Chapt1 - Classification & Parameters

POLITECNICO
DI MILANO
Definitions, classifications,
operating parameters
of IC engines
POLITECNICO
Topics - 1 DI MILANO
• Short introduction
• Engine classification
• Engine operating types
• Four-stroke vs two-stroke engines
• Spark-ignition (SI/Otto) vs Compression-ignition (CI/Diesel)
engines.
• Examples of internal combustion engines.
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Topics - 2 DI MILANO
• Important engine characteristics

• Geometrical properties
• Brake/indicated torque and power
• Mean effective pressure
• Specific fuel consumption and efficiency
• Air/fuel ratio
• Volumetric efficiency
• Specific emissions and emission index
• Relationships between performance indexes
• Engine design and performance data
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IC-engines: what is that? DI MILANO
• IC-engine: internal combustion engine.
• It is a thermal, volumetric machine producing power.

• “Internal” since combustion takes place within the cylinder (there are no heat
exchangers or combustors, like in external combustion engines). This makes
their design and operating characteristics very different from the other types
of engines.
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IC-engines: what is that? DI MILANO
• The working fluids are:

 Air/fuel mixture before combustion
 Burned gases after combustion
• The work transfer providing the desired power output occurs directly between
these working fluids and the mechanical components of the engine (piston).
• IC engines are simple to build and they have a high power/weight ratio. For
this reason they are widely applied in transportation (land, sea and air) and
power generation.
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IC-engines: classification DI MILANO
There are many different types of IC-engines. They can be classified by:
1) Application
2) Basic engine design
3) Working cycle
4) Valve port design and location
5) Fuel
6) Method of mixture preparation
7) Method of ignition
8) Combustion chamber design
9) Method of load control
10) Method of cooling
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1) Application. Automobile, truck, locomotive, aircraft, marine, portable power

system, power generation.
Automobile Truck Locomotive Marine
Aircraft Portable Power-generation

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2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

rotary engines (Wankel).
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In-line, four-cylinder engine
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V12 engine
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Opposed-piston
engine
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Wankel, rotary
engine
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3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

air), supercharged (admitting pre-compressed fresh mixture), and
turbocharged (admitting fresh mixture compressed in a compressor driven by
an exhaust turbine). Two stroke cycle: crankcase scavenged, supercharged and
turbocharged.
Four-stroke, naturally aspirated engine

(FIAT 1400)
• Total displacement: 1368 cm3

• Maximum torque: 120 Nm @ 2200 rpm
• Maximum power: 79 kW @ 6000 rpm
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turbocharged.
Four-stroke, supercharged engine

(Jaguar 4200)

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turbocharged.
Four-stroke, turbocharged engine

(FIAT 1400 T-jet)

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turbocharged.
Supercharged, two-stroke engine
Crankcase scavenged,
two-stroke engine
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turbocharged.
Formula 1 engines for 2014 season
(6-cylinders, 1.6 liters, turbocharged, direct-injected, spark-ignition)
Ferrari F1 2014 Mercedes F1 2014
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4) Valve or port design and location. Overhead valves, underhead valves, cross-
scavenged porting, loop-scavenged porting, through or uniflow scavenged
porting.
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4) Valve or port design and location. Overhead valves, underhead valves, cross-
scavenged porting, loop-scavenged porting, through or uniflow scavenged
porting.
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5) Fuel. Gasoline (or petrol), fuel oil (or diesel fuel), natural gas, liquid petroleum
gas, bio-fuels (bio-diesel, bio-ethanol, bio-gas), hydrogen, dual-fuel.
Gasoline engine,
main components
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Gasoline engine, Intake system

main components
Throttle valve
Port-fuel injection system
Valves
Spark-plug
Exhaust after-treatment Exhaust

system (three-way catalyst) system
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Diesel engine,
main components
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Diesel engine,
High-pressure (common-
main components
rail) fuel injection system
+ injectors
Turbocharger
Exhaust after-
treatment system
(DPF + Catalyst)
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Passenger car equipped with a

Passenger car equipped with a natural hydrogen engine:
gas engine: • Liquid hydrogen (-253 °C) in the
• Two tanks (gasoline + natural gas) tank at high pressure (500 bar)
• Two injection system (gasoline + • Gaseous hydrogen (ambient
natural gas) temperature) at high pressure.
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Bio-diesel Bio-ethanol
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6) Method of mixture preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into the intake

ports or intake manifolds, fuel injection into the engine cylinder (direct-
injection).
Carbureted engine Port-fuel injection (PFI) engine
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6) Method of mixture preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into the intake

ports or intake manifolds, fuel injection into the engine cylinder (direct-
injection).
spark-plug
Multi-hole, high
pressure injector
injector Bowl-in-piston
combustion chamber
Direct-injection, spark-
Direct-injection, Diesel engine
ignition engine
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7) Method of ignition. Spark-ignition (in conventional engines where the

mixture is uniform and in GDI engines where the mixture is partially-uniform),
compression-ignition (in conventional diesels or in dual-fuel engines), HCCI.
spark plug Fuel injector
Diffusion combustion; Homogeneous, low

Premixed combustion;
Hot flame region: NOx temperature combustion;
Hot flame region: NOx
and soot Low-pollutant emissions;
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8) Combustion chamber design. Open-chamber (disc, wedge, hemisphere,

bowl-in-piston), divided chamber (swirl chamber, pre-chamber).
9) Method of load control. Throttling of fuel and air flow together so mixture
composition is essentially uncharged, control of fuel flow alone, a
combination of those.
10) Method of cooling. Water cooled, air cooled, uncooled.
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Within this course, we will focus the attention on thermal and fluid dynamic
aspects of IC-engines. For this reason the most important classifications are:
• Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

turbocharged (admitting fresh mixture compressed in a compressor driven
by an exhaust turbine). Two stroke cycle: crankase scavenged, supercharged
and turbocharged.
• Method of ignition. Spark-ignition (in conventional engines where the

mixture is uniform and in GDI engines where the mixture is non-uniform),
compression-ignition (in conventional diesels or in dual-fuel engines).
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SI: Spark-ignition; D: diesel; A: air cooled; W: water cooled

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IC-engines: geometry parameters DI MILANO
Vc
• The piston moves back and forth in a cylinder and
transmits power through a connecting rod and
TC crank mechanism to the drive shaft.
bore
Vt V
d
stroke • The steady rotation of the crank produces a cyclic
piston motion.
BC
• The piston comes to rest at top death center (TC
or TDC) crank position and bottom death center
(BC or BDC) when the cylinder volume is
TC - 0° minimum or maximum, respectively.
270° 90°
BC - 180°
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Vc • The minimum cylinder volume is called

clearance volume Vc.
TC • The volume swept out by the piston, the

bore
Vt V difference between the maximum total volume
d
stroke Vt and the clearance volume Vc is called the
displaced or swept volume Vd .
BC
Vt = Vd +Vc
• The ratio between the maximum total volume

TC - 0° and the clearance volume is called compression
q
ratio rc:
Vt
270° 90° rc 
Vc
• Typical values for rc: 8-14 (SI Engines); 12-24
BC - 180° (Diesel engines)
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Vc • Bore (D): cylinder diameter.

• Stroke (S): distance covered by the piston from
TC TDC to BDC.
bore
• Displacement Vt as a function of bore and
Vt V
d
stroke stroke
BC D2
Vd  Vt  Vc    S
4
• Stroke is two times the crank radius
TC - 0° S  2r
q
270° 90°
BC - 180°
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Four-stroke engines DI MILANO
The majority of reciprocating engines operate on a four-stroke cycle: each cylinder

requires four strokes of its piston (two revolutions of the crankshaft) to complete
the sequence of events which produce one power stroke. Both SI and CI engines
use this cycle which comprises:
1) an intake stroke
2) a compression stroke
3) a power stroke
4) an exhaust stroke
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TDC
1) An intake stroke, which starts with the piston at
TDC and ends with the piston at BDC, which draws
BDC fresh mixture into the cylinder. To increase the
mass induced, the inlet valve opens shortly before
the stroke starts and closes after it ends.
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TDC
2) A compression stroke, when both the valves are
closed and the mixture inside the cylinder is
compressed to a small fraction of its initial volume.
BDC
Towards the end of the compression stroke,
combustion is initiated and the cylinder pressure
rises more rapidly.
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3) A power stroke (or expansion stroke), which starts

with the piston at TDC and ends at BDC as the high
TDC
temperature, high pressure gases push the piston
down and force the crank to rotate. About five
BDC times as much work is done on the piston during
the power stroke as the piston had to do during
compression. As the piston approaches BDC the
exhaust valve opens to initiate the exhaust process
and drop the cylinder pressure to close to the
exhaust pressure.
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4) An exhaust stroke, where the remaining burned

gases exit the cylinder: first, because the cylinder
pressure may be substantially higher than the
exhaust pressure; then as they are swept out by
TDC
the piston as it moves toward TDC. As the piston
approaches TDC the inlet valve opens. Just after
BDC TDC the exhaust valve closes and the cycle starts
again.
The four-stroke cycle requires, for each engine cylinder,

two crankshafts revolutions for each power stroke. To
obtain a higher power output from a given engine size,
and a simpler valve design, the two-stroke cycle was
developed.
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Two-stroke engines DI MILANO
The two-stroke cycle is applicable both to SI and CI engines. The two strokes are:
1) A compression stroke, which

Exhaust
TDC starts by closing the inlet and
Deflector Transfer
ports exhaust ports, and then
ports
BDC compresses the cylinder
Reed contents and draws the fresh
spring
inlet valve charge into the crankcase. As
the piston approaches TDC,
combustion is initiated.
Exhaust Scavenging
blowdown
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Two-stroke engines DI MILANO
The two-stroke cycle is applicable both to SI and CI engines. The two strokes are:
2) A power or expansion stroke,
similar to that in the four-stroke
Exhaust
TDC
Transfer cycle until the piston approaches
ports Deflector
ports BDC, when first the exhaust and
BDC then the intake ports are
Reed uncovered. Most of the burnt
spring gases exit the cylinder in an
inlet valve
exhaust blowdown process. When
the inlet ports are uncovered, the
fresh charge which has been
compressed in the crankcase flows
Exhaust Scavenging into the cylinder.
blowdown
The piston and the ports are generally shaped to deflect the incoming charge from flowing
directly into the exhaust ports and to achieve effective scavenging of the residual gases.
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Two-stroke vs four-stroke engines DI MILANO
Two-stroke engines: advantages

1) Higher power per displacement unit (theoretically 2 times the value of a four-
stroke engine) since there is one power cycle per shaft revolution. Normally it
is 1.5 times since the gas exchange process is poorer.
2) It is much easier to be built: there are no valves and the gas exchange process
is completely regulated by the piston motion. The lubrication is also much
easier.
3) The torque provided by the engine is more regular since there is one
expansion stroke per shaft revolution. This is an advantage mainly for a single-
cylinder engine, which is almost equivalent to a two-cylinder, four-stroke
engine. Usually two-stroke engines have a maximum number of 3-4 cylinders.
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Two-stroke engines: disadvantages
1) Lower efficiency (higher fuel consumption) compared to four-stroke engines. A

significant part of the expansion stroke is used to discharge the burned gases
and to provide the fresh charge to the cylinder.
2) The gas exchange process is poorer, and more residual gases remain into the
cylinder at the end of it. For this reason, the combustion efficiency is
worsened (higher fuel consumption) and the discharged pollutant emissions
are higher.
3) Thermal and mechanical stresses are higher since there is one combustion for
each shaft revolution.
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Summary
Applications of two-strokes engines:
1) Low power range (< 10 kW) where simplicity and reduced weight are the
most important properties and high fuel consumption and emissions does
not represent a significant problem:
• Small motorcycles, portable devices (chainsaws, mowers, small boats,
small electricity generators…)
2) Very high power range (> 3 MW) where simplicity is really important and, in
this case, there are opportune devices to control the gas exchange and
pollutant emissions.
• High-power, low-speed marine engines
Applications of four-stroke engines (1 kW – 1 MW): automobiles, truck, marine,

aircrafts, stationary, locomotive.
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Summary
Applications of two-strokes engines:
1) Low power range (< 10 kW) 2) Very high power range (> 3 MW)
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Spark-ignition engines DI MILANO
• In SI-engines, air and fuel are mixed (or partially premixed) together using:
 A carburetor, working according to the Venturi principle.
 Injectors in the intake manifold (injection pressure: 3-5 bar).
 Injectors within the cylinder (injection pressure up to 200 bar).
• Load control is achieved by means of a throttle valve (and/or valve timing),

regulating the amount of air/fuel mixture mass flow entering into the
cylinders.
• To monitor the engine behavior, several variables are plotted against crank
angle through the entire four-stroke cycle.
• Crank angle is a useful independent variable because engine processes

occupy almost constant crank angle intervals over a wide range of engine
speeds.
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Combustion
In-cylinder
pressure Intake Exhaust
evolution (fired Compression Expansion
and motored
cycle).
IVO EVC IVC EVO IVO
Valve timing
TDC BDC TDC BDC TDC
Volume
variation law.
Burned mass
fraction
during
combustion.
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• Maximum brake torque timing (MBT): this optimum timing is an empirical

compromise between starting combustion too early in the compression
stroke (when the work transfer is to the cylinder gas) and completing
combustion too late in the expansion stroke (and so lowering peak
expansion stroke pressures).
• The exhaust valve starts to open about 2/3 of the way through the
expansion stroke. Initially, the cylinder pressure is greater than the exhaust
manifold pressure and a blowdown process occurs. The burned gases
spontaneously flow through the exhaust valve into the exhaust port and
manifold until the cylinder pressure and exhaust pressure equilibrate. The
duration of the process depends on the pressure level in the cylinder.
• Then the piston displaces the burned gases from the cylinder into the
manifold during the exhaust stroke.
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Compression-ignition (Diesel) engines DI MILANO
• In compression-ignition engines, air alone is induced into the cylinder. The

fuel is injected directly into the engine cylinder just before the combustion
process is required to start.
• Load control is achieved by varying the amount of fuel injected into each
cycle; the air flow at a given engine speed is essentially unchanged.
• Most of the Diesel engines today are turbocharged, this allows higher power
to weight ratio with respect to naturally aspirated engines.
• In turbocharged engines, the inlet air is compressed by an exhaust driven

turbine-compressor combination.
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Volume variation law
Injected fuel mass flow rate
SOI: start of injection / EOI: end of injection
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In-cylinder pressure profile
Heat relase rate profile
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SI vs CI engines DI MILANO
Compression-ignition engines: disadvantages

1) Lower power to weight ratio, due to the higher compression ratio typical of
Diesel engines. As a consequence, in-cylinder pressures and temperatures are
higher than SI engines and the mechanical components should be heavier in
order to be resistant to higher mechanical and thermal stresses.
2) Since the combustion process is relatively slow, it is not possible to reach higher
engine speeds, typical of SI engines.
3) The engine is more noisy because of the combustion process including auto-
ignition.
 Nowadays, disadvantages 1-2 have been significantly reduced by using

advanced turbocharging systems and new materials.
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Compression-ignition engines: advantages
1) Higher efficiency, because of the higher compression ratio.
2) Since there is no throttle valve for load control, the engine efficiency is not
affected by the engine load, as it happens in SI engines.
3) For the same power value, the engine torque is higher for a CI engine, since it is
provided at a lower engine speed. This aspect increase the drivability of the
engine.
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Summary
• The CI engine is applied in all the fields where engine efficiency is more
important than its weight and dimensions:
 Medium-high power range: trucks, locomotive, tractors, automobile,
marine, power generation.
• The SI engine is applied where aspects such as power to weight ratio, reduced
noise and reduced dimensions are more important than efficiency:
 Medium-low power range: motorcycles, automobiles, small devices.
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Geometry and operating parameters DI MILANO
The main important factors for engine operation

are:
1) the engine’s performance over its operating

range.
2) The engine’s fuel consumption within its
operating range and the cost of the required
fuel.
3) The engine’s noise and air pollutant emissions
within its operating range.
4) The initial cost of the engine and its
installation.
5) The reliability and durability of the engine, its
maintenance requirements, and how these
affect engine availability and operating costs.
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We will mainly focus on engine efficiency and

performance. Engine performance is more
precisely defined by:
1) The maximum power and the maximum

torque available at each speed within the
useful engine operating range.
2) The range of speed and power over which
engine operation is satisfactory.
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The following performance definitions are

commonly used:
• Maximum rated power: the highest power an

engine is allowed to develop for short periods
of operation.
• Normal rated power: the highest power an

engine is allowed to develop in continuous
operation.
• Rated speed: the crankshaft rotational speed at

which rated power is developed.
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Vc Compression ratio rc:

TDC
D maximum cylinder v olume Vd  Vc
rc  
minimum cylinder v olume Vc
S
Vd • Vd : displaced (or swept) volume
BDC • Vc : clearance volume
Ratio of stroke to cylinder bore:

l S
s Rbs 
D
Ratio of connecting rod to crank radius:
θ l

r r
Stroke and crank radius are related:
S  2r
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Vc
TDC
D Typical values for such parameters are:
S
• rc = 8 – 12 for SI engines; rc = 12 – 24
Vd
for CI engines.
BDC
• S/D = 0.8 – 1.2 for small and medium-
size engines, decreasing to 2-3 for
l
s large, low speed CI engines.
•  = 3 – 4 for small and medium size

θ engines, increasing to 5 – 9 for large,
low speed CI engines.
r
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Cylinder volume at any crank position:

 D2
V  Vc  l  r  s 
4
s is the distance between the crank center and the
piston pin center, given by:

s  r cos q  l 2  r 2 sin 2 q 
1/ 2
An important characteristic speed is the

mean piston speed Sp : S p  2S  n
(n [rps] is the rotational speed of the crankshaft)
Mean piston speed is often a more appropriate parameter than crank rotational
speed for correlating engine behavior as a function of speed. For example, gas flow
velocities in the intake and cylinder all scale with Sp. Resistance to gas flow into the
engine or stresses due to inertia of the moving parts limits the mean piston speed
in the 8-15 m/s range.
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Brake torque and power

A dynamometer is used to measure the engine torque. The engine is clamped on a
test bed and the shaft is connected to the dynamometer rotor. The rotor is coupled
electromagnetically, hydraulically or by mechanical friction to a stator, which is
supported in low friction bearings. The stator is balanced with the rotor stationary.
The torque exerted on the stator with the rotor turning is measured by balancing
the stator with weights, springs, or pneumatic means.
The torque exerted by the engine is T:
T  F  b [N·m]
The power delivered by the engine and
absorbed by the dynamometer is the
product of the torque and the rotational
speed (brake power):
P    T  2  n  T [kW]
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Indicated cycle, indicated work per cycle Four-stroke, naturally

aspirated engine
• The work transfer from the gas to the
A
pressure
piston can be computed from in-cylinder
pressure measurements.
• A p-V diagram can be used to plot the
pressure and the corresponding in- B
Vc Vd
cylinder volume throughout an engine volume
cycle. Two-stroke engine
• The indicated work per cycle (per cylinder)
is obtained by integrating along the curve,
pressure
to obtain the area enclosed in the
diagram:
Li   pdV
Vc Vd
volume
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Indicated cycle, indicated work per cycle
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Indicated cycle, indicated work per cycle
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Indicated mean effective pressure (imep) = pmi
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(Pb = Pe)
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Brake mean effective pressure (bmep) = pme
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Mean effective pressure:
BMEP ranges for different internal combustion engine types.
8 – 11 bar (max torque) 10 – 14 bar (max torque)

NA, SI engines TC, CI engines
7 – 10 bar (max power) 8 – 10 bar (max power)
12 – 18 bar (max torque) CI engines, two
TC, SI engines 16 bar (max power)
9 – 14 bar (max power) stroke
*NA: naturally aspirated; TC: turbocharged; SI: spark-ignition; CI: compression ignition
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Engine efficiency:
energy flow diagram for IC engine
Heat losses
Fuel chemical energy
Mechanical work
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Specific fuel consumption

• In engine tests, the fuel consumption is measured as flow rate (mass flow per
unit time). A more useful parameter is the brake specific fuel consumption
(bsfc) – the fuel flow rate per unit brake power output. It measures how
efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work:
m f  g   g 
bsfc    or   (cs = bsfc)
Pb  MJ   kWh 
• Low values of bsfc are obviously desirable:
 best values for SI engines: ≈ 270 g/kWh

 best values for CI engines: < 200 g/kWh
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Engine efficiency
• A measure of the engine efficiency is the ratio of the work produced per cycle
to the amount of fuel energy supplied per cycle that can be released in the
combustion process.
• The fuel energy supplied which can be released by combustion is given by the
mass of fuel supplied to the engine per cycle times the heating value of the
fuel.
• The fuel energy content is defined by its heating value of the fuel, QHV.
It is determined by means of a calorimeter.
 cycle  1 (two  stroke),
• The engine efficiency is defined as follows:
2 ( four  stroke)

L

P   cycle / n

P
m f  QHV m f   cycle / n  QHV m f  QHV
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Engine efficiency
Indicated efficiency: Brake efficiency:
Pi Pb 1
i  b  
m f  QHV m f  QHV bsfc  QHV
• Heating values for the most common used hydrocarbon fuels are in the
42 – 44 MJ/kg range.
• QHV for biofuels is slightly lower (≈30 MJ/kg) because they are oxygenated.
• Natural gas has an heating value of about 50 MJ/kg
• Hydrogen has the highest value of QHV (140 MJ/kg) and for this reason there is
always a great interest in using it as a fuel in IC engines.
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Air/fuel ratio
• In engine tests, both the air and fuel mass flows are usually measured. The
ratio of these flow rates is useful in defining engine operating conditions:
Air/fuel ratio  A / F    
m a
Equivalence ratio   
 A / F stoich
m f A / F 
• In SI engines using gasoline fuels and exhaust after treatment devices A/F ratio
is mainly in the 14.5 – 14.7 range since these engines has to work mainly under
stoichiometric conditions to ensure maximum conversion efficiency for the
three-way catalyst. The A/F ratio is then reduced at high load to increase the
performance and avoid excessive thermal stresses.
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Air/fuel ratio
• In engine tests, both the air and fuel mass flows are usually measured. The
ratio of these flow rates is useful in defining engine operating conditions:
Air/fuel ratio  A / F    
m a
Equivalence ratio   
 A / F stoich
m f A / F 
• In CI engines with diesel fuels, A/F is in the 18 – 70 range. In such engines,

exhaust after-treatment devices (oxy-catalayst and DPF) does not require the
engine to run under stoichiometric conditions.
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Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio
 Complete fuel oxidation: for 1 mole of fuel, C n H m , we need
 m  m
 n  O2   n  3.7619 N 2
 4  4
moles of oxygen and corresponding nitrogen (air), in fact:
 m  m
Cn H m   n  O2  3.7619 N 2   nCO2  H 2O  3.7619   n   N 2
m
 4 2  4
 Hence the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio st can be evaluated as:
 m

 n   WO2  3.7619 WN 2  • Rich mixture:  < st
 st  
4
• Lean mixture:  > st
WCn H m
(W = molar mass)
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Volumetric efficiency
• In an engine intake system we can find: air filter,
throttle plate (in SI engines), intake manifold, intake
ports, intake valves.
• The presence of all these components restricts the

amount of air which an engine of given displacement
can induct.
• The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of the an engine’s
induction process is the volumetric efficiency v.
• Volumetric efficiency measures the engine capability to fill its displacement

with air. For this reason, it is defined as the ratio between the trapped air
mass per cycle and the theoretical amount of mass that can fill the engine
displacement at reference conditions.
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Volumetric efficiency (v or v )
ma ma m a   cycle / n
V     ma : trapped air mass per cycle
mt  a V  a V  mt : theoretical amount of mass that
can fill the cylinder displaced volume
 a: air density at reference conditions
 a  V V a (n /  cycle )
m  V : cylinder displaced volume
• The inlet density may be taken as the atmosphere air density (in such a case
the v measures the overall pumping performance of the intake manifold,
intake port and valve).
• When the inlet density is taken as the air density in the intake manifold, v
measures the pumping performance of the inlet port and valve only.
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Volumetric efficiency (v or v )
ma ma m a   cycle / n
V     ma : trapped air mass per cycle
mt  a V  a V  mt : theoretical amount of mass that
can fill the cylinder displaced volume
 a: air density at reference conditions
 a  V V a (n /  cycle )
m  V : cylinder displaced volume
• Typical values: 0.8-0.9 for NA, SI engines at full load (sometimes also greater
than 1.0). Volumetric efficiency is higher for Diesel engines and for
turbocharged engines.
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Relationships between performance parameters

• The importance of the parameters previously defined becomes evident
when engine power, torque and mean effective pressure are expressed as
function of these parameters.
• From the definitions of engine power, mean effective pressure, fuel/air ratio
and volumetric efficiency, different expressions between engine parameters
can be developed:
• brake Power P:
n n ma n
Pb  Lb   b  mc  QHV   b   QHV   ....
 cycle  cycle   cycle
V  a n
Pb  b  v   QHV 
  cycle
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• brake Torque T:
Pb Pb V  a 1
Tb    b  v   QHV 
 2 n  2   cycle
V n
• brake mean effective pressure bmep: Pb  o  Pi  bmep 
 cycle
V  a n
Pb  b  v   QHV 
  cycle
 cycle a V
bmep  pme  Pb  b  v   QHV Tb  bmep 
Vn  2  cycle
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• The previous relationships illustrate how the engine performance is
influenced by:
 Fuel conversion efficiency

 Volumetric efficiency
 Increasing the output of a given displacement engine by increasing the
inlet air density
 Minimum air/fuel ratio that can be usefully burned in the engine
 High mean piston speed
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Comparing different engines using normalized parameters
• At maximum or normal rated point:
 Mean piston speed: measures comparative success in handling loads

due to inertia of the parts, resistance to air flow, and/or engine friction.
 Brake mean effective pressure (bmep): it reflects the product of the

volumetric efficiency (ability to induct air), air/fuel ratio (effectiveness
of air utilization during combustion) and fuel conversion efficiency. In
turbocharged engines bmep indicates the degree of success in handling
higher gas pressures and thermal loading.
 Specific weight: relative economy with which materials are used.
 Specific volume: relative effectiveness with which engine space has

been utilized.
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Chapt1 - Classification & Parameters

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POLITECNICO

• Important engine characteristics

• IC-engine: internal combustion engine.

• It is a thermal, volumetric machine producing power.

• The working fluids are:

1) Application. Automobile, truck, locomotive, aircraft, marine, portable power

Automobile Truck Locomotive Marine

Aircraft Portable Power-generation

2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

In-line, four-cylinder engine

2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

2) Basic engine design. Reciprocating engine (in-line, V, radial, opposed piston),

3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

Four-stroke, naturally aspirated engine

• Total displacement: 1368 cm3

3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

Four-stroke, supercharged engine

• Total displacement: 4196 cm3

3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

Four-stroke, turbocharged engine

• Total displacement: 1368 cm3

3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

3) Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

Gasoline engine, Intake system

Exhaust after-treatment Exhaust

Passenger car equipped with a

6) Method of mixture preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into the intake

Carbureted engine Port-fuel injection (PFI) engine

6) Method of mixture preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into the intake

7) Method of ignition. Spark-ignition (in conventional engines where the

spark plug Fuel injector

Diffusion combustion; Homogeneous, low

8) Combustion chamber design. Open-chamber (disc, wedge, hemisphere,

10) Method of cooling. Water cooled, air cooled, uncooled.

• Working cycle. Four stroke cycle: naturally aspirated (admitting atmospheric

• Method of ignition. Spark-ignition (in conventional engines where the

SI: Spark-ignition; D: diesel; A: air cooled; W: water cooled

Vc • The minimum cylinder volume is called

TC • The volume swept out by the piston, the

• The ratio between the maximum total volume

Vc • Bore (D): cylinder diameter.

The majority of reciprocating engines operate on a four-stroke cycle: each cylinder

3) A power stroke (or expansion stroke), which starts

4) An exhaust stroke, where the remaining burned

The four-stroke cycle requires, for each engine cylinder,

1) A compression stroke, which

Two-stroke engines: advantages

Two-stroke engines: disadvantages

1) Lower efficiency (higher fuel consumption) compared to four-stroke engines. A

Applications of four-stroke engines (1 kW – 1 MW): automobiles, truck, marine,

• Load control is achieved by means of a throttle valve (and/or valve timing),

• Crank angle is a useful independent variable because engine processes

• Maximum brake torque timing (MBT): this optimum timing is an empirical

• In compression-ignition engines, air alone is induced into the cylinder. The

• In turbocharged engines, the inlet air is compressed by an exhaust driven

Volume variation law

Injected fuel mass flow rate

SOI: start of injection / EOI: end of injection

In-cylinder pressure profile

Heat relase rate profile

Compression-ignition engines: disadvantages