Optical Fibre Cable

J.T.O.
(Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission
SECTION – E
OPTICAL
FIBRE
CABLE
BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 272

J.T.O. (Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission
INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS

( Fibre Structure and Wavelength Fundamentals )
Introduction
Communications using light is a very old process. In olden days they used
hand, smoke and fire signals for conveying messages. An optical telegraph was built
by Claude Chappe in 1790s in France. In 1870, John Tyndall demonstrated the
principle of guiding light through internal reflections. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell
invented the photophone, which used unguided light to carry speech.
Simple optical communication systems such as blinker lights for ship–to–ship

and ship–to–shore links, automobile turn signals, and traffic lights used lamps.
All the optical systems described above have low information capacities and
their range of working is limited in distance.
A major breakthrough leading to high capacity optical communications was

achieved with the invention of laser in 1960. The laser acted as a narrow–band
source of optical radiation suitable for use as a carrier of information. In 1966,
Charles K. Kao at Standard Telecommunications Laboratories, England fabricated a
low loss glass fibre, giving a loss of 1000 dB/km or so. Such a fibre could transmit
light for a short distance only. But Kao suggested that purer glass materials would
permit the use of fibre for longer transmission lengths. Kao had shown that it would
be possible to transmit light signals over long distance using glass fibre and
modulated infra–red light. In 1970, Corning glass works, U.S.A. developed a low loss
fibre giving a loss of 20 dB/km. This was the second major breakthrough to make
optical communication a practical reality. By 1972, losses were reduced to 4 dB/km.
Today, the best fibres have a loss of < 0.2 dB/km.

BASIC FIBRE OPTIC LINK
INFORMATION
TRANSMITTER CHANNEL RECEIVER
(MEDIUM)
Fig. 1
Basic Communication System
A basic communications system consisting of a transmitter, a receiver and an

information channel is shown in Fig.1. The transmitter generates the messages and
converts it into a form suitable for transmission over the information channel. The
information travels from the transmitter to the receiver over the information channel.
There are basically two types of information channels : unguided or guided channels.
Atmosphere is an unguided type of channel over which waves can propagate.
Guided channels are those which guide the electromagnetic waves through them.
Two wire lines, coaxial cable and waveguide are the examples of guided information
channels. Guided channels have the advantages of privacy, no weather dependence,
and the ability to convey messages within, under and around physical structures.
Fig. 2
Basic Fibre–Optic Link

Information Transmission Sequence
Information
in (Voice,
Data, Video)
Fig. 2
Transmitters
They convert electrical signal to optical signals which is transmitted through
fibre. The basic elements that may be found in transmitters are as follows :
(i) Electronic interfaces.

(ii) Electronic processing circuits.
(iii) Drive circuitry.
(iv) Light source – LED/Laser.
(v) Optical interface.
(vi) Output sensing and stabilization.
(vii) Temperature sensing and control.
Receivers
It receives the optical signals from the fibre and convert the same to its
electrical equivalent. The basic elements of an Optical receiver are given as under –

(a) Detector [PIN photodiode/APD (Avalanchee photodiode)]

Detector used in fibre optical communications are semiconductor
photodiodes or photodetectors which converts the received optical
signal into electrical form.
(b) Amplifier
(c) Decision circuits
Objects
Introduction to Fibre Optics, theory and principle of Fibre Optics, propagation
of light through fibre, fibre geometry, fibre types.
Fibre Optics
Optical fibre is a new medium, in which information (voice, data or video) is
transmitted through a glass or plastic fibre, in the form of light, following the
transmission sequences given below :
(i) Information is encoded into electrical signals.
(ii) Electrical signals are converted into light signals.
(iii) Light travels down the fibre.
(iv) A detector changes the light signals into electrical signals.
(v) Electrical signals are decoded into information.
Advantages of Fibre Optics

Fibre Optics has the following advantages :
(i) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectric)

– Grounding and surge suppression not required.
– Cables can be all dielectric.
(ii) Electromagnetic immunity

– Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI)
– No radiated energy.
– Unauthorised tapping difficult.

(iii) Large Bandwidth (> 50 GHz for 1 km length)

– Future upgradability
– Maximum utilization of cable right of way.
– One time cable installation costs.
(iv) Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)

– Loss is low and same at all operating speeds within the fibre's
specified bandwidth.
– Long, unrepeated links (> 70 km is operation).
– Inexpensive light sources available.
– Repeater spacing increases along with operating speeds because low
loss fibres are used at high data rates.
(v) Small, light weight cables

– Easy installation and handling.
– Efficient use of space.
(vi) Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)

– Less splice points.
(vii) Security
– Extremely difficult to tap a fibre as it does not radiate energy that can
be received by a nearby antenna.
– Highly secure transmission medium.
(viii) Security – Being a dielectric

– It cannot cause fire.
– Does not attract lightning.
– It does not carry electricity.
– Can be run through hazardous areas.
(ix) Universal medium

– Serve all communication needs.
– Non–obsolescence.

Applications of Fibre Optics in Communications

– Common carrier nationwide networks.
– Telephone inter–office trunk lines.
– Customer premise communication networks.
– Undersea cables.
– High EMI areas (Power lines, Rails, Roads).
– Factory communication/Automation.
– Control systems.
– Expensive environments.
– High lightning areas.
– Military applications.
– Classified (secure) communication.
Fibre Geometry
An Optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually
silica or borosilicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but a
slightly lower refractive index.
Fibre themselves have exceedingly small diameters. Figure shows cross

section of the core and cladding diameters of commonly used fibres. The diameters
of the core and cladding are as follows.
Core (m) Cladding (m)

8 125
50 125
62.5 125
100 140
Fig. 3
Typical Core and Cladding Diameter
Fibre sizes are usually expressed by first giving the core size followed by the
cladding size. Thus, 50/125 means a core diameter of 50 m and a cladding diameter
of 125 m.

Fibre Types
The refractive index profile describes the relation between the indices of the
core and cladding. Two main relationship exist :
(i) Step Index, and
(ii) Graded Index
The step index fibre has a core with uniform index throughout. The profile
shows a sharp step at the junction of the core and cladding. In contrast, the graded
index has a non–uniform core. The index is highest at the centre and gradually
decreases until it matches with that of the cladding. There is no sharp break in
indices between the core and the cladding.
By this classification, there are three types of fibres :
(i) Multimode Step Index Fibre (Step Index Fibre).
(ii) Multimode Graded Index Fibre (Graded Index Fibre).
(iii) Single–mode Step Index Fibre (Single Mode Fibre).
(i) Step Index Multimode Fibre

This fibre is called "Step Index" because the refractive index changes abruptly
from cladding to core. The cladding has a refractive index somewhat lower than the
refractive index of the core glass. As a result, all rays within a certain angle will be
totally reflected at the core–cladding boundary. Rays striking the boundary at angles
greater than the critical angle will be partially reflected and partially transmitted out
through the boundary. After many such bounces the energy in these rays will be lost
from the fibre.
The paths along which the rays (modes) of this step index fibre travel differ,
depending on their angles relative to the axis. As a result, the different modes in a
pulse will arrive at the far end of the fibre at different times, resulting in pulse
spreading which limits the bit–rate of a digital signal which can be transmitted.
The maximum number of modes (N) depends on the core diameter (d),
wavelength and numerical aperture (NA).
BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 F

G X d X NA I
J
2
279
N  0.5 X
H  K
This type of fibre results in considerable model dispersion, which results the
fibre's band width.
(ii) Graded Index Multi–mode Fibre

This fibre is called graded index because there are many changes in the
refractive index with larger values towards the centre. As light travels faster in a lower
index of refraction, so, the farther the light is from the centre axis, the greater is its
speed. Each layer of the core refracts the light. Instead of being sharply reflected as
it is in a step index fibre, the light is now bent or continuously refracted in an almost
sinusoidal pattern. Those rays that follow the longest path by travelling near the
outside of the core, have a faster average velocity. The light travelling near the centre
of the core, has the slowest average velocity.
As a result all rays tend to reach the end of the fibre at the same time. That
causes the end travel time of different rays to be nearly equal, even though they
travel different paths.
The graded index reduces model dispersing to 1 ns/km or less.
Graded Index fibres have core diameter of 50, 62.5 or 85 m and a cladding
diameter of 125 m. The fibre is used in applications requiring a wide bandwidth and
low model dispersion. The number of modes in the fibre is about half that of step
index fibre having the same diameter and Numerical aperture.
F
G X d X NA I
J
2
N  0.25 X
H  K

Fig. 4
Optical Fibres – Principle and Types

(iii) Singe Mode Fibre

Another way to reduce model dispersion is to reduce the core's diameter, until
the fibre only propagates one mode efficiently. The single mode fibre has an
exceedingly small core diameter of only 5 to 10 m. Standard cladding diameter is
125 m.
Since this fibre carries only one mode, model dispersion does not exists.
Single mode fibres easily have a potential bandwidth of 50 to 100 GHz–km.
The core diameter is so small that the splicing technique and measuring
techniques are more difficult. Light source must have a very narrow spectral width
and they must be very small and bright in order to permit efficient coupling into the
very small core dia. of these fibres.
One advantage of single mode fibre is that once they are installed, the
system's capacity can be increased as newer, higher capacity transmission system
becomes available. This capability saves the high cost of installing a new
transmission medium to obtain increased performance and allows cost effective
increases from low capacity system to higher capacity system.
As the wavelength is increased, the fibre carries fewer and fewer modes unitl
only one remains. Single mode operation begins when the wavelength approaches
the core diameter. At 1300 nm, the fibre permits only one mode, it becomes a single
mode fibre.
As optical energy in a single mode fibre travels in the cladding as well as in

the core, therefore, the cladding must be a more efficient carrier of energy. In a
multimode fibre cladding modes are not desirable, a cladding with inefficient
transmission characteristic can be tolerated. The diameter of the light appearing at
the end of the single mode fibre is larger than the core diameter, because some of
the optical energy of the mode travels in the cladding. Mode field diameter is the term
used to define this diameter of optical energy.
Optical Fibre Parameters

Optical fibre systems have the following parameters :

(i) Wavelength
(ii) Frequency
(iii) Window
(iv) Attenuation
(v) Dispersion
(vi) Bandwidth
Basic Fibre Construction

An optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding.
The inner core carries the light. The refractive index of core is slightly higher than the
cladding. The difference in index in core and cladding allows total internal reflection
of light through the core. The typical value of refractive index of core is between 1.48
to 1.5. The index of cladding is 1% lower than that of the core; the typical values
being 1.46 to 1.48.
Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. The primary
function of the additional coatings which are made of polymer, is to protect the core
and cladding from shocks that might affect the optical or physical properties of the
fibre. The coatings do not have any optical property so as to affect light propagation
within the fibre.
Fibre Optic – Cable being used in India

The cable being used for long distance route has been supplied by M/s
SIECOR, U.S.A., a joint venture of Siemens and Corning glass works. The cable is
non metallic with 12 fibres single mode, to be operated at 1300 nm. In fact, DOT has
standardised single mode fibres at 1300 nm for all long distance routes and for
junction working.
Construction of the Optical Fibre

An optical fibre consists of a core of optically transparent material usually
doped silica or borosilicate glass surrounded by a cladding of the same material but
of a slightly lower refractive index.

Nominal diameter of core is 9 m and of cladding is 125 m in Siecor optical

fibre cable single mode. Material used for primary coating is Dzg resin and for
secondary coating is UV curable resin.
Fig.
Cross Section of Optical Fibre (Single Mode)
Fig.
Siecor Mini Bundle Loose Tube Optical Fibre Cable
12 Fibres PE/Nylon

Cable Construction
Cabling is an outer protective structure surrounding one or more fibres.
Cabling protect fibres environmentally and mechanically from being damaged or
degraded in performance. SIECOR Fibre Optic Cables have the following parts :
(i) Optical Fibre
(ii) Buffer tube
(iii) Strength member
(iv) Jacket
The cable buffer tube is one of two types :

(i) Loose buffer
(ii) Tight buffer
The loose buffer uses a hard plastic tube having an inside diameter several
times that of the fibre. One or more fibres lie within the buffer tube. As the cable
expands and shrinks with temperature changes, it does not affect the fibre as much,
the fibre in the tubes is slightly longer than the tube itself. SIECOR cable is loose
buffer tube cable.
2.4 Fibre Optic Construction Specifications

Primary coating – 250 + 15 micron of UV cured acrylate.
Secondary coating – Nominal 2.4 mm loose dual layered

buffer tube filled with paraffin based gel.
Central member – Solid GRP non–metallic in the centre of

the cable core : Outer dia. = 2.1 + 0.15
mm.
Core – Loose buffer tubes and fillers stranded

around the central member.
Buffer tube filling compound – Paraffin gel inside tube
Interstitial filling compound – Petroleum gel filled areas between the

loose buffer tubes.

Colour Identification Scheme

Fibre No. Colour Buffer tube no. Colour
1 Blue 1 Blue
2 Orange 2 Orange
3 Green 3 Filler (Natural)
4 Brown 4 Filler (Natural)
5 Slate 5 Filler (Natural)
6 White – –
Filler – Nominal 2.4 mm natural coloured solid

P.E. filler
Core Wrap – Continuous layer of non hygroscopic

dielectric material applied longitudinally
Inner P.E. Sheath – Not less than 2.0 mm thick P.E. inner
sheath (Black colour).
Outer Nylon sheath – Not less than 0.7 mm thick Nylon

sheath (Orange colour).
Fibre Optic Cable Optical Performance
Specifications :
Type – Monomode
Wavelength Band Optimized
– 1310 nm
(Nominal)
Mode field/diameter – 9.5 + 0.5 microns @ 1310 nm.
Nominal cladding diameter – 125 microns + 2.4%
Wavelength – 1120 to 1280 nm.
– 0.5 dB/km at 1310 nm.
Attenuation
– 0.4 dB/km at 1550 nm
< 3.5 PS/nm – km at 1285 to 1330 nm.
Total Dispersion –
< 18 PS/nm – km at 1550 nm.
Diameter over Primary fibre coating – 250 Microns + 15 microns.

Fig.
Types of Secondary Coating

Light Propagation in Optical Fibres

The simplest way to view light in fibre optics is by ray theory. The light is
treated as a simple way, shown by a line. Light cosists of an electric field and a
14
magnetic field that oscillate to very high rates, on the order of 10 Hz. These field
travel in wavelike fashion at very high speeds. The speed of light is actually the
velocity of electromagnetic energy in a vacuum such as space. The speed of light in
other materials such as glass, plastic is less. The speed of light changes when it
travels from one material to another, resulting in light changing its direction of travel.
This deflection of light is called refraction. Furthermore, different wavelengths of light
travel at different speeds in the same material.
The index of refraction denoted by n, is a dimensionless number expressing

the ratio of the velocity of light c in free space to its velocity v in a specific material :
n = (c/v)
The refractive indices of some selected materials are shown in Table 1 below.
The index of glass can be changed by controlling its composition.
Table I
Refractive Indices of Various Materials
Material Index(n) Light velocity (km/s)

Vacuum 1.0 300,000
Air 1.0003 (1) 300,000
Water 1.33 225,000
Fused Quartz 1.46 205,000
Glass 1.5 200,000
Diamond 2.0 150,000
Silicon 3.4 88,000
Gallium Arsenide 3.6 83,000
Even when light passes from one index to another, a small portion is always
reflected back into the first material. This reflection is known as Fresnel reflection.
For light passing from air to glass, reflection loss is about 0.17 dB.
Theory and Principle of Fibre Optics

Speed of light is actually the velocity of electromagnetic energy in vacuum
such as space. Light travels at slower velocities in other materials such as glass.

Light travelling from one material to another changes speed, which results in light
changing its direction of travel. This deflection of light is called Refraction n = c/v.
The amount that a ray of light is refracted depends on the Refractive Indices
of the two materials.
As shown in figure, light passing from a lower refractive index to a higher one
is bent towards the normal. But light going from a higher index to a lower one
refracting away from the normal, as shown in the figures.
o
As the angle of incidence increases, the angle of refraction approaches 90 to
o
the normal. The angle of incidence that yields an angle of refraction of 90 is the
critical angle. If the angle of incidence increases more than the critical angle, the light
is totally reflected back into the first material so that it does not enter the second
material. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal and it is called Total
Internal Reflection.
By Snells law, n1 Sin 1 = n2 sin 2
o
The critical angle of incidence c, where 2 = 90 is Qc = arc sin (n2/n1).
At angle greater than c, the light is reflected. Because reflected light means
that n1 and n2 are equal (since they are in the same material), q 1 and q2 are also
equal. The angle of incidence and reflection are equal. These simple principles of
refraction and reflection form the basis of light propagation through an optical fibre.
Fig.

The optical fibre has two concentric layers called the core and the cladding.
The inner core is the light carrying part. The surrounding cladding provides the
difference in refractive index that allows total internal reflection of light through the
core. The index of the cladding is less than 1%, lower than that of the core. Typical
values for example are a core refractive index of 1.47 and a cladding index of 1.46.
Fibre manufacturers control this difference to obtain desired optical fibre
characteristics.
Most fibres have an additional coating around the cladding. This buffer
coating is a shock absorber and has no optical properties affecting the propagation of
light within the fibre.
Figure shows the idea of light travelling through a fibre. Light injected into the
fibre and striking core to cladding interface at greater than the critical angle, reflects
back into core, since the angle of incidence and reflection are equal, the reflected
light will again be reflected. The light will continue zigzagging down the length of the
fibre.
Light striking the interface at less than the critical angle passes into the
cladding, where it is lost over distance. The cladding is usually inefficient as a light
carrier, and light in the cladding becomes attenuated fairly rapidly. Propagation of
light through fibre is governed by the indices of the core and cladding by Snell's law.
Such total internal reflection forms the basis of light propagation through an
optical fibre. This analysis consider only meridional rays – those that pass through
the fibre axis each time, they are reflected. Other rays called Skew rays travel down
the fibre without passing through the axis. The path of a skew ray is typically helical
wrapping around and around the central axis. Fortunately skew rays are ignored in
most fibre optics analysis.
The specific characteristic of light propagation through a fibre depends on

many factors, including –
– The size of the fibre.
– The composition of the fibre.
– The light injected into the fibre.
Fig.
Total Internal Reflection in an Optical Fibre
Fig.
Siecor Mini Bundle Loose Tube Optical Fibre Cable

Fibre Characteristics
Wavelength
It is a characteristic of light that is emitted from the light source and is
measured in nanometers (nm). In the visible spectrum, wavelength can be described
as the colour of the light.
For example, Red light has a longer wavelength than Blue light. Typical
wavelengths for fibre optic use are 850 nm, 1300 nm and 1550 nm all of which are
invisible.
Frequency
It is the number of pulse per second emitted from a light source. Frequency is
measured in units of hertz (Hz). It terms of optical pulse 1 Hz = 1 pulse/sec.
Window
A narrow window is defined as the range of wavelengths at which a fibre best
operates. Typical windows are given below :
Window Operational Wavelength

800 nm–900 nm 850 nm
1250 nm – 13050 nm 1300 nm
1500 nm – 1600 nm 1550 nm
Attenuation
Attenuation is defined as the loss of optical power over a set distance, a fibre
with a lower attenuation, will allow more power to reach a receiver than a fibre with
higher attenuation.
Attenuation may be categorised as intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic Attenuation
It is loss due to inherent or within the fibre. Intrinsic attenuation may occur as
(i) Absorption – Natural impurities in the glass absorb light energy.

(ii) Scattering –Light rays travelling in the core reflect from small
imperfections into a new pathway that may be lost through the
cladding.
Fig.
Absorption – Natural Impurities in the Glass Absorb Light Energy
Fig.
Scattering – Light Rays Travelling in the Core reflect from Small Imperfections
into a New Pathway that may be Lost through the Cladding
Extrinsic Attenuation
It is a loss due to external sources. Extrinsic attenuation may occur as –
(i) Macrobending – The fibre is sharply bent so that the light travelling
down the fibre cannot make the turn and is lost in the cladding.
(ii) Mirobending – Microbending or small bends in the fibre caused by

crushing, contraction, etc. These bends may not be visible with the
naked eye.
Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB). A dB represents the comparison

between the transmitted and received power in a system.

Fig.
Loss and Bends
Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as it travels down the length of an
optical fibre. Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a
fibre. The bit–rate must be low enough to ensure that pulses are further apart and,
therefore, the greater dispersion can be tolerated.
There are three main types of dispersion in a fibre –

(i) Model dispersion
(ii) Material dispersion
(iii) Waveguide dispersion
Bandwidth and Dispersion

A bandwidth of 400 MHz–km means that a 400 MHz signal can be
transmitted for 1 km. It means that the product of frequency and the length must be
400 or less. We can send a lower frequency for a longer distance, i.e. 200 MHz for 2
km or 100 MHz for 4 km.
Multimode fibres are specified by the bandwidth–length product or simply

bandwidth. Single mode fibres on the other hand are specified by dispersion,
expressed in ps/km/nm. In other words, for any given single mode fibre dispersion is
most affected by the source's spectral width. The wider the source spectral width, the
greater the dispersion.

Conversion of dispersion to bandwidth can be approximated roughly by the

following equation.
0.187
BW 
(Disp) (SW ) (L)
where,
Disp. = Dispersion at the operating wavelength in seconds/nm/km.
SW = Spectral width of the source in nm.
L = Fibre length in km.
So the spectral width of the source has a significant effect on the performance
of a single mode fibre.
Fig.

Numerical Aperture
Numerical aperture (NA) is the "light–gathering ability" of a fibre. Light
injected into the fibre at angles greater than the critical angle will be propagated. The
material NA relates to the refractive indices of the core and cladding.
2 2
NA = n1 – n2
where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of core and cladding, respectively.
NA is a unitless dimension. We can also define as the angles at which rays

will be propagated by the fibre. These angles form a cone called the acceptance
cone, that gives the maximum angle of light acceptance. The acceptance cone is
related to the NA.
 = arc sin(N/A)
or NA = sin 
where  is the half–angle of acceptance.
The NA of a fibre is important because it gives an indication of how the fibre

accepts and propagates light. A fibre with a large NA accepts light well, a fibre with a
low NA requires highly directional light.
Fig.
Numerical Aperture
In general, fibres with a high bandwidth have a lower NA. They thus allow
fewer modes means less dispersion and hence greater bandwidth. A large NA
promotes more modal dispersion, since more paths for the rays are provided NA,
although it can be defined for a single mode fibre, is essentially meaningless as a
practical characteristic. NA in a multimode fibre is important to system performance
and to calculate anticipated performance.

Connectors
The connectors are rematable interconnect devices which provide flexibility
required in a Fibre Optical Transmission system. The basic function required of
connectors is to allow transfer of optical power from one fibre component to another
with minimum loss and possibility of disconnection and remating number of times
with minimum insertion loss.
Connector Requirement
(1) The attenuation in optical fibre connectors should be less than 1 dB.
(2) The connector must provide consistent performance on each
remating.
(3) The connector must provide protection to the fibre so that it does not
break while being handled.
(4) The connectorisation technique should be simple.
(5) The connector size should not be very much bigger than the fibre size
and it should not be too small.
(6) Connector must be cost effective.
Connector Composition
Connector fundamentally consists of two parts, a plug and an adapter. For
fibre to fibre connections, the fibres are terminated in individual plugs and mated in
the adapter.
Fig.

For fibre to device connection, the devices may be housed in the adapter part
and the fibre in the plug part. The fixing of the fibre in the plug may be achieved
directly or by using sleeves commonly known as ferrules. The proper centering in
these ferrules could be achieved by using precision drilled holes, jewels or rods
depending on the arrangement. The adapter provides the alignment mechanism.
The performance of the connectors depends on the accuracy of the alignment

of the optical elements to be connectorised. The basic elements in the connectors
are fibre fixing mechanism and the alignment mechanism. The alignment accuracies
required are of very high to avoid losses and are consequently quite costly.
Optical Fibre Connector Techniques

Optical fibre connectors are made by the following techniques :
(i) Geometric techniques

(a) 3–Rod connectors
(b) 3–Sphere connectors
(c) V–grove connectors
(ii) Precision techniques

(a) Ferrule connectors.
(b) BI – Conical connectors.
(c) Core–centred connectors
(d) Core–aligned connectors
(e) Precision moulded connectors
(iii) Optical Techniques

(a) Optically focussing connectors.
(b) Optically collimating connectors.
(c) Fibre Taper connectors.

Types of Connectors
Following types of practical connectors are available in the market.
(a) Amphenol Fibre Optic Connectors

– Based on precision plug concept.
(b) The Radial Connectors

– Based on core aligned concept.
(c) OCN Connectors

– Based on Precision Ferrule Concept.
(d) The FC, D3 and D4 connectors

The connectors are primarily precision plug connectors, which are being used
in JAPAN. These connectors have notches and pin arrangement to maintain angular
alignment for a repeatable insertion loss performance.
The FC type of connector has been approved by the NITC, Japan and is
similar in construction to D4 connector. D3 connector is slightly bigger in dimensions.
These connectors consist primarily of precision plugs and coupler body. The
fibres are fixed in the plugs and the plug ends polished. The fixing of plug to the
coupler through screw on top or BNC arrangement is also available.
(e) Precision moulded connectors

These connectors are exactly similar in construction to FC, D3 etc. (metal
type of connectors), but made of plastic and are light weight, easy to handle and
interchangeable.
(f) Philips connector

These are core centred connectors used by M/s Philips, Holland.

(g) Bare fibre adaptors

These are primarily optical connectors in which the fibre can be fixed in
measurements purpose and removed after the measurement is over. The connector
uses mechanical force for holding the fibre in the connector. The fibre can be
released by release of the mechanical pressure.
Couplers
Fibre Optics couplers are multiport devices used for interconnection of more
than two fibres for connection, like bi–directional transmission or interconnection of
several optical transmitters and receivers in bus structure.
Types of couplers
Structurally couplers may be listed under two categories :
(i) End fibre couplers
(ii) Evanescent – Field couplers.
Fig.
End Fibre Coupler
Fig.
Evanescent Field Coupler
End fibre couplers require the fibres to be aligned in a butt configuration.
The Evanscent field coupler, however, transfer light from one fibre to others
laterally through cladding.

Functionally couplers may be divided again into two categories :

(i) Wavelength independent couplers, and
(ii) Wavelength dependent couplers.
First type of couplers is applicable to all wavelengths of transmission

simultaneously, whereas the second type of coupler may have wavelength sensitive
ports. Wavelength independent couplers may be used with various systems, whereas
wavelength dependent couplers are used for wavelength division multiplex
applications.
Splices
Splices are permanent connection between two fibres. The splicing involves
cutting of the edges of the two fibres to be spliced.
Splicing Methods
Single–Fibre Mechanical Splicing
– Single Fibre Capillary
– Aligns two fibre ends to a common centerline, thereby aligning
cores.
– Clean, cleaved fibres are butted together and index matched.
– Permanently secured with epoxy or adhesive.
Examples : Siecor, See Splice GTE Elastomeric Splice.
Splice Location
Uncosted Costed
Fibre Fibre
Fig.
SeeSplice Mechanical Splice

Splicing Methods
The following three types are widely used :
1. Adhesive bonding or Glue splicing.
2. Mechanical splicing.
3. Fusion splicing.
1. Adhesive Bonding or Glue Splicing

This is the oldest splicing technique used in fibre splicing. After fibre end
preparation, it is axially aligned in a precision V–groove. Cylindrical rods or another
kind of reference surfaces are used for alignment. During the alignment of fibre end,
a small amount of adhesive or glue of same refractive index as the core material is
set between and around the fibre ends. A two component epoxy or an UV curable
adhesive is used as the bonding agent. The splice loss of this type of joint is same or
less than fusion splices. But fusion splicing technique is more reliable, so at present
this technique is very rarely used.
2. Mechanical Splicing
This technique is mainly used for temporary splicing in case of emergency
repairing. This method is also convenient to connect measuring instruments to bare
fibres for taking various measurements.
The mechanical splices consist of 4 basic components :

(i) An alignment surface for mating fibre ends.
(ii) A retainer
(iii) An index matching material.
(iv) A protective housing
A very good mechanical splice for M.M. fibres can have an optical
performance as good as fusion spliced fibre or glue spliced. But in case of single
mode fibre, this type of splice cannot have stability of loss.

3. Fusion Splicing
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The fusion can be achieved either through electrical
arc or through gas flame.
The process involves cutting of the fibres and fixing them in micro–positioners
on the fusion splicing machine. The fibres are then aligned either manually or
automatically core aligning (in case of S.M. fibre) process. Afterwards the operation
that takes place involve withdrawal of the fibres to a specified distance, preheating of
the fibre ends through electric arc and bringing together of the fibre ends in a position
and splicing through high temperature fusion.
If proper care taken and splicing is done strictly as per schedule, then the
splicing loss can be minimized as low as 0.01 dB/joint. After fusion splicing, the
splicing joint should be provided with a proper protector to have following protections:
(a) Mechanical protection
(b) Protection from moisture.
Sometimes the two types of protection are combined. Coating with Epoxy
resins protects against moisture and also provides mechanical strength at the joint.
Now–a–days, the heat shrinkable tubes are most widely used, which are fixed
on the joints by the fusion tools.
The fusion splicing technique is the most popular technique used for
achieving very low splice losses. The introduction of single mode optical fibre for use
in long haul network brought with it fibre construction and cable design different from
those of multimode fibres.
The splicing machines imported by D.O.T. begins to the core profile alignment
system, the main functions of which are :
(1) Auto active alignment of the core.
(2) Auto arc fusion.
(3) Video display of the entire process.
(4) Indication of the estimated splice loss.

The two fibres ends to be spliced are cleaved and then clamped in accurately
machined vee–grooves. When the optimum alignment is achieved, the fibres are
fused under the microprocessor contorl, the machine then measures the radial and
angular off–sets of the fibres and uses these figures to calculate a splice loss. The
operation of the machine observes the alignment and fusion processes on a video
screens showing horizontal and vertical projection of the fibres and then decides the
quality of the splice.
The splice loss indicated by the splicing machine should not be taken as a
final value as it is only an estimated loss and so after every splicing is over, the splice
loss measurement is to be taken by an OTDR (Optical Time Domain Reflectometer).
The manual part of the splicing is cleaning and cleaving the fibres. For
cleaning the fibres, Dichlorine Methyl or Acetone or Alcohol is used to remove
primary coating.
With the special fibre cleaver or cutter, the cleaned fibre is cut. The cut has to
be so precise that it produces an end angle of less than 0.5 degree on a prepared
fibre. If the cut is bad, the splicing loss will increase or machine will not accept for
splicing. The shape of the cut can be monitored on the video screen, some of the
defect noted while cleaving are listed below :
(i) Broken ends.
(ii) Ripped ends.
(iii) Slanting cuts.
(iv) Unclean ends.
It is also desirable to limit the average splice loss to be less than 0.1 dB.

Comparative Merits and Demerits of Transmission Media
Microwave Copper Optical Fibre
+ Long repeaterless
+ Fast installation + Mature technology
distances
+ Point to multipoint + High bandwidth for
+ Enormous bandwidth
working coaxial
+ Unaffected by EMI, rain,
+ Best for difficult area + Easy to interconnect
fog
+ No rights – of – way + Unaffected by rain, fog + Highest signal security
+ Higher bandwidth than + Future expansion

– Heavy weight
copper possible
– Affected by EMI,
– Line of sight limitation + Small and light weight
thermal noise
– Up to 30 miles – Easy to tap – Difficult to joint/fuse
– Affected by rain, fog – Prone to theft – Point to point
– Rights – of – way
– Large capital outlays – Point to point
required
– Less bandwidth than
– Interception possible
fibre
– Rights – of –way
– Signal delay
required
– Less bandwidth than
fibre
– 7 to 8 years lifetime
1. Optical Fibre Cable Deployed in DOT

(a) Cable Specification
(i) No of Fibres 6 Fibres, 12 Fibres, 24 Fibres, 48 Fibres
(ii) Tensile Strength 9.8 x W x 1.3 Newtons (where W = weight of
one km o cable in kgs.)
(iii) Minimum bending radius 20 D (20 x 15 mm = 300 mm/30 cm)
where D = Diameter of cable.
(iv) Temperature range o o
Operation – 10 C to 55 C
o o
Storage – 30 C to 55 C
(v) Supply Length 2 km on a drum.
(vi) Over all diameter of cable 16 mm nominal

(b) Fibre Specifications

(i) Type of Fibre Single Mode Optical Fibre
(ii) Nominal mode field diameter 8.8 + 0.7 mm
(iii) Nominal cladding diameter 125 + 2 mm
(iv) Cladding non–circularity < 2%
(v) Cutt off wavelength 1150 to 1350 nm
(vi) Attenuation < 0.50 db/km at 1300 nm
(vii) Dispersion < 3.5 PS/nm km (1285–1330 nm)
(viii) Diameter over primary coating 250 + 15 mm
(c) Application
(i) Long distance and junction network
(ii) Data Links like Internet, Fax, etc.
(iii) Telemetry
(iv) Short span aerial application on existing open air
alignment network.
(v) Hot Lines/Dedicated circuits
2. Manufacturers of Optical Fibre Cable

(i) OPTEL, Bhopal.
(ii) Sterlite, Pune.
(iii) Plassmac, Ahmednagar.
(iv) Birla Ericsson, Rewa.
(v) Aksh, Gurgaon.
(vi) Uniflex
(vii) Bhilai Wire Ltd., Durg.
(viii) HCL, Bangalore.
(ix) Siecore, USA
3. Types of Optical Fibre System

(i) PDH
(ii) SDH
Future Trends
(a) Use of Optical Amplifier – The best–developed optical amplifiers are
Erbium doped fibre amplifier (EDFA) which operate at 1550 nm and
praseodymium doped fibre amplifiers operating at 1300 nm.
(b) Use of dispersion shifted fibre (DS FIBRE).
(c) Use of passive optical components (PON).
(d) Waveguide Division Multiplexing of Optical Signal (WDM).

Optical Fibre Cable

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J.T.O.

(Phase I) : Fundamentals of Transmission

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 272

INTRODUCTION TO OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATIONS

Simple optical communication systems such as blinker lights for ship–to–ship

A major breakthrough leading to high capacity optical communications was

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 273

BASIC FIBRE OPTIC LINK

A basic communications system consisting of a transmitter, a receiver and an

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 274

Information Transmission Sequence

(i) Electronic interfaces.

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 275

(a) Detector [PIN photodiode/APD (Avalanchee photodiode)]

Advantages of Fibre Optics

(i) Optical Fibres are non conductive (Dielectric)

(ii) Electromagnetic immunity

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 276

(iii) Large Bandwidth (> 50 GHz for 1 km length)

(iv) Low Loss (5 dB/km to < 0.25 dB/km typical)

(v) Small, light weight cables

(vi) Available in Long lengths (> 12 kms)

(viii) Security – Being a dielectric

(ix) Universal medium

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 277

Applications of Fibre Optics in Communications

Fibre themselves have exceedingly small diameters. Figure shows cross

Core (m) Cladding (m)

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 278

By this classification, there are three types of fibres :

(i) Multimode Step Index Fibre (Step Index Fibre).

(ii) Multimode Graded Index Fibre (Graded Index Fibre).

(iii) Single–mode Step Index Fibre (Single Mode Fibre).

(i) Step Index Multimode Fibre

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 F

(ii) Graded Index Multi–mode Fibre

The graded index reduces model dispersing to 1 ns/km or less.

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 280

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 281

(iii) Singe Mode Fibre

As optical energy in a single mode fibre travels in the cladding as well as in

Optical Fibre Parameters

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 282

Basic Fibre Construction

Fibre Optic – Cable being used in India

Construction of the Optical Fibre

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 283

Nominal diameter of core is 9 m and of cladding is 125 m in Siecor optical

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 284

The cable buffer tube is one of two types :

2.4 Fibre Optic Construction Specifications

Secondary coating – Nominal 2.4 mm loose dual layered

Central member – Solid GRP non–metallic in the centre of

Core – Loose buffer tubes and fillers stranded

Buffer tube filling compound – Paraffin gel inside tube

Interstitial filling compound – Petroleum gel filled areas between the

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 285

Colour Identification Scheme

Filler – Nominal 2.4 mm natural coloured solid

Core Wrap – Continuous layer of non hygroscopic

Outer Nylon sheath – Not less than 0.7 mm thick Nylon

Fibre Optic Cable Optical Performance

BRBRAITT / MAY – 2002 286