Communication is simply the act of transferring

information from one place to another.

Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how

we may communicate the subject becomes a lot more
complex. There are various categories of communication
and more than one may occur at any time.

The different categories of communication include:

 Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or
television and other media.
 Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress
or act - even our scent.
 Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the
Internet or via other media.
 Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other
visualizations can communicate messages.

The desired outcome or goal of any communication

process is understanding.

The process of interpersonal communication cannot be regarded as a phenomena which

simply 'happens', but should be seen as a process which involves participants negotiating
their role in this process, whether consciously or unconsciously. 

Senders and receivers are of course vital in communication. In face-to-face communication

the roles of the sender and receiver are not distinct as both parties communicate with each
other, even if in very subtle ways such as through eye-contact (or lack of) and general body
language.

There are many other subtle ways that we communicate (perhaps even unintentionally) with
others, for example the tone of our voice can give clues to our mood or emotional state,
whilst hand signals or gestures can add to a spoken message.
In written communication the sender and receiver are more distinct. Until recent times,
relatively few writers and publishers were very powerful when it came to communicating the
written word. Today we can all write and publish our ideas online, which has led to an
explosion of information and communication possibilities.

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communication.html#ixzz4Q5eBVnM0

The Communication Process

A message or communication is sent by the sender through a
communication channel to a receiver, or to multiple receivers.
The sender must encode the message (the information being conveyed) into a form that is
appropriate to the communication channel, and the receiver(s) then decodes the message to
understand its meaning and significance.

Misunderstanding can occur at any stage of the communication process.

Effective communication involves minimising potential misunderstanding and overcoming

any barriers to communication at each stage in the communication process.

See our page: Barriers to Effective Communication for more information.

An effective communicator understands their audience, chooses an appropriate

communication channel, hones their message to this channel and encodes the message to
reduce misunderstanding by the receiver(s). 

They will also seek out feedback from the receiver(s) as to how the message is understood
and attempt to correct any misunderstanding or confusion as soon as possible.

Receivers can use techniques such as Clarification and Reflection as effective ways to

ensure that the message sent has been understood correctly.
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communication.html#ixzz4Q5jNG4lj

Verbal Communication Skills

See also: Effective Speaking.

Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependant on a

number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other
important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal
communication, listening skills and clarification.
Clarity of speech, remaining calm and focused, being polite
and following some basic rules of etiquette will all aid the
process of verbal communication. See our page: Effective
Speaking for more information.
This page is designed to help you think about how you communicate
verbally. The page includes information on the processes involved and the
steps you can take to help ensure that verbal or spoken messages are
received as intended.

Find more at: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/verbal-communication.html#ixzz4Q5fGsfzF

What Is Verbal Communication?

by TRACII HANES  Last Updated: Apr 14, 2015

Verbal communication refers to the use of sounds and language to relay a

message. It serves as a vehicle for expressing desires, ideas and concepts and

is vital to the processes of learning and teaching. In combination with nonverbal

forms of communication, verbal communication acts as the primary tool for

expression between two or more people.

Types
Interpersonal communication and public speaking are the two basic types of

verbal communication. Whereas public speaking involves one or more people

delivering a message to a group, interpersonal communication generally refers to

a two-way exchange that involves both talking and listening. 

According to Robert M. Krauss, professor of psychology at Columbia University,

signs and symbols are the major signals that make up verbal communication.

Words act as symbols, and signs are secondary products of the underlying

message and include things like tone of voice, blushing and facial expressions.

Purpose

Verbal communication has many purposes, but its main function is relaying a

message to one or more recipients. It encompasses everything from simple one-

syllable sounds to complex discussions and relies on both language and emotion

to produce the desired effect. Verbal communication can be used to inform,

inquire, argue and discuss topics of all kinds. It is vital to teaching and learning,

as well as forming bonds and building relationships with other people. 

Non-Verbal Communication
See also: Personal Appearance

Interpersonal communication is much more than

theexplicit meaning of words, the information or message
conveyed. It also includes implicitmessages, whether
intentional or not, which are expressed through non-verbal
behaviours.

Non-verbal communications include facial expressions, the

tone and pitch of the voice, gestures displayed through body
language (kinesics) and the physical distance between the
communicators (proxemics).

These non-verbal signals can give clues and additional

information and meaning over and above spoken (verbal)
communication.

Non-verbal Messages Allow People To:

 Reinforce or modify what is said in words. For example, people may
nod their heads vigorously when saying "Yes" to emphasise that they
agree with the other person, but a shrug of the shoulders and a sad
expression when saying "I'm fine thanks,” may imply that things are
not really fine at all!
 Convey information about their emotional state.
 Define or reinforce the relationship between people.
 Provide feedback to the other person.
 Regulate the flow of communication, for example by signalling to
others that they have finished speaking or wish to say something.

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communication.html#ixzz4Q5gkQYXN

Learning the Language

Many popular books on non-verbal communication present the topic as if it were a language
that can be learned, the implication being that if the meaning of every nod, eye movement,
and gesture were known, the real feelings and intentions of a person would be understood.
 Find more at: http://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/nonverbal-
communication.html#ixzz4Q5gw08gw

The Importance of Non-verbal

Communication
When we communicate, non-verbal cues can be as
important, or in some cases even more important, than what
we say.
Non-verbal communication can have a great impact on the listener and the
outcome of the communication.

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communication.html#ixzz4Q5h7BBrU

Types of Non-Verbal Communication

The types of interpersonal communication that are not
expressed verbally (with speech) are called non-verbal
communications.
There are many different types of non-verbal communication.
They include:
 Body Movements (Kinesics), for example, hand gestures or nodding or shaking the
head;

 Posture, or how you stand or sit, whether your arms are crossed, and so on;

 Eye Contact, where the amount of eye contact often determines the level of trust
and trustworthiness;

 Para-language, or aspects of the voice apart from speech, such as pitch, tone, and
speed of speaking;
 Closeness or Personal Space (Proxemics), which determines the level of intimacy;

 Facial Expressions, including smiling, frowning and even blinking; and

 Physiological Changes, for example, sweating or blinking more when nervous.

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communication.html#ixzz4Q5hMRsWp

In Conclusion…
Non-verbal communication is an extremely complex yet integral part of
overall communication skills. However, people are often totally unaware of
their non-verbal behaviour.
A basic awareness of non-verbal communication strategies, over and above what is actually
said, can help to improve interaction with others. Knowledge of these signs can be used to
encourage people to talk about their concerns and can lead to a greater shared
understanding, which is, after all, the purpose of communication.

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communication.html#ixzz4Q5hUppOJ

Linguistic Models
The following article is from The Great  Soviet Encyclopedia (1979). It might be outdated or ideolo
gically biased.

Linguistic Models
 

patterns used in structural linguistics to describe a language and its various aspects (phonology, 
grammar, lexicon) in order to define more accuratelylinguistic concepts and their relationships. Th
is helps to clarify the structures underlying the infinite variety of linguistic phenomena; sometimes 
thestructures themselves are called models. Depending on their area of application, linguistic mo
dels are divided into phonological, morphological, syntactic,and semantic. In constructing models, 
the means and methods of mathematical linguistics are used. Any linguistic model establishes su
ch things as theobjects corresponding to the data of direct observation, including a large number 
of sounds, words, and sentences; objects constructed by the linguist(constructs) for descriptive p
urposes, consisting of sets of categories, markers, and elementary semantic structures whose siz
e and scope have beenrigorously limited from the outset.
If the initial material (“input”) of the investigation consists of sounds, words, and sentences, and th
e result (“output”) consists of categories and semanticstructures, the model is called analytical. S
uch an analytical model is a model of the category of gender, which provides an unambiguous re
solution ofdisputed questions. A word’s grammatical gender may be determined by the form of a 
word; for example, Russian words ending in -a are usuallyfeminine, but the marker -a is not unam
biguous, as shown by the word papa, “daddy,” “pope,” or by meaning (words designating feminin
e beingsbelong to the feminine gender, but this marker is likewise not unambiguous, as shown by 
German das  Weib, “woman,” which belongs to the neutergender).

In the model of gender, each word is taken to have its system of forms (for example, declension o
f stol “table”: stol,  stola, stolu), and it is known whichother word forms agree with the given word f
orm (as in etot  stol, “this table”: etot stol, etogo  stola). Two words, x (stol) and y (kakadu, “cockat
oo”),belong to one gender if, for every form x1 of word x and every word form z agreeing with x1, t
here will be found a form y1 of word y agreeing with z (etotkakadu,  etogo kakadu), while the rever
se will be true for every form y11 of word y. This model makes it possible not only to resolve disput
ed questionsunambiguously but also to confront the category of gender with the category of part 
of speech (whereby gender is “inserted” into the part of speech); toestablish which categories of o
ther parts of speech are structured isomorphically (analogously) with the gender of the noun (for 
example, the category ofverb agreement); and to compare the category of gender in Russian and 
other Indo-European languages with the category of grammatical class in, forexample, the Bantu 
languages. Thus, analytical models are employed in language typology.

If the input material consists of categories and elementary semantic structures and the output con
sists of certain formal constructions, the model is calledsynthetic or generative (these models are 
also called generative grammars). A generative model contains a certain hypothesis about a lang
uage’sinternal structure that is inaccessible to direct observation. The generative model is then te
sted by comparing a large number of objects deduced fromthe model with real linguistic facts. Thi
s permits the model to be classified and evaluated according to the degree of its correspondence 
to the facts of thelanguage and according to the degree to which it reveals intuitively felt laws of t
he language (explanatory power). Since each model describes not awhole language but some on
e area or even a separate category of it, precise description of a language presupposes the simul
taneous use of severalmodels, relating both to the one area (for example, several complementary 
models of the categories of part of speech, case, and gender) and todifferent areas.
REFERENCES
Apresian, Iu. D. Idei i metody  sovremennoi  strukturnoi lingvistiki. Moscow, 1966.
Revzin, I.I. Metod modelirovaniia  i  tipologiia  slavianskikh iazykov. Moscow, 1967.
Marcus, S. Teoretiko-mnozhestvennye  modeli  iazykov. Moscow, 1970. (Translated from English.
)
Chomski, N. Aspekty teorii  sintaksisa. Moscow, 1972. (Translated from English.)

I. I. REVZIN