Fluids/Solids Handling General Rules for Aboveground Storage Tank Design and Operatio Various codes and regulations dictate the specification and construction of these tanks, helping to ensure optimum design and safe ‘Yacine AMROUCHE, CHarTaLI Dave, KAMAL GURSAHAM, ROSABELLA Lee an Lisa MONTEMAYOR, br operation. extical, aboveground atmospheric-pressure storage tanks are commonly used in. pro- cessing facilities. By definition, an atmo- spheric tank has a design pressure less than 25 psig (1). Atmospheric tanks can be equipped with a fixed roof or a floating roof. A vertical, fixed-roof tank consists of a cylindrical metal shell with @ perma nently attached roof that can be fat, conical or dome- shaped, among other styles. Fixed-roof tanks are used to store materials with a true vapor pressure (TVP) Tess than 1.5 psia. (TVP, a measure of volatility, is the equilibrium partial pressure for a liquid at 100°) ‘These tanks are less expensive fo construct than those with floating roofs, and are generally considered the ‘minimum. acceptable type for storing chemicals, of ‘panics and other liquids. "There are two types of floating roof tanks: «+ External floating roof (BFR). The roof floats di- roetly on the surface of the stored liquid (called a con- tact deck). The deck has a seal system attached to the roof perimeter, closing off the ansular space between the roof and the tank wall. These tanks store materials ‘with TVPs from 1.5-11 psia + Jntemal floating roof (IFR) tanks have an inside” floating deck, which is either « contact deck or one that resis on pontoons, and a fixed roof. IFR tanks are used where there oan be heavy accumolations of snow or rais- ‘water on the floating roof. Such accumolations affect the ‘operating buoyaney of the roof. In these cases, the vapor space above the quid is purged with an inert gas. 184 wemcapmagainaong Devenber 2002 CEP Design of storage tanks : ‘Various factors play a role in tbe selection and de- sign of a tank ‘Process considerations — One of the fist steps in selecting or designing a tank isto determine its capac ty. The totel capacity is the sum of the inactive (nom Working) capacity, actual or net working capacity, and the overfill protection capacity (figure). ‘The inactive ‘working (or non-working) capacity isthe yolume below the hott invert ofthe oudet noze, which is wormal- 1y a minimum of 10 in. above the bottom seam to avoid Weld interference (2). The net working expacity is the Volume between the low liquid level (LLL) and the high Tiquid lovel (HLL), For an in-process taak,'the net ‘working capacity is caleulated by multiplying the re ‘quired retention time of the liquid by its flowrate, For Tange, off-site storage tanks, the net working capacity is determined by performing an economic analysis (3), in- ‘luding items such as the savings in bufk transportation costs, the size and frequency of shipments, and the risks Of « plant shutdown. In some cases, the required net worldng capacity may be divided up into multiple tanks, ifthe size of a single tank is physically unrealis- tic, or if separate tanks are needed for other reasons, such as dedicated service or rindown ‘The overfill pro: teotion eapecty of a tank is that between the HILL aad the design liquid level. The design liquid level is set higher than the normal operating liquid level to provide, ‘safety margin for upsets. The overfill section is filled” ‘with vapor under normal operating conditions.nd p vent external condensation, For these [> wider shapes are preferred in windy or F plot space decreases and soil-bearing od ent 1 — fay [Design Liguld Lovet Inet de, ‘Ov Preston Carat a High Liquid Love ¢ i I ie Working Gapciy hi aid Low Liga Lovet Cooling Now eating Pre Us ——— orkng Capac sume) + Optional 1 Figure 1. An abovegrouns storage tank can have ieral calls fr beating cooing thei, Other process design considerations include specifying the temperature and pressure for the tank, end determining the need for heaters, chillers or phase-separation equipment. Mechanical design — This involves specifying the ma terials of construction, determining the dimensions of the tank and the plates used to build it, and sizing and position- ing the nozzles and accessories. Mild-quality carbon steel (A-36, A-328) is the most widely used material for storage tanks. For corrosive ser- vices, a suitable comosion allowance is added to the thi ness of the structure. If this is unceanomical, or if product contamination due to corrosion caunot be tolerated, then the tank material is upgraded to stainless steel or a high alloy, Alternatively, carbon steel tanks can be lined with conosion-resistané materials such as rubber, plastic or ce- ramic tile. Tanks can also be insulated for temperature control, personnel pro- tection, energy conservation, or to pre- instances, materials used are fibergiass, mineral wool, expanded polystyrene or polyurethane, ‘The wind and seismic loadings, available space and soil- bearing. strength determine the optimal height: to-diameter ratio. Reduced heights and seismically active areas, or where soil- bearing capacity is limited, As available strength increases, tanks are designed to be taller with smaller diameters. ‘The bottom,, shell and roof of storage tanks consist of steel plates that are usually lap-welded togeth- cr, To calculate plate dimensions, designers normally refer to indus- tty codes, such as those of the American Petroleum — Institute (APD (4). Storage tanks must have lad: ders to provide access to their top. Per API 650, tanks 20 ft or less in height must be furnished with a ladder without a cage. Tanks taller than 20 ft require a spiral 2, stairway. A landing platform at the top of the ladder can lead fo walkways extending to the center of the roof. Roofs and shells are provided with manholes that aro 2-ft in dia. Details on such re= (quirements are in APT 650, Most storage tanks construct- ed in petroleum refining and petrochemical plants are made to conform to one of the API standards, These standards cover design, construc: tion, inspection, erection, testing and maintenance re~ quirements. ‘They lay down certain minimum require ments for API certification. The key API codes for stor- age tank design are as follows: + “Field Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Lig- Lids," API Specification 12D — covers vertical, cylindri- cal, aboveground, welded steel tanks in nominal capacities of 500-10,000 bb! in standard sizes for production service. ‘Standard capacity, dimensions and design pressures of API 12D tanks are shown in Table 1 (3). + “Shop Welded Tanks for Storage of Production Liq- uids,” API Specification 12F — covers vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, shop-welded steel tanks in nominal capecities Inet Gas Aimesphere Ovrtlow ‘guid Lina Design Preseure, ‘Design Vacuum, ‘ozsind ozsin? CEP scurbor 2002 wmwcopmananecs — SEFluids/Solids Handling ‘of 90-S00 bbl in standard sizes for production service, arg, Field Welded, Low-Pressire Storage Tanks,” API Standerd 620 — covers vertical, cylindrical, above- ‘round, feld-welded steel tanks for oil storage with maxi- thu operating tempertures not greater than 200° and pressures in the vapor space less than 2.5 psig + "Larges Field Welded, Storage Tank,” API Standard 650 covers vertical, cylindrical, aboveground, fiele- Avelded see tanks foro storage with maximum operating Temperatures not greater than 250" and pressures in the ‘vapor space fess than 1.5 "Altioogh API standards ecver many aspects of storage tank design and opcration, they ace nt allinclsive. There fn soveral ther organizations that publish standards on tavk design, fabscation, installation, inspection, and repic thae supplement the API standards "These includ the American Society of Mechanical Engh noets (ASME, woyw.asmesorg); American Society for Test ing and Materials (ASTM; worastn.org) American Water ‘Wosks Association (AWWA; wowawwa.org Building Of ficials and Code Administrators Intemational (BOCA; www.bocai.org); (NACE International, www.nace.org); Na- tional Hire Protection Asoeiation (NFPA; wow.nfp.org) Petroleum Equipment Institute (PEL; www.pei.org), Steel ‘Tank Institute (STL Worstectank com) Underwriters Lab- oratories (UL; ulstandardsinfonet al.com); and the ntema~ tional Fire Code Insitute (Uniform , Fire Codes ses com). Environmental requirements ' Storage tanks are considered a source of air emissions due to losses of vapor (5). Emissions from tanks must be addressed in obtaining the sir permit. Volatile organic com- pounds (VOCS) are the major pollutants of concem for air missions. In addition, specific organics that arc toxic or hazardous are also regulated, e.g.; benzene. Adequate con- trol and proper management en sary to prevent releases of tank contents. Tn preparing an application for an air-quality operating permit, a review of all applicable regulations must be com plefed. Environmental regulations often dictate the type of temissions-control device that must be used in a particular ‘application. Minimum emission-control requirements de- ‘pend upon the material stored, when the tank was con- structed or modified, ils capacity, the TVP of the com- pound at storage conditions, and the location of the facility Ref. 5 lists some of the national regulatory codes and stan- dards used for the design of storage tanks and control of air emissions. Among these is the “New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), Standartis for Performance for Storage Vessels for Petroleum Liquids,” from the U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency's regulation 40 CFR, Patt 60, Subparts K, Ka and Kb. ‘This standard sets rules for the systems to control emissions. Emissions-control devices include internal and external floating roofs, seals, vents 10 5G wmcopmegseno.og Cecembe 200 CEP flares, vapor recovery systems (such as a thermal oxidizer ‘or serubber) and disposal systems, such as pressure or vac- ‘uum vents. Table 2 lists examples of the different types of requirements and their basis for applicability, taken from 40 CHR, Part 60. Information for the permit includes properties of materi- al stored, operating conditions, TVP, tank physical charac- teristics, tank construction and rin-seal system, roof type, fittings, deck characteristics, estimated emissions, and ‘chemical identification, EPA has guidelines, “Compilation. "7 of Air Polfutant Emission Factors,” API-#2, that present ‘models for estimating air emissions for organic-liquid stor. fage tanks, and inclade emissions estimation equations de veloped by APL An EPA-developed program called: TANKS Version 4.09 calculates tank emissions based on 3 API 42 — Chapter 12 methodology. The software is avail able at www.epa.govittn/chief/softwarestanks/index. hn ‘Vent control measures are included in the operating air permit as permit conditions, Some examples of possible ‘operating permit conditions include (5): * For storage and loading of VOCs — An internal float- ing deck or equivalent control must be installed in all tanks. The floating roof must have one of the following closure devices between the wall and the edge of the dock: (1) a liquid-mounted seal; 2) two continuous seals mount- fed one above the other; or (3) a mechanical shoe seal. In- ‘tallation of an equivalent control system requires review ‘and approval. (A shoe seal is a type of rim seal that closes the space between the floating roof rim and the tank shell.) + For any tank equipped with a floating roof, the holder of the permit has to follow the tests and procedures to veri- fy the seat integrity, as given in 40 CFR 60.113b. There ate reporting and recordkeeping requirements for the dates that the scals are ingpected, their integrity, and any corrective actions taken * Uninsulated tanks exposed to the sun have to be paint- ed white or made of aluminum, Structural requirements “Tank type and size, the soil conditions at the site, tank loading and tank settlement are etitical factors for the de- sign of the tank foundation. Examples of foundation types inelude earth of crushed stone, conerete slabs, slabs sup- ported by piles and coneretering-walls. ‘Earth or crushed stone foundations are simply rings of raterial that support the tank walls. These foundations are typically used in locations with it-stu soil conditions, and can only be used when anchor bolts are not required. A concrete slab set under tho entire surface area ofthe tank is ‘used for tanks less than 15 fin dia. If soil conditions are poor or the tank nceds insulation, piles may needed. "A concrete ring-wall is constructed by pouring 9 con~ crete mixture around the tank to support it. Ring-wall foundations are an economical way to support tanks, are (ypically used for large tanks and can withstand uplift ees for pla cor the eee eenPetooun Aor Merch 8, 1974, > 1Sbut Flaaing ooo por recovery Pao que an pri aint system (VAS) orequvalent | ee Naey 18: 1078, 320,000 ttt ‘VAS, or equivalent ‘ioraune 11,1978,» 65,000 SiS Floatingroot, or VAS, ‘af proto Zia eromuivalen ae May 18,1978 35.000 saa VAS, oroqunalent = OGRA, Petroleum “Rior May 195 1878 540.005 > 16 bat External Hoating rook (SFR) with Par6o° ieuids: can ‘wo sal, or inlay ‘Subpart {oof (FA), or VAS it. 98%. co uae rosin renin. igeeacea Te s0.000 aie “WR wth 98% reitaction. ‘GER, Volto ‘Aterdly 2, 1684 = 20,000 Boy Sry Parso” —organle a 7 200m «RE xem rom Subpait Kit Suinert —b Bago ee <5 ce : Sa.abit _IPRLvah wi mounied eal or eit win meshes shoe seo == with vanop rnc Seal an o7stu ——_tmeaumted seoandag geal of eid EF wih wo eal oC VRS th Bee 95% rouon Scone m1 ‘VAs wih dob ceciuciont er, Ne _ euulent tn gays) forces from the tank, Most of the tanks used in chemical plants are greater than 15 ft in dia. and commonly have Fring-wall foundations. Estimates of the vertical and horizontal loads of the tank fre requited for foundation design. Vertical loads to be ‘considered include the empty weight, live load, operating weight, test weight and internal pressure. The live lond on “the root is typically 25 Ib/ft?, based on API codes (620 and 650). ‘The operating weight is the dead weight plus the jvoight of the fluid, with conetions made for specific [gravitics greater than 1.0. The test weight consists of the Hdead weight of the tank plus the weight of the tank full of ‘water. The tank is subjected to an internal pressure during ‘operating or tst conditions. Even a tank that has no liquid in it can still be under pressure. For example, a tank that held a volatile con ‘pound can still have vapor in it after being drained. Heat from the sim can pressurize the vapor. Horizontal forces ‘clude the wind and any seismic loads. ‘Tank settlement is a common problem with compress~ ible soils. Long-term settling of the foundation often oc- ‘curs at the edge and center, due to operating conditions. In ‘aring-wall design, the pressure on the bottom of the ring~ ‘wall and tank must be equalized to prevent differential sot- toment of the structure Cryogenic tanks require cable heating systems to avoid frost heave, or can be put on columns to allow air circulation. Additional considerations ‘Other items that need to be considered for the founda~ tion are leak detection systems, comusivity, cathodic pro- teotion, and secondary containment. ‘The engineer must consider the environmental and safety implications of leak ‘age into the containment space below the tank floor. For an earth or conerete ring-wall, leak-detection is normally ac- complished by providing @ flexible membrane liner at ‘grade elevation with a drainpipe under the tank, which ‘rains to the perimeter of the tank. For a concrete slab, leak detection can be achieved similarly ot by placing radial {grooves in the top of the sinb that extend to the perimeter of the tank. When a Teak occars, onc or more grooves will ‘contain the tank liquid. ‘Cathodie protection can be used to control cleetrochem- jal corrosion. ‘This method uses direct current from an ox- femal source to oppose the discharge current from the metal surface, thereby preventing corrosion. Further, metal tanks that store flammable liquids are grounded as @ pro- tection against lightning or static electricity. ‘Secondary containment is often required to prevent lig- vid from a leaking tank seeping into the ground and/or ‘groundwater. This can be achieved by either building dikes CEP Oscirtn: 2000 wmmommencrnog STFluids/Solids Handling with liners made of high-density polyethylene (HDPE), or by adding concrete walls and slabs, along with a leak de- tection system, Curb and dike containment are covered by ‘many regulations that govern the volume, area, height and spacing between multiple tanks and process units, Area sumps may also be required to contain possible leakage, Provisions must be made for removing water or debris from the suraps, Operation and control Pressure control — The design of a tank must take into account both normal operations and certain upset condi tions. Normal operations are filling, emptying and storing. When filling a tank, the displaced vapor must be vented, typically to an emission-control device (or to atmosphere, if allowed by enviroumental regulations). When with: rawing liquid, the vacuum that is created must be counter-balanced by the infusion of an inert gas, such as nitrogen, through a breathing valve. ‘Vapor “surplus” or “deficit” can also occur in an idle tank as a result of ambient temperature changes or chemi- cal reactions taking place within the liquid inventory. The venting of excess vapor or the infusion of an inort gas for all normal operating conditions is carried out antomatical- ly, typically through self-regulating valves. Level control — Level-measuring devices are based on ifferential pressure, or sonic, capacitance, displacer veloci- ty or liguid-conductivity measurements, Sonat or radar level measurements have recently gained popularity. Those de- vices are usually mounted on the roof of a tank. They send out a signal, which is reflected off the liquid level. The time it takes forthe reflected signal tobe received is used to mea- sure the liquid height. A major advantage of these instru ‘ments is that they can be used with corrosive liquids. erature, Cited et Mea [Stns yelopedia ab Ghee Process Equipment,” casino ee links IE Sy of Refiery Tonk Ghent ng GD, wo (OE DKA AG BBY ‘Nomion;P, etal "Liquid St he 1 Chin. Eng. Desks: bee 88 Bhp 9.13 (ADIL DAT LAC Maees Sted Tans for cit Stree” 100 od Saas 50, bs sees Feta (00, Manin De ie acs, Vackane Yoel Sources Stans 1 On eae ei cance Acknowledgment - ‘The huhity oul et Mask Abe Ally, Reon Para he eta Cans fo tl pans nt Sap yng thi ace 3 5B wncorregscha.og Dosarber 2002 OEP “The level is then adjusted by closing or opening the a propriate valves. When precise level control is not re quired, the liquid level is maintained between the HLL and. the LLL, Automatic emergency cut-offs are applied when the liquid level 8 atthe overil level to avoid ovectow, or when iis below the LL. (o avoid eavtation of a pump. Temperature control — A thermocouple, Which mouated below the LLL of the tank, provides @ conting- ous readout of the temperature. Multiple measurement points are sometimes’ required to ensure representative temperature readings when the tank is large, there are different feeds at different temperatur heating coil. The tank temperature can be maintained by adjusting the flowratc of a cooling or heating medina in am internal coil. Upsets and safety — "Typical upsets include overpres- sure, overflow, boil-over, over-temperature, water ingress, floating-soof failure, unexpected phase separation, light- ning, statie-charge buildup, steam coil failare and fires. Adequate monitoring can help to ensure safety during upsets and other incidents. Control and prevention of such sitvations include the use of: sprays, deluge or foam sys~ tems; pressure-, tomperature-, level- and. fire-monitoring devices; pressure-relie? systems; and ensuring proper pproventative maintenance, ACNE AMROUEHE apres right Kb (i etic Ae, £5 Howson, Tero; Poe: Ga) 73908 Re a asaeonr ale ade enyoueheGholbutor. cin) Hes one eae {earel eee notes: egg anda maar of Hs ug peter eo MAC. Arocha chen “etn on Uf Sse Ke wth Soca palmer lence. CHAITALDAVE:is een ener a KOR hove) P| 13572 Fae 7g) 7993823 ale chaalidave@halibrion om Shee fino tevel engineer wth our yas of experienc inerioneial ‘raring ants ae of KOR yours proton! belo, IMPACT. Uae bois a Bn cheval enneeng Roe the Ur Fords ad is amen of the oyoamenal Di FACE sou “ab GunsANAni i pros palo 3 KAR Oioe: 28) pa a (8 992983: nal ana seharihalibatoncoe. sia Junotveenglacr wi ose year af expen an lsa menbet of BRS young poesia eth IMPACT. 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