Republic of the Phillippines

SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

NAME: Andrea B. Nunez DATE: MAY, 29 2020

PROGRAM: BSED – General Science

REFLECTION

Chapter 6: ESTABLISHING RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

“Something can have reliability but not validity and validity but not reliability.” This
is what or Instructor taught us, so we always should see the thing we thought that is
reliable or not. Reliability and validity are important aspects of selecting a survey
instrument. Reliability refers to the extent that the instrument yields the same results
over multiple trials. Validity refers to the extent that the instrument measures what it
was designed to measure. In research, there are three ways to approach validity and
they include content validity, construct validity, and criterion-related validity.

Reliability refers to how consistent the results of a study are or the consistent
results of a measuring test. This can be split into internal and external reliability. Internal
reliability refers to how consistent the measure is within itself. A personality test should
produce the same results every time for the same participant.

External reliability refers to how consistent the results are when the same
procedures are carried out for a test. For example, if a research study takes place, the
results should be almost replicated if the study is replicated.

Validity refers to whether the study or measuring test is measuring what are
claims to measure. Internal validity refers to whether it is exclusively the independent
variable causing the change or whether there are confounding variables. External
validity refers to how well the laboratory study can be generalized to real life settings.
Example of the test we can get from here is the Test-Retest reliability; this is a measure
of reliability obtained by administering the same test twice over a period of time to a
group of individuals. The scores from Time 1 and Time 2 can then be correlated in
order to evaluate the test for stability over time.
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

For example a test designed to assess student learning in psychology could be given to
a group of students twice, with the second administration perhaps coming a week after
the first. The obtained correlation coefficient would indicate the stability of the scores.

Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

While reliability is necessary, it alone is not sufficient. For a test to be reliable, it also
needs to be valid. For example, if your scale is off by 5 lbs., it reads your weight every
day with an excess of 5lbs. The scale is reliable because it consistently reports the
same weight every day, but it is not valid because it adds 5lbs to your true weight. It is
not a valid measure of your weight.

Chapter 7: ESSAY TEST DEVELOPMENT

Essay Test Item Development is what our students require to answer a

question with an original written response. Use comprehension essay test
items for testing the student’s ability to organize data and express thoughts
clearly in writing. Do not use them to test recall. Essay tests involve a
relatively subjective scoring process since many factors may enter into the
correctness of a response. The disadvantage to essay test items is that they
are time-consuming and difficult to score. The essay item must be scored by an
individual knowledgeable in the subject area, unless only one basic response is
possible to a given question or requirement, Test Item Format You can use
an essay question to assess learning of a comparatively large body of
information, as well as individual elements within that body.

EXAMPLE: Compare the gas turbine and the 1200 PSI propulsion
plants. Your discussion should include descriptions of the major components of
each system. Partial credit will be given. Item Construction the following are
examples of types of information for which you might want to use essay
test items’ A comparison or contrast of items and procedures’ A decision
for or against system or equipment operation Relationships such as causes and
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

effects’ Illustration (sketch) of principles learned Statement of purpose in the

selection of a method or technique Criticism of the adequacy or correctness of a
diagram or procedure.

Chapter 8: ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING TECHNOLOGY AND LIVELIHOOD

EDUCATION

Today’s schools are challenged to do more with less as they try to meet the
complex and changing demands of society. This is because schools provide the base
from where a technological society takes off and develops. They are also the most
powerful sources of intellectual energy that shape a nation’s culture and ideology.
Educators are finding the traditional methods of managing their classrooms and
transmitting knowledge and skills inadequate to prepare students to deal with
accelerating changes.

Chapter 9: BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND THE PRESENTATION OF

ASSESSMENT DATA

Statistics has become the universal language of the sciences, and data analysis
can lead to powerful results. As scientists, researchers, and managers working in the
natural resources sector, we all rely on statistical analysis to help us answer the
questions that arise in the populations we manage.

Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning, designing,

collecting data, analyzing, drawing meaningful interpretation and reporting of the
research findings. The statistical analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers,
thereby breathing life into a lifeless data. The results and inferences are precise only if
proper statistical tests are used.

I remembered some of the presentation methods of statistical data.

1. Tabulation:
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

Tables are devices for presenting data simply from masses of statistical data.
Tabulation is the first step before data is used for analysis. Tabulation can be in form of
Simple Tables or Frequency distribution table (i.e., data is split into convenient groups).

2. Charts and Diagrams:

They are useful methods in presenting simple statistical data. Diagrams are better
retained in the memory than statistical tables, also example of this is pie graph

3. Statistical Maps:

When statistical data refer to geographic or administrative areas, it is presented either

as “Shaded Maps” or “Dot Maps” according to suitability.

4. Statistical Averages:

The term “average” implies a value in the distribution, around which the other values are
distributed. It gives a mental picture of the central value.

Clearly, statistics are a tool, not an aim. Simple inspection of data, without
statistical treatment, by an experienced and dedicated analyst may be just as useful as
statistical figures on the desk of the disinterested. The value of statistics lies with
organizing and simplifying data, to permit some objective estimate showing that an
analysis is under control or that a change has occurred. Equally important is that the
results of these statistical procedures are recorded and can be retrieved.

Discussing Quality Control implies the use of several terms and concepts with a specific
(and sometimes confusing) meaning. Therefore, some of the most important concepts
will be defined first.

Chapter 10: MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Central tendency (sometimes called “measures of location,” “central location,” or

just “center”) is a way to describe what’s typical for a set of data. Central tendency
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

doesn’t tell you specifics about the individual pieces of data, but it does give you an
overall picture of what is going on in the entire data set. There are three major ways to
show central tendency: mean, mode and median.

The mean is the arithmetic average, and it is probably the measure of central
tendency that you are most familiar. Calculating the mean is very simple. You just add
up all of the values and divide by the number of observations in your data set.

The mean is the average of a set of numbers. Add up all the numbers in a set of
data and then divide by the number of items in the set. For example, the mean of 2 3 5
9 11 is:

(2 + 3 + 5 + 9 + 11) / 5 = 30 / 5 = 6.

The median is the middle of a set of numbers. Think of it like the median in a road (that
grassy area in the middle that separates traffic). Place your data in order, and the
number in the exact center of a list is the median. For example: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the median
is 4 because it’s in the center, with three numbers either side.

Next is the mode is the value that occurs the most frequently in your data set. On
a bar chart, the mode is the highest bar. If the data have multiple values that are tied for
occurring the most frequently, you have a multimodal distribution. If no value repeats,
the data do not have a mode.

The mode is the most common number in a set of data. For example, the mode of 1 2 2
3 5 6 is 2. Some data sets have no mode, like this one: 1 2 3 4 5 6. Others have
multiple modes, like this one: 1 1 2 3 3.

A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center

point or typical value of a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a
distribution fall and are also referred to as the central location of a distribution. You can
think of it as the tendency of data to cluster around a middle value. In statistics, the
three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode.
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

Each of these measures calculates the location of the central point using a different
method.

Choosing the best measure of central tendency depends on the type of data you
have. In this post, I explore these measures of central tendency, show you how to
calculate them, and how to determine which one is best for your data.

Chapter 11: MEASURES OF SHAPE, LOCATION AND STANDARD SCORE

First lets about the Shape, Depending on the group of people we survey about
their donut eating habits, we will get different sets of data. When graphed, we can get
different looking graphs. We use shape to describe the different types of graphs we will
see. There are four different ways in which we can describe a graph's shape.

1. We can say a graph is symmetric if the left and right sides of the graph are
mirror images of each other. The graph below, for example, is symmetric because the
left side is a mirror image of the right side. We see that, at either end of the distribution,
only 1 person chooses to eat 3 donuts and 7 donuts. Going closer to the center, we see
that 2 people choose to each eat 4 donuts and 6 donuts. They are mirror images of
each other.

2. Sometimes, our graph will look like a rollercoaster and will have a number of
peaks, or areas where the graph is higher than the surrounding areas. If there is only
one peak, then we call it unimodal. If this one peak occurs at the center of the graph, it
is also called bell-shaped. Doesn't the graph below look like a bell? If it has two peaks,
then we will call it bimodal. Example of a bell-shaped graph

3. If our graph has more data on one side rather than the other, we call it
skewed. If there are more to the right, we call it skewed left. For our donuts eaten
survey, this would mean that more people choose to eat more donuts and fewer people
choose to eat just a few. If our graph has more data to the left, then we would say that
our graph is skewed right. For our donuts survey, it would mean that more people prefer
 Republic of the Phillippines
SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

to eat fewer donuts. A good way to remember this is to view the graph as a slide. If you
slide down to the right, then it is skewed right, and if you slide down to the left, then it is
skewed left.

4. If our survey of people's donut eating habits showed that for each amount of
donuts eaten, the same number of people would choose that amount, then our graph
will look flat all across the top, then we call it uniform. A uniform shape has no peaks nor
is it skewed.

Next is the measurement of the location. A fundamental task in many statistical

analyses is to estimate a location parameter for the distribution; i.e., to find a typical or
central value that best describes the data.

The first step is to define what we mean by a typical value. For univariate data,
there are three common definitions:

Mean - the mean is the sum of the data points divided by the number of data
points. That is,

Y¯=∑i=1NYi/N

The mean is that value that is most commonly referred to as the average. We will
use the term average as a synonym for the mean and the term typical value to refer
generically to measures of location.

Median - the median is the value of the point which has half the data smaller than
that point and half the data larger than that point. That is, if X1, X2 ,XN is a random
sample sorted from smallest value to largest value, then the median is defined as:

Y~=Y (N+1)/2if N is odd

Y~= (YN/2+Y (N/2) +1)/2if N is even

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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

Mode - the mode is the value of the random sample that occurs with the greatest
frequency. It is not necessarily unique. The mode is typically used in a qualitative
fashion. For example, there may be a single dominant hump in the data perhaps two or
more smaller humps in the data. This is usually evident from a histogram of the data.

When taking samples from continuous populations, we need to be somewhat

careful in how we define the mode. That is, any specific value may not occur more than
once if the data are continuous. What may be a more meaningful, if less exact measure,
is the midpoint of the class interval of the histogram with the highest peak.

Standard score is a statistics term. The standard score shows how far away from the
mean a score falls. It is also known as a z-score. Using a z-score table, you can find
where the score falls on the table and figure out what percentile the score falls in. This
is a way of standardizing tests in order to curve the scores to fit around the mean. If
everyone does poorly on a test, the score distribution will curve up to fit around the
average score on the test.

Find the mean and standard deviation of your data set. For example, assume
you have a data set with a mean of 24 and a standard deviation of 5. You want to find
the standard score of 28 in the data set.

Subtract the mean from the data for which you want a standard score. In the
example, 28 minus 24 equal 4.

Divide the difference between the data and the mean by the standard deviation.
In the example, 4 divided by 5 equals a standard score of 0.8. You can use this score
on a z table to see where it falls as a percentage of the rest of the scores.

Chapter 12: GRADING, MARKING AND REPORTING SYSTEMS

The purpose of a grading system is to give feedback to students so they can take
charge of their learning and to provide information to all who support these students—
teachers, special educators, parents, and others. The purpose of a reporting system is
 Republic of the Phillippines
SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

to communicate the students’ achievement to families, post-secondary institutions, and

employers. These systems must, above all, communicate clear information about the
skills a student has mastered or the areas where they need more support or practice.
When schools use grades to reward or punish students, or to sort students into levels,
imbalances in power and privilege will be magnified and the purposes of the grading
and reporting systems will not be achieved. This guide is intended to highlight the
central practices that schools can use to ensure that their grading and reporting
systems help them build a nurturing, equitable, creative, and dynamic culture of
learning.

How are various assignments and assessments weighted?

Students typically complete a variety of assignments during a grading period such as

homework, quizzes, performance assessments, etc. Teachers have to decide—
preferably before the grading period begin—how each assignment will be weighted. For
example, a sixth grade math teacher may decide to weight the grades in the following
manner:

 Weekly quizzes 35 percent

 Homework 15 percent
 Performance Assessment 30 percent
 Class participation 20 percent

Teachers often find it difficult to decide whether effort and improvement should
be included as a component of grades. One approach is for teachers to ask students to
submit drafts of an assignment and make improvements based on the feedback they
received. The grade for the assignment may include some combination of the score for
the drafts, the final version, and the amount of improvement the students made based
on the feedback provided. A more controversial approach is basing grades on effort
when students try really hard day after day but still cannot complete their assignments
well. These students could have identified special needs or be recent immigrants that
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SURIGAO DEL SUR STATE UNIVERSITY
College of Teacher Ecucation
Tandag City, Main Campus

have limited English skills. Some school districts have guidelines for handling such
cases. One disadvantage of using improvement as a component of grades is that the
most competent students in class may do very well initially and have little room for
improvement—unless teachers are skilled at providing additional assignments that will
help challenge these students.

How should grades be calculated? Two options are commonly used: absolute
grading and relative grading. In absolute grading grades are assigned based on criteria
the teacher has devised. If an English teacher has established a level of proficiency
needed to obtain an A and no student meets that level then no As will be given.
Alternatively if every student meets the established level then all the students will get
A’s (Popham, 2005). Absolute grading systems may use letter grades or pass/fail.

In relative grading the teacher ranks the performances of students from worst to
best (or best to worst) and those at the top get high grades, those in the middle
moderate grades, and those at the bottom low grades. This is often described as
“grading on the curve” and can be useful to compensate for an examination or
assignment that students find much easier or harder than the teacher expected.
However, relative grading can be unfair to students because the comparisons are
typically within one class, so an A in one class may not represent the level of
performance of an A in another class. Relative grading systems may discourage
students from helping each other improve as students are in competition for limited
rewards. In fact, Bishop (1999) argues that grading on the curve gives students a
personal interest in persuading each other not to study as a serious student makes it
more difficult for others to get good grades.

A pass-fail system is also used in classes that are taught under a mastery-
learning approach in which students are expected to demonstrate mastery on all the
objectives in order to receive course credit. Under these conditions, it is clear that a
pass means that the student has demonstrated mastery of all the objectives.