DINOFLAGELLATE

Dinoflagellates (meaning whirling whips) are second only to the diatoms as primary
producers in the world’s oceans. They are single-celled organisms, with both plant and
animal characteristics. Most dinoflagellates are distinguished by a dinokaryon, a special
form of eukaryote nucleus. Their carotenoid pigments dinoxanthin and peridinin give to
these organisms flame-like colours and produce ‘red tides’ when populations bloom. Many
living dinoflagellates are also bioluminescent.

Classification
Kingdom- PROTOZOA
Subkingdom -DICTYOZOA
Phylum -DINOZOA
Subphylum -DINOFLAGELLATA

The majority of dinoflagellates exhibit alternation of generations in the life cycle and bear two
flagella for propulsion. Motile (theca) cells are equipped with one longitudinal whip-like and one
transverse ribbon-likeflagellum for propulsion, have a prominent nucleus and a sculptured cell
wall (Fig1). Both heterotrophic and autotrophic modes of nutrition occur, although the latter
predominate. Dinoflagellates have formed an important part of oceanic phytoplankton since at
least mid-Mesozoic times. Although motile cells are abundant and wide ranging, it is the
resistant resting cyst which leaves a fossil record. Dinoflagellate cysts have proved to be
valuable tools in biostratigraphy and are also important in palaeoecology, palaeoclimatology and
evolutionary palaeontology.

Fig1-Dinoflagellate cell
Dinoflagellate life history

Sexual reproduction is known to occur in very few living dinoflagellates. Asexual (vegetative)
reproduction predominates and involves a division of the cell into two halves by binary fission.
Details of the life cycle can vary considerably, particularly in the sexual part of the cycle, and a
generalized life cycle is described here (Fig2) With the exception of Polykrikos and Noctiluca ,
the vegetative motile stage the schizont has a full chromosomal compliment and is haploid. Once
formed, the zygote enlarges, the cell wall thickens (at this stage it is known as the planozygote)
and it looses motility. In the hypnozygote stage the cytoplasm contracts, the cyst forms and the
flagella are lost. The cytoplasm may remain dormant in the cyst for hours to years during which
time the first and occasionally second meiotic divisions occur. The resultant cells will emerge
through the archeopyle and growth and vegetative division are initiated. In laboratory culture
withholding nutrients or reducing temperature and light levels can induce sexual reproduction.
Though cysts can form in the schizont, the majority of fossil dinoflagellate cysts are believed to
be hypnozygote cysts. Many dinoflagellate cysts remain dormant on the sea floor through the
winter. During this period the surrounding thecal plates may drop away and begin to decay. With
the amelioration of conditions in spring, the motile stage excysts through the archaeopyle to
leave a resistant cyst for the fossil record.

Fig2- Idealized life cycle involving sexual reproduction and cyst formation. Section A, cells are
motile and haploid; section B,cells are motile and diploid; section C, cells are non-motile (except
excysted cell on left) and diploid.
Dinoflagellate ecology
Dinoflagellates currently form a major part of the ocean plankton, especially the armoured
and autotrophic forms, and they play a prominent role in the food chains of the marine
realm. The autotrophic forms thrive in areas of upwelling currents that are rich in nutrients
such as nitrates and phosphates, whilst they are rarely found alive below 50 m depth because
of their need for light. Flagella locomotion is employed in bringing them to the surface at
night and withdrawing them to greater depths in the day because they must avoid harmful
ultraviolet light. In Mesozoic, Cenozoic and Recent dinoflagellate assemblages only a few
taxa appear to have palaeoecological or palaeobiogeographical significance.

Applications of dinoflagellate cysts

Dinoflagellate cysts are ideal biostratigraphical indices.It provide a detailed review of cyst
biozones. Late Triassic dinoflagellate assemblages are known from Alaska, Arctic Canada,
Australia, England and Austria; only one biozone has been recognized, the Rhaetogonyaulax
rhaetica Interval Biozone. Early Mesozoic assemblages are low in species diversity but by the
mid-Jurassic dinoflagellates were an important part of the phytoplankon. Provincialism means
different biozonations have been erected for the Arctic, Boreal, Tethyan and Southern
Hemisphere realms, corresponding approximately to molluscan faunal provinces. Similar
provinciality has been recognized at least for the Early Cretaceous. The usefulness of
dinoflagellate cysts in sequence stratigraphy was recognized by Haq et al. (1987), whose
correlation chart includes last and first appearance datums for selected cyst species. Habib et al.
(1992) reported the relationship between cyst species diversity and system tracts in the K-T
boundary beds of Alabama, with a minimum diversity in the lowstand, whilst Monteil (1993)
were able to define third-order sequences in the Berriasiantype section using cyst first and last
appearance datums. Stover & Hardenbol (1994) demonstrated the sensitivity of cyst assemblages
to transgressive and regressive cycles in the Lower Oligocene, Boom Clay ofBelgium.
Dinoflagellates are increasingly being used in palaeoclimate research. Studies include Tertiary
sections in cores from the North Atlantic and the Eocene-Oligocene of the Gulf of Mexico and
western Atlantic, as part of the ODP, where regional distribution patterns agree with inferred
palaeocurrent configurations and summarized the climatic control on Neogene dinoflagellate
cysts and acritarch distribution in polar oceans. Dinoflagellate cysts to indicate a subtropical to
tropical climate in the Pliocene of southwest England. High winter sea surface temperatures (of
around 15°C) were thought to indicate the presence of the Gulf Stream and global
warming.Geologists have attempted to use cyst abundance data to predict ocean temperatures.
The Quaternary deposits of the North Sea glacial are marked by low-abundance and low-
diversity assemblages with predominantly Spiniferites elongates and round species of
Protoperidinium . Interglacials or more temperate conditions are represented by high abundances
of Operculodinium centrocarpum , Spiniferites mirabilis and pentagonal species of
Protoperidinium Dinoflagellate cysts and acritarchs reworked into younger sediments can be
used to indicate the provenance of sediments and the directions of transport