MODULE IN

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

CHE 2111

Department of Chemical Engineering

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

 REF SEA-BSCHE-CHE2231/L-2020

MODULE 1:
FUELS AND COMBUSTION

At the end of this module you should be able to:

 Define combustion and explain importance of combustion
analysis in process industries.
 Analyze and solve problems involving mass, mole and volume
relationships among gaseous and liquid fuel, air and products
of combustion.

Unit 1:
Introduction and Calculation based on Fuel Analysis

Engage

Fuel combustion constitutes an important step in almost any chemical process industry
where heat generation is desired. Thus the study of combustion is most important especially
in the field of Chemical Engineering which encompasses the Chemical Process industry. In
our everyday life alone, combustion constitutes some of the most important processes.

Cite everyday example of combustion process.

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 Explore

STOICHIOMETRY is the branch of chemistry which deals with mass and volume relations in
unit operations and unit processes. The basic principle of stoichiometry is the Law of Definite
and Multiple Proportions. This states that a pure chemical substance always contains its
elements in the same proportions by weight, and that, when two elements unite to form a
series of compounds, the weight of one element combining with a fixed weight of the other
are simple integral multiples of each other.

INDUSTRIAL STOICHIOMETRY is the application of the laws of conservation of matter, of

elements and of energy, and of the chemical laws of combining weights to the processes
and operations of industrial chemistry.

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

The application of stoichiometric principles to problems involving fuels and combustion is
important in modern industrial work. Fuel combustion constitutes an important step in almost
any chemical process industry where heat generation is desired. Thus the study of
combustion is most important especially in the field of chemical engineering, which
encompasses the chemical process industry.

Combustion
 Commonly employed industrial process for heat generation.
 It is the chemical reaction of a free reactant (oxygen, O2 in air) and a commonly
available chemical called fuel.
 It is accompanied by the evolution of light and heat, thus it is generally used in the
generation of heat to supply energy to the process industries.

Classes of Fuels
Fuels can be divided into three general classes: gaseous, liquids and solids. The
stoichiometric treatments of problems involving different classes of fuels are similar.
Consequently, in the study of the methods for manipulation of the data supplied, the actual
form of the fuel is not of great importance

A. Gaseous Fuels
 Industrial fuels that usually contain CO, light or low molecular weight hydrocarbons
and sometimes nitrogen and oxygen
 Examples:
1. Natural Gas – combustible gas that occurs in porous rocks of the earth’s crust
Methane (CH4), Ethane (C2H6), Propane (C3H8), Butane (C4H10), CO, H2, N2
2. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) – natural gas in liquefied form
3. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) – can be liquefied under moderate pressure at
normal temperature but are gaseous under normal atmospheric pressure

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 4. Re-formed Gas – applied to lower thermal value gases obtained by the pyrolysis
and steam decomposition of high thermal value gases
5. Oil Gases – made from thermal decomposition of oils
6. Producer Gas - generated by blasting a deep, hot bed of coal or coke
continuously with a mixture or air and steam
7. Blue water gas - a blast of air is forced through a fuel bed and steam is passed
through forming blue water gas
8. Carbureted Water Gas – water gas enriched with oil
9. Blast furnace gas – a byproduct of the manufacture of pig iron in blast surfaces

B. Liquid Fuels
 light and heavy oils obtained in the refining of petroleum oil
 Examples:
1. Non Petroleum Liquid Fuels
a. Tar Sands : strip – mined and extracted with hot water to recover heavy
oil
b. Oil Shale : non – porous rocks containing organic kerogen; extracted by
pyrolysis after mining
2. Light Oils – suitable for use with internal combustion engines and jet engines
a. Alcohols – obtained by synthesis or fermentation process ( methyl or
ethyl)
b. Alcogas – mixtures of methyl or ethyl alcohol and gasoline
c. Benzole – obtained by distillation of coal tar or by extraction from coal
gas
d. Gasoline
e. Paraffin
f. Kerosene
g. Diesel fuel
3. Heavy oil – fuel oil that contains residual oil left over from distillation
4. Bunker oil

C. Solid Fuels
 Examples: Coal, Wood, Charcoal

COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION

Complete Combustion
 All combustible materials are completely gasified, all carbon, (C) in the fuel is burned
to CO2 , all of the hydrogen is converted to H2O, and all sulfur to sulfur dioxide.
 Reactions:
C + O2 → CO2 + heat ΔHc of carbon = - 393.51 KJ/mol = ΔHf of CO2
H2 + ½ O2 →H2O + heat ΔHc of H2 = - 241.82 KJ/mol = ΔHf of H2O
S + O2 → SO2 + heat ΔHc of S = - 296.84 KJ/mol = ΔHf of SO2
3

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  The complete combustion of any hydrocarbon is represented by:
CmHn + (m + n/4 ) O2 m CO2 + (n/2) H2O

ΔHc, standard heat of combustion (reference: Table 2-179, Perry’s ChE Handbook, 8th
edition)
 Enthalpy change of a substance undergoing combustion process at the standard

 Energy released as heat when a compound undergoes complete combustion with

oxygen under standard conditions.

ΔHf, standard heat of formation (reference: Table 2-179, Perry’s ChE Handbook, 8th edition)
 Enthalpy change occurring when a gram-molecule of a substance is formed from its

 Measure of the energy released or consumed when one mole of a substance is

created under standard conditions from its pure elements.

Incomplete Combustion
 Indicated by the presence of CO and unburned H2 in the product and unburned
combustibles in the refuse (in solid fuels only).
 It represents a heat loss since this should have been given off for additional power use
had the fuel been completely burned. Presence of soot in the exhaust also indicates
incomplete combustion.
 Reaction:
C + ½ O2 → CO + heat ΔHf of CO = -110.53 KJ/mol

ANALYSIS OF THE FLUE GAS

COMPOSITION OF FLUE GAS

1. Composition in Wet Basis
- Component mole fraction of product gas involves water
2. Composition in Dry Basis (ORSAT ANALYSIS)
- Component mole fraction of product gas which does not include water

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 Orsat technique - determines the amounts of components of combustion gases by
measuring the decrease in volume of a gas sample as it is passed over selective liquid
absorbents in series. Composition obtained is on a dry basis
The Orsat apparatus consists essentially of a calibrated water-jacketed gas burette
connected by glass capillary tubing to two or three absorption pipettes containing chemical
solutions that absorbs the gases.

By means of rubber tubing arrangement, the gas to be analyzed is drawn into the
burette and flushed through several times. Typically, 100ml is withdrawn for ease of
calculation. Using the stopcocks that isolate the absorption burettes, the level of gas in the
leveling bottle and the burette is adjusted to the zero point of the burette.

The gas is then passed into the caustic potash burette, left to stand for about two
minutes and then withdrawn, isolating the remaining gas via the stopcock arrangements.
The process is repeated to ensure full absorption. After leveling the liquid in the bottle and
burette, the remaining volume of gas in the burette indicates the percentage of carbon
dioxide absorbed.

The same technique is repeated for oxygen, using the pyrogallol solution, and carbon
monoxide using the ammoniacal cuprous chloride solution.
Important to note that Orsat analysis give actual analysis on a dry basis. The common Orsat
gives % O2, % CO and % CO2. N2 is found by % N = 100 – (%O2 + %CO2 + %CO). Since KOH
solution absorbs both CO2 & SO2, % CO2 contains the amount of SO2 as well.

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 THEORETICAL AND EXCESS OXYGEN

A. Theoretical Oxygen - air O2 required for complete combustion

Methods of Determining Theoretical Oxygen:

Method I. The balance equation for complete combustion is written and the theoretical O2
is the sum of all oxygen consumed for complete combustion of the fuel
Theoretical O2 = total oxygen required (Method I) – O2 free in the fuel

Method II. The components of the fuel are broken down into its corresponding atoms of
carbon, sulfur and moles of oxygen. One C atom needs 1 mole of O2, one S atom needs 1
mole of O2, one H atom needs ¼ mole of O2.
Theoretical O2 = total oxygen required (Method II) – Total O2 in the fuel
Theoretical O2 = O2 required by C +O2 required by H +O2 required by S – O2 in fuel

NOTE: N2 is non-combustible

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 Sample Problem #1:
200 kg of pure carbon is burned. Determine the theoretical amount of O2 needed for
complete combustion.

SOLUTION:
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 200 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 [ ][ ]
12 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 16.6667 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

Sample Problem #2:

Determine the amount of O2 theoretically required for the combustion of 100 kmols of a blast
furnace gas analyzing 25% CO, 10% CO2, 5% H2, 10% CH4, 45% N2, and 5% O2.

SOLUTION:
Method 1:
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠
For this particular problem,
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐻4
1⁄ 𝑂 1⁄ 𝑂 2 𝑂2
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 = 25𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] + 5𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠𝐻2 [ 2 ] + 10𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠𝐶𝐻4 [
2 2
] = 35 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐻2 1 𝐶𝐻4
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 35 − 5
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 30 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

Method 2:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4
1𝐶 1𝐶 1𝐶
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ ] + 10 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 [ ] + 10 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ]
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝐶𝐻4
= 45 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4

2 𝐻2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 + 10 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] = 25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝐻4

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 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑂2
1⁄ 𝑂
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 2 ] + 10 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 1 𝑂2 ] + 5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂 = 27.5
2 2
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐶𝑂2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
= 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 + 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2
+ 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆
1 𝑂2 1⁄ 𝑂
] + 25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ 2 ] − 27.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 45 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶 [
1𝐶 1 𝐻2

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 30 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

B. THEORETICAL AIR FOR COMBUSTION - Air that contains the exact amount of theoretical
O2. Air is assumed to contain 21% O2 and 79% N2 by volume. N2 in air is non-combustible
and acts only as diluent to the O2 in the air. The theoretical air therefore is determined
from theoretical O2.

NOTE: Dry air contains 79% volume N2 and 21% volume O2

Sample Problem #3:

Combustion of pure carbon: 200 kg of pure carbon is burned. Determine the theoretical
amount of air needed for complete combustion.

SOLUTION:
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 200 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 [ ][ ] = 16.6667 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
100 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 16.6667 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ]
21 𝑂2

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 79.3652 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

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 Sample Problem #4:
Determine the theoretical moles of oxygen required for the combustion of one mole of
refinery gas containing 6% H2S, 5% H2, 57% C3H8, 2% CO2 and 30% C4H10.

SOLUTION:
Method 1:
3
𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑂2 → 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
2
1
𝐻2 + 𝑂2 → 𝐻2 𝑂
2
𝐶3 𝐻8 + 5𝑂2 → 3𝐶𝑂2 + 4𝐻2 𝑂
13
𝐶4 𝐻10 + 𝑂2 → 4𝐶𝑂2 + 5𝐻2 𝑂
2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶4 𝐻10

− 𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
3⁄ 𝑂 1⁄ 𝑂 5 𝑂2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 0.06 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 𝑆 [ 2 ] + 0.05 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻2 [ 2 ] + 0.57 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶3 𝐻8 [
2 2
]
1 𝐻2 𝑆 1 𝐻2 1 𝐶3 𝐻8
13⁄ 𝑂
+ 0.3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶4 𝐻10 [ 2 ] − 0
2
1 𝐶4 𝐻10

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 4.915 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

Method 2:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶4 𝐻10
3𝐶 4𝐶 1𝐶
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.57 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶3 𝐻8 [ ] + 0.3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶4 𝐻10 [ ] + 0.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 [ ]
1 𝐶3 𝐻8 1 𝐶4 𝐻10 1 𝐶𝑂2
= 2.93 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐻2 𝑆 + 𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶3 𝐻8 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶4 𝐻10

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
1 𝐻2 4 𝐻2
= 0.06 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 𝑆 [ ] + 0.05 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 + 0.57 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶3 𝐻8 [ ]
1 𝐻2 𝑆 1 𝐶3 𝐻8
5 𝐻2
+ 0.3 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶4 𝐻10 [ ] = 3.89 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶4 𝐻10

1𝑆
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑆 𝑖𝑛 𝐻2 𝑆 = 0.06 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 𝑆 [ ] = 0.06 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐻2 𝑆

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2

1 𝑂2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 0.02 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 [ ] = 0.02 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝑂2

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2

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 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑂2 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑
= 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 + 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2
+ 𝑂2 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆
1 𝑂2 1⁄ 𝑂 1 𝑂2
] + 3.89 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ 2 ] + 0.06 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑆 [
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 2.93 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶 [ ] − 0.02 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2
1𝐶 1 𝐻2 1𝑆

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 4.915 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

Sample Problem #5:

A furnace is fired with petroleum oil containing 80% C, 13% H, 3% S, 1% N and 3% O. Determine
the theoretical moles of air required for the combustion of 1 kg of oil.

SOLUTION:
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐶 + 𝑂2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐻 + 𝑂2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆 − 𝑂2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
0.8 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑂2 0.13 𝑘𝑔 𝐻 1⁄4 𝑂2 0.03 𝑘𝑔 𝑆 1 𝑂2 0.02 𝑘𝑔 𝑂 1 𝑂2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = [ ]+ [ ]+ [ ]− [ ]
12 1𝐶 1 1𝐻 32 1𝑆 16 2𝑂
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 0.09917 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2

100 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.09917 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ]
21 𝑂2

𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 0.4722 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

C. Excess O2 or Excess air is the amount of O2 or air supplied above that of theoretically
required for complete combustion/oxidation of the combustibles in the fuel. This is
because in actual practice, theoretical O2 or theoretical air is not sufficient to get
complete combustion. Supplying air in excess will therefore improve the combustion
efficiency.

 There are several alternate ways to determine the percent excess air as indicated
below:

For complete combustion: excess O2 = O2 free in the flue gas

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 For incomplete combustion: excess O2 = O2 free in the flue gas – O2 needed to burn
unburned combustibles
NOTE: Gaseous fuels require very little excess O2, liquid fuels require more and solid fuels
require the maximum excess O2

VOLUME MEASUREMENT

The volume of a gas is highly dependent on pressure and temperature and hence,
these conditions should always be identified when the volume of a gas is given. The common
conditions for gas volume measurement are:
 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) – 0˚ C and 1 atm (30 in Hg = 760 mm Hg)
 Standard Temperature and Pressure in the Gas Industry – 60˚ F (15.56˚ C) and 1 atm
(30 in Hg = 760 mm Hg)
 Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP) – 32˚ F (0˚ C) and 1 atm(30 in Hg = 760 mm
Hg)
 Dry Condition – means no water vapor is present in the gas
 Wet Condition – means the gas is saturated with water vapor at STP

Partial Pressure of Water in a Gas mixture

 Used to determine the amount of water present in the gas mixture (using Dalton’s Law
of Partial Pressures)
 Partial pressure of water in the gas = vapor pressure at partial saturation
 𝑷𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒊𝒏 𝒂 𝑮𝒂𝒔 𝑴𝒊𝒙𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆, 𝑷𝑯𝟐𝟎 = 𝑽𝒂𝒑𝒐𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 ∗ 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆
𝑯𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑷𝑯𝟐𝑶 = 𝑽𝑷 ∗ 𝑹𝑯

NOTE: RH = relative humidity; VP = P⁰= vapor pressure;

 At 100% saturation or 100% RH, PH20 = VPH2O at given temperature
The vapor pressure of water is calculated by using
𝐵
ANTOINE’S EQUATION: log 𝑉𝑃 = 𝐴 −𝐶+𝑇
WHERE: VP = vapor pressure in mm Hg ; T = is in ˚C
‫٭٭‬For water (from Table 13-4, page 13-14, Perry’s ChE Handbook 8th Edition)
A = 8.07131; B = 1730.630; C = 233.426

11

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 COMBUSTION ANALYSIS OF LIQUID FUEL
 Analysis of liquid fuels is given in % by weight
 Combined hydrogen – treated as though it were in combination with oxygen in the
proportions of water called combined water.
 Net hydrogen – hydrogen that uses oxygen from air for combustion
 N and S in the fuel are relatively small. It is common practice to neglect them if their
combined percentage in the fuel is less than or equal to 3%.

CASES TO BE CONSIDERED:
1. Calculations based on complete analysis of the fuel

2. Calculations based on stack/flue/combustion gas analysis

Important quantities to be computed:
a. O2 supplied: If the fuel is N2 – free, the N2 in the flue gas is therefore coming from air
and can be used to determine the O2 supplied
b. Excess O2/Free O2: O2 needed to burn the unburned combustibles
c. H2O formed: If O2 from air is more than the O2 in the flue gas, assume that the O2
unaccounted for was used to burn H2 to H2O
d. H/C atomic or weight ratio:C in the flue gas = C in the fuel ( for gaseous and liquid
fuels only)
e. Net hydrogen is the hydrogen in the fuel which needs air O2 for burning

3. Calculations based on partial analysis of the flue or stack gas

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 Sample Problem #7:
COMBUSTION OF PURE CARBON
100 kg of pure C is burned. For each of the following cases, calculate the composition of
the combustion gases.
a. Theoretical amount of O2 is used; complete combustion
b. Theoretical amount of air is used; complete combustion
c. 25% excess air is used; complete combustion
d. 25% excess air is used; 90% of the C burns to CO2, 10% to CO
e. 30% excess air is used; 80% of C burns to CO2, 15% burns to CO, 5% as unburnt C
f. 25% excess air is used; molar ratio of CO2 to CO in the flue gas is 10:1

SOLUTION:
a.
𝐶 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2
1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 [ ][ ] = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 8.3333 − 100%

b. The amount of CO2 produced is the same as (a) since the amount of fuel did not
change.
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 100 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 [ ][ ] = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 𝑘𝑔 𝐶 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 31.3492 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 8.3333 − 21%
𝑁2 − 31.3492 − 79%

c. The amount of CO2 produced is the same as (a) since the amount of fuel did not
change.
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Aside from this theo O2 will also remain the same,
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
In order to account for the %excess of O2 given,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2
% 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 𝑥100
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠)(0.25) = 2.0833 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
For complete combustion,

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 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2.0833 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
In solving for N2 in the stack gas we will be making use of the O2 supply,
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 + 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 8.3333 + 2.0833 = 10.4166
Then,
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 10.4166 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 39.1863 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 8.3333 − 16.8%
𝑁2 − 31.3492 − 79%
𝑂2 − 39.1863 − 4.2%

d. As stated in the problem, 90% of the C burns to CO 2 and 10% to CO. So,
100 𝑘𝑔(0.9) 1 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = [ ] = 7.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 1𝐶
100 𝑘𝑔(0.1) 1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = [ ] = 0.8333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 1𝐶
The theoretical O2 is always based on the total amount of fuel, since that did not change
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
% excess also did not change, it would follow that
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 2.0833 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 10.4166
Then,
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 10.4166 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 39.1863 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
Since we have incomplete combustion,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑔𝑎𝑠
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2
Substituting the values,
1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2.0833 + 0.8333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] = 2.4967 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶𝑂

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 7.5 − 14.9951%
𝐶𝑂 − 0.8333 − 1.6661%
𝑁2 − 31.3492 − 78.3471%
𝑂2 − 2.4967 − 4.9918%

e.
100 𝑘𝑔(0.8) 1 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = [ ] = 6.6667 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 1𝐶
100 𝑘𝑔(0.15) 1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = [ ] = 1.25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 1𝐶
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 100 𝑘𝑔 (0.05)
𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐶 = = 0.4167 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12
Again, theo O2 will remain the same
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
For excess O2,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (8.3333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠)(0.3) = 2.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Then,
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 8.3333 + 2.5 = 10.8333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
So,
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 10.8333 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 40.7538 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
For incomplete combustion,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐶
1⁄ 𝑂 1 𝑂2
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 2.5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 1.25 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] + 0.4167 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶 [
2
] = 3.545 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝑂 1𝐶

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 6.6667 − 12.7677%
𝐶𝑂 − 1.25 − 2.3939%
𝑁2 − 40.7538 − 78.0492%
𝑂2 − 3.545 − 6.7892%

f. Based on the ratio given,

100 𝑘𝑔 10 𝐶𝑂2
[
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = ] = 7.5757 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 11 𝐶
100 𝑘𝑔 1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = [ ] = 0.7576 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
12 11 𝐶
%excess is similar to the previous cases,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 2.0833 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 10.4166
Then,
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 10.4166 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 39.1863 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
For incomplete combustion,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2
1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 2.0833 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 0.7576 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 2 ] = 2.4621 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝑂

Composition of Combustion Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 7.5757 − 15.1569%
𝐶𝑂 − 0.7576 − 1.5158%
𝑁2 − 39.1863 − 78.4013%
𝑂2 − 2.4621 − 4.9260%

15

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 Sample Problem #8:
The pure compounds, C2H6 is burned with 40% excess air. Find the complete composition of
the flue gas if
a. Combustion is complete.
b. 90% of the carbon burns to CO2 and the rest to CO.

GIVEN:

SOLUTION: Basis: 100 mols C2H6

a.
7
𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
2
First, based on the chemical reaction,
2 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] = 200 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶2 𝐻6
Then,
7⁄ 𝑂
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ 2 ] = 350 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶2 𝐻6
So,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (350 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠)(0.4) = 140 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
The N2 in the flue gas is equal to that air. To solve for the N2 in air, O2 supply will be used.
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = (350 + 140) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 1843.3333 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
For complete combustion,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 140 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Since the complete analysis is required, solving for H2O,
3 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻2 𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] = 300 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶2 𝐻6

Composition of Flue Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 200 − 7.0340%
𝐻2 𝑂 − 300 − 10.5510%
𝑁2 − 1843.3333 − 64.8300%
𝑂2 − 140 − 4.9238%

16

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 b. According to the given, 90% of the total carbon burns to CO2 and 10% to CO. So,
2𝐶
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] = 200 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶2 𝐻6
Therefore,
1 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 200 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠(0.9) [ ] = 180 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶
1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 200 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠(0.1) [ ] = 20 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶
The theo O2 will not change since it is always based on the total amount of fuel and on
complete combustion.
7⁄ 𝑂
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ 2 ] = 350 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶2 𝐻6
So,
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (350 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠)(0.4) = 140 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
But for O2 free,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2
1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 140 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 20 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] = 150 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶𝑂
The rest remains the same.
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = (350 + 140) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 1843.3333 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
3 𝐻2 𝑂
𝐻2 𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] = 300 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶2 𝐻6

Composition of Flue Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 180 − 7.2193%
𝐶𝑂 − 20 − 0.8021%
𝐻2 𝑂 − 300 − 12.0321%
𝑁2 − 1843.3333 − 73.9305%
𝑂2 − 150 − 6.0160%

17

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 Sample Problem #9:
A fuel gas containing 60% CH4 and 40% C2H6 is burned with dry air. Eighty percent of the
carbon goes to CO2, the rest to CO. Forty percent excess air is used. Find the Orsat analysis
of the flue gas.

GIVEN:

SOLUTION: Basis: 100 mols of Fuel gas

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶2 𝐻6
1𝐶 2𝐶
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 60 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] + 40 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] = 140 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝐻4 1 𝐶2 𝐻6

1 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 140(0.80) [ ] = 112 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶
1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 140(0.20) [ ] = 28 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶

𝐶𝐻4 + 2𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝐻2 𝑂

7
𝐶2 𝐻6 + 𝑂2 → 2𝐶𝑂2 + 3𝐻2 𝑂
2
2 𝑂2 7⁄ 𝑂
] + 40 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ 2
2
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 60 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] = 260 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝐻4 1 𝐶2 𝐻6
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (260 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠)(0.4) = 104 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = (260 + 104) 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2 [ ] = 1369.3333 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
For incomplete combustion,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 → 𝐶𝑂2
1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 104 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 28 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] = 118 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶𝑂

Composition of Flue Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 112 − 6.8824%
𝐶𝑂 − 28 − 1.7206%
𝑁2 − 1369.3333 − 84.1458%
𝑂2 − 118 − 7.2511%
18

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 Sample Problem #10:
A blast furnace gas analyzing 25% CO, 10% CO2, 5% CH4, 4% H2, and 56% N2 at 25⁰C and
98 kPa and saturated with water vapor is burned with 20% excess air. Air is supplied at 30⁰C,
760 mmHg and also saturated with water vapor. 95% of the total C in the fuel is converted
to CO2, the rest to CO. Molar ratio of H2 to CO is 1:4 in the stack gas which leaves at 200⁰C
and 760 mmHg. Calculate the
a. Orsat analysis of the stack gas,
b. air-fuel ratio by volume and
c. moles of stack gas/mole of fuel.

GIVEN:

SOLUTION: Basis: 100 mols of BFG (dry)

a.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4
1𝐶 1𝐶 1𝐶
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ ] + 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 [ ] + 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] = 40 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝐶𝐻4

1 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 40(0.95) [ ] = 38 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶
1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 40(0.05) [ ] = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1𝐶
Based on the ratio given,
1 𝐻2
𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ ] = 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
4 𝐶𝑂

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐻2

1⁄ 𝑂 2 𝑂2 1⁄ 𝑂
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] + 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] + 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ 2 ] = 24.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2 2
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐶𝐻4 1 𝐻2
𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 = (24.5)(0.2) = 4.9 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Since there is N2 in the fuel,
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 56 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + (24.5 + 4.9) [ ] = 166.6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2
19

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 For incomplete combustion,
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐻2
1⁄ 𝑂 1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 4.9 + 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] + 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ 2 ] = 6.15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2 2
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐻2

Composition of Flue Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 38 −
𝐶𝑂 − 2 −
𝐻2 − 0.5 −
𝑁2 − 166.6 −
𝑂2 − 6.15 −

 Complete the analysis in your notes.

b. In order to solve for the volume ratio of air and fuel, we need to solve for the volume of
air and fuel. Although, it is not stated in the problem, the volume that we need is the total
volume. This can be computed by assuming ideal gas behaviour. Then according to the
problem statement, the air is saturated with water vapour, which means that it is wet. So,
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑅𝑇 (𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 )𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = =
𝑃 𝑃
The ndry air can be computed from O2 supply. For the nH2O in air,
Using Antoine’s: @T = 30°C;
Since it is sat’d with water vapour, that is 100%RH, P°H2O = PH2O = 31.7402 mmHg
Then, applying Dalton’s Law,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 31.7402
=
100 760
(29.4 [ ] )
21 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 6.1017 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
So,
100
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 29.4 [ ] + 6.1017 = 146.1017 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21
Solving now for the volume of air,
𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(146.1017 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠) (0.08205 )( )
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 30 + 273.15 𝐾 = 3634.0544 𝐿
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚

The analysis is also the same for the fuel.

𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑅𝑇 (𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 )𝑅𝑇
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = =
𝑃 𝑃
For the nH2O in fuel,
Using Antoine’s: @T = 25°C;
Since it is sat’d with water vapour, that is 100%RH, P°H2O = PH2O = 23.6864 mmHg

20

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 Then, applying Dalton’s Law,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 23.6864
=
(100 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 ) 760
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 3.3297 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
So,
𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 100 + 3.3297 = 103.3297 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Solving now for the volume of air,
𝐿. 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(103.3297 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠) (0.08205 )( )
𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 25 + 273.15 𝐾
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = = 2613.5397 𝐿
98
101.325
Then solving for the ratio,
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 3634.0544 𝐿
=
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 2613.5397 𝐿

𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟
= 1.3905
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

c. Again, the mols that we need for the stack gas is

𝑛𝑆𝐺 = 𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂
The total amount of water that will be in the SG will be
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The water in the fuel and air were computed for earlier. To be able to compute for the
water from combustion we need the H2 burnt.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 + 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐻2
So,
𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐻2
Solving for the total H2,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4
2 𝐻2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] = 14 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶𝐻4
Solving for the H2 burnt,
𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 = 14 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 − 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 = 13.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Then for H2O from combustion,
1 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 13.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ ] = 13.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐻2
So the H2O in the stack gas will be,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 3.3297 + 6.1017 + 13.5 = 22.9314 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

𝑛𝑆𝐺 = 213.25 + 22.9314 = 236.1814

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑆𝐺 236.1814 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑆𝐺

= = 2.2817
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 103.3297 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

21

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 Sample Problem #11:
Coal gas at 15⁰C, 760 mmHg and saturated with water vapor is burned in a furnace. Air
with 60% RH is supplied at the rate of 5.7 m3/m3 of coal gas and enters at the same
temperature and pressure as the coal gas. The coal gas analyzes 1.4% CO2,
2.7% C2H2, 0.70% O2, 5.8% CO, 53.2% H2, 29.6 CH4 and 6.6% N2. The molar ratio of CO2 to
CO in the stack gas is 10:1. All the H2 in the fuel is burned to water. The stack gas leaves at
400⁰C and 100 kPa. Calculate:
a. % excess air
b. Orsat analysis of the stack gas
c. m3 of stack gas / m3 of coal gas
d. dew point of the stack gas

GIVEN:

SOLUTION: Basis: 100 kmol dry coal gas

a.
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶2 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐻2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 − 𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Substituting the values,
5⁄ 𝑂 1⁄ 𝑂 1⁄ 𝑂
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 2.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻2 [ 2 ] + 5.8 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] + 53.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ 2 ]
2 2 2
1 𝐶2 𝐻2 1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐻2
2 𝑂2
+ 29.6 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] − 0.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑂2
1 𝐶𝐻4
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜 𝑂2 = 94.75 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
To be able to compute for the % excess, we need either the O2 supply or excess O2. Based
on the given, we can compute for the O2 supply by using the volumetric ratio provided.
Although it is not mentioned in the problem, the volume given is the total volume so we
need to compute for the mols of water in the fuel.

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 In the fuel:
Using Antoine’s: @T = 15°C;
Since it is sat’d with water vapour, that is 100%RH, P°H2O = PH2O = 12.7330 mmHg
Then, applying Dalton’s Law,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 12.7330
=
(100 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 ) 760
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 1.7039 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
So,
𝑛𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 100 + 1.7039 = 101.7039 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Then, assuming ideal gas behaviour,
𝑚 3 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(101.7039 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠) (0.08205 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 ) 15 + 273.15 𝐾
𝑉𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = = 2404.5556 𝑚 3
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
Using the ratio given,
5.7 𝑚 3 𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑉𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 2404.5556 𝑚 3 [ 3 ] = 13,705.9669 𝑚 3
𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
Assuming ideal gas behaviour as well for the air,
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 )(13705.9669 𝑚 3 )
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = 579.7122 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
𝑚 3 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(0.08205 (
) 15 + 273.15 𝐾 )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾
What we need to compute for the O2 supply is the moles of dry air. This is because the air
analysis of 79%N2 and 21%O2 is for dry air.
In air:
Using Antoine’s: @T = 15°C; P°H2O = 12.7330 mmHg
For 60% RH, PH2O = (12.7330)(0.6) = 7.6398 mmHg
Then, applying Dalton’s Law,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
𝑛𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑃𝑇
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 7.6398
=
579.7122 760
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 = 5.8275 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
So,
𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 579.7122 − 5.8275 = 573.8847 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Then,
21 𝑂2
𝑂2 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 573.8847 𝑎𝑖𝑟 [ ] = 120.5158 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
100 𝑎𝑖𝑟
Therefore,
120.5158 − 94.75
% 𝑥 ′ 𝑠 𝑂2 = 𝑥100
94.75

% 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 27.1935%

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 b.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝐶2 𝐻2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
1𝐶 1𝐶 1𝐶
= 5.8 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ ] + 1.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂2 [ ] + 29.6 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ]
1 𝐶𝑂 1 𝐶𝑂2 1 𝐶𝐻4
1𝐶
+ 2.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻2 [ ] = 42.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐶2 𝐻2

10 𝐶𝑂2
𝐶𝑂2 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 42.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶 [ ] = 38.3636 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
11 𝐶
1 𝐶𝑂
𝐶𝑂 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 42.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶 [ ] = 3.8364 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
11 𝐶

𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑂2 + 𝑂2 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝐶𝑂

1⁄ 𝑂
𝑂2 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 = (120.5158 − 94.75)𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 3.8364 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝑂 [ 2 ] = 27.684 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
2
1 𝐶𝑂

𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟
79 𝑁2
𝑁2 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 6.60 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 120.5158 [ ] = 459.9690 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
21 𝑂2

Composition of Flue Gases:

𝐶𝑂2 − 38.3636 −
𝐶𝑂 − 3.8364 −
𝑁2 − 459.9690 −
𝑂2 − 27.684 −
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 529.853

 Complete the analysis in your notes.

c. To solve for the Volume of the SG, we need the total moles of SG.
𝑛𝑆𝐺 = 𝑛𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝐺 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂
The total amount of water that will be in the SG will be
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟 + 𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
The H2O in the fuel and air were calculated for earlier. For H2O from combustion,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 + 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐻2
So,
𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 − 𝑢𝑛𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 𝐻2
Solving for the total H2,
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 𝐻2 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝐶2 𝐻2
2 𝐻2 1 𝐻2
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐻2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 = 53.2 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 + 29.6 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] + 2.7 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻2 [ ]
1 𝐶𝐻4 1 𝐶2 𝐻2
= 115.1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠

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 Solving for the H2 burnt, there is no unburnt H2,
𝐻2 𝑏𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑡 = 115.1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Then for H2O from combustion,
1 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 115.1 𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 [ ] = 115.1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
1 𝐻2
So the H2O in the stack gas will be,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝐺 = 115.1 + 1.7039 + 5.8275 = 122.6314 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
Assuming ideal gas behaviour,
𝑚 3 . 𝑎𝑡𝑚
(529.853 + 122.6314) (0.08205 ( )
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝐾 ) 400 + 273.15 𝐾
𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑔𝑎𝑠 = = 36524.5035 𝑚 3
100
101.325
Then solving for the ratio,
𝑚 3 𝑆𝐺 36524.5035
3
=
𝑚 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 2404.5556

𝑚 3 𝑆𝐺
= 15.1897
𝑚 3 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

d. The dew point is the temperature at which gas cools to saturation temperature. This
means that at dew point, the vapour pressure of water is equal to its partial pressure. In
order to solve for that,
𝑛𝐻2𝑂 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑇
122.6314 𝑃𝐻2𝑂
=
529.853 + 122.6314 100
101.325 𝑥760
𝑃𝐻2𝑂 = 140.9706 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
Then, using Antoine’s equation,
@𝑃𝐻2𝑂 = 𝑃°𝐻2𝑂 = 140.9706 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔

𝑇 𝑑𝑒𝑤 = 58.8025℃

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 Explain
CALORIFIC VALUES / HEATING VALUES of GASEOUS FUEL

 The calorific value (heating value) of a fuel is the heat given off by the complete
combustion of a unit quantity of the fuel at some reference temperature (may be
taken as 25˚C or for for convenience, ambient air temperature)
 Types of Calorific Values:
a. Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or Higher Heating Value (HHV) – measured when
water formed by combustion is in the liquid state
b. Net Calorific value (NCV) or Lower Heating Value (LHV) – measured when water
formed by combustion is in the gaseous state
 Gaseous Mixtures:
GCV = ΣΔHCi *ni
Where: ΔHCi = heat of combustion of component i; ni= mole fraction of gaseous component
i

Where: 𝜆c = latent heat of condensation (enthalpy of condensation) of water; heat released

when material changes from vapor to liquid ; same but opposite in sign as latent heat of
vaporization, 𝜆v or ΔHevap

 Calorific value units in SI are expressed on a dry (MJ/dry SCM) or wet basis (MJ/dry
SCM) at 60˚F, 760 mm Hg, and 100% RH
 When a calorific value is given in a problem without specifying whether it is the GCV
or the NCV, it may be assumed to be the Gross Calorific Value (Higher Heating Value)
since it its this value which is usually reported

Sample Problem #6:

Calculate the GCV and NCV of a natural gas at 25˚C which has the following composition:
89.4% CH4, 5% C2H6, 1.9% C3H8, 0.4% i-C4H10, 0.6% n-C4H10, 0.7% CO2, 2% N2 in: a. MJ/kmol
b. kcal/gmol c. MJ/kg d. MJ/dry SCM e. MJ/SCM

SOLUTION:
For GCV:
Hc (kJ/kmol)
ni (mole Reference:
Components niHci MW
fraction) Stoichiometry by
Laurito
CH4 0.894 890.95 796.5093 16
C2H6 0.05 1560.92 78.046 30
C3H8 0.019 2221.52 42.2089 44

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 i-C4H10 0.004 2870.63 11.4825 58
n-C4H10 0.006 2879.01 17.2741 58
CO2 0.007 - - 44
N2 0.02 - - 58
𝑀𝐽
∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝐻𝑐𝑖 = 945.5208
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙

a.
𝑀𝐽
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
b.
𝑀𝐽 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1𝑥106 𝐽 1 𝑐𝑎𝑙 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 1000 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑀𝐽 4.184 𝐽 1000 𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 225.9849
𝑚𝑜𝑙
c.
𝑘𝑔
̅̅̅̅̅̅ = ∑ 𝑛𝑖 𝑀𝑊𝑖 = 18.088
𝑀𝑊
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝐽 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208 𝑥
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 18.088 𝑘𝑔

𝑀𝐽
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 52.2734
𝑘𝑔

d.
𝑀𝐽 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 273.15 𝐾
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208 𝑥 3
𝑥
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 22.4 𝑚 (15.56 + 273.15)𝐾

𝑀𝐽
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 39.9358
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑀

e. Using Antoine’s: @T = 15.56°C (reference temperature);

P°H2O = PH2O = 13.2007 mmHg
𝑀𝐽 1 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 273.15 𝐾 (760 − 13.2007)𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208 𝑥 3
𝑥 𝑥
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 22.4 𝑚 (15.56 + 273.15)𝐾 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
𝑀𝐽
𝐺𝐶𝑉 = 40.6245
𝑆𝐶𝑀

For NCV:
Basis: 100 kmols of natural gas

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 𝐻2 𝑂 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2 𝐻2 𝑂 3 𝐻2 𝑂 4 𝐻2 𝑂
= 89.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶𝐻4 [ ] + 5 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶2 𝐻6 [ ] + 1.9 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐶3 𝐻8 [ ]
1 𝐶𝐻4 1 𝐶2 𝐻6 1 𝐶3 𝐻8
5 𝐻2 𝑂 5 𝐻2 𝑂
+ 0.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝐶4 𝐻10 [ ] + 0.6 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑛𝐶4 𝐻10 [ ]
1 𝐶4 𝐻10 1 𝐶4 𝐻10
𝐻2 𝑂 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 206.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
a.
𝑀𝐽 206.4 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 945.5208 −[ (44.2028)]
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙 100 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙
𝑀𝐽
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 854.2862
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
b.
1𝑥106
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 854.2862𝑥
(1000)(4.184)(1000)

𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 204.1793
𝑚𝑜𝑙

c.
1
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 854.2862𝑥
18.088
𝑀𝐽
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 47.2294
𝑘𝑔
d.
1 273.15
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 854.2862𝑥 𝑥
22.4 15.56 + 273.15

𝑀𝐽
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 36.0863
𝑑𝑆𝐶𝑀

e.
1 273.15 760 − 13.2005
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 854.2862𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
22.4 15.56 + 273.15 760

𝑀𝐽
𝑁𝐶𝑉 = 35.4556
𝑆𝐶𝑀

28

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 Elaborate

Practice Problems
1. The following pure compounds are burned with 40% excess air. Find the composition
of the flue gas if combustion is complete. Additional Problem: Calculate the
complete analysis of these pure gases if 90% of the carbon burns to CO2 and the
rest to CO
a. C6H6
b. C2H4

2. An automobile engine is being operated with pure methyl alcohol using 10% excess
air over that necessary for theoretical combustion and securing substantially
complete combustion of the fuel. A sample of the exhaust gases is removed from
the exhaust pipe and carefully analyzed in the Orsat. What analysis would you
suspect to get?

3. Assume that in the operation of the engine in the previous problem, the air supply is
reduced below in the theoretical value to the point such that 90% of the carbon in
the fuel burns to CO2 and the remaining to CO. Assume also that under these
conditions, the hydrogen in the gaseous combustion products is 40% of the CO in
them, the oxygen being all consumed. Calculate the following:
a. The Orsat analysis for the gases from the exhaust pipe
b. The pounds of dry air required per pound fuel burnt
c. The cubic feet of dry air that must be supplied to the engine per pound of
fuel burnt, on the assumption that the barometer is normal and the air
temperature is 70⁰F.
d. The volume of exhaust gases per pound of fuel burnt, if these leave the
engine at 960⁰F.

4. Pure ethane is burned completely in 20% excess air. Air is supplied at 250C, 740 torrs
and is substantially dry. Calculate:
a. Orsat analysis of the products of combustion
b. Kg dry air supplied/ kg of fuel gas
c. Cubic meters of air/ kg ethane
d. Cubic meters of the products of combustion measured at 4000C, 100 kPa/kg
ethane
e. Partial pressure of water in the products of combustion

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 Evaluate

Instructions: Solve each problem as neatly as possible and show complete solution. Round
everything to four decimal places and box all final answers. Solution should be handwritten.

1. The octane number of gasoline is the % by volume iso-octane in an iso-octane

(C8H18) – n-heptane (C7H16) mixture with the same knocking tendency as the fuel.
An automobile uses an unleaded gasoline with an octane number of 85. Air is
supplied 30% in excess such that the molar ratio of CO2 to CO is 5:2 and H2 to CO is
1:1 in the exhaust gas. Calculate the Orsat analysis of the exhaust gas. Density of i-
octane is 0.6918 and n-heptane is 0.684 g/mL.

2. Pure formaldehyde gas (CH2O) is burned completely in air, using 50% excess air.
a. What should be the Orsat analysis of the combustion gas?
b. What should be the Orsat analysis of the combustion gas if instead of excess air,
only enough were used to burn all the hydrogen to water, 25% of the carbon to CO2
and the remaining 75% to CO, the combustion being conducted that no oxygen gas
whatever is left remaining in the combustion products.

30

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