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Every material whether it is wood, plastic or metal is subjected to stress that has many effects on it. For
example, a material with high stress factor is considered a strong material that can handle tough loads but a
material with low stress factor is considered a weak material that has a low safety factor and can be broken if
subjected to unsustainable loads.

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Knowing that a material has a stress value made it possible for new problems to emerge that eventually will be
solved using mathematics forming a set of rules thus a new science emerges which is known as Stress
Analysis. Stress analysis helps in many ways to identify most of the problems concerning stresses and loads
and solve them. For example: the structural engineer only needs to know the stress values of the materials he
has to know whether it is acceptable to build with or refuse them, as soon as he finds out the values he will
then be able to know which material has a high failure value and which doesn¶t or just simply which material
will the stand the pressure and load that it will be subjected to.

Exactly as stress analysis emerged from acknowledging stress many computer based analytical theories
emerged from the science of stress analysis. One of these theories is the Finite element analysis which is the
topic of this report.




The finite element method originated from the need for solving complex elasticity and structural analysis
problems in civil and aeronautical engineering. Its development can be traced back to the work by Alexander
Hrennikoff 1941 and Richard Courant 1942. While the approaches used by these pioneers are dramatically
different, they share one essential characteristic: mesh discretization of a continuous domain into a set of
discrete sub-domains, usually called elements.

Hrennikoff's work discretizes the domain by using a lattice analogy while Courant's approach divides the
domain into finite triangular sub regions for solution of second order elliptic partial differential equations
PDEs that arise from the problem of torsion of a cylinder. Courant's contribution was evolutionary, drawing
on a large body of earlier results for PDEs developed by Rayleigh, Ritz, and Galerkin. (3)

In the early fifties the method for analysis was restricted to only just two points in space. Lattice analogy was
the method used back then to model membrane and plate bending parts of the structure, but this method
could not be applied to non rectangular areas.

In the summer of 1952 and 1953 after joining the Boeing summer faculty program. Ray Clough worked with
Jon Turner, head of the structural dynamics unit. He was asked to calculate the bending and torsion
flexibility influence coefficients on low aspect wings. After applying a structural analysis model on a swept
back box wing, the static experimental results did not agree with the analysis using one dimensional element
only. This work was credited to Jon Turner for developing the procedure of the constant strain triangle.

In 1956 and 1957 Clough was on a sabbatical leave in Trondheim, Norway. It was there that Clough
concluded that two dimensional elements connected to more than two nodes could be used to solve
problems in continuam mechanics. For the turner triangular element the stress strain relationship in the
element, displacement compatibility between adjacent elements and force equilibrium on an integral basis at
a finite number of node points within the structure were satisfied. This discrete element idealization was a
different approach to the soloution of continuam mechanics problems, thus Clough founded the terminology
finite element analysis. Therefore, analysis models for both continous structures and frame structures were
modeled as a system of elements interconnected at joints or nodes.

Finally in 1957 after Clough returned from Norway, he initiated a new structural analysis research program
in Berkeley, he also received a small NSF grant to support research on computer analysis of structures.
During the fall semester of 1957 he listed several possible graduate student research areas. This list
contained research topics on FEA of plane stress structures, FEA of plates and FEA of shells. Also after the
arrival of the IBM701 digital computer in 1956 at Berkeley the primal beginnings of the FEA program were
made that enabled the students using submatrix techniques and tape storage to solve larger systems.

These early years were just the beginnings of the term FEA. It was later on in 1970 that finite element
analysis was declared a formal course within the civil engineering department.

 


A numerical analysis technique for obtaining approximate solutions to many types of engineering
problems. The need for numerical methods arises from the fact that for most practical engineering problems
analytical solutions do not exist. While the governing equations and boundary conditions can usually be written
for these problems, difficulties introduced by either irregular geometry or other discontinuities render the
problems intractable analytically. To obtain a solution, the engineer must make simplifying assumptions,
reducing the problem to one that can be solved, or a numerical procedure must be used. In an analytic
solution, the unknown quantity is given by a mathematical function valid at an infinite number of locations in the
region under study, while numerical methods provide approximate values of the unknown quantity only at
discrete points in the region. In the finite element method, the region of interest is divided up into numerous
connected subregions or elements within which approximate functions (usually polynomials) are used to
represent the unknown quantity.

The physical concept on which the finite element method is based has its origins in the theory of structures.
The idea of building up a structure by fitting together a number of structural elements (see illustration) was
used in the early truss and framework analysis approaches employed in the design of bridges and buildings in
the early 1900s. By knowing the characteristics of individual structural elements and combining them, the
governing equations for the entire structure could be obtained. This process produces a set of simultaneous
algebraic equations. The limitation on the number of equations that could be solved posed a severe restriction
on the analysis. The introduction of the digital computer has made possible the solution of the large-order
systems of equations.

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The finite element method is one of the most powerful approaches for approximate solutions to a wide range of
problems in mathematical physics. The method has achieved acceptance in nearly every branch of
engineering and is the preferred approach in structural mechanics and heat transfer. Its application has
extended to soil mechanics, heat transfer, fluid flow, magnetic field calculations, and other areas. (5)

! 
(4)

Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is a numerical method which provides solutions to problems that would
otherwise be difficult to obtain. In terms of fracture, FEA most often involves the determination of stress
intensity factors. FEA, however, has applications in a much broader range of areas; for example, fluid flow and
heat transfer. While this range is growing, one thing will remain the same: the theory of how the method works.

The most efficient method of learning is by example. Therefore, I would like to present to you a simple FEA
problem: the case of a three-member truss. The method of solution to this problem should demonstrate the
basic concepts of FEA which are present in any analysis.
Before introducing specific quantities for our example, let's first take a look at our structure:

The overall objective of our analysis will be to determine the displacements of the truss members given the
load P.

The first thing we must do is choose our elements. For our situation this is easy: each truss member should be
one element. Further division would accomplish nothing, since each truss member can only support axial
loads.

Let us now examine a single truss member:

(More info. on nodes)

Nodes are located at each end of the bar, each of which can have displacements in the x and y directions. The
displacements are denoted u1, u2, u3, and u4. Corresponding forces due to these displacements are F1, F2, F3,
and F4. The bar has a uniform cross-sectional area A and Young's Modulus E. The general relationship
between force and displacement is Fi = kij*uj, where Fi is the force in direction i, uj is the displacement in
direction j, and kij is the "stiffness" coefficient relating Fi to uj. In our particular example of a horizontal truss
element, we have the following system of equations:

F1 = k11u1 + k12u2 + k13u3 + k14u4

F2 = k21u2 + k22u2 + k23u3 + k24u4

F3 = k31u1 + k32u2 + k33u3 + k34u4

F4 = k41u1 + k42u2 + k43u3 + k44u4

Alternatively, in matrix form:

The matrix kij is called the " stiffness matrix." It is the matrix which defines the geometric and material
properties of the bar. Stiffness matrices are a fundamental part of FEA. These matrices always define inherent
properties of the system being studied. For the system at hand, we need to determine the stiffness matrix. The
way we will go about doing this may seem a little strange at first, but try to follow the reasoning as it does make
sense. Let's begin by assuming u1 = 1 and u2 = u3 = u4 = 0. Then our matrix takes the form:

Each force Fi is equal to kj1. Now, recall from mechanics of materials that the displacement of a rod is given by
u = FL/AE. With displacement u1 = 1, force 1 is F1 = AE/L. To maintain equilibrium, we must also have a force
F3 = -AE/L:

Since our Fi's equal our ki1's, we have:

It important to remember that our element can support only axial loads. Therefore, displacements u2 and u4
cannot give rise to stresses in the bar since these displacements are perpendicular to the axis of the bar. Thus,
the stiffness coefficients of these displacements must be zero: ki2 = ki4 = 0. Finally, a displacement u3 = 1 will
result in forces just opposite to those from u1 = 1, so ki3 = -ki1. Our stiffness matrix is:
It must be emphasized that the stiffness matrix just derived is only valid for bars parallel to the x-axis. Through
a similar derivation it can be shown that the stiffness matrix for any bar oriented at an angle "theta" to the X-
axis is:

Where c = cos"theta" and s = sin"theta". Note that when "theta" = 0, this stiffness matrix reduces to the one we
derived for a horizontal bar.

Now knowing the stiffness matrix for any axially loaded bar, we can apply it to a real situation with specific
quantities. Consider the following truss:

The displacements and external forces are:

Note the symbols we are using: R is an external force on the truss; F is an internal force resulting from the
stresses imposed on the structure during a displacement. Knowing the orientations of each element, we can
set up matrices for them. Using "theta" = 90 degrees for element 1, "theta" = 135 degrees for element 2, and
"theta" = 0 degrees for element 3 we obtain the following matrices:
 Element 1:

Element 2:

Element 3:

We can now generate a set of equilibrium equations for each node. Consider the following figure:

The nodal forces (resulting from element displacements) must be equal and opposite of the externally applied
forces. Note that we have all forces drawn in positive x and y directions. Thus, for equilibrium

At node 1:

@ x - Direction: R2 - F2 (element3) - F2 (element2) = 0

@ y - Direction: R1 - F1 (element3) - F1 (element2) = 0
@ We want to solve for R1 and R2. Obtaining the nodal forces F2 (element3), F2 (element2), F1 (element3), and
F1 (element2) from our previously determined matrices we get:
@ R1 = AE/L (3u1/2 - u2/2 - u3 - u5/2 + u6/2 )
@ R2 = AE/L (-u1/2 + u2/2 + u5/2 - u6/2).
@ Similarly, from equilibrium of nodes 2 and 3 we obtain:
@ R3 = AE/L (-u1 + u3 )
@ R4 = AE/L ( u4 - u6 )
@ R5 = AE/L ( -u1/2 + u2/2 + u5/2 - u6/2 )
@ R6 = AE/L ( u1/2 - u2/2 - u4 - u5/2 +3u6/2 )
We can now combine all of our external forces into one matrix:

Now recall what we are trying to do here: given a load P, we want to solve for the displacements at each node.
Observing that node 2 is pinned and that node 3 is on a roller, the displacements u3, u4, and u5 must equal 0.
These values are quite important because without them we wouldn't be able to solve the problem. As a matter
of fact, values such as these are always needed in finite element analyses; they are known as " boundary
conditions." Next, we must state the reactions which are known from our particular loading. We can see from
the truss that R1 = 0, R2 = -P, and R6 = 0. Entering the known displacements and reactions into our matrix we
get:

This matrix reduces to:

We can now finish our problem by solving this matrix for u1, u2, and u6:

u1 = - PL/AE

u2 = -4PL/AE

u6 = -PL/AE

This application of FEA to a simple three-member truss shows in general how the method works. Most
applications to engineering problems, however, are much more complex. Such analyses require large numbers
of elements and nodes in order to accurately represent the physical system being studied. These analyses
inevitably require the application of a computer.

x
 
 

A variety of specializations under the umbrella of the mechanical engineering discipline (such as
aeronautical, biomechanical, and automotive industries) commonly use integrated FEM in design and
development of their products. Several modern FEM packages include specific components such as thermal,
electromagnetic, fluid, and structural working environments. In a structural simulation, FEM helps tremendously
in producing stiffness and strength visualizations and also in minimizing weight, materials, and costs.
FEM allows detailed visualization of where structures bend or twist, and indicates the distribution of stresses
and displacements. FEM software provides a wide range of simulation options for controlling the complexity of
both modeling and analysis of a system. Similarly, the desired level of accuracy required and associated
computational time requirements can be managed simultaneously to address most engineering applications.
FEM allows entire designs to be constructed, refined, and optimized before the design is manufactured.

This powerful design tool has significantly improved both the standard of engineering designs and the
methodology of the design process in many industrial applications. The introduction of FEM has substantially
decreased the time to take products from concept to the production line. It is primarily through improved initial
prototype designs using FEM that testing and development have been accelerated. In summary, benefits of
FEM include increased accuracy, enhanced design and better insight into critical design parameters, virtual
prototyping, fewer hardware prototypes, a faster and less expensive design cycle, increased productivity, and
increased revenue. (1)
Some of the applications of FEA are: (6)
@ Crashworthiness Simulations
@ Occupant Safety
@ Metal Forming
@ Automotive Part Mfg.
@ Metal Cutting
@ Jet engine blade containment
@ Electronic components
@ Penetration
@ Glass
@ forming
@ Plastics, mold and blow forming
@ Biomedical Applications
@ Spot-welded, riveted and bolted structures
@ Consumer products (tools, golf clubs)
@ Fluid-structure interaction
@ Earthquake engineering

The following images show examples of the uses of FEA:

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The very first FEA computer based program was called NASTRAN.VOriginally developed for NASA in
the late 1960s under United States government funding for the Aerospace industry. The MacNeal-Schwendler
Corporation (MSC) was one of the principal and original developers of the public domain NASTRAN code.
NASTRAN source code is integrated in a number of different software packages, which are distributed by a
range of companies. NASA wanted some development proposals for upgrading the program and made
an official proposal in 1965.

After the technological advancements many new programs emerged. One of these programs is the
AutoFEM analysis. It allows you to solve various problems of mechanical and structural analysis for
example:

@ Static stress analysis (analysis of structural stress and strain) ± (the AutoFEM Static Analysis module )
@ Stress analysis for structures under cyclic loading action ± (the AutoFEM Fatigue Analysis module )
@ Calculation of natural frequencies (resonances) of structures ± (the AutoFEM Frequency Analysis
module )
@ Calculation of critical load (the system's stability) ± (the AutoFEM Buckling Analysis module )
@ Calculation of temperature (or distribution of temperature domains) ± (the AutoFEM Thermal Analysis
module.) (9)

(9)

There are also many other types of programs such as ANSYS, ABAQUS, FEAP, LISA, OOFEM and SOFEA.
^ 

1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(mechanics)
2) http://www.museumstuff.com/learn/topics/finite_element_analysis::sub::History
3) http://www.ce.memphis.edu/7111/notes/class_notes/fe-history.pdf
4) http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/97ClassProj/num/midkiff/theory.html
5) http://www.answers.com/topic/finite-element-method
6) http://www.feainformation.com/1_pages/applications.shtml
7) http://www.lnengineering.com/rods.html
8) http://claytonmstevens.com/feap2.html
9) http://www.autofemsoft.com/
10) http://www.bridgeart.net/software_database/keywords/finite_element_analysis/