ASSIGNMENT OF

by:
Muhammad Shahbaz
Submitted to:
Ms: Sidra Abass Dar
Reg. # 2014-ch-220
Cathode-ray oscilloscope
CRO electronic-display device containing a cathode ray tube
(CRT) that generates an electron beam that is used to produce visible patterns, or
graphs, on a phosphorescent screen. The graphs plot the relationships between two
or more variables, with the horizontal axis normally being a function of time and
the vertical axis usually a function of the voltage generated by the input signal to
the oscilloscope. Because almost any physical phenomenon can be converted into a
corresponding electric voltage through the use of a transducer the oscilloscope is a
versatile tool in all forms of physical investigation.

Construction
The central component in this device, the cathode-ray tube, consists of an
evacuated glass container with a phosphorescent coating at one end (similar to that
of a television screen) and an electron gun and a system for focusing and
deflecting the beam of electrons at the other. The electron beam emerging from the
electron gun passes between pairs of metal plates mounted in such a way that they
deflect the beam horizontally and vertically to control the production of a luminous
pattern on the screen. The screen image is a visual representation of the voltages
applied to the deflection plates. Alternatively, the beam may be deflected
magnetically by varying the currents through externally mounted deflection coils.
Thus, almost any graph can be plotted on the screen by generating horizontal and
vertical deflection voltages or currents proportional to the lengths, velocities, or
other quantities being observed.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
It is sometimes necessary or desirable to plot more than one waveform at the same
time on the screen of an oscilloscope. With the use of a variety of techniques, four
or more plots can be simultaneously shown. With a dual-trace amplifier and a
single electron gun, two signals may be shown at what appears to be the same time.
Actually, the amplifier electronically switches rapidly between the two observed
signals. In a split-beam CRT the electron beam from a single gun is split, with the
two parts receiving different vertical deflections. A dual-gun CRT uses two
separate electron guns, each having its own focus and brightness controls. By
combining two dual-trace amplifiers with a dual-gun CRT, four individual plots
can be obtained
ADVANTAGE
Speed of response is the cathode-ray oscilloscope’s chief advantage over other
plotting devices. General-purpose oscilloscopes have plotting frequencies of up to
100 megahertz (MHz), or 100 million cycles per second. Response times as rapid
as 2,000 MHz are achievable with special-purpose high-speed oscilloscopes.

APPLICATION
The cathode-ray oscilloscope is one of the most widely used test instruments; its
commercial, engineering, and scientific applications include acoustic research,
television-production engineering, and electronics design.
DIODES
A diode is an electric component that allows electric current to flow in only one
direction.

TAYPS

VACUUM-TUBE DIODES

A vacuum-tube diode contains two main parts (that’s the “di” in “diode”). One part
is a heated filament, the other is a metal plate.

(Note that I’ve left off some details for clarity. In practice, there are more leads to
supply power for heating the filament.)
A voltage applied across the leads to the tube will make any free electrons in the
tube move in the direction of the voltage. But without any other encouragement,
most electrons will remain attached to the metal on which they rest.

The heating of the filament tends to loosen some of its electrons.

If a voltage is applied to give the filament a negative charge and the plate a
positive charge, these loosened electrons will fly from the filament to the plate.
Current flows through the tube.

On the other hand, if the applied voltage gives the filament a positive charge and
the plate a negative charge, the loosened electrons on the filament will have no
incentive to go to the plate, and the electrons on the plate aren’t loose enough to
leave it. No current flows through the tube.

SOLID-STATE DIODE

A solid-state diode is made of a single piece of semiconducting material with two

regions: one region attracts electrons, the other repulses them. I’ll label the one that
attracts electrons with a P and the one that repulses electrons with an N, because
they act as if they were positively and negatively charged, respectively.
At the junction between the two regions, electrons are much more likely to move
from the N side to the P side.

If a voltage is applied to make electrons flow from the N side to the P side, the
electrons will have no trouble crossing the junction and so current will flow
through the diode. On the other hand, if a voltage is applied to make electrons flow
from the P side to the N side, the electrons will have trouble crossing the junction
and so very little current will flow through the diode

TRIODES
it is an electric device that allows the electrit current to flow in two or more
direction.

Construction
Structure of a modern low-power triode vacuum tube. The glass and outer
electrodes are shown partly cut away to reveal the construction.

All triodes have a hot cathode electrode heated by a filament which releases
electrons, and a flat metal plate electrode to which the electrons are attracted, with
a grid consisting of a screen of wires between them to control the current. These
are sealed inside a glass container from which the air has been removed to a high
vacuum, about 10−9 atm. Since the filament eventually burns out, the tube has a
limited lifetime and is made as a replaceable unit; the electrodes are attached to
terminal pins which plug into a socket. The operating lifetime of a triode is about
2000 hours for small tubes and 10,000 hours for power tubes.

LOW POWER TRIODES

Low power triodes have a concentric construction (see drawing right), with the
grid and plate as circular or oval cylinders surrounding the cathode. The cathode is
a narrow metal tube down the center. Inside it is a filament called the "heater"
consisting of a narrow strip of high resistance tungsten wire, which heats the
cathode red-hot (800 - 1000 °C). This type is called an "indirectly heated cathode"
The cathode is coated with a mixture of alkaline earth oxides such as calcium and
thorium oxide which reduces its work function so it produces more electrons. The
grid is constructed of a helix or screen of thin wires surrounding the cathode. The
plate is a cylinder or rectangular box of sheet metal surrounding the grid. It is
blackened to radiate heat and is often equipped with heat-radiating fins. The
electrons travel in a radial direction, from the cathode through the grid wires to the
plate. The elements are held in position by mica or ceramic insulators and are
supported by stiff wires attached to the base, where the electrodes are brought out
to connecting pins. A "getter", a small amount of shiny barium metal evaporated
onto the inside of the glass, helps maintain the vacuum by absorbing gas released
in the tube over time.

HIGH-POWER TRIODES

High-power triodes generally used filament which serves as the cathode (a directly
heated cathode) because the emission coating on indirectly heated cathode is
destroyed by the higher ion bombardment in power tubes. A thoriated tungsten
filament is most often used, in which thorium in the tungsten forms a monolayer
on the surface which increases electron emission. These generally run at higher
temperatures than indirectly heated cathodes. The envelope of the tube is often
made of more durable ceramic rather than glass, and all the materials have higher
melting points to withstand higher heat levels produced. Tubes with plate power
dissipation over about 350 W must be actively cooled. The plate electrode, made of
heavy copper, projects through the wall of the tube and is attached to a large
external finned metal heat sink which is cooled by forced air or water.

LIGHTHOUSE TUBE

A type of low power triode for use at high frequencies, the "lighthouse" tube has a
planar construction to reduce interelectrode capecitance and lead inductance,
which gives it the appearance of a "lighthouse". The disk-shaped cathode, grid and
plate form planes up the center of the tube - a little like a sandwich with spaces
between the layers. The cathode at the bottom is attached to the tube's pins, but the
grid and plate are brought out to low inductance terminals on the upper level of the
tube: the grid to a metal ring halfway up, and the plate to a metal button at the top.
These are one example of "disk seal" design. Smaller examples dispense with the
octal pin base shown in the illustration and rely on contact rings for all
connections, including heater and D.C. cathode.

As well, high-frequency performance is limited by transit time: the time required

for electrons to travel from cathode to anode. Transit time effects are complicated,
but one simple effect is input conductance, also known as grid loading. At extreme
high frequencies, electrons arriving at the grid may become out of phase with those
departing towards the anode. This imbalance of charge causes the grid to exhibit a
reactance that is much less than its low-frequency "open circuit" characteristic.

Transit time effects are reduced by reduced spacings in the tube. Tubes such as the
416B (a Lighthouse design) and the 7768 (an all-ceramic miniaturised design) are
specified for operation to 4 GHz. They feature greatly reduced grid-cathode
spacings in the order of 0.1 mm.

These greatly reduced grid spacings also give a much higher amplification factor
than conventional axial designs. The 7768 has an amplification factor of 225,
compared with 100 for the 6AV6 used in domestic radios and about the maximum
possible for an axial design.

Anode-grid capacitance is not especially low in these designs. The 6AV6 anode-
grid capacitance is 2 picofarads (pF), the 7768 has a value of 1.7 pF. The close
electrode spacing used in microwave tubes increases capacitances, but this
increase is offset by their overall reduced dimensions compared to lower-frequency
tubes.

OPERATION

Triode with separate cathode and filament.

Triode in which filament serves as cathode.

Filament omitted from diagram.
Schematic circuit symbols for triodes. (F) filament (C) cathode, (G) grid, (P) plate

In the triode, electrons are released into the tube from the metal cathode by
heating it, a process called thermionic emmesion. The cathode is heated red hot by
a separate current flowing through a thin metal filament. In a few triodes, the
filament itself is the cathode, while in most the filament heats a separate cathode
electrode. Virtually all the air is removed from the tube, so the electrons can move
freely. The negative electrons are attracted to the positively charged plate(anode),
and flow through the spaces between the grid wires to it, creating a current through
the tube from cathode to plate.

The magnitude of this current can be controlled by a voltage applied between the
cathode and the grid. The grid acts like a gate for the electrons. A more negative
voltage on the grid will repel some of the electrons, so fewer get through to the
plate, reducing the plate current. A positive voltage on the grid will attract more
electrons from the cathode, so more reach the plate, increasing the plate current.
Therefore, a low power varying (AC) signal applied to the grid can control a much
more powerful plate current, resulting in amplification. Variation in the grid
voltage will cause identical proportional variations in the plate current. By placing
a suitable load resistance in the plate circuit, the varying current will cause a
varying voltage across the resistance which can be much larger than the input
voltage variations, resulting in voltage gain.
The triode is a normally "on" device; and current flows to the plate with zero
voltage on the grid. The plate current is progressively reduced as the grid is made
more negative with respect to the cathode. Usually a constant DC voltage ("bias")
is applied to the grid to set the DC current through the tube, and the varying signal
voltage is superimposed on it. A sufficiently negative voltage on the grid, usually
around 3-5 volts in small tubes such as the 6AV6, but as much as –130 volts in
early audio power devices such as the '45, will prevent any electrons from getting
through to the plate, turning off the plate current. This is called the "cutoff
voltage". Since below cutoff the plate current ceases to respond to the grid voltage,
the voltage on the grid must remain above the cutoff voltage for faithful (linear)
amplification.

The triode is very similar in operation to the n-channel JFET; it is normally on, and
progressively switched off as the grid/gate is pulled increasingly negative of the
source/cathode. Cutoff voltage is equivalent to the JFET's pinch-off voltage (Vp);
the point at which current stops flowing entirely.

APPLICATIONS

The triode was the first non-mechanical device to provide power gain at audio and
radio frequencies, and made radio practical. Triodes are used for amplifiers and
oscillators. Many types are used only at low to moderate frequency and power
levels. Large water-cooled triodes may be used as the final amplifier in radio
transmitters, with ratings of thousands of watts. Specialized types of triode
("lighthouse" tubes, with low capacitance between elements) provide useful gain at
microwave frequencies.
Vacuum tubes are obsolete in mass-marketed consumer electronichaving been
overtaken by less expensive transistor-based solid-state devices. Triodes continue
to be used in certain performance sensitive areas such as high-end and professional
audio applications, as well as in microphone preamplifiers electricguitar amplifier,
and high-power RF amplifiers and transmitters.

CHARACTEISTICS

In triode datasheets, characteristics linking the anode current(I a) to anode voltage

(V a) and grid voltage (Vg) are usually given. From here, a circuit designer can
choose the operating point of the particular triode.

In the example characteristic shown on the image, if an anode voltage Va of 200 V

and a grid voltage bias of -1 volt are selected, a plate (anode) current of 2.25 mA
will be present (using the yellow curve on the graph). Changing the grid voltage
will change the plate current; by suitable choice of a plate load resistor,
amplification is obtained.

In the class-A triode amplifier, an anode resistor would be connected between the
anode and the positive voltage source. For example, with Ra=10000 Ohms, the
voltage drop on it would be

VRa=Ia×Ra=22.5 V if an anode current of Ia=2.25 mA is chosen.

If the input voltage amplitude (at the grid) changes from -1.5 V to -0.5 V
(difference of 1 V), the anode current will change from 1.2 to 3.3 mA (see image).
This will change the resistor voltage drop from 12 to 33 V (a difference of 21 V).
Since the grid voltage changes from -1.5 V to -0.5 V, and the anode resistor
voltage drops from 12 to 33 V, an amplification of the signal resulted. The
amplification factor is 21 - output voltage amplitude divided by input voltage
amplitude.