Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Nurse Licensure Examination Review 1. _____________ acute chest pain that occurs when
myocardial demand exceeds its oxygen supply
Medical-Surgical Nursing / Pediatric Nursing / Nursing 2. _____________ (aortic insufficiency) incompetent aortic
Pharmacology / Nursing Assessment valve that allows backward flow of blood into
left ventricle during diastole
MS Lecture 2: Cardiovascular Assessment and Disorders 3. _________________ of aortic valve cusps that restricts
forward flow of blood during systole
Dennis N. Muñoz, RN, RM, LPT, MS 4. _____________ the left semilunar valve separating the
left ventricle and the aorta
Cardiovascular Physical Examination 5. _____________ tip of the heart pointing down towards
Pre-Test the 5th left intercostal space
1. What is located at the right and left 2nd intercostal 6. _____________ (point of maximal impulse, PMI)
spaces next to the sternum? pulsation created as the left ventricle rotates against the
a. “Base of the heart” chest wall during systole, normally at the __________
b. Apex of the heart space in the midclavicular line (7 to 9 cm from the
c. Pulmonary vein midsternal line on the left side)
d. Aortic valve 7. _____________ ability of the heart to contract by itself,
2. When a patient is obese or has a thick chest wall, what is independent of any signals or stimulation from the body;
difficult to palpate? contracts in response to an electrical current conveyed by
a. Thrill its conduction system
b. Apical impulse 8. Base of the heart broader area of heart’s outline located
c. Grade 4 murmur at _____________ and ________________ space
d. Sternal angle 9. Bell (of the stethoscope) cup-shaped endpiece used for
3. What is the normal peak pressure of the left ventricle? soft, __________ heart sounds
a. 90 mm Hg 10. Bradycardia slow heart rate, ______________ in the
b. 100 mm Hg adult
c. 110 mm Hg 11. _____________ a blowing, swishing sound indicating
d. 120 mm Hg blood flow turbulence, normally not present; indicates
4. A 78-year-old male Hispanic patient is noted to have a turbulence due to a local vascular cause, such as
pathologic change in ventricular compliance. What atherosclerotic narrowing
information from the cardiac assessment would indicate 12. _____________ equals the volume of blood in each
this? systole (called the stroke volume (SV)) times the number
a. A split S2 of beats per minute (heart rate (HR)); CO is usually
b. An S3 gallop between 4 and 6 L of blood per minute
c. A delayed S3 13. Clubbing bulbous enlargement of distal phalanges of
d. A weak S4 fingers and toes that occurs with ________________,
5. What are the components of S1? (Mark all that apply.) ______________ and ___________ conditions
a. An earlier aortic sound 14. ________________ severe narrowing of the descending
b. An earlier mitral sound aorta, a congenital heart defect
c. A later pulmonic sound 15. Cyanosis dusky blue mottling of the skin and mucous
d. A later tricuspid sound membranes due to excessive amount of reduced
e. An earlier tricuspid sound hemoglobin in the blood
6. Your patient asks you what the small P wave on her ECG 16. Diaphragm (of the stethoscope) flat endpiece of the
indicates. What would you answer? stethoscope used for hearing relatively ______________
a. Atrial depolarization heart sounds
b. Ventricular depolarization 17. __________________ relax and fill with blood, i.e. the
c. Atrial repolarization heart’s filling phase; it takes up two thirds of the cardiac
d. Ventricular repolarization cycle
7. What term is used to describe the degree of vascular 18. _______________ vascular connection between the
resistance to ventricular contraction? pulmonary artery and the aorta in the fetus shunting one-
a. Contractile overload third of the blood to bypass the lungs prior to birth;
b. Volume overload normally closes 10 to 15 hours after birth
c. Preload 19. __________________ difficult, labored breathing
d. Afterload 20. _______________ the thin layer of endothelial tissue that
8. When, in the cardiac cycle, does blood pressure peak? lines the inner surface of the heart chambers and valves
a. Preload 21. First heart sound (S1) occurs with closure of the
b. Systole _________________ valves signaling the beginning of
c. Diastole systole
d. Afterload 22. __________________ an opening in the atrial septum
9. Over a 24-hour period there is a striking variation in blood into the left side of the heart in the fetus to allow
pressure levels. What can cause these variations? (Mark approximately two-thirds of the blood to bypass the lungs
all that apply.) prior to birth; normally closes within the first hour of birth
a. Time of day 23. Fourth heart sound (S4) (S4 gallop; atrial gallop) very
b. Sugar ingestion soft, ______________, ventricular filling sound that
c. Size of meals occurs in late diastole
d. Noise 24. Gallop rhythm the addition of a ____________ sound
e. Environmental temperature makes the rhythm sound like the cadence of a galloping
10. What do the oscillations in the internal jugular veins horse
reflect? 25. ________________ increase in thickness of myocardial
a. Changing pressures within the right atrium wall that occurs when the heart pumps against chronic
b. Changing pressures within the left atrium outflow obstruction, e.g. ______________
c. Changing pressures within the right ventricle 26. _________________ of the heart and the great vessels
d. Changing pressures within the left ventricle between the lungs in the middle third of the thoracic cage
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27. _______________ imaginary vertical line bisecting the 4. Chest wall tenderness and pain on inspiration is
middle of the clavicle in each hemithorax suggestive of _________________.
28. _______________ incompetent mitral valve allows 5. Chest pain that is relieved by leaning forward and
regurgitation of blood back into left atrium during systole aggravated by lying down suggests pericarditis.
29. _______________ calcified mitral valve impedes forward 6. Sudden onset of chest pain accompanied by dyspnea is
flow of blood into left ventricle during diastole suggestive of pulmonary emboli or pneumothorax.
30. _______________ left AV valve separating the left atria 7. Dissecting aortic aneurysm is likely in the hypertensive
and ventricle patient who complains of a sudden onset of tearing,
31. _______________ a gentle, blowing, swooshing sound ripping pain.
that can be heard on the chest wall 8. If the patient reports chest pain while eating, this
32. _______________ the muscular layer of the heart suggests angina or esophageal spasm or biliary
33. _______________ swelling of legs or dependent body (cholecystitis)pancreatic (pancreatitis), or gastric disease
part due to increased interstitial fluid (gastroesophageal reflux disease or ulcers).
34. _______________ uncomfortable awareness of rapid or 9. A panic attack may imitate a heart attack but is more
irregular heart rate common in younger individuals and in women more than
35. _______________ rub high-pitched scratchy extracardiac in men.
sound heard when the precordium is inflamed
36. Pericardium a tough, fibrous, double-walled sac that Shortness of Breath (Dyspnea)
surrounds and protects the heart; has two layers that
contain 10–30 mL of serous pericardial fluid ensuring Determine the type of dyspnea.
smooth, friction-free movement of the heart muscle; is 1. __________________ on moderate exertion that is
adherent to the great vessels, esophagus, sternum and relieved by rest.
pleurae and is anchored to the diaphragm 2. ___________________—sudden dyspnea at night;
37. ________________ area of the anterior chest wall awakens patient with feeling of suffocation; sitting up
overlying the heart and great vessels relieves breathlessness.
38. ________________ backflow of blood through 3. ___________________—shortness of breath when
incompetent pulmonic valve into the right ventricle lying down. Patient must keep head elevated with
39. ________________calcification of pulmonic valve that more than one pillow to minimize dyspnea.
restricts forward flow of blood during systole
40. ________________ right semilunar valve separating the Significance
right ventricle and pulmonary artery 1. ____________ dyspnea occurs as a result of an elevated
41. ________________ occurs with closure of the semilunar pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) due to left ventricular
valves, aortic and pulmonic, and signals the end of dysfunction.
systole 2. _____________ (nocturnal) dyspnea, also known as
42. ________________ abnormal mid-diastolic heart sound cardiac asthma, is precipitated by stimuli that aggravate
heard when both the pathological S3 and S4 sounds are previously existing pulmonary congestion, resulting in
present shortness of breath that generally occurs at night and
43. ________________ temporary loss of consciousness usually awakens the patient.
due to decreased cerebral blood flow (fainting), caused 3. _____________ (dyspnea in the supine position) is
by ventricular asystole, pronounced bradycardia, carotid caused by alterations in gravitational forces resulting in
sinus sensitivity or ventricular fibrillation an elevation in pulmonary venous pressure and PAP.
44. ________________ the heart contracts, i.e. the heart’s These, in turn, increase the pulmonary closing volume
pumping phase, when blood is pumped from the and reduce vital capacity. Orthopnea indicates advanced
ventricles and fills the pulmonary and systemic arteries; it heart failure.
is one-third of the cardiac cycle
45. ________________ rapid heart rate, >100 beats per NURSING ALERT Patients with cardiac dyspnea tend to take
minute in the adult short, shallow breaths and patients with pulmonary dyspnea
46. ________________ (S3) soft, low-pitched, ventricular will likely breath slower and deeper.
filling sound that occurs in early diastole (S3 gallop,
ventricular gallop) and may be an early sign of heart Palpitations
failure
47. _________________ palpable vibration on the chest wall 1. ____________, ___________, ___________ sensations
overlying an area of turbulence caused by a valvular occur in the chest due to a change in the patient’s heart
defect or abnormal communication between the atria or rate or rhythm or an increase in the force of its
ventricles contraction.
48. _________________ right AV valve separating the right 2. Palpitations can occur as a result of ______________ as
atria and ventricle well as many other __________ and _______________
conditions.
Chest Pain 3. Palpitations can be a manifestation of ____________ and
panic disorders.
Significance 4. Palpitations are most significant if _________ and
1. _______________ caused by an increase in demand for difficulty breathing occur simultaneously.
coronary blood flow and oxygen delivery, which exceeds 5. Palpitations that have a gradual onset and terminate in a
available blood supply; may result from coronary artery pounding heartbeat may indicate ____________.
disease (CAD) or a decreased supply without an 6. Palpitations may be caused by noncardiac causes, such
increased demand due to coronary artery spasm or as ___________, ______________, ______________,
thrombus. and ____________.
2. Pain that is brought on by exertion and relieved by _____ 7. Certain substances, such as tobacco, coffee, tea, and
suggests __________ or _____________. Psychogenic alcohol, as well as certain drugs, including epinephrine,
pain differs from angina in that it is usually associated ephedrine, aminophylline, and atropine, may also
with other symptoms, such as _________, ___________, precipitate arrhythmias and palpitations.
____________, and _____________. Angina is usually
caused by three Es: exercise, emotion, and eating.
3. Chest pain that worsens on deep inspiration or cough is
suggestive of pleural, pericardial, or chest wall type pain.
2
Weakness and Fatigue minute) when rising from a supine to sitting or standing
Significance position.
2. Autonomic compensatory factors for upright posture are
1. __________ can be produced by low _____________ inadequate due to ___________; __________; drugs,
due to right- or left-sided heart failure. The heart can’t such as _______________- or _____________; or
provide sufficient blood to meet the neurologic disease; prompt hypotension occurs with
___________metabolic needs of cells. assumption of the upright position.
2. As heart disease advances, fatigue is precipitated by less Drug Name Mechanism Effects Clinical
of Action Applications
effort. Phenoxybenz Nonselective Lowers blood Pheochrom
3. ______________ or tiring of the legs may be caused by amine covalent pressure by ocytoma
peripheral arterial or venous disease. binding to decreasing Excess cat
4. Weakness and tiredness may be related to electrolyte α1 and peripheral echolamine rele
α2 receptors. resistance. ase
imbalances, such as ____________, _____________, Irreversibly Blocks alpha
______________, ______________, _____________, binds. induced
______________, and ________________. vasconstriction
5. Other disorders, such as chronic fatigue syndrome, .
Phentolamine Competitive Reversal of Pheochrom
multiple sclerosis, fibromyalgia, influenza, and Lyme blocking of epinephrine ocytoma
disease, may also cause weakness and fatigue. α1 and induced
α2 receptors. effects.
4 hours of Lowers blood
Dizziness and Syncope action after pressure by
Significance initial decreasing
administratio peripheral
n. resistance.
1. Patients who experience anxiety attacks and
Prazosin Competitive Lowers blood Hypertensi
hyperventilation syndrome frequently experience blocking of pressure. on
faintness and dizziness. α1 receptor Benign
2. Patients who suffer repeated bouts of _______________ prostatic
may be experiencing seizures rather than syncope. hyperplasia (BP
H)
3. Syncope can be a result of __________, __________, or
Posttrauma
_________________. tic stress
4. _________________ (vasodepressor or disorder (PTSD)
neurocardiogenic) syncope can be precipitated by a hot Doxazosin Competitive Lowers blood Hypertensi
or crowded environment, alcohol, extreme fatigue, severe blocking of pressure. on
α1 receptor. Benign
pain, hunger, prolonged standing, and emotional or prostatic
stressful situations. Vasovagal syncope is caused by hyperplasia
temporary slowing of the heart and reduction of brain Terazosin Competitive Lowers blood Hypertensi
perfusion. blocking of pressure. on
α1 receptor Benign
5. _________________, another cause of dizziness, occurs
prostatic
when the patient stands up suddenly. hyperplasia
6. _________________ results from a sudden reduction in (BPH)
CO due to bradyarrhythmia and/or tachyarrhythmias. Tamsulosin A blocker Relaxation of Benign
7. _________________ such as carotid stenosis can cause that has prostatic prostatic
slight smooth hyperplasia
dizziness and syncope due to reduced cerebral blood selectivity for muscle.
flow. α1 receptors.
Yohimbine Blocks Raises blood Sexual
α2 receptor, pressure and stimulation
and heart rate. Male
Monitor blood pressure. increases erectile
norepinephri dysfunction
1. Blood pressure can be measured indirectly using a ne release, Hypotensio
sphygmomanometer and a stethoscope, electronic thus n
increasing
devices (dynamo), or directly by way of an arterial CNS activity.
catheter. Labetalol Blocks some Lowers blood Hypertensi
2. Avoid taking blood pressure in an arm with an α1 receptor pressure, on
atriovenous shunt or fistula or on the same side as a activity, but increases
binds more heart rate
mastectomy site or any type of lymphedema. strongly to β slightly.
3. If possible, take pressure in both arms and note receptors.
differences (5 to 10 mm Hg difference is normal). Carvedilol Blocks some Can interfere Congestive
Differences of more than 10 mm Hg may indicate α1 receptor with heart
activity, but noradrenergic failure(CHF)
subclavian steal syndrome or dissecting aortic aneurysm. binds more mechanisms.
4. Determine pulse pressure (systolic pressure minus strongly to β
diastolic pressure), which reflects stroke volume, ejection receptors.
velocity, and systemic resistance, and is a noninvasive
indicator of CO (30 to 40 mm Hg, normal; less than 30 Nonselective agents
mm Hg, decreased CO). Nonselective beta blockers display both β1 and β2 antagonism.
5. Note presence of pulsus alternans—loud sounds Propranolol
alternate with soft sounds with each auscultatory beat Bucindolol (has additional α1-blocking activity)
(hallmark of left-sided heart failure). Carteolol
6. Note presence of pulsus paradoxus—abnormal fall in Carvedilol (has additional α1-blocking activity)
Labetalol (has additional α1-blocking activity)
blood pressure more than 10 mm Hg during inspirations
Nadolol
(cardinal sign of cardiac tamponade).
Oxprenolol (has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity)
Penbutolol (has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity)
Assess for orthostatic hypotension. Pindolol (has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity)
Sotalol (not considered a "typical beta blocker")
1. ________________ occurs when a patient’s blood Timolol
pressure drops ____________ mm Hg or more (with or β1-selective agents
without an increase in heart rate of at least 20 beats /
3
β1-selective beta blockers are also known as cardioselective beta is considered abnormal when it exceeds 3% to 5%.
blockers.
Acebutolol (has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity, ISA)
3. Eventually, electrophoresis further breaks down CK-MB
Atenolol
into its isoforms or subforms (CK-MB1 and CK-MB2).
Betaxolol
Normally, the ratio of CK-MB2 to CK-MB1 is 1:1. In
Bisoprolol
myocardial injury, the CK-MB2/MB1 ratio increases to
Celiprolol (has intrinsic sympathomimetic activity)
Metoprolol
greater than 1.5 within 1 to 1½ hours. CK-MB isoforms
Nebivolol have 56% sensitivity for patients presenting within 4
Esmolol hours of the onset of symptoms.
β2-selective agents
Butaxamine 4. The troponin complex is located on the thin filament of
ICI-118,551 the contractile apparatus of striated and skeletal muscle
β3-selective agents and consists of three subunits: troponin C (TnC), troponin
SR 59230A T (TnT), and troponin I (TnI). In the presence of
β1 selective antagonist and β3 agonist agents myocardial damage, the troponin complex on the
Nebivolol myofibril breaks down and the subunits of troponin are
slowly released into the bloodstream.
3. Note changes in heart rate and blood pressure in at least a. __________ is not sensitive or specific for myocardial
two of three positions: lying, sitting, standing; allow at injury.
least 3 minutes between position changes before b. __________ has a sensitivity of approximately 50%
obtaining rate and pressure within 4 hours of the onset of chest pain, but
increases to approximately 75% sensitivity after 6
Skin hours of onset and approximately 100% sensitivity in
12 hours. However, its specificity for myocardial injury
1. Inspect nail beds for color, splinter hemorrhages, is lower.
clubbing, and capillary refill. c. __________ has been found to be the most sensitive
and specific for myocardial injury. It has little
a. Color—pale nail beds may be indicative of anemia, sensitivity within 4 hours of the onset of chest pain,
whereas cyanosis may be indicative of decreased but increases to 96% sensitivity after 6 hours of the
oxygenation. onset of symptoms.
b. Splinter hemorrhages are thin brown lines in nail bed
and are associated with endocarditis. Janeway NURSING ALERT Cardiac troponin has gained wide
lesions (nontender, small erythematous or acceptance as the biomarker of choice in the evaluation
hemorrhagic macular or nodular lesions on the palm of patients with ACS for diagnosis, risk stratification, and
and soles) is indicative of infective endocarditis. treatment selection.
c. Clubbing (swollen nail base and loss of normal angle)
is associated with chronic pulmonary or 5. Myoglobin is a small, oxygen-binding protein found in
cardiovascular disease. cardiac and skeletal muscles and is rapidly released into
d. Capillary refill indicates an estimate of the rate of the bloodstream. Myoglobin is sensitive very early after
peripheral blood low. injury, but has poor sensitivity over time and can generate
many false-positive results. When myoglobin levels are
2. Inspect and palpate for edema—if pitting edema, assessed with
describe degree of edema in terms of depth of pitting that
occurs with slight pressure: 6. CK-MB results, sensitivity increases ____________, but
1+ or _____— 0 to ¼ inch (0 to 0.6 cm) specificity can drop to as low as 81%.
2+ or ______—½ inch (1.3 cm)
3+ to 4+ or _______—¾ to 1 inch (2 to 2.5 cm) a) _________ is directly related to muscle mass and is
affected by age (levels increase with age), race
Laboratory Studies When myocardial tissue is damaged (blacks have higher levels), gender (women have
(eg, due to MI), cellular injury results in the release of higher levels), and physical activity.
intracellular enzymes and proteins (cardiac enzymes,
isoenzymes, and biochemical markers) into the bloodstream,
b) Myoglobins can be elevated in the presence of
which, in turn, causes elevated peripheral blood enzyme
reinfarction, skeletal muscle or neuromuscular
levels.
disorders, trauma, severe burns, electrical shock,
alcohol withdrawal delirium, metabolic disorders,
1. _________ (CK) has a ______ sensitivity for acute
systemic lupus erythematosus, strenuous exercise,
myocardial infarction (AMI) 72 hours after infarction. CK
renal failure, I.M. injections, cardiac bypass surgery,
is a catalyst for energy production and is found in brain,
seizures, and heart failure.
myocardium, and skeletal muscle. CK is sensitive but not
specific for myocardial injury.
Other Biochemical Markers
1. ________________ is a toxic by-product of the
2. CK isoenzymes are more specific than CK. Three CK
metabolism of the amino acid methionine into cysteine.
isoenzymes have been identified: CK-MM, CK-MB, and
Homocysteine exerts a direct cytotoxic effect on the
CK-BB, with only CK-MB related to the heart. The
endothelium of blood vessels by blocking the production
specificity of CK-MB is greater than 85% and in some
of nitrous oxide, resulting in decreased pliability of
cases as high as 100%, but false positives do occur. Two
vessels and development of atherosclerotic plaque.
types of CK-MB assays (CK-MB mass and CK-MB
Increased homocysteine levels ultimately result in
activity) are presently used.
atherosclerosis, CAD, MI, stroke, thromboembolism, and
a. CK-MB mass assays are found to be more sensitive
peripheral vascular disease.
than CK-MB activity assays.
a. _________________ (increased homocysteine
b. CK-MB mass increases about 3 hours after onset of
levels) are related to gender (male), advanced age,
chest pain, whereas CK-MB activity requires another hour
smoking, hypertension, elevated cholesterol,
to elevate.
decreased folate, decreased levels of vitamin B6 and
c. CK-MB index is the ratio of CK-MB to the total CK and
B12, and lack of exercise.
4
b. Homocysteine can also be elevated in the presence
of other diseases, drug use, and caffeine intake.
Underlying Considerations
Assessment of Cardiac Output Acute coronary syndromes (ACS) is a term used to define
potential complications of CAD. This syndrome includes
Signs of low CO include: unstable angina, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction
1. _____________________________________ (NSTEMI), and ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI).
2. _____________________________________ Pathophysiology and Etiology
3. _____________________________________
4. _____________________________________ 1. The most widely accepted cause of CAD is
5. _____________________________________ atherosclerosis
6. _____________________________________ 2. Angina pectoris, caused by inadequate blood flow to the
7. _____________________________________ myocardium, is the most common manifestation of CAD.
8. _____________________________________ a. Angina is usually precipitated by physical exertion or
emotional stress, which puts an increased demand
Central Venous Pressure Monitoring on the heart to circulate more blood and oxygen.
b. The ability of the coronary artery to deliver blood to
1. Refers to the measurement of right atrial pressure or the the myocardium is impaired because of obstruction
pressure of the great veins within the thorax (normal by a significant coronary lesion (70% narrowing of the
range: 5 to 10 cm H2O or 2 to 8 mm Hg). vessel).
a. _________________ cardiac function is assessed c. Angina can also occur in other cardiac problems,
through the evaluation of CVP. such as arterial spasm, aortic stenosis,
b. _________________ heart function is less accurately cardiomyopathy, or uncontrolled hypertension.
reflected by the evaluation of CVP, but may be useful d. Noncardiac causes include anemia, fever,
in assessing chronic right- and left-sided heart failure thyrotoxicosis, and anxiety/panic attacks.
and differentiating right and left ventricular infarctions
2. Purposes of CVP monitoring are to serve as a guide for 3. ACS is caused by a decrease in the oxygen available to
fluid replacement and to monitor pressures in the right the myocardium due to:
atrium and central veins. a. unstable or ruptured atherosclerotic plaque.
3. The CVP catheter can also be used: b. coronary vasospasm.
a. To obtain venous access when peripheral vein sites c. atherosclerotic obstruction without clot or vasospasm.
are inadequate. d. inflammation or infection.
b. To obtain central venous blood samples. e. unstable angina due to a noncardiac cause
c. To administer blood products, total parenteral f. thrombus formation with subsequent coronary artery
nutrition, and some drug therapies contraindicated for occlusion
peripheral infusion.
d. To insert a temporary pacemaker.
Risk factors for the development of CAD include:
1. Nonmodifiable: age (risk increases with age), male sex
(women typically suffer from heart disease 10 years later
than men due to the postmenopausal decrease in
cardiac-protective estrogen), race (nonwhite populations
have increased risk), and family history.
6
2. Modifiable: elevated lipid levels, hypertension, obesity, of acute anginal attacks or prophylaxis if taken before
tobacco use, metabolic syndrome (obesity, hypertension, activity.
and diabetes mellitus), sedentary lifestyle, stress. b) Long-acting nitrates prevent anginal episodes and/or
3. Recent studies have shown that there are new risk reduce severity and frequency of attacks.
factors associated with the development of D. These
include increased levels of homocysteine, fibrin, 2. ___________________—inhibit sympathetic stimulation
lipoprotein(a), and infection or inflammation (measured by of receptors that are in the conduction system of the heart
C-reactive protein [CRP]). and in heart muscle.
a) Some beta-adrenergic blockers inhibit sympathetic
Diagnostic Evaluation stimulation of receptors in the lungs as well as the
1. Characteristic chest pain and clinical history. heart (“nonselective” beta-adrenergic blockers);
2. _________________—relief of pain with nitroglycerin. vasoconstriction of the large airways in the lung
occurs; generally contraindicated for patients with
3. Blood tests. chronic obstructive lung disease or asthma.
a) Cardiac markers, creatine kinase (CK) and its b) “Cardioselective” beta-adrenergic blockers (in
isoenzyme CK-MB, and troponin-I to determine the recommended dose ranges) affect only the heart and
presence and severity if acute cardiac insult is can be used safely in patients with lung disease.
suspected.
b) HbA1C and fasting lipid panel to rule out modifiable 3. _____________________—inhibit movement of calcium
risk factors for CAD. within the heart muscle and coronary vessels; promote
c) Coagulation studies, CRP, homocysteine, and vasodilation and prevent/control coronary artery spasm.
lipoprotein(a) (increased levels are associated with a
twofold risk in developing CAD). 4. _____________________—have therapeutic effects by
d) Hemoglobin to rule out anemia, which may reduce remodeling the vascular endothelium and have been
myocardial oxygen supply. shown to reduce the risk of worsening angina.
7
2. Other etiologic factors include coronary artery spasm, these are “silent MIs.” Nevertheless, there is still
coronary artery embolism, infectious diseases causing resultant damage to the heart. Women and diabetics
arterial inflammation, hypoxia, anemia, and severe usually present with atypical and/or vague complaints
exertion or stress on the heart in the presence of (eg, indigestion, fatigue). These patients are at higher
significant CAD (ie, surgical procedures or shoveling risk of death during hospitalization. This is influenced by
snow). delay in seeking medical attention and they are less likely
to receive therapies that have been shown to be effective
3. Different degrees of damage occur to the heart muscle in MI treatment (ie, fibrolytics or primary PCI, aspirin,
a) ___________________—death to the heart muscle beta-blockers, or heparin).
caused by extensive and complete oxygen
deprivation; irreversible damage GERONTOLOGIC ALERT: Older patients are more
b) __________________—region of the heart muscle likely to experience silent MIs or have atypical signs
surrounding the area of necrosis; inflamed and and symptoms, such as hypotension, low body
injured, but still viable if adequate oxygenation can be temperature, shortness of breath, vague complaints of
restored discomfort, mild perspiration, stroke-like symptoms,
c) __________________—region of the heart muscle dizziness, or change in sensorium
surrounding the area of injury, which is ischemic and
viable; not endangered unless extension of the Diagnostic Evaluation
infarction occurs
4. Classification of MI:
a) ________________—whereby ST-segment
elevations are seen on ECG. The area of necrosis
may or may not occur through the entire wall of heart
muscle.
b) ________________—no ST-segment elevations can
be seen on ECG. ST depressions may be noted as
well as positive cardiac markers, T-wave inversions,
and clinical equivalents (chest pain). Area of necrosis
may or may not occur through the entire myocardium.
Other Findings
Pharmacologic Therapy
9
d. Family history of premature CHD (first-degree relative,
male under age 55, female under age 65)
e. Age (men 45 or older, women 55 or older)
Hyperlipidemia Note: HDL 60 mg/dL counts as a negative risk factor
(its presence removes one risk factor from the total count)
Hyperlipidemia is a group of metabolic abnormalities resulting
in combinations of elevated serum cholesterol. Total 6. Initiate TLC if LDL is above goal.
cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG) are two of the major a. TLC diet:
lipids in the body. They are transported through the i. Saturated fat: 7% of calories; cholesterol
bloodstream by lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are made up of a intake: 200 mg/day.
phospholipid and specific proteins called apoproteins or apo ii. Consider increasing viscous (soluble) fiber by 10
lipoproteins. There are five main classes of lipoproteins: to 25 g/day; plant stanols/sterols by 2 g/day;
omega-3 oils three times per week.
b. Smoking cessation
-Chylomicrons
c. Weight reduction
-Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs)
d. Increased physical activity—30 minutes of moderate
-Intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDLs)
activity 5 days per week or 20 minutes of vigorous
-Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)
activity three times per week
-High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
Pathophysiology and Etiology Treat elevated TGs.
a. Aim for LDL goal, intensify weight management, and
Primary Hyperlipidemias increase physical activity.
1. Genetic metabolic abnormalities resulting in the b. If TGs are 200 mg/dL or greater after LDL goal is
overproduction or underproduction of specific lipoproteins reached, set secondary goal for non-HDL-C (total
or enzymes. They are rare but tend to be familial. cholesterol minus HDL) 30 mg/dL higher than LDL
2. Primary hyperlipidemias include hypercholesterolemia, goal.
defective apolipoproteinemia, hypertriglyceridemia, c. If TGs are 200 to 499 mg/dL after LDL goal is reached,
combined hyperlipidemia, dysbetalipoproteinemia, consider adding drug if needed to reach non-HDL goal
polygenic hypercholesterolemia, lipoprotein lipase (increase primary drug or add nicotinic acid or fibrate).
deficiency, apoprotein C-II deficiency, lethicin cholesterol d. If TGs are 500 mg/dL or greater, first lower TGs to prevent
acetyltransferase deficiency. pancreatitis.
i. Very low-fat diet (15% or fewer calories from fat)
Secondary Hyperlipidemias ii. Weight management and physical activity
1. Very common and are multifactorial. iii. Fibrate or nicotinic acid
2. Etiologic factors include chronic diseases, such as iv. When TGs are less than 500 mg/dL, return to
diabetes, hypothyroidism, nephrotic syndrome, liver LDL-lowering therapy
disease, obesity, dietary intake; conditions such as
pregnancy and alcoholism; medications, such as beta- Pharmacotherapy
adrenergic blockers and diuretics.
1. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) are the most
Consequences effective way to lower elevated LDL and TC. They also
1. Atherosclerotic plaque formation in blood vessels. raise levels of HDL, lower levels of CRP, and may lower
2. Causes narrowing, possible ischemia, and may lead to TGs. They can be used alone or in combination with
thromboembolus formation. other lipid-lowering drugs.
3. Result in cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral a) Require liver function monitoring.
vascular disease. b) Should not be taken with grapefruit juice; can
increase
Clinical Manifestations risk of myopathy.
1. Usually asymptomatic until significant target organ c) Should not be taken by women who are pregnant,
damage is done lactating, or plan to get pregnant.
2. May be metabolic signs, such as corneal arcus,
xanthoma, xanthelasma, pancreatitis Lovastatin (Mevacor) (20-80 mg)
3. Chest pain, MI Pravastatin (Pravachol) (20-40 mg)
4. Carotid bruit, transient ischemic attacks, stroke Simvastatin (Zocor) (20-80 mg)
5. Intermittent claudication, arterial occlusion of lower Fluvastatin (Lescol) (20-80 mg)
extremities, loss of pulses Atorvastatin (Lipitor) (10-80 mg)
Rosuvastatin (Crestor) (5-40 mg)
Diagnostic Evaluation and Management
2. Cholesterol absorption inhibitors—the newest class of
1. Fasting (9 to 12 hours) lipoprotein profile every 5 years lipid-lowering drugs; inhibit intestinal absorption of
for people ages 20 and older (see Table 13-2). phytosterols and cholesterol and reduce LDL. Do not
2. Assess the presence of clinical atherosclerotic disease that require liver function testing if given as monotherapy.
confers high risk for CHD events or CHD risk equivalents.
a. Clinical CHD: history of MI, unstable angina, stable Ezetimibe (Zetia) (10 mg)
angina, coronary artery procedures, or evidence of
clinically significant MI 3. Bile acid sequestrants bind to cholesterol in gut,
b. CHD risk equivalents: carotid artery disease, peripheral decreasing absorption.
arterial disease, abdominal aortic aneurysm, diabetes
c. Two or more risk factors with 10-year risk for CHD Cholestyramine (Questran) (4-16 g)
greater than 20% Colestipol (Colestid) (5-20 g)
3. Determine presence of major risk factors other than LDL. Colesevelam (Welchol) (2.6-3.8 g)
a. Cigarette smoking
b. Hypertension (BP 140/90mm Hg or on antihypertensive 4. Nicotinic acid (Vitamin B3)—works by inhibiting
medications). VLDL secretion, thus decreasing production of LDL.
c. Low HDL ( 40 mg/dL) Main adverse effect is severe flushing; however, taking
10
81 to 325 mg of aspirin beforehand may help. Niacin 5. Antinuclear antibody serologic tests elevated in lupus
should be avoided in patients with severe peptic disease. erythematosus
6. Purified protein derivative test positive in tuberculosis;
Immediate release (crystalline) nicotinic acid (1.5-3 g). ASO titers—elevated if rheumatic fever is present
Extended release nicotinic acid (Niaspan*) (1-2 g). 7. Pericardiocentesis—for examination of pericardial fluid
Sustained release nicotinic acid (1-2 g) for etiologic diagnosis and relief from cardiac tamponade
8. BUN—to evaluate for uremia
5. Fibrinic acid derivatives—inhibit synthesis of VLDL, 9. Elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate
decrease TG, increase HDL. 10. Cardiac MRI or CT
11
2. Warm and swollen joints (polyarthritis), beginning in the 2. Auscultate heart sounds every 4 hours.
lower extremities (knees and ankles) and may include the a. Document presence of murmur or pericardial friction rub.
large joints in the upper extremities (elbows, wrists). b. Document extra heart sounds (S
3. Sydenham chorea (irregular, jerky, involuntary, 3 gallop, S4 gallop).
unpredictable muscular movements).
4. Erythema marginatum (transient mesh-like macular rash 3. Monitor for development of chronic rheumatic endocarditis,
on trunk and extremities, never on the face, in about 5% which may include valvular disease and heart failure.
to 13% of patients).
5. Subcutaneous nodules (hard, painless nodules over
extensor surfaces of extremities; rare). HEART FAILURE
6. Fever.
7. Prolonged PR interval as shown on ECG. Heart failure is a clinical syndrome that results from the
8. Heart murmurs; pleural and pericardial rubs. progressive process of remodeling, in which mechanical and
9. History of previous rheumatic fever or rheumatic heart biochemical forces alter the size, shape, and function of the
disease. ventricle’s ability to fill and pump enough oxygenated blood to
meet the metabolic demands of the body.
Diagnostic Evaluation Pathophysiology and Etiology
6. Angiotensin II-receptor blockers—similar effects as ACE Valvular damage may interfere with valvular function by
inhibitors, although mechanism of action is different. stenosis (obstruction) or by impaired closure that allows
Used in patients who cannot tolerate ACE inhibitors due backward leakage of blood (valvular insufficiency,
to cough or angioedema. regurgitation, or incompetence).
Pathophysiology and Etiology
7. Aldosterone antagonists—decrease sodium retention,
sympathetic nervous system activation, and cardiac Mitral Stenosis
remodeling. 1. Mitral stenosis is the progressive thickening and
a) Spironolactone is most commonly used. contracture of valve cusps with narrowing of the orifice and
b) May cause hyperkalemia, especially in those with progressive obstruction to blood flow.
impaired renal function, in those taking high doses of 2. Acute rheumatic valvulitis has “glued” the mitral valve
ACE inhibitors, or in those who use potassium flaps (commissures) together, thus shortening
supplements.
tendineae, so that the flap edges are pulled down, greatly
DRUG ALERT Assess patient’s risk for hyperkalemia when narrowing the mitral orifice.
administering aldosterone antagonists, such as their use of 3. The left atrium has difficulty emptying itself through the
ACE inhibitors, prescription, or OTC potassium supplements, narrow orifice into the left ventricle; therefore, it dilates
and NSAIDs; monitor serum creatinine and potassium levels and hypertrophies. Pulmonary circulation becomes
closely. congested.
4. As a result of the abnormally high PAP that must be
8. Nesiritide (decreases pulmonary artery pressure)—used maintained, the right ventricle is subjected to a pressure
in patients with decompensated heart failure. It produces overload and may eventually fail.
smooth muscle cell relaxation and diuresis and a
reduction in afterload and dyspnea. Mitral Insufficiency
1. Mitral insufficiency (regurgitation) is incomplete closure
9. Amiodarone—to treat arrhythmias. of the mitral valve during systole, allowing blood to flow
back into the left atrium.
2. Left atrial pressures increase, reflected by increases in
Diet Therapy
PAP and PCWP.
1. Restricted sodium.
3. LVH may develop due to inefficient emptying.
2. Restricted fluids.
4. May be due to myxomatous degeneration, which causes
stretching of leaflets and chordae tendineae, chronic
14
rheumatic heart disease, ischemic heart disease, CAD, replacement may be done at time of surgical intervention
and infective endocarditis; may also result due to medications for associated rheumatic mitral or aortic disease
and penetrating and nonpenetrating trauma.
Nursing Interventions
Aortic Stenosis Maintaining Adequate Cardiac Output
1. Aortic stenosis is a narrowing of the orifice between the 1. Assess frequently for change in existing murmur or new
left ventricle and the aorta. murmur.
2. The obstruction to the aortic outflow places a pressure load 2. Assess for signs of left- or right-sided heart failure
on the left ventricle that results in hypertrophy and failure. 3. Monitor and treat dysrhythmias as ordered.
3. Left atrial pressure increases. 4. Prepare the patient for surgical intervention
4. Pulmonary vascular pressure increases, which may
eventually lead to right-sided heart failure. Improving Tolerance
5. May be caused by congenital anomalies (bicuspid aortic 1. Maintain bed rest while symptoms of heart failure are
valve), calcification, or acute rheumatic fever. present.
2. Allow patient to rest between interventions.
Aortic Insufficiency 3. Begin activities gradually (eg, chair sitting for brief periods).
1. Due to abnormalities of aortic valve or aortic root. 4. Assist with or perform hygiene needs for patient to
2. Valve flaps fail to completely seal the aortic orifice during reserve strength for ambulation
diastole and thus permit backflow of blood from the aorta
into the left ventricle.
3. The left ventricle increases the force of contraction to
maintain an adequate CO, usually resulting in hypertrophy.
4. The low aortic diastolic pressures result in decreased
coronary artery perfusion.
5. May be caused by rheumatic or infective endocarditis,
congenital malformation, aortic root dilation, Marfan’s
syndrome, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, systemic lupus
erythematosus, or by diseases that cause dilation or tearing
of the ascending aorta (syphilitic disease, rheumatoid
spondylitis, dissecting aneurysm).
Tricuspid Stenosis
1. Tricuspid stenosis is restriction or narrowing of the tricuspid
valve orifice due to commissural fusion and
fibrosis.
2. Usually follows rheumatic fever and is commonly Arteriosclerosis and Atherosclerosis
associated with diseases of the mitral valve. Arteriosclerosis is an arterial disease manifested by a loss of
Tricuspid Insufficiency elasticity and a hardening of the vessel wall. More commonly
1. Tricuspid insufficiency (regurgitation) allows the known as “hardening of the arteries,” it is a normal part of the aging
regurgitation of blood from the right ventricle into the right process and generally occurs uniformly throughout the arterial
atrium during ventricular systole. system.
2. Common causes include dilation of right ventricle,
rheumatic fever, and congenital anomalies. Atherosclerosis is the most common type of arteriosclerosis,
manifested by the formation of atheromas (patchy lipoidal
Diagnostic Evaluation degeneration of the intima). Lesions, or plaques, form throughout
1. ECG may show dysrhythmias. the arterial wall, reducing the size of the vessel and limiting the
2. Echocardiography may show abnormalities of valve flow of blood. Over time, atherosclerotic lesions can completely
structure and function and chamber size and thickness. occlude the lumen by buildup of the plaque material and may
3. Chest X-ray may show cardiomegaly and pulmonary contribute to thrombus formation.
vascular congestion.
4. Cardiac catheterization and angiocardiography confirm Pathophysiology and Etiology
diagnosis and determine severity 1. Etiology thought to be a reaction to injury:
1. Antibiotic prophylaxis for endocarditis before invasive
a) Endothelial cell injury causes increased platelet and
procedures—indicated in most cases;
monocyte aggregation to site of injury.
2. Treatment of heart failure—diuretics, sodium restriction,
b) Smooth muscle cells migrate and proliferate.
vasodilators, cardiac glycosides, as indicated
c) Matrix of collagen and elastic fibers forms.
1. For mitral stenosis:
a. Closed mitral valvotomy—introduction of a dilator 2. There are two types of atherosclerotic lesions: fatty streaks
through the mitral valve to split its commissures. and fibrous plaques.
b. Open mitral valvotomy—direct incision of the commissures.
c. Mitral valve replacement. 3. Risk factors include heredity, increasing age, male gender,
d. Balloon valvuloplasty—a balloon-tipped catheter is cigarette smoking, hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes
percutaneously inserted, threaded to the affected valve, mellitus, renal disease, obesity, physical inactivity, and
and positioned across the narrowed orifice. The balloon stress.
is inflated and deflated, causing a “cracking” of the calcified
commissures and enlargement of the valve orifice. NURSING ALERT Smoking is the number one risk factor for
2. For mitral insufficiency—mitral valve replacement or atherosclerosis.
annuloplasty (retailoring of the valve ring)
3. For aortic stenosis or insufficiency:
a. Replacement of aortic valve with prosthetic or tissue
valves.
b. Balloon valvuloplasty (aortic stenosis).
4. For tricuspid stenosis or insufficiency—valvuloplasty or
15
Clinical Manifestations
1. May affect entire vascular system or one segment of the vascular 4. Vascular rehabilitation/exercise (if available).
tree.
Surgical Management
2. Symptoms and signs are based on area affected:
1. Endovascular procedures:
a. PTA with or without placement of intraluminal stent—to
a) Brain (cerebroarteriosclerosis)—transient ischemic attacks
relieve arterial stenosis when lesions are accessible, as in
(TIA); stroke; vision disturbances, such as amaurosis fugax
superficial femoral and iliac arteries, through the use of
(one type of TIA), which is described by patients as a
special inflatable balloon catheters and metal stents.
shade over a portion of eye
b) Heart (coronary artery disease [CAD])—angina, MI,
heart failure b. Endovascular grafting—placement of prosthetic graft via
c) GI tract (aortic occlusive disease, aortic aneurysm, and a transluminal approach. Graft material covers a metallic
mesenteric ischemia)—abdominal pain, unintentional stent, which may or may not be impregnated with medication to
weight loss, lower back pain. decrease failure. The stent is placed via femoral artery and is
d) Kidneys (renal artery stenosis)—renal insufficiency, deployed. This is commonly used for abdominal aortic aneurysms,
poorly controlled hypertension. renal arteries, and iliacs.
e) Extremities (peripheral arterial disease [PAD])— c. Rotational atherectomy—high-speed rotary cutter that
intermittent claudication (pain in a muscle associated with removes lesions by abrading plaque. Benefits of this therapy are
exercise caused by lack of oxygen to the muscle), pain at minimal damage to the normal endothelium and low incidence of
rest, tissue loss (with or without presence of infection or complications.
gangrene), embolic events.
d. Laser angioplasty—amplified light waves are transmitted by
3. Decreased or absent pulses; bruits. fiber-optic catheters. Laser beam heats the tip of a percutaneous
catheter and vaporizes the atherosclerotic plaque.
Management
Medical Management 2. Surgical revascularization of the affected vessels, including:
1. Modification of risk factors—stress weight loss, exercise, dietary a. Embolectomy—removal of blood clot from the artery.
changes, monitoring for type 2 diabetes. b. Thrombectomy—removal of thrombus from the artery.
c. Endarterectomy—removal of atherosclerotic plaque from
2. Prescriptive management—anticoagulants, antiplatelet therapy, the artery.
lipid-lowering agents, antihypertensives. d. Bypass—use of a graft, either vein graft or prosthetic
material, to route blood flow around blocked area.
3. Specific treatment for end-organ dysfunction—see
cerebrovascular insufficiency, coronary artery disease, peripheral
arterial occlusive disease.
16
medial layers of the aortic wall.
Clinical Manifestations
Aneurysm of the Thoracoabdominal Aorta
The aorta is the most common site for aneurysms; however, Abdominal Aneurysm
they may form in any vessel. Peripheral vessel aneurysms may 1. Many of these patients asymptomatic.
involve the renal artery, subclavian artery, popliteal artery (knee), or 2. Abdominal pain most common, either persistent or intermittent—
any major artery. These produce a pulsating mass and may cause often localized in middle or lower abdomen to the left of midline.
pain or pressure on surrounding structures. 3. Lower back pain caused by pressure on the spine from enlarging
aneurysm.
Pathophysiology and Etiology 4. Feeling of an abdominal pulsating mass, palpated as a thrill,
1. Aneurysms may form as the result of: auscultated as a bruit.
a. Atherosclerosis. 5. Hypertension.
b. Heredity. 6. Distal variability of BP, pressure in arm greater than thigh.
c. Infection. 7. Upon rupture, will present with hypotension and/or hypovolemic
d. Trauma. shock.
e. Immunologic conditions.
GERONTOLOGIC ALERT Most abdominal aneurysms occur between
2. False aneurysms (pseudoaneurysm) are associated with ages 60 and 90. Rupture of the aneurysm is likely if there is coexistent
trauma to the arterial wall, as in blunt trauma or trauma associated hypertension or if the aneurysm is larger than 2.4 inches (5.5 to
with arterial punctures for angiography and/or cardiac 6 cm).
catheterization.
Nursing Interventions
3. The ascending aorta and the aortic arch are the sites of greatest
hemodynamic stress and also are the most common sites of arterial Maintaining Perfusion of Vital Organs
dissection.
Preoperatively:
4. Contributing factors include: 1. Assess for chest pain and abdominal pain.
a. Hypertension. 2. Prepare patient for diagnostic studies or surgery, as indicated.
b. Arteriosclerosis. 3. Monitor for signs and symptoms of hypovolemic shock.
c. Local infection, pyogenic or fungal (mycotic aneurysm). 4. Perform mental status and neurologic assessment regularly.
d. Congenital weakness of vessels.
e. Syphilis. Postoperatively:
f. Trauma. 1. Monitor vital signs frequently.
2. Assess for signs and symptoms of bleeding:
GERONTOLOGIC ALERT Because of vascular changes that occur as a a. Hypotension.
natural process of aging, all patients over age 65 are assessed for the b. Tachycardia.
potential for aneurysms. c. Tachypnea.
d. Diaphoresis.
5. Morphologically, aneurysms may be classified as follows:
a. Saccular—distention of a vessel projecting from one side. 3. Monitor laboratory values, as ordered.
b. Fusiform—distention of the whole artery (ie, entire
circumference is involved). 4. Monitor urine output hourly.
c. Dissecting—hemorrhagic or intramural hematoma, separating the
17
5. Assess abdomen for bowel sounds and distention. Observe for 2. Cause of essential hypertension is unknown; however, there
diarrhea, which occurs sooner than one would expect bowel are several areas of investigation:
function. a. Hyperactivity of sympathetic vasoconstricting nerves.
b. Presence of vasoactive substance released from the arterial
6. Perform neurovascular checks to distal extremities. endothelial cells, which acts on smooth muscle, sensitizing
it to vasoconstriction.
7. Assess feet for signs and symptoms of embolization: c. Increased cardiac output, followed by arteriole constriction.
a. Cold feet. d. Excessive dietary sodium intake, sodium retention, insulin
b. Cyanotic toes or patchy blue areas on plantar surface of feet. resistance, and hyperinsulinemia play roles that are not
c. Pain in feet. clear. There is a growing body of evidence implicating
excess sodium intake in the pathogenesis of elevated BP.
e. Familial (genetic) tendency.
8. Maintain IV infusion to administer medications to control
3. Systolic BP elevation in the absence of elevated diastolic BP
BP and provide fluids postoperatively.
is termed isolated systolic hypertension and is treated in the
same manner.
9. Position patient to avoid hip flexion, keeping knees below the
level of the hips when sitting in chair.
Secondary Hypertension
1. Occurs in approximately 5% of patients with hypertension
10. If thoracoabdominal aneurysm repair has been performed, secondary to other pathology.
monitor for signs and symptoms of spinal cord ischemia: 2. Renal pathology:
a. Pain. a. Chronic kidney disease, congenital anomalies, pyelonephritis,
b. Numbness. renal artery stenosis, acute and chronic glomerulonephritis, and
c. Paresthesia. obstructive uropathy (hydronephrosis).
d. Weakness. b. Reduced blood flow to kidney causes release of renin.
Renin reacts with a serum protein to form angiotensin I,
Preventing Infection which is converted to angiotenin II through the action
1. Monitor temperature. of angiotensin-converting enzyme in the lungs, leading to
2. Monitor changes in WBC count. vasoconstriction and increased salt and water retention.
3. Monitor incision for signs of infection. 3. Coarctation of aorta (stenosis of aorta)—blood flow to upper
4. Administer antibiotics, if ordered, to prevent bacterial seeding of extremities is greater than flow to the kidneys. The kidneys
the graft. release renin when they sense hypotension.
4. Endocrine disturbances:
Relieving Pain a. Pheochromocytoma—a tumor of the adrenal gland that
1. Administer pain medication, as ordered, or monitor patient causes release of epinephrine and norepinephrine and a
controlled analgesia. rise in BP (extremely rare).
2. Keep head of bed elevated no more than 45 degrees for the b. Adrenal cortex tumors lead to an increase in aldosterone
first 3 days postoperatively to prevent pressure on incision site. secretion (hyperaldosteronism) and an elevated BP (rare).
3. Rarely—administer nasogastric decompression for ileus c. Cushing’s syndrome leads to an increase in adrenocortical
following surgery, until bowel sounds return. steroids (causing sodium and fluid retention) and
4. Assess abdomen for bowel sounds and distention. hypertension.
d. Hyperthyroidism causes increased cardiac output.
Hypertension 5. Obstructive sleep apnea causes nocturnal hypertension,
The American Heart Association defines blood pressure (BP) as which leads to sustained daytime hypertension.
the force of blood pushing against the arterial wall as it relates 6. Prescription medications such as estrogens and steroids (cause
to blood viscosity (thickness) and resistance of blood vessel. fluid retention), sympathomimetics (cause vasoconstriction and
Systolic blood pressure (SBP) is the highest arterial pressure when tachycardia), antidepressants (prevent the breakdown of
the heart contracts and empties. Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) is epinephrine), appetite suppressants (cause tachycardia and
the lowest arterial pressure when the heart relaxes to fill with blood. vasoconstriction), and NSAIDs (cause fluid retention and can
lead to renal insufficiency).
Hypertension (high BP) is a disease of vascular regulation 7. Nonprescription drugs and substances such as cocaine (cause
in which the mechanisms that control arterial pressure within the vasoconstriction and tachycardia); NSAIDS; herbal agents
normal range are altered. The predominant mechanisms of blood such as St. John’s wort, ginseng, ephedra (unclear etiology
pressure control are the central nervous system (CNS), the of hypertension); antihistamines (cause vasoconstriction and
reninangiotensin-aldosterone system, and extracellular fluid tachycardia); and nicotine (causes vasoconstriction).
volume. 8. Food substrates such as sodium chloride, ethanol, licorice,
and glucose, all of which can cause increased fluid retention.
Why these mechanisms fail is not known.
Consequences of Hypertension
1. Hypertension can cause intimal wall injury in the arteries,
Pathophysiology and Etiology which can lead to arteriosclerosis in which smooth muscle
Elevated diastolic pressure leads to strain on the arterial wall
cell proliferation, lipid infiltration, and calcium accumulation
which over time causes thickening and calcification of the arterial
occur in the vascular endothelium.
media (a condition called sclerosis) and eventually narrowing of the
2. Prolonged hypertension damages small blood vessels in the
blood vessel lumen. Elevated blood pressure is seen when there is
brain, eyes, heart, and kidneys.
increased cardiac output and increased peripheral resistance.
3. The major objective in patients with high BP is to prevent target
organ damage of the heart (left ventricular hypertrophy,
Primary or Essential Hypertension
angina, myocardial infarction, heart failure), brain (stroke,
(Approximately 95% of patients with hypertension.)
transient ischemic attack, dementia), kidneys (chronic kidney
1. When the diastolic pressure is 90 mm Hg and/or the systolic
disease), eyes (retinopathy, blindness), or vasculature (aneurysm,
pressure is 140 mm Hg or higher and other causes of hypertension
peripheral arterial disease).
are absent, the condition is said to be primary hypertension. More
specifically, an individual is considered hypertensive
when the average of two or more properly measured, seated
Diagnostic Evaluation
1. ECG—to determine effects of hypertension on the heart (left
BP readings taken at rest on each of two or more office visits
ventricular hypertrophy, ischemia) or presence of underlying
exceeds the upper limits of normal (see Table 14-4).
heart disease.
18
2. Chest x-ray—may show cardiomegaly or aortic dilation by renal disease. However, they may worsen renal
the presence of a widened mediastinum. function in the presence of renal artery stenosis.
3. Proteinuria, elevated serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), and h. Angiotensin receptor blockers—similar in action to ACE
creatinine levels—indicate kidney disease as a cause or effect inhibitors.
of hypertension; first voided urine microalbumin or spot i. Calcium antagonists (calcium channel blockers, or
urine for albumin-creatinine ratio are earlier indicators. CCB)—stop the movement of calcium into the cells; relax
4. Serum potassium—decreased in primary hyperaldosteronism; smooth muscle, which causes vasodilation; and inhibit
elevated in Cushing’s syndrome, both are causes of secondary reabsorption of sodium in the renal tubules. Nondihydropyridine
hypertension. CCB (verapamil and diltiazem) have a negative
5. Urine (24-hour) for catecholamines—increased in inotropic effect and may worsen heart failure.
pheochromocytoma. j. Direct vasodilators—smooth muscle relaxants that primarily
6. Renal ultrasound to detect renal vascular diseases. dilate arteries and arterioles.
7. Renal artery duplex imaging to identify renal artery stenosis. k. Aldosterone inhibitors—antagonize aldosterone receptors
8. Outpatient ambulatory BP measurements. and inhibit sodium reabsorption in the collecting duct of
9. Tests for causes of secondary hypertension are done if the nephron in the kidneys.
hypertension is resistant to treatment or specific signs and l. Direct renin inhibitors—inhibits renin within the reninangiotensin
symptoms of secondary hypertension are present. system (RAS).
3. If hypertension is not controlled with the first drug within
1 to 3 months, three options can be considered:
Management
a. If the patient has faithfully taken the drug and not
Blood Pressure Target Goals
developed adverse effects, the dose of the drug may be
1. Blood pressure goals are based on research and published
increased.
guidelines and/or consensus statements. Clinicians must be
b. If the patient has had adverse effects, another class of
aware of their patients’ target BP goals.
drugs can be substituted.
2. Guidelines from the 7th Report of the Joint National Commission
c. A second drug from another class could be added. If adding the
(JNC-7):
second agent lowers the pressure, the first agent
a. BP goals for all patients are <140/90 mm Hg.
can be slowly withdrawn or, if necessary, combination
b. BP goals for patients with diabetes and chronic kidney
therapy can be continued.
disease are <130/80 mmHg
Some patients require two medications at the time of
diagnosis. This should be considered for patients who are
Drug Therapy
20 mmHg above their systolic goal or 10 mmHg above
their diastolic goal.
1. Considerations in selecting therapy include:
4. The best management of hypertension is to use the fewest
a. Race—African Americans respond well to calcium channel
drugs at the lowest doses while encouraging the patient to
blockers and thiazide diuretics, if compelling conditions are not
maintain lifestyle changes. After BP has been under control
noted. A renin–angiotensin system (RAS
for at least 1 year, a slow, progressive decline in drug therapy
blocker is first line for African Americans with kidney disease,
can be attempted. However, most patients need to resume
diabetes, or heart failure. Caucasians respond well to
medication within 1 year.
ACE inhibitors).
5. If the desired BP is still not achieved with the addition of a
b. Age—some adverse effects such as fatigue and lightheadedness
second drug, a third agent or a diuretic or both (if not already
may not be tolerated well by older adults. Diuretics
prescribed) could be added. 75% of individuals with hypertension
are typically the first drug prescribed.
require two or more antihypertensive agents to reach
c. Concomitant diseases and therapies—some agents also treat
their BP goal.
migraines, benign prostatic hyperplasia, heart failure; have
6. Resistant hypertension is defined as an individual that
beneficial effects on conditions such as renal insufficiency; or
requires three or more antihypertensive agents to control
have adverse effects on such conditions as diabetes or asthma.
blood pressure.
d. Quality-of-life impact—tolerance of adverse effects.
e. Cost considerations—newer agents usually more expensive.
f. Dosing—multiple doses may be adherence issue.
2. Medications available:
a. Diuretics—lower BP by promoting urinary excretion of
water and sodium to lower blood volume.
b. Beta-adrenergic blockers—lower BP by slowing the heart
and reducing cardiac output by blocking beta adrenergic
receptors that produce epinephrine.
c. Alpha-receptor blockers—lower BP by dilating peripheral
blood vessels and lowering peripheral vascular resistance.
Research has indicated these medications provide little
protection against heart failure but are effective in improving
benign prosthetic hypertrophy.
d. Central alpha agonists—lower BP by diminishing sympathetic
outflow from the central nervous system, thereby
Practice Test
lowering peripheral resistance.
1. The balance between nutrient intake and nutrient
e. Peripheral adrenergic agents—inhibit peripheral adrenergic
requirements is described as:
release of vasoconstricting catecholamines such as
a. undernutrition
norepinephrine.
b. malnutrition
f. Combined alpha and beta-adrenergic blockers—work
c. nutritional status
through alpha and beta receptors.
d. overnutrition
2. To support the synthesis of maternal and fetal tissue
g. ACE inhibitors—lower BP by blocking the enzyme that
during pregnancy, a total weight gain of ___ kilograms is
converts angiotensin I to the potent vasoconstrictor angiotensin II
recommended.
and reducing sympathetic nervous system activity. These drugs also
a. 5 to 11.5
raise the level of bradykinin, a potent
b. 11 to 16
vasodilator, and lower aldosterone levels.
c. 12.5 to 18
DRUG ALERT ACE inhibitors are a drug of choice
for diabetics as they delay progression to end-stage
19
d. recommendation depends on BMI of mother at b. elevated triglycerides
the start of the pregnancy c. hyperglycemia
3. Which of the following are normal, expected changes with d. low weight for height
ageing? 14. Which BMI category in adults is indicative of obesity?
a. increase in energy needs a. 18.5–24.9
b. increase in body water b. 25.0–29.9
c. decrease in height c. 30.0–39.9
d. increase in AP diameter of the chest d. <18.5
4. Which of the following data would be obtained as part of 15. Which of the following drugs can interact with nutrients,
a nutritional screening? impairing their digestion, absorption, metabolism, or
a. temperature, pulse, and respiration utilization?
b. blood pressure and genogram a. antacids
c. weight and nutrition intake history b. antidepressants
d. serum creatinine levels c. anticonvulsants
5. The 24-hour recall of dietary intake is: d. antibiotics
a. an anthropometric measure of kilojoules 16. Factors contributing to low birth weight include which of
consumed the following:
b. a questionnaire or interview about everything 1. poor gestational nutrition
eaten within the last 24 hours 2. small frame
c. the same as a food frequency questionnaire 3. low maternal weight gain
d. a form of food diary 4. maternal alcohol and drug use Select the correct answer
6. The nutritional needs of a patient with trauma or major from the following choices.
surgery: a. 2, 3 and 4
a. are met by fat reserves in obese individuals b. 1, 3 and 4
b. may be two to three times greater than normal c. 1, 2 and 3
c. can be met with intravenous fluids, supplemented d. 1, 2 and 4
with vitamins and electrolytes 17. Which of the following criteria is NOT included in the
d. are met by glycogen reserves diagnosis of metabolic syndrome?
7. Mary, a 15-year-old, has come for a school physical. a. fasting plasma glucose level ≥110 mg/dL
During the interview, she tells the nurse that menarche b. blood pressure >130/85
has not occurred. An explanation to be explored is: c. heart rate >110
a. nutritional deficiency d. waist circumference of >90 cm for men and 80
b. alcohol intake cm for women
c. smoking history e. high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol >1.3
d. possible elevated blood sugar mmol/L for men and 1.5 mmol/L for women
8. Older adults are at risk for alteration in nutritional status. f. triglyceride levels >1.7 mmol/L (ATP III, 2001)
From the individuals described below, select the 18. A patient with Graves’ disease manifested by goitre and
individual(s) who appear(s) least at risk. exophthalmos presents with the following signs and
a. an 80-year-old widow who lives alone symptoms: fatigue, weight loss, muscle cramps, heat
b. a 65-year-old widower who visits a senior centre intolerance, shortness of breath and excessive sweating.
with a meal program 5 days a week Graves’ disease is a metabolic disorder related to:
c. a 70-year-old with poor dentition who lives with a a. parathyroidism
son b. hypothyroidism
d. a 73-year-old couple with low income and no c. euthyroidism
transportation d. hyperthyroidism
9. Body weight as a percentage of ideal body weight is
calculated to assess for malnutrition. Severe malnutrition
is diagnosed when current body weight is:
a. 80% to 90% of ideal weight
b. 70% to 80% of ideal weight
c. less than 70% of ideal body weight
d. 120% of ideal body weight
10. The nurse is completing an initial assessment for a
patient being admitted to a long-term care facility. The
patient is unable to stand for a measurement of height. In
order to obtain this important anthropometric information
the nurse may:
a. measure the waist-to-hip circumference
b. estimate the body mass index
c. measure arm span
d. obtain a mid-upper arm muscle circumference to
estimate skeletal muscle reserve
11. A skin testing or anergy panel has been ordered for a
patient. This test is done to:
a. determine serum protein levels
b. determine the need for adult immunization
c. assess for excessive exposure to ultraviolet light
d. assess for immunocompetence
12. Which assessment finding indicates nutrition risk?
a. BMI = 24
b. serum albumin = 2.5 g/dL
c. current weight = 90.5 kg
d. Hb = 15 g/dL
13. Marasmus is often characterized by:
a. severely depleted visceral proteins
20