Abstract____________________

Abstract__________________________________
_____________________________
______________________ 
_______ 
The aim of this investigation is to describe the principle of DC motor speed control using
nonlinear
nonlinear armature voltage control.
control. For the armature
armature control mode, the field current is held
constant and an adjustable voltage is applied to the armature. The mathematical model of a
separately excited DC motor (SEDM) with independent armature control can be obtained by
considering the electrical system, electromagnetic interaction and mechanical system.

The armature voltage control of separately excited DC motor can be controlled from below
and up to rated speed using IGBT as a converter. The IGBT firing circuit receives signal
from controller and then chopper gives variable voltage to the armature of the motor for 
achieving desired speed. There are two control loops, one for controlling current and another 
for speed. The controller used is Proportional type which removes the delay and provides fast
control. Modelling of separately excited DC motor is done. The complete layout of DC drive
mechanism is obtained. The designing of current and speed controller is carried out. After 
obta
obtain
inin
ing
g the
the comp
comple
lete
te mode
modell of DC driv
drivee syst
system
em,, the
the mode
modell is simu
simula
late
ted
d usin
using
g
MATLAB
MATLAB(SI
(SIMUL
MULINK
INK).T
).The
he simula
simulati
tion
on of DC motor
motor drive
drive is done
done and analyz
analyzed
ed under 
under 
varying speed and varying load torque conditions like rated speed and load torque, half the
rated load torque and speed, step speed and load torque and stair case load torque and speed.

1
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

2
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

2
Chapter 1 Introduction
A DC motor is an electric motor that runs on direct current (DC) electricity. DC motors were
used to run machinery, often eliminating the need for a local steam engine or internal
combustion engine. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk 
drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. Modern DC motors
are nearly always operated in conjunction with power electronic devices. The principle of DC
motor
motor is based
based on simple
simple electr
electromag
omagnet
netism
ism.. A curren
current-c
t-carr
arryin
ying
g conduct
conductor
or genera
generates
tes a
magnetic field; when this is then placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a
force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external magnetic
fiel
field.
d. The
The inte
intern
rnal
al conf
config
igur
urat
atio
ion
n of a DC moto
motorr is desi
design
gned
ed to harne
harness
ss the
the magn
magnet
etic
ic
interaction between a current-carrying conductor and an external magnetic field to generate
rotati
rotational
onal motion
motion.. Develo
Developme
pment
nt of high
high perfor
performan
mance
ce motor
motor drives
drives is very
very essent
essential
ial for 
industrial applications. A high performance motor drive system must have good dynamic
speed command tracking and load regulating response. DC motors provide excellent control
of speed for acceleration and deceleration. The power supply of a DC motor connects
directly to the field of the motor which allows for precise voltage control, and is necessary
for speed and torque control applications. DC drives, because of their simplicity, ease of 
appl
applic
icat
atio
ion,
n, reli
reliab
abil
ilit
ity
y and favo
favour
urab
able
le cost
cost have
have long
long been
been a backb
backbon
onee of indu
indust
stri
rial
al
applications. DC drives are less complex as compared to AC drives system. DC drives are
normally less expensive for low horsepower ratings. DC motors have a long tradition of 
 being used as adjustable speed machines and a wide range of options have evolved for this
 purpose. Cooling blowers and inlet air flanges provide cooling air
a ir for a wide speed range at
constant torque. DC regenerative drives are available for applications requiring continuous
regeneration for overhauling loads. AC drives with this capability would be more complex
and expensive. Properly applied brush and maintenance of commutator is minimal. DC
motors are capable of providing starting and acce lerating torques in excess of 400% of rated.

D.C motors have long been the primary means of electric traction. They are also used for 
mobil
mobilee equipme
equipment
nt such
such as golf
golf carts
carts,, quarry
quarry and mining
mining applic
applicati
ations
ons.. DC motors
motors are
conveniently portable and well fit to special applications, like industrial equipments and
machineries that are not easily run from remote power sources.

3
D.C
D.C moto
motorr is cons
consid
ider
ered
ed a SISO
SISO (Sin
(Singl
glee Inpu
Inputt and
and Sing
Single
le Outp
Output
ut)) syst
system
em havi
having
ng
torque/speed characteristics compatible with most mechanical loads. This makes a D.C motor 
controllable over a wide range of speeds by proper adjustment of the terminal voltage. Now
days,
days, Induct
Induction
ion motors
motors,, Brushl
Brushless
ess D.C motors
motors and Synchro
Synchronou
nouss motors
motors have gained
gained
widespread use in electric traction system. Even then, there is a persistent effort towards
making them behave like dc motors through innovative design and control techniques. Hence
dc motors are always a good option for advanced control algorithm because the theory of dc
motor speed control is extendable to other types of motors as well.

Speed control techniques in separately excited dc motor:

• By varying the armature voltage for below

b elow rated speed.

• By varying field flux should to achieve speed above the rated speed.

Different methods for speed control of DC motor:

• Traditionally armature voltage using Rheostatic method for low power dc motors.

• Use of conventional PID controllers.

•  Neural Network Controllers.

• Constant power motor field weakening controller based on load-adaptive multi- input
multi- output linearization technique (for high speed regimes).
• Single phase uniform PWM ac-dc buck-boost converter with only one switching
device used for armature voltage control.
• Using NARMA-L2 (Non-linear Auto-regressive Moving Average) controller for the
constant torque region.

Large experiences have been gained in designing trajectory controllers based on self-tuning
and PI control. The PI based speed control has many advantages like fast control, low cost
and simplified structure. This thesis mainly deals with controlling DC motor speed using
IGBT as power converter and PI as speed and current controller.

4
Chapter 1.1 IGBT
Recent technology advances in power electronics have arisen primarily from improvements
in semiconduct
semiconductor
or power devices, with insulated
insulated gate bipolar
bipolar transistor
transistorss (IGBT)
(IGBT) leading
leading the
market
market today for medium
medium power applications.
applications. IGBTs feature
feature many desirable
desirable properties
properties
including a MOS input gate, high switching speed, low conduction voltage drop, high current
carrying capability, and a high degree of robustness. Devices have drawn closer to the 'ideal
switch', with typical voltage ratings of 600 - 1700 volts, on-state voltage of 1.7 - 2.0 volts at
currents of up to 1000 amperes, and switching speeds of 200 - 500 ns. The availability of 
IGBTs has lowered the cost of systems and enhanced the number of economically viable
applications. The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the positive attributes of 
BJTs
BJTs and MOSFET
MOSFETs.
s. BJTs
BJTs have lower
lower conduct
conduction
ion losses
losses in the on-sta
on-state,
te, especi
especiall
ally
y in
devices with larger blocking voltages, but have longer switching times, especially at turn-off 
while MOSFETs can be turned on and off much faster, but their on-state conduction losses
are larger, especially in devices rated for higher blocking voltages. Hence, IGBTs have lower 
on-state voltage drop with high blocking voltage capabilities in addition to fast switching
speeds. IGBTs have a vertical structure as shown in Fig. 1.1. This structure is quite similar to
that of the vertical diffused MOSFET except for the presence of the p+ layer that forms the
drain of the IGBT. This layer forms a p-n junction (labelled J1 in the figure), which injects
minority carriers into what would appear to be the drain drift region of the vertical MOSFET.
The gate and source of the IGBT are laid out in an inter-digitised geometry similar to that
used for the vertical MOSFET.

Figure 1.1: Physical Structure of IGBT

5
1.1.1 IGBT Switching Characteristics
One of the main important performance features of any semiconductor switching device is its
switching characteristics. Understanding the device switching characteristics greatly
improves its utilization in the various applications. The main performance switching
characteristics of power semiconductor switching devices are the turn-on and turn-off 
switching transients in addition to the safe operating area (SOA) of the device.

1.1.1.1 Turn On Characteristics

The turn-on switching transient of an IGBT with an inductive load is shown in Fig. 1.2. The
turn-on switching transients of IGBTs are very similar to MOSFETs since the IGBT is
essentially acting as a MOSFET during most of the turn-on interval. With gate voltage
applied across the gate to emitter terminals of the IGBT, the gate to emitter voltage rises up
in an exponential fashion from zero to VGE(th) due to the circuit gate resistance (RG) and
the gate to emitter capacitance (Cge).

6
 Figure 1.2: IGBT Turn On Characteristics

The Miller effect capacitance (Cgc) effect is very small due to the high voltage across the
device terminals. Beyond VGE(th), the gate to emitter voltage continues to rise as before and
the drain current begins to increase linearly as shown above. Due to the clamp diode, the
collector to emitter voltage remains at Vdc as the IGBT current is less than Io. Once the IGBT
is carrying the full load current but is still in the active region, the gate to emitter voltage
 becomes temporarily clamped to VGE,Io, which is the voltage required to maintain the IGBT
current at Io. At this stage, the collector to emitter voltage starts decreasing in two distinctive
intervals tf v1 and tf v2. The first time interval corresponds to the traverse through the active
region while the second time interval corresponds to the completion of the transient in the
ohmic region.

1.1.1.2 Turn on Switching Transients

7
The turn-off switching transients of an IGBT with an inductive load are shown in Fig. 1.3.
When a negative gate signal is applied across the gate to emitter junction, the gate to emitter 
voltage starts decreasing in a linear fashion. Once the gate to emitter voltage drops below the
threshold voltage (VGE(th)), the collector to emitter voltage starts increasing linearly. The
IGBT current remains constant during this mode since the clamp diode is off. When the
collector to emitter voltage reaches the dc input voltage, the clamp diode starts conducting
and the IGBT current falls down linearly. The rapid drop in the IGBT current occurs during
the time interval tfi1, which corresponds, to the turn-off of the MOSFET part of the IGBT
(Fig. 1.3). The tailing of the collector current during the second interval tfi2 is due to the
stored charge in the n- drift region of the device. This is because the MOSFET is off and
there is no reverse voltage applied to the IGBT terminals that could generate a negative drain
current so as to remove the stored charge. The only way for stored charge removal is by
recombination within the n- drift region. Since it is desirable that the excess carriers lifetime
 be large to reduce the on-state voltage drop, the duration of the tail current becomes long.
This will result in additional switching losses within the device. This time increases also with
temperature similar to the tailing effect in BJTs. Hence, a trade off between the on-state
voltage drop and faster turn-off times must be made.

8
 Figure 1.3: Turn Off Transients of IGBT

1.1.1.3 IGBT Safe Operating Area

The safe operating area (SOA) of a power semiconductor device is a graphical representation
of the maximum operational voltage and current limits (i-v) of the device subjected to
various constraints. The forward bias safe operating area (FBSOA) and the reverse bias safe
operating area (RBSOA) represent the device SOA with the gate emitter junction forward
 biased or reverse biased, respectively. The IGBT has robust SOA during both turn-on and
turn off. The FBSOA, shown in Fig. 1.4(a), is square for short switching times, similar to that
of power MOSFETs. The IGBT is thermally limited for longer switching times as shown in
the FBSOA figure. The RBSOA of IGBTs, shown in Fig. 1.4(b), is different than the
FBSOA. The upper half corner of the RBSOA is progressively cut out which reduces the
RBSOA as the rate of change of the collector to emitter voltage across the device, dVce/dt, is

9
increased. The RBSOA is reduced as the dVce/dt is increased to avoid latch up within the
device. This condition exists when higher values of dVce/dt are applied may give to the rise
to a pulse of forward decaying current in the body region of the device that acts as a pulse of 
gate current that can turn on the device. Fortunately, the dVce/dt values that would cause
latch up in IGBTs are much higher compared to other devices.

(a) (b)
Figure 1.4: (a) FBSOA (b) RBSOA of IGBT

1.1.1.4 IGBT Gate Drive Equipments

IGBTs are voltage controlled devices and require gate voltage to establish collector-to-
emitter conduction. Recommended gate drive circuitry includes substantial ion and off 
 biasing as shown in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Typical gate drive circuitry

10
Due to the large input gate-to-emitter capacitance of IGBTs, MOSFET drive techniques can
 be used. However, the off biasing needs to be stronger. A +15 V positive gate drive is
normally recommended to guarantee full saturation and limit short circuit current. A negative
voltage bias is used to improve the IGBT immunity to collector-to-emitter dv/dt injected
noise and reduce turn-off losses as shown in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6: Effect of negative bias on turn off losses

The value of the gate resistance has a significant impact on the dynamic performance of 
IGBTs. A smaller gate resistance charges and discharges the IGBT input capacitance faster 
reducing switching times and switching losses and improving immunity to dv/dt turn-on (Fig.
1.7). However, a small gate resistance can lead to oscillations between the IGBT input
capacitance and the parasitic lead inductance.

11
 Figure 1.7: The IGBT switching losses as a function o f gate resistance, RG

The minimum peak current capability of the gate drive power supply and the average power 
required are given by,

 I G(pk)= ±

Pavg = VGE . QG. f s

where,
DVGE = VGE_on + |VGE_off |
QG = total gate charge (per manufacturer. spec.)
fs = switching frequency

12
 Figure 1.8: Total IGBT Gate Charge during switching

In many applications, the gate drive circuitry needs to be isolated from the control circuit to
 provide the level shifting and improve noise immunity. The isolation requirements can be
met by using pulse gate transformers (Fig. 1.9) or optical isolation.

Figure 1.9: Typical Bipolar IGBT gate drive using gate pulse transformers

13
In bipolar applications, separate turn-on and turn-off gate resistors are used to prevent cross
conduction of an IGBT pair (Fig. 1.10). With opto-isolation, an isolated power supply is
required to provide the gate power to the IGBT.

Figure 1.10: Typical opto-isolation gate drive

Gate drive Layout Considerations
1. Minimize parasitic inductance between the d river output stage and the IGBT (minimizing
the loop area)
2. Minimize noise coupling via proper shielding techniques
3. Utilize gate clamp protections (TVS) to minimize over voltage across gate terminals
4. Utilize twisted pairs, preferably shielded, for indirect connection between the driver and
the IGBT
5. With OPTO coupling isolation, a minimum of 1 0,000 V/ms transient immunity must be
provided (in hard switching applications)

14
Chapter 1.2 Separately Excited DC Motor
1.2.1 Basics of Separately Excited DC Motor

Figure 1.11: Separately Excited DC Motor 

• Separately Excited DC motor has field and armature winding with separate supply.
• The field windings of the dc motor are used to excite the field flux.
• Current in armature circuit is supplied to the rotor via brush and commutator segment for 
the mechanical work.
• The rotor torque is produced by interaction of field flux and armature current.

1.2.2 Working of Separately Excited DC Motor

• When a separately excited dc motor is excited by a field current of if and an armature

current of ia flows in the circuit, the motor develops a back EMF and a torque to balance the
load torque at a particular speed.

• The field current if is independent of the armature current ia. Each winding is supplied
separately. Any change in the armature current has no effect on the field current.
• The if is generally much less than the ia.

1.2.3 Field and Armature Equation

Instantaneous field current:

15
Where R f  and If are the field resistor and inductor respectively.

Instantaneous armature current:

where R a and La are armature resistor and inductor respectively.

The motor back emf which is also known as speed voltage is expressed as

K v is the motor voltage constant.

1.2.4 Basic Torque Equation

1.2.5 Steady State Torque and Speed

16
1.2.6 Variable Speed Operation

Figure 1.12: Torque vs Speed Characteristics for different Armature Voltage

• Family of steady state torque speed curves for a range of armature voltage can be drawn as
above.
• The speed of DC motor can simply be set by applying the correct voltage.
• The speed variation from no load to full load (rated) can be quite small. It depends on the
armature resistance.

17
Figure 1.13: Typical operating Region of Separately Excited DC Motor 

18
CHAPTER 2
OBJECTIVE

19
Chapter 2 Objective
• Objective of my work during my dissertation is to design a dc motor whose speed can
 be controlled up to desired level and armature current increase gradually at the
starting of dc motor and becomes constant very soon.
• I have used two controlling methods; one is current control and other one is speed
control.
• For the current control mechanism armature current controlled algorithm of dc motor 
is used in my work. The output current is controlled by a proportional controller in
the feedback which is fed back to IGBT to control the speed.
• IGBT is a fast switching device used in medium power applications.

• Dc motor should gain the speed at once in the starting and later on keeping that at
constant level whereas armature current should increase gradually ,so that motor 
doesn’t burn and then it decreases suddenly after motor gains highest speed and
current decreases after that.
• The tool used in my work is MATLAB simulink power toolbox.

20
 CHAPTER 3
LITERATURE SURVEY

21
Chapter 3 Literature Survey
Sarat Kumar Sahoo, Ashwin Kumar Sahoo and Razia Sultana in their paper “LabVIEW
Based Speed Control of DC Motor using Modulus Hugging Approach” published in
‘European Journal of Scientific Research’ in 2012 described the speed
control of separately excited DC motors by PI and PID controller is
widely used in industry. A design of controller by applying a several
method in analyzing controlled parameter to tune parameter in order
to obtain the best process response. A design of PI and PID controller
by Modulus Hugging Approach are presented in this paper for testing
the performance of controllers in command following control and in
disturbance rejection control. From simulation results with LABVIEW, it
was found that the controller was fast response and stable, and the
effect of disturbance is fast rejected [1].

Awwad A. , Abu-Rub H.,Toliyat H.A. used neural network algorithm for the speed
control of ac motors. Tracking of the rotor speed is realized by adjusting the new weights
of the network depending on the difference between the actual speed and the commanded
speed. The controller is adaptive and is based on a nonlinear autoregressive moving
average (NARMA-L2) algorithm. A comparative study between the proposed controllers
and the conventional PI one will be presented and the advantages of the proposed
solution over the conventional one will be shown. The rotor speed tracks the commanded
one smoothly and rapidly, without overshoot and with very negligible steady state error.
Computer simulation results are carried out to prove the claims [2].

The project devloped by Nurula Izzati is focused on speed control of DC motor. The
main objective is to design and develop GUI software for speed control experiment,
where PID controllers’ design approaches has been applied. The controllers have been
designed and the system is simulated using MATLAB to analyze their initial
 performance. The computer is connected to DC Motor via data acquisition card (DAQ
Card) and Visual Basic is used to conduct the experiment. Field-testing is implemented to
compare the results between the original and modified system with the PID controller.
Finally, the performance of the system is analyzed and validation is done in terms of time
response, robustness and percentage of error [3].

Theo J.A. de Vries, Member, IEEE in 1998 published in his paper about the design and
realization of an on-line learning motion controller for a linear motor is presented, and its
usefulness is evaluated. The controller consists of two components: 1) a model based
feedback component and 2) a learning feed forward component. The feedback component
is designed on basis of a simple second order linear model, which is known to have
structural errors. In the design, emphasis is placed on robustness. The learning feed
forward component is a neural-network-based controller, comprised of one hidden- layer 
structure with second-order  B-spline basis functions. Simulations and experimental
evaluations show that, with little effort, a high-performance motion system can be
obtained with this approach [4].

22
C.U. Ogbuka published his paper in 2009 describing the control strategies, transfer 
functions, and performance analysis of Open Loop Control, Closed Loop Speed Control,
and Inner Current Loop Controlled Separately Excited DC Motor are presented both for 
steady state and dynamic responses. For the Closed Loop Speed Control, three controllers
are used, namely: Proportional, Integral, and Proportional-Integral Controllers. In the
case of the Inner Current Loop Control, Proportional and Proportional-Integral
Controllers are used for analysis. The results obtained show that the Open Loop Control
gives a sluggish response which is improved in the Closed Loop Speed Control. The
fastest response is obtained in the Inner Current Loop Control and this fast response and
ease of control gives the DC Motor a competitive edge over the AC Motors [5].

Abhari S. published paper named ” Optimal control based feedback linearization for 
 position control of DC motor”. This paper proposes the position control of DC motor.
Two methods are used for position control, LQR method and feedback linearization. We
show that these methods without load torque are stable, but, when load is added to the
motor's shaft, LQR and feedback linearization could not make efficient input signal for 
reference tracking in output. To solve this problem, we combined these methods and will
show by using combined method, the position of shaft tracks reference in presence of 
large torque. For validation of new controller, we compared response with LQR and
feedback linearization. Simulation results show stable response of new method [6].

Fei Zhang verified the switching speed of IGBT. An insulated gate bipolar transistor with
a novel buffer is proposed and verified by two-dimensional (2D) mixed device-circuit
simulations. The structure of the proposed device is almost identical with that of the
conventional IGBT, except for the buffer layer which is formed by employing a three-
step, gradually changing doping n+ structure. Compared with the conventional IGBT, the
 proposed device exhibits better trade-off relation between the conduction and switching
losses. The turn-off time is halved from 9.4 μs of the conventional IGBT to 4.5 μs of the
 proposed device, so the operation speed of the proposed device is greatly improved.
Further, the forward blocking voltage is enormously increased from 907 V of the
 proposed device to 1278 V of the proposed device, which is required for high power 
operation [7].

Thepsatorn P. in his paper presents implement in speed control of a separately excited

DC motor using fuzzy logic control (FLC) based on LabVIEW (Laboratory Virtual
Instrument Engineering Workbench) program. LabVIEW, is a graphical programming
environment suited for high-level or system-level design. Therefore, the principle that are
data flow model, different from text-base programming and a sequential model. The user-
friendly interface and toolbox design are shown the high level of suitableness and
stability of LabVIEW and fuzzy logic on speed control of DC motor. The fuzzy logic
controller designed to applies the required control voltage that sent to DC motor based on
fuzzy rule base of motor speed error (e) and change of speed error (ce). The results show
the control as a FLC that do the comparison with PI and PID controller [8].

23
 Jong-Bae Lee , Tae-Bin Im, Ha-Kyong Sung, Young-Ouk Kim published a paper named
” A low cost speed control system of brushless DC motor using fuzzy logic” in 1999.This
 paper focuses on a low-cost speed control system using a fuzzy logic controller for a
 brushless DC motor. In digital control of a brushless DC motor, the control accuracy is of 
a high level, and it has a fast response time. We used a Hall IC signal for the permanent
magnet rotor position and for the speed feedback signals, and also for a microcontroller 
of 8-bit type (80CL580); furthermore, we designed the fuzzy logic controller and
implemented the speed control system of the brushless DC motor. To acquire an accurate
fuzzy logic control algorithm, a simulation with the MATLAB program has been made,
while the performance of the system, found by an experiment for a unit step response,
was also verified [9].

Robert Babuˇska and Stefano Stramigioli demonstrated the use of MATLAB and
Simulink for modeling, analysis and control design with the help of two examples, a DC
motor and a magnetic levitation system. It is assumed that the reader already has basic
knowledge of MATLAB and Simulink. The main focus is on the use of the Control
System Toolbox functions [10].

In IEEE transaction in 1999 use of fuzzy control is demonstrated. During the past several
years, fuzzy control has emerged as one of the most active and fruitful areas for research
in the applications of fuzzy set theory, especially in the realm of industrial processes,
which do not lend themselves to control by conventional methods because of a lack of 
quantitative data regarding the input-output relations. Fuzzy control is based on fuzzy
logic-a logical system that is much closer in spirit to human thinking and natural
language than traditional logical systems. The fuzzy logic controller (FLC) based on
fuzzy logic provides a means of converting a linguistic control strategy based on expert
knowledge into an automatic control strategy. A survey of the FLC is presented; a
general methodology for constructing an FLC and assessing its performance is described;
and problems that need further research are pointed out. In particular, the exposition
includes a discussion of fuzzification and defuzzification strategies, the derivation of the
database and fuzzy control rules, the definition of fuzzy implication, and an analysis of 
fuzzy reasoning mechanisms [11].

P. K. Nandam, and P. C. Sen presented a comparative study of proportional-integral (P-I)

and integral-proportional (I-P) control schemes for a dc drive. Various characteristics,
such as error signal processing and sensitivity to controller gains, of both the schemes are
analysed. The response of both the controllers for a change in speed reference and load
torque is discussed. The current response during starting is also presented. It is shown
that the I-P scheme offers some distinctive advantages. Experimental and simulation
results are also presented.A one quadrant GTO chopper is used as the power conditioning
unit in the experimental set-up using a separately excited dc motor [12].

C. Canudas de Wit in 1984 surveyed the control of machines by friction. While

considerable progress has been made in friction compensation, this is, apparently, the
first survey on the topic. In particular, it is the first to bring to the attention of the controls
community the important contributions from the tribology, lubrication and physics

24
literatures. By uniting these results with those of the controls community, a set of models
and tools for friction compensation is provided which will be of value to both research
and application engineers. The successful design and analysis of friction compensators
depends heavily upon the quality of the friction model used, and the suitability of the
analysis technique employed. Consequently, this survey first describes models of 
machine friction, followed by a discussion of relevant analysis techniques and concludes
with a survey of friction compensation methods reported in the literature. An overview of 
techniques used by practising engineers and a bibliography of 280 papers is included
[13].

J.Y. Hung and Z. Ding described a method to design an improved motor excitation for 
three-phase brushless permanent magnet motors is presented. The unique motor 
excitation reduces ripple in the developed torque, reduces the effects of cogging or detent
torque, and is also a minimum average power excitation. Practical benefits are reduced
vibration and acoustic noise in speed control applications, and improved accuracy in
 position control applications. First, an analysis of torque ripple is presented using the
exponential Fourier series in the torque model. The analysis is simple, yet extends some
well known results by predicting the presence of additional harmonic components. Next,
the design of an optimal weighting of stator current harmonics is cast as a type of 
constrained minimization problem. In contrast to iterative approaches that have been
reported in the past, the new design method determines the current harmonic weights in
closed form. Steps in the design procedure are demonstrated using measured back EMF
data from a 2 hp brushless DC motor [14].

Martina Malkova presented a paper named ” D.C. motor speed control” in

Electrical systems & control. In this, a d.c. motor speed control is constructed,
where a variable voltage supply is used to feed the field windings. Since the field circuit
requires much less power than the armature, this scheme has the advantage that only a
small and inexpensive variable voltage supply is required. A disadvantage is that a speed
feedback signal is required in order to make speed proportional to input field voltage
[15].

Manafeddin Namazov and Onur Basturk (2010)  presents the design of a fuzzy
control system to control the position of a DC motor. The motor was modelled and
converted to a subsystem in Simulink. First, a crisp proportional-derivative (PD)
controller was designed and tuned using a Simulink block instead of conventional tuning
methods such as hand-tuning or Ziegler-Nichols frequency response method. Then
a fuzzy proportional-derivative (FPD) controller was designed and system responses of 
FPDs with different defuzzification methods were investigated. A disturbance signal was
also applied to the input of the control system. FPD controller succeeded to reject the
disturbance signal without further tuning of the parameters whereby crisp PD
controller failed [16].

 The proportional-integral (PI) control is the most used algorithm to

regulate the armature current and speed of cascade control system in
motor drives. However, even when a tuning design to satisfy some

25
desired performance, the output overshoot is of higher values .In this
paper Ibrahim K. Al-Abbas, Rateb Issa told that PI current controller is
replaced by proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller to
eliminate the overshoot in current loop and then the overshoot in
speed loop. Methods of computing PID current controller parameters
are derived using Internal Model Control as a function of motor
parameters. The transfer function of overall closed loop current is used
to determine PI speed controller parameters. Simulation results show
robustness of the proposed method to reference signal and
disturbance signal variations [17].

 The speed control of separately excited DC [SEDC] motors by PI and

PID controller is widely used in industry. In this paper, Raju Singh,
Dr.A.K.Pandey proposed the design of PI speed controller using modulus
hugging approach for closed loop speed control of dc motor using
chopper is presented. Then the stability of overall transfer system of 
close loop system is analyzed using this approach. It is shown that how
the system is made stable using this approach? Then the stability is
checked by using Routh-Hurwitz criteria [18].

K. Ramesh, K. Ayyar, A. Nirmalkumar, G. Gurusamy published a paper on ” Design of 

Current Controller for Two Quadrant DC Motor Drive by Using Model Order Reduction
Technique”in 2010. In this paper, design of current controller for a two
quadrant DC motor drive was proposed with the help of model order
reduction technique. The calculation of current controller gain with
some approximations in the conventional design process is replaced by
proposed model order reduction method. The model order reduction
technique proposed in this paper gives the better controller gain value
for the DC motor drive. The proposed model order reduction method is
a mixed method, where the numerator polynomial of reduced order
model is obtained by using stability equation method and the
denominator polynomial is obtained by using some approximation
technique preceded in this paper. The designed controllers responses
were simulated with the help of MATLAB to show the validity of the
proposed method [19].

According to Fatma GURBUZ in ‘ Stability Analysis of a Closed-Loop speed Control

for a Pulse Width Modulated DC Motor Drive’, the effect of the variation of 
amplitude and the chopping period of a PWM signal on the stability of a
closed-loop control for a DC motor drive is investigated. First, the
entire system is formulated as a Linear Quadratic (LQ) tracker with
output feedback. Then, stability analysis for the varying amplitude and
the varying chopping period is carried out by the methods of root locus
and the Jury test. Finally, stability limits obtained from a root locus and
 Jury test are checked by the simulation of the system in MATLAB [20].

26
Ata SEVINC, an adaptive observer estimating all parameters and load
torque is proposed for DC servo motors. The observer uses no direct
feedback but the adaptation schemes use current and speed
measurements. Both the observer and adaptations are simple to
implement for real-time applications. Simulation results are
satisfactory for the full adaptive observer. If the observer works in
parallel with only load torque and armature resistance adaptations, the
results are very good even if very low-quality sensors are used. In this
simulation, only a single hall sensor is used as a rotational transducer,
which produces a single pulse per revolution, and very high level noise
and disturbance are added in order to provide a more realistic
simulation [21].

Bose B.K. published a paper on ‘Power electronics and motor drives recent technology
advances’ in proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics,
IEEE. The aim of this paper is to introduce students to the modelling of brushed dc motor 
and to use computer simulation as a tool for conducting transient and control studies.
Simulation can be very helpful in gaining insights to the dynamic behaviour and
interactions that are often not readily apparent from reading theory. Next to having an
actual system to experiment on, simulation is often chosen by engineers to study transient
and control performance or to test conceptual designs. Presently, there are many control
laws available to control the brushed dc motor. The control law of angular velocity
depends on the motor parameters. The motor parameters are time varying, especially load
torque, hence adaptive control is one of the best control law. In standard adaptive control,
instability may be occured in the presence of un modelled dynamics. Robust adaptive
control is designed so the stability can be guaranteed [22] .

27
 CHAPTER 4
PROBLEM FORMULATION

28
Chapter 4_ Problem Formulation

The greatest advantage of DC motors may be speed control. Since speed is directly
 proportional to armature voltage and inversely proportional to the magnetic flux produced by
the poles, adjusting the armature voltage and/or the field current will change the rotor speed.

The problem encounter when dealing with DC motor is the lag of efficiency and losses. It is
required that once DC motor is set to at a particular speed then it shouldn’t change it speed
 because of external parameters. In order to eliminate this problem, controller is introduced to
the system. There are so many types of controller available to control the current in the motor 
like proportional control, integral control, derivative control, PID controller. So there is
 problem of selecting suitable controller in feedback loop. To understand the errors introduced
in DC motor while controlling speed, basic model of speed control will be studied first.

4.1 Basic Model of DC Motor

The basic principle behind DC motor speed control is that the output speed of DC motor can
 be varied by controlling armature voltage for speed below and up to rated speed keeping field
voltage constant. The output speed is compared with the reference speed and error signal is
fed to speed controller. Controller output will vary whenever there is a difference in the
reference speed and the speed feedback. The output of the speed controller is the control

29
voltage Ec that controls the operation duty cycle of (here the converter used is a IGBT)
converter. The converter output give the required Va required to bring motor back to the
desired speed. The Reference speed is provided through a potential divider because the
voltage from potential divider is linearly related to the speed of the DC motor. The output
speed of motor is measured by Tacho-generator and since Tacho voltage will not be perfectly
dc and will have some ripple. So, we require a filter with a gain to bring Tacho output back 
to controller level. The basic block diagram for DC motor speed control is show below:

Figure 4.1: Closed Loop System Model for Speed Control of DC Motor 

The separately excited dc motor is shown as

Figure 4.2: Separately Excited DC motor 

The armature equation is shown below:
Va =Eg+ IaRa+ La (dIa/dt)
The description for the notations used is given below:
1. Va is the armature voltage in volts.
2. Eg is the motor back emf in volts.
3. Ia is the armature current in amperes.
4. Ra is the armature resistance in ohms.

30
 5. La is the armature inductance in Henry.
 Now the torque equation will be given by:
Td = Jdω/dt +Bω+TL
Where:
1. TL is load torque in Nm.
2. Td is the torque developed in Nm.
3. J is moment of inertia in kg/m².
4. B is friction coefficient of the motor.
5. ω is angular velocity in rad/sec.
Assuming absence (negligible) of friction in rotor of motor, it will yield:
B=0
Therefore, new torque equation will be given by:
Td = Jdω/dt + TL --------- (i)
Taking field flux as Φ and (Back EMF Constant) Kv as K. Equation for back emf of motor 
will be:
Eg = K Φ ω --------- (ii)
Also, Td = K Φ Ia --------- (iii)
From motor’s basic armature equation, after taking Laplace Transform on both sides, we will
get: Ia(S) = (Va – Eg)/(Ra + LaS)
Now, taking equation (ii) into consideration, we have:
=> Ia(s) = (Va – KΦω) / Ra(1+ LaS/Ra )
And, ω(s) = (Td - TL ) /JS = (KΦIa - TL ) /JS
Also, The armature time constant will be given by:
(Armature Time Constant) Ta = La/Ra

31
 Figure 4.3: Model of Separately Excited DC Motor 
After simplifying the above motor model, the overall transfer function will be as given
 below:
ω (s) / Va(s) = [KΦ /Ra] /JS(1+TaS) /[ 1 +(K²Φ² /Ra) /JS(1+TaS)]
Further simplifying the above transfer function will yield:
ω(s) /Va(s) = (1 /kΦ) /{ 1 +(k²Φ² /Ra) /JS(1+TaS)} ---------------- (iv)
Assuming, Tm = JRa / (kΦ) ² as electromechanical time constant [1]. Then the abo ve
transfer function can be written as below:
ω(s)/Va(s) = (1/kΦ)/ [STm (1+STa)+1] --------(v)
Let us assume that during starting of motor, load torque TL = 0 and applying full voltage Va
Also assuming negligible armature inductance, the basic armature eq uation can be written as:
Va = KΦω(t) + IaRa

At the same time Torque equation will be:

Td = Jdω/dt = KΦIa ----- (vi)
Putting the value of Ia in above armature equation:
Va=KΦω(t)+(Jdω/dt)Ra/ KΦ
Dividing on both sides by KΦ,
Va/KΦ=ω(t)+JRa(dω/dt)/(KΦ)² ------------------------(vii)
Va/KΦ is the value of motor speed under no load condition.
Therefore,
ω(no load)=ω(t)+JRa(dω/dt)/(KΦ)² = ω (t) + Tm (dω/dt)
Where, KΦ = Km(say) And, Tm=JRa/(KΦ)²=JRa/(Km)²

32
Therefore, J = Tm (Km) ²/ Ra --------- (viii)
From motor torque equation, we have:
ω(s) = KmIa(s)/JS - TL/JS -------- (ix)
From equation (viii) and (ix), we have:

 Now, Replacing KΦ by Km in equation (v), we will get:

ω(s)/Va(s)=(1/Km) / (1+STm+S²TaTm) ------------ (x)
Since, the armature time constant Ta is much less than the electromechanical time constant
Tm, (Ta << Tm)
Simplifying, 1 + STm + S²TaTm ≈ 1 + S (Ta+Tm) + S²TaTm = (1 + STm)(1 + STa)
The largest time constant will play main role in delaying the system when the transfer 
function is in time constant form. To compensate that delay due to largest time constant we
can use PI controller as speed controller. It is because the zero of the PI controller can be
chosen in such a way that this large delay can be cancelled. In Control system term a time
delay generally corresponds to a lag and zero means a lead, so the PI controller will try to
compensate the whole system . Hence, the equation can be written as:

ω(s)/Va(s) = (1/Km)/((1 + STm)(1 + STa)) -----(xi)

Tm and Ta are the time constants of the above system transfer function which will determine
the response of the system. Hence the dc motor can be replaced by the transfer function
obtained in equation (xi) in the DC drive model shown earlier.

4.2 Deciding the Type Of current Controller

The control action can be imagined at first sight as something simple like if the error speed is
negative, then multiply it by some scale factor generally known as gain and set the output
drive to the desired level. But this approach is only partially successful due to the following
reason: if the motor is at the set-point speed under no load there is no error speed so the
motor free runs. If a load is applied, the motor slows down and a positive error speed is

33
observed. Then the output increases by a proportional amount to try and restore the desired
speed. However, when the motor speed recovers, the error reduces drastically and so does the
drive level. The result is that the motor speed will stabilize at a speed below the set-point
speed at which the load is balanced by the product of error speed and the gain. This basic
technique discussed above is known as "proportional control" and it has limited use as it
can never force the motor to run exactly at the set-point speed.

4.2.1 Importance of Current Controller

When the machine is made to run from zero speed to a high speed then motor has to go to
specified speed. But due to electromechanical time constant motor will take some time to
speed up. But the speed controller used for controlling speed acts very fast. Speed feedback 
is zero initially. So this will result in full controller output Ec and hence converter will give
maximum voltage. So a very large current flow at starting time because back Emf is zero at
that time which sometime exceeds the motor maximum current limit and can damage the
motor windings. Hence there is a need to control current in motor armature. To solve the
above problem we can employ a current controller which will take care of motor rated
current limit. The applied voltage Va will now not dependent on the speed error only but also
on the current error. We should ensure that Va is applied in such a way that machine during
 positive and negative torque, does not draw more than the rated current. So, an inner current
loop hence current controller is required.

34
 CHAPTER 5

PROPOSED WORK 

35
Chapter 5 Proposed Work and Implementation
In my work armature controlled algorithm is used to control the speed of DC motor. To
control the speed of DC motor the current is feedback with proportional feedback algorithm.
The difference between the reference current and feedback current is error and that is given
further to speed control devices. In our work IGBT is selected as the speed controlling device
 because it is having properties of MOS input gate, high switching speed, low conduction
voltage drop, high current carrying capability, and a high degree of robustness. The designing
of speed control controller in our work can be modelled as:

Figure 5.1: Block Model of Speed Control Design

 Now, converting the block model in transfer function, we will get:

36
ω(s)/ω(s)(ref.)= (Kn/K2)(Ra/KmTmTn)(1+TnS/(1+2T2S)S²)/{1+(KnRa/K2KmTmTn)
(1+TnS/(1+2T2S)S²)(K1/(1+T1S))} -------- (xviii)
Here, we have the option to Tn such that it cancels the largest time constant of the transfer 
function. So,

Hence, equation --- (xviii) will be written as: ω(s)/ω(s)(ref.)=(KnRa/K2KmTmTn)

(1+T1S)/{K2KmTnS2(1+T1S)+KnRaK1}
Ideally, ω(s) =1/S (S²+αs+β)
The damping constant is zero in above transfer function because of absence of S term, which
results in oscillatory and unstable system. To optimize this we must get transfer function
whose gain is close to unity.

37
5 .1 Simulink Model 

In our work Matlab Simulink model’s Simpower system is primarily used. Figure 6.1
shows the armature controlled DC motor. By varying torque and moment of inertia,
speed of DC motor is controlled.

Figure5.2: Block diagram representing input and output parameters of DC motor 

73.24

Display Discrete,
Ts = 1e-005 s.

powergui
w
4 w
TL

TL
ia
J
0.05 ia
Te

J
A+
A-

Diode DC Motor Te

DC
Source

Series RLC Branch

     g C

IGBT
      E

2
100
Gain Relay
omega ref

omega,omega ref

73.24

Display1

Figure 5.3: DC motor with Current Control and Speed Control using IGBT

38
Figure 5.3 shows that IGBT is attached in the armature windings. The gate of armature is
operated by the relay output, which provides a saturated output voltage. A feedback loop
using proportional controller is used to correct the deflection in output with reference input
voltage. In designing dc motor all limiting parameters of motor are kept in mind. The model
of motor is further made visible by opening DC motor in figure 5.3. This DC motor model is
shown in figure 5.4.

iA C ontrolled Voltage Source

i s
2 -
+
+
A- - 1
Series RLC Branch A+

TL .
1 TL fcem
Display
Ka Te
3
J
2 J w Te

Subsystem 1
w
2
ia

Display1

Figure5.4 DC Motor 
Further by opening the dc motor subsystem1 coloumb and viscous friction of dc motor comes
in functioning as shown in figure 5.5.

39
 .

3 . Display5
J Scope1
1 Display2
.
TL
Integrator
2 Display3
Te 1 w
Ka s
1
Product Divide
Product1 fcem
Add

Coulomb(Tf) &
0.5
Viscous(Bm*w) Friction
Ke
Te 2
w 3

Display
.

Display1 .

Display4

Figure 5.5: Dc motor Subsystem2

In figure 6.2 a power gui block is used. That block provides the environment for the
simulation of power electronics components.

40
 CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

41
Chapter 6 Results & Discussion
Results for different gain, moment of inertia and coefficirnt of friction is shown. The table
respresenting and comparing them is as:

Table1: Representing different parameters of DC motor which affect the speed of DC motor 
1 Ke 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
2 TL 4 4 7.1 6.9
3 J 0.05 0.1 0.22 0.22
4 R 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
5 L 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
6 Coulomb Friction Value 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1

7 Coeff. Of friction 0.4215 0.415 0.415 0.415

8 Gain 2 3.5 11 14
9 Amplitude of DC Speed 73.24 92.32 91.77 97.33
Figure 6.1 Figure 6.3 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.7

Here figure 6.1 represents the graph between the refrence speed and DC motor speed.
Refrence speed is cosidered to be 100 rpm. As is clear from the figure the speed of dc motor 
is 74 rpm whereas it should match the refrence speed. As the value of gain is increased
keeping viscous frictional force of motor constant and a little bit change in moment of inertia
of motor , a more gradual increase in motor speed is obtained along with highest speed of 
motor almost kissing the refrence speed. Motor speed is being constant after some seconds of 
starting of motor that proves speed of motor is constant now irrespective of any chnages.
This is the speed control of motor.

Figure 6.2 represents the armature current graph. It depicts that armature current suddenly
increases at the start but soon it becomes constant. But figure 6.4 and 6.6 of amrature current
shows that as the moment of inertia and viscous friction of motor is changed, the sudden rise
of armature current becomes smoother and constant after that. This is the required condition
of armature current that first it should gradually gain the highest speed then after motor has
gained its constatnt speed then armatture current should also decrease and remain constant
thereafter.

42
Figure 6.1: Graph between DC motor speed & reference speed

43
 Figure 6.2: Graph Showing Variation in Armature Current

Initially the moment of inertia and gain of motor is kept at low value then iot has been found
that the amlitude of DC speed reaches upto 73.24 while refernce speed was 100 rpm. So
results are not satisfactory. Moreover the speed is not constant even aftre a certain time. It is
required in DC motor once required speed is reached, it should remain constant. Above
graphs 6.2 and 6.3 depicts these results.

44
Figure 6.3: Graph between Dc motor speed and reference speed

Figure 6.4: Graph showing Armature Current

45
Figure 6.3 and 6.4 shows the results when moment of inertia of motor and gain of controller 
is changed to get the desired results. Still the magnitude of DC motor speed is 92.32 rpm. In
control system theory it has been mentioned that the speed of DC motor can reach up to
maximum 98 rpm, not exactly 100 rpm. So modification as per requirement is done in figure
6.5 and 6.6.

Figure 6.5: Graph between Dc motor speed and reference speed

46
 Figure 6.6: Graph showing Armature Current

The graph in figure 6.5 shows that the magnitude of DC motor speed is 91.77. For this the
gain has been increased keeping coefficient of friction constant and moment of inertia 0.22.
Still changes in parameters are required. While the armature current in figure 6.6 satisfies the
required condition that first it should increase suddenly then decrease and then constant
armature current.

47
Figure 6.7: Graph between Dc motor speed and reference speed

Figure 6.8: Graph showing Armature Current

48
To reach up to reference speed gain is increased more upto 14. The DC speed reaches to
97.33 which is approximately the desired value. From table 1 it is cleared that the moment of 
inertia causes the constant speed in DC motor. As it is increased more early motor will gain
its constant speed. Figure 6.7 shows that it takes time to reach upto maximum value. This is
 because of torque present in motor. Because of this a high armature current doesn’t burn the
motor.

49
Chapter 8 Future work 
MATLAB simulation for speed control of separately excited DC motor has been done which
can be implemented in hardware to observe actual feasibility of the approach applied in this
thesis. This technique can be extended to other types of motors. In this thesis, we have done
speed control for rated and below rated speed. So the control for above the rated speed can be
achieved by controlling field flux. The problem of overshoot can be removed using a Neural
 Network and Fuzzy approach.

The current in the feedback can be controlled by proportional controller, integral controller,
derivative controller, PID controller. Whereas speed can be varied using IGBT, fuzzy sets,
neurology, or any algorithm different from these can be generated. Using different
combination of current controls and speed varying methods and by comparing them best
suitable method can also be found.

50
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51
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