Lesson I: Topic 1-Introduction to Ethics

A.  Basic Definition of Philosophy

The Greek scholar, Pythagoras (c. 580-497 B.C.), coined the term philosophy and
came up with the term into two Greek words “philein meaning love or friendship
and sophia meaning wisdom” (Babor, E., 2001).   The literal definition of
philosophy is therefore, “love of wisdom” (Zulueta, 2010).   According to Babor,
love is an urge, or a drive of the will towards a particular object.   As a drive, love
always seeks unity with its object, and it desires to possess its object. And wisdom
means the good exercise or application of knowledge (Babor, E., 2001)..  Hence,
loving and seeking wisdom require the individual to be intimately passionate,
responsible of his/her reflections or actions, and must enjoy what he/she does.

Philosophy is also understood in the context of the Cagayanos’ term siribayat.  This Itawit indigenous vernacular term
signifies love of wisdom.  The term siribâyat is a fusion of two words “sirib,” which means wisdom, and “ayat,” love. 
Etymologically, sirib means an active peering through reality.  And “ayat” adds a personal note to the passion to go
beyond what one has already previously seen or understood (Siribâyat, 2013).   Hence, to be wise or siriban means to be
keen towards reality, that is, allowing the “panono” (the Itawit term for “reflection) to extend its capacity to unveil and
rediscover the true meaning of a reality.   In the struggle to rediscover the true meaning of an experience, the lover of
wisdom should be responsible to understand reality practically in a significant way, not just theoretically.

Philosophy is a search for meaning and truth.

The kind of search related to philosophy is more intense than that of the ordinary kind of search.  This
seeking, looking, and finding wisdom and truth is a passionate search where we surrender ourselves into
it.  That’s why searching for meaning is a personal act.  But what distinguishes a philosophical search
from an ordinary search is through the emphasis of the three elements:

1. The object of the search is of real value to the subject. In philosophy, broadly speaking, “object”
refers to a thing, “subject” refers to the person philosophizing (Cruz, C.,2004). Meaning, the
object of our experience or investigation must be within our interest and concern like a student
taking a course that he is passionate about.

2. It “consumes” the whole person- his attention, concentration, interest, effort (Cruz, C.,2004).
Meaning, a person becomes part of the object of investigation, thus, leading oneself into
submission towards the goal. To quote Cruz, he said that “A philosopher can hardly afford
distractions as he goes on his ‘search’.”  He observes, reads, reflects, writes on what to him is
the most important aspect in his life (Cruz, C.,2004). 

3. It is continued without let-up until (a) the answer is found or (b) the answer is not yet found, but
the conviction is reached that for the moment at least this is the best possible although still
imperfect answer (Cruz, C., 2004). Meaning, a person must not give up into something he seeks
for and must not surrender until the problem is solved. It is like the common notion of saying: 
Try and try until you succeed.  A human person is considered to be a homo viator (traveler).  As
a traveler, along the way, despair, frustrations and problems are always expected.  But
philosophy tells us that one must be challenged of it and must never surrender himself in
searching for meaning.
 The attainment of truth cannot be the goal of philosophy and “the search for truth, not the possession
of it, is the true aim of philosophy” (John-Terry, C., 1994).  What really matters for philosophical search
is not to focus oneself towards the result or end, but rather on the process of searching.   The journey,
not the destination, is what matters. 

Philosophy is also defined as the science that by natural light of reason studies the first causes or
highest principles of all things (Ramos, C.C., 2010).

            Philosophy, as science, is an organized body of knowledge that involves a systematic investigation
of a reality through the natural capacity of man to think (light of reason).  The endeavor of
understanding the prima causa of everything is not purely experimental nor it has a divine intervention,
but rather it is purely an experience of the self to the life-world.

 B.  Main Branches of Philosophy

1. What is Metaphysics?

According to Timbreza, metaphysics “is the study of being

in its general aspect.” (Timbreza, F., 2005).  The term
Anything that we can think about that has an active
“being” refers to the realities that we see and don’t see. 
participation in the ESSENCE of beings is the concern of
To make simple to understand, it is the study of realities in
metaphysics. It has sub-topics like teleology, ontology,
life.
theodicy, psychology and cosmology
It deals with human reality and system of human thought
 
that seeks to explain the fundamental concepts of man
(Cruz, C.,2004)  
 

2. What is Epistemology?

Epistemology (from the Greek word episteme

“knowledge”) is a philosophical theory that deals with the
truth-value of human knowledge.  It asks the question: “is
it possible to know?  Can man ever know anything?  Is it
possible to attain certain knowledge?  Where does
knowledge come from? (Timbreza, F., 2005). This branch of philosophy deals with all the aspects
concering the nature of knowledge.  Epistemology has sub-
The branch of philosophy that investigates the nature, divisions like agnosticism, skepticism, a posteriori and a
sources, limitations, and validity of knowledge priori. 
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).

It concerns the nature and scope of knowledge. It asks the

question “what does it mean to know (the truth), and what
is the nature of truth? What sort of things can be known? 
Is there knowledge beyond the reach of science and what
are the limits of self-knowledge? (Articulo, A., 2008)

3. What is Logic? This branch of philosophy focuses on developing the mind

to be critical and logical.  Logic is divided into sub-topics
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to
distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning
(Copi and Cohen, I. & C., 1998).

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to

distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.  Logic does namely: Induction, Deduction, Syllogism, and Dialectic.
not only help us adequately to interpret facts and other
people’s perceptions or views, it also develops in us the
habit of clear and critical thinking (Timbreza, F., 2005).

Ethics is also called moral philosophy which tries to

4. What is Ethics?
Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on
reason, which studies human acts and provides norms for
their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005)..
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores the nature
of moral virtue and evaluates human actions
(Ramos, C.C., 2010).  themselves.
It studies on the morality (goodness or badness) of human
actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).
Ethics takes up the meanings of our moral concepts- such
as right action, obligation and justice- and formulates
principles to guide moral decisions, whether in private or
public life (Articulo, A., 2008).
understand the goodness and badness of a human act.
Ethics is divided into three general subject areas namely:
metaethics, normative ethics and applied ethics.
Metaethics investigates where our ethical principles come
from, and what they mean.  It focuses on the issues of
universal truths, the will of God, the role of reason in
ethical judgments, and the meaning of ethical terms
Normative ethics is concerned with the criteria of what is
morally right and wrong.  It includes the formulation of
moral rules that have direct implications for what human
actions, institutions, and ways of life should be like.
Applied ethics refers to the practical application of moral
considerations.  It is ethics with respect to real-world
actions and their moral considerations in the areas of
private and public life, the professions, health, technology,
law, and leadership.

C.  Definition of Ethics

Etymological meaning

The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethikos which itself is derived from
the Greek word ethos,  meaning custom or character.  In philosophy, ethical
behavior is that which is “good.”  The field of ethics or moral philosophy involves
developing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior. 
These concepts do not change as one’s desires and motivations change.  They are
not relative to the situation.  They are immutable. (Mintz, S., 2010)

Functional Definition

Ethics is a practical and normative science, based on reason, which studies human acts and provides
norms for their goodness or badness (Timbreza, F., 2005).  Ethics is the branch of philosophy that
explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human actions (Ramos, C.C., 2010).  It studies on the
morality (goodness or badness) of human actions (Conduct) (Cruz, C.,2004).  Ethics takes up the
meanings of our moral concepts- such as right action, obligation and justice- and formulates principles
to guide moral decisions, whether in private or public life (Articulo, A., 2008).  

Ethics as the ‘general inquiry into what is good’ poses some questions concerning what sort of actions
can bind humans. What constitutes ‘good’ or what is an unacceptable action in a given situation is
tantamount in saying that the subject matter of Ethics is essential. Teaching Ethics in College Education
as a New General Education Core Course under the New Curriculum explores some of the important
theories on the constitution of what is an ethical action, acceptable and binding in all societies which call
for impartiality in decision making (CMO 20 S 2013).

In a general sense, ethics (or moral philosophy) addresses fundamental questions such as: How should I
live my life? That question leads to others such as: What sort of person should I strive to be? What
values are important? What standards or principles should I live by? There are various ways to define
“ethics.”  The simplest may be is to say that ethics deals with “right” and “wrong.”  However, it is diffi-
cult to judge what may be right or wrong in a particular situation without some frame of
reference (Mintz, S., 2010).

The Material Object of Ethics (What does Ethics study?)

- The Human Act/Action

What are other things that we can moralize or we can judge if they are good or bad?

- Custom, cultures, traditions, and other practices of a certain community or society.

The Formal Object of Ethics (What does Ethics want to see in Human Acts?)

- The goodness or badness of the human act.

The material object or the subject matter of Ethics poses some questions in relation to answering moral
judgment, like ‘What is our criteria or standard of morality'?, 'What can account actions as ‘good’ and
‘right’ or ‘good’ as ‘pleasurable’ or ‘pleasurable’ as ‘good actions’?, 'Who has the right to determine
what is moral or ethical'?, 'With regard the applicability of an action, when can we consider it as good or
moral?, and the like.

So if Ethics is a branch of Philosophy, how did it find out the norms which it uses to judge if the action of
a certain person is good or bad?  It is based purely on thinking, reflecting, and reasoning on the different
moral standards to be used.

Society’s morality calls for a standard which serves as a ‘guiding principle’ of all actions which answers
the question of what is ‘good’ and ‘right’ or ‘bad’ and ‘unacceptable’. Actions are good or acceptable
when they satisfy the standards or ethical codes of a society while they are unacceptable when they fail
to follow its principles.  We call these principles, codes or standards as moral standards.

Standards of Behavior

Ethics must be based on accepted standards of behavior.  For example, in virtually all societies and
cultures it is wrong to kill someone or steal property from someone else.  These standards have
developed over time and come from a variety of sources including:
  The influence of religious writing and interpretations.
(B) The influence of philosophical thought.
(C) The influence of community (societal) values. (Mintz, S., 2010)

Norms, Values, and the Law

Ethics deals with well-based standards of how people ought to act.  Ethics does not describe the way
people do act.  It deals with the way people should act. Ethical people always strive to make the right
decision in all circumstances.  They do not rationalize their actions based on their own perceived self-
interests.  Ethical decision-making entails following certain well established norms of behavior. The best
way to understand ethics may be to differentiate it from other concepts.(Mintz, S., 2010)

Values are basic and fundamental beliefs that guide or motivate attitudes or actions. Values are
concerned with how a person will behave in certain situations whereas ethics is concerned with how a
moral person should behave.  A person who values prestige, power, and wealth is likely to act out of
self-interest whereas a person who values honesty, integrity and trust will typically act in the best
interests of others.  It does not follow that acting in the best interests of others precludes acting in one’s
own self-interest.  Indeed, the Golden Rule prescribes that we should treat others the way we want to
be treated. (Mintz, S., 2010)