server: It provides multimedia capabilities to websites by helping the user to

broadcast streaming multimedia content.

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

PSTN Postal Satellite Training Network

PSTN – PUBLIC SWITCHED TELEPHONE NETWORK

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

PSTN vs VoIP: A Feature Comparison

 Each line is 64kbps (in each direction) connection

bundled minute subscription and software upgrades

In computer networks and telecommunications, a dedicated line is a communications cable or

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

 Digital subscriber line (DSL, ADSL, SDSL, and VDSL)

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

Cell phone Network (Mobile Network)

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

TYPES OF NETWORK CABLES

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 Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

becomes too weak, therefore an alternative technology is needed.

it is not prone to electrical interference.

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

 We can receive phone calls and email 24 hours a day

Radio waves vs Micro waves

wave by the receiver.

Medium wavelength radio waves are reflected

Digital radio has better-quality reception as it

This video looks at Radio Waves and

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

Types of Non-Military Satellite Services

2. Mobile satellite systems

 Show understanding of bit streaming (both real-time and on-demand)

Here's a look at the differences between the streaming formats.

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

 Show understanding of the importance of bit rates/broadband speed on bit streaming

Hard drives & SSDs

Bandwidth and storage

Real world example:

COMPUTER SCIENCE https://www.facebook.com/groups/OAComputers/

(3,600 s × 300,000 bit/s) / (8×1024×1024) requires around 128 MB of storage.

300 kbit/s × 1,000 = 300,000 kbit/s = 300 Mbit/s of bandwidth