Learner Guide

ICTICT501
Research and review hardware
technology options for
organisations
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Determine organisational needs..........................................................................3
1.1 Establish organisational needs and selection criteria for new technology.....................3
1.2 Review strategic goals and determine future requirements..........................................11
1.3 Assess physical infrastructure and financial parameters against strategic goals..........16
Chapter 2. Research vendors, suppliers and ICT industry specialists....................................23
2.1 Determine suitable suppliers and vendors......................................................................23
2.2 Source information from suppliers and vendors...........................................................27
2.3 Assess vendor information against industry standards.................................................30
2.4 Review emerging standards and applications for compatibility with supplier and
vendor information.............................................................................................................32
Chapter 3. Evaluate and report on hardware technology options..........................................36
3.1 Review and test hardware to identify suitability for organisational requirements.......36
3.2 Identify possible project risks associated with identified hardware............................46
3.3 Document findings in a report and present to appropriate person................................49

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Chapter 1: Determine organisational needs
Determine System Hardware Requirements

Once you determine the source of the program, whether a commercial or an in-house program, you need
to look at what type of hardware will be required.

Commercial software will have the hardware requirements stated in the paperwork. The users may have
certain hardware requirements dictated to them that will have to be met. For example, a laser printer, a
specific type of floppy drive, or a CD-ROM drive may be required. For in-house programs, it may be more
difficult to determine the hardware needed until the program specifications are complete.

When additional hardware is required, you should first determine if it is available at the facility. You may
find the hardware needed is not being used where it is located, and you can move it to meet the new
requirements. If the hardware is not available at the facility, begin the acquisition process. This process is
the same as for software, except, in most cases, the requirements will have to go out on bids to several
companies. With this process, it may take a long time to receive the hardware, for this you should plan
accordingly.

Calculating Hardware Requirements

To calculate hardware capacity requirements:

 Evaluate the complexity of your application, comparing it to one or more of the applications
described in Examining Results from the Baseline Applications. The example in Guidelines for
Calculating Hardware Requirements identifies this value as the Complexity Factor. If your
application is about as complex as one of the baselines, your Complexity Factor = 1.
 Consider what throughput is required for your application. In the example, this is called the
Required TPS (transactions per second).
 Take the preferred hardware TPS value from the appropriate table. The example in Guidelines
for Calculating Hardware Requirements identifies this value as the Reference TPS.

1.1 Establish organisational needs and selection

criteria for new technology
Technology and Organizational Structure
An organization and its technology need structure. Much like your information technology networks
and systems have an architecture, so does an organization itself. Businesses organize themselves to
best achieve their goals and accomplish all their necessary tasks. To ensure an organizational
structure is truly viable, it has to take into account the technologically-related operations,
infrastructure and functions.

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Organizational Structure

The groupings of a company's functions, positions and operations form an organizational structure.
Typically, companies express their structures visually on an organizational chart. Charts show the
positions within an organisations, the roles they play and the relationships between them --
including supervisory relationships. Focusing on organizational structure and its design helps
companies gain clarity on what they are doing currently, their ideal functioning and how they can
achieve it.

Organizational Design

When business leaders undertake the process of designing or revising their organizational structures,
they must first take a full inventory of the tasks and goals of their companies. They look to see which
functions and tasks are not being accomplished as well as any current redundancies or inefficiencies.
All aspects, duties and positions in the organization must be taken into account, including
information technology. In fact, once companies reach a certain size, they usually designate at least
one person, if not a team of people to be an IT department - responsible for handling all of the
technological aspects of a company.

Security Concerns

Information technology is so central to how a company operates. Networks and computers hold data
on finances, company secrets, personal information and sometimes in the case of banks, hospitals
and insurance companies -- data which companies have a legal obligation to safeguard. Network
administrators and computer technicians who have too much access to a company's data can
present a breach of security. Because of this, many companies plan IT positions so that no one
person has all access or unmonitored access to important systems and data.

Multiple Systems

Companies that employ multiple, sophisticated computer and technological systems often find it
necessary to structure their divide their IT staff into specialties. One system may require special
programming and support that only some people know. Others that are vital to safety and security --
such as communications company servers and switches or hospital networks -- may require round-
the-clock monitoring by trained personnel. Organizational structures must take account of these
needs and delineate how the organization is addressing them.

Divisions

As companies grow and develop new lines of business or acquire other companies, they often
choose to organize their diverse operations in separate divisions. Typically, divisions run somewhat
autonomously, each with its own structure, leadership and approaches while all reporting to a
common top management. Divisions usually have different needs and systems, which make
supporting them all more challenging to a centralized IT department. Therefore, rather than

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specializing in one type of software or hardware and providing support across the company,
companies may prefer their IT staff to be generalists attuned to a division's particular needs.

Technology's Impact on Organisations

Technology has revolutionized the way companies conduct business by enabling small businesses to
level the playing field with larger organizations. Small businesses use an array of tech -- everything
from servers to mobile devices -- to develop competitive advantages in the economic marketplace.
Small business owners should consider implementing technology in their planning process for
streamlined integration and to make room for future expansion. This allows owners to create
operations using the most effective technology available.

Impact on Operating Costs

Small business owners can use technology to reduce business costs. Basic enterprise software
enables a firm to automate back office functions, such as record keeping, accounting and payroll.
Mobile tech allows home offices and field reps to interact in real time. For example, field reps can
use mobile apps to record their daily expenses as they incur them and have them sync automatically
with accounting software back at the office. Business owners can also use technology to create
secure environments for maintaining sensitive business or consumer information. Many types of
business technology or software programs are user-friendly and allow business owners with only
minor backgrounds in information technology to make the most of their tools and features.

Improved Communication

Business technology helps small businesses improve their communication processes. Emails, texting,
websites and apps, for example, facilitate improved communication with consumers. Using several
types of information technology communication methods enable companies to saturate the
economic market with their message. Companies may also receive more consumer feedback through
these electronic communication methods. Technology also improves inter-office communication as
well. For example, social intranet software gives employees a centralizes portal to access and update
internal documents and contracts and relay relevant data to other departments instantly. These
methods also help companies reach consumers through mobile devices in a real-time format.

Increased Productivity

Small businesses can increase their employees' productivity through the use of technology.
Computer programs and business software usually allow employees to process more information
than manual methods. Business owners can also implement business technology to reduce the
amount of human labour in business functions. This allows small businesses to avoid paying labour
costs along with employee benefits. Even fundamental business tech can have a major impact on
employee performance. For example, by placing employee-performance appraisal information in an
online framework, supervisors can easily create measurable goals for their employees to reach and

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sustain company objectives. Business owners may also choose to expand operations using
technology rather than employees if the technology will provide better production output.

Broaden Customer Bases

Technology allows small businesses to reach new economic markets. Rather than just selling
consumer goods or services in the local market, small businesses can reach regional, national and
international markets. Retail websites are the most common way small businesses sell products in
several different economic markets. Websites represent a low-cost option that consumers can
access 24/7 when needing to purchase goods or services. Small business owners can also use
internet advertising to reach new markets and customers through carefully placed web banners or
ads.

Collaboration and Outsourcing

Business technology allows companies to outsource business functions to other businesses in the
national and international business environment. Outsourcing can help companies lower costs and
focus on completing the business function they do best. Technical support and customer service are
two common function companies outsource. Small business owners may consider outsourcing some
operations if they do not have the proper facilities or available manpower. Outsourcing technology
also allows businesses to outsource function to the least expensive areas possible, including foreign
countries.

Relationship Between technology and organisational behaviour

A traditional model gets a “facelift.” In addition to part-time and full-time employees, chances are
good that you're also going to work with freelance professionals and professional service firms to
augment your small-business needs. Even employers who resisted the trend toward engaging with
contract workers are finally realizing that one of the most positive impacts of technology on
organizations is the opportunity to “optimize risk and not just minimize risk,” Rise Smart says. This
requires some paradigm shifts. For example, instead of worrying about how to minimize the risk of
turnover or the risk of poor performance, the company suggests that business owners focus instead
on how to prepare employees for organizational change and how to engage them to become more
flexible and adaptable.

A perfect storm develops. The Organizational development is essentially about breeding greater
efficiency and effectiveness. The same goals drive the integration of artificial intelligence and
robotics in the workplace. Of course, convincing your employees may take some doing on your part;
they may be fearful that they will be replaced or usurped by machines. No doubt you will have to
steer this paradigm shift, too. The ideal is to create an operational environment where humans focus
on ideas, innovation and change while everything that is executed more than once is automated.

Organisation needs for technology

There are infinite reasons why technology is important in business. Whether we like it or not, the
role of technology in business is expanding and will only keep growing in the future. Businesses owe

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it to their operations, employees, and bottom-line to utilize the new technological innovations.
Businesses can no longer devalue the importance of technology in business, they must embrace the
benefits of technology.

1. Technology improves business' communication.

Businesses rely on several aspects of technology for communication such as email, Skype, instant
messaging, business phones, video conferencing technology, etc. Communication breakdowns can
lead to disasters for businesses and employees. Technology can assist in ensuring that you are
prepared for even the most difficult communication obstacles.

2. Technology increases efficiency.

It's no secret that there have been some awesome technological advancements in recent years.
Advancements such as Lifesize's video conferencing technology and Zulty's VOIP phone cloud
solution are strategically designed to improve efficiency and reduce lay time in the office.

3. New innovations protect important assets.

Cyber-attacks are growing at an alarming rate. So too are the amazing cyber-security defences such
as Sophos' Deep Learning technology. In an age where almost all-important business assets are
stored in the cloud or on endpoints, it is imperative that businesses employ security technology to
protect those assets.

4. Employees demand it.

The role of technology in business is not new, but it is expanding. Employees expect their employers
to provide them with the latest and greatest technology which will, in turn, help them be successful
in fulfilling their job responsibilities. It is hard to compete against businesses that fully employ
technology advancements when your own business is lagging in their technology.

5. With technology, there are no limitation

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We know this principle is true from first-hand experience. We are a company that has 20 employees
stationed in 10 different locations across the North-western United States. If it wasn't for
technology, we simply wouldn't be successful in coordinating all of the employees. Businesses across
the nation are diverse in needs, culture, and education. Advances in technology can help businesses
address these differences unlike ever before. There is no limit to what can be accomplished by a
business that employs a successful technology plan.

6. Technology keeps employees engaged.

Technology keeps employees engaged in many different ways. It allows employees to telecommute
to work. It encourages collaboration between coworkers in businesses through tools such as file
sharing. It improves communication. It reduces stress by allowing you to schedule important
deadlines and meetings on your electronic calendar. It also gives employees flexibility to perform
work functions on your mobile device.

7. Tons of new resources exist that can improve your business.

Technology is growing fast, prices are dropping, and new innovations are being rolled out constantly.
If you haven't been consistently looking out for new technology to assist your business, chances are
that you have missed something. For example, the Comfort Company implemented video
conferencing technology that saved them time and costs while improving relationships and
communication. Savage Public Schools discovered the need to totally revamp their technology and
have since enjoyed an improved school system. There certainly are technology solutions out there
that can improve your business.

8. Technology is necessary to succeed.

Whether you like it or not, technology is essential to business success. Employees rely on it for day-
to-day operations. Outside companies, clients, and prospective clients evaluate you on your use of
technology. HR relies on technology to train and develop employees. Accounting employees rely on
technology to complete payroll and execute necessary monetary management functions.

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Management relies on technology to communicate with those they supervise. Without technology,
companies would almost certainly fail to accomplish all that there is to do.

9. Technology increases the capacity of businesses.

Technology allows businesses to reach more people in less time. For example, here at Pine Cove, we
use a variety of technology mediums to communicate with our clients, potential clients, and experts
in the industry. We use technology to host monthly webinars, to send out e-newsletters, and publish
news and blogs. Technology also increases the capacity of businesses to work together through
technology such as CRM's.

10. Technology saves time and money

Lastly, technology now performs many of the mundane tasks that employees used to be expected to
perform. This allows employees to focus their time elsewhere on more important duties. This can
save money by cutting back on employee expenses and improving productivity.

Optimising the selection criteria for selecting the technology

Applications and technology have been integrated into almost all organizations. The organizations
will have implemented an application that directs the business process(es). Change, however, is
inevitable in business and technology, the organization has to consider how to move to the next
technology. One of the basic decisions involves determining how to select the technology. The
Information Systems field has a number of theories, including the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA)
and Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), that define the concept of developing an intention which
results in a behaviour.

The organizations technology purchasing decision is based on rational criteria. The Theory of
Reasoned Action (TRA) has the factors of attitude and subjective norm which provides an intention
that leads to behaviour.

The Technology Acceptance Model or TAM includes preconceived notions of the subject or evaluator
which influence the evaluation process. The Technology Selection Model takes the preconceived
notion and separates out the outside influences; the impact of peers and the impact of vendor
marketing efforts.

Technology Selection Model (TSM)

The current theories of TRA and TAM present the intent of the user but do not include the elements
that make up that intent. The Technology Selection Model provides those elements and is built on
both Information Systems and Consumer Behaviour research.

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From an Information Systems perspective a technology is evaluated on known costs and benefits.
The goal is to optimize the selection according to the technological parameters. The evaluators may
not know all of the benefits, costs, or limitations so the evaluation will include some “leaps of faith”
based on information from outside influences such as the vendors or peer organizations. Other
models exist which include alternative selection methods such as Fuzzy selection criteria in an
unknown environment.
It consists of three constraints to the initial evaluation process: Benefits, Costs and Preconceived
Notions. These general aspects will determine the basis of any technology selection. General ballpark
numbers are used to start either a formalized purchasing or general exploratory process. These
factors are basis of the TRA model.

The TSM allows for five components to affect the evaluation process: Peer and Market Information,
Vendor Marketing Efforts, Technical Evaluation, Organizational Fit and Satisficing. Satisficing is the
concept introduced by Heb Simon that allows for the selection of a product that is not the best but
good enough. The peer and market information as well as the vendor marketing efforts are grouped
together since they relate to outside influences that are considered in the evaluation process. The
Technical Evaluation, Organizational Fit, and Satisficing concepts are grouped together since they
relate to technology reviews in relation to the organizations context or internal influences.

The TSM also includes a feedback loop. The results from any technology decision will be
remembered during the next selection process. This information becomes part of the pre-conceived
notions. This information can be related to the quality of the technology or the information. If peer
or vendor information was incorrect, that information may or may not be considered in the next
evaluation. Should a vendor perform poorly, then that vendor may be precluded from the next
process as part of the pre-conceived notion.

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Technical Evaluation

The technical evaluation is the comparison of the proposal against the initially identified criteria. The
questions that should be asked include: is the bid complete, what elements have functions that are
underbid and does the bid have components that the vendor has added function beyond the
requirements. The philosophy for IBM and many other vendors in responding to a bid is to never say
that an element was not available as requested. They would respond that it is available but, in a
vendor, specified way. Common practice is that a proposal could be rejected if any element is not
available.
Depending on the size of the organization or project, the evaluation may be done by a committee or
an individual. A committee will value the various factors differently according to each of their own
perspectives. There will be an impact which would be defined by organizational theory. The outside
factors would be the same, but the criteria may be slightly different.

Satisficing

The Satisficing principle is part of a technology selection process. The normal evaluation process
would include a straight cost benefit analysis which looks for the best solution, but the process
needs to have a definition of how the evaluator defines the term best. There is the common business
development thought: If you bill a better mousetrap the world will beat a path to your door, the
addendum would be but not if the competitor is cheaper and good enough. There are a number of
examples of superior technology that is discarded for technology that industry thinks is good
enough.

In many cases a decision maker will look for all of the possible options and then scale back the
options to meet the budget or desired goals. The philosophy of what are all of the things in a Cadillac
and how many of them can we afford? The evaluator needs to identify which features are required.
In many organizations the evaluator will identify the have to have items separately from the nice to
have or future desired items. The beginning of Satisficing is defining what are the have to have items.

One market example of the satisficing concept is the Token-Ring (TR) versus Ethernet networking
battle. Token-Ring was a superior technology to the Ethernet 10BaseT technology. The issue was that
the TR adapters were priced significantly higher than comparable Ethernet adapters costing $200
and $100 respectively. The marketplace found that the cheaper Ethernet technology was sufficient.
A similar battle happened with the operating systems OS/2 versus Windows. OS/2 had arguably
better technology than Windows. OS/2 was developed as a joint project between IBM and Microsoft.
There was a falling out in the relationship between these behemoths. Each company started to
develop their own products. Again, IBM priced its product too high for the marketplace. They felt
that the value offered was worth the price. The marketplace found that the Windows product was
sufficient.

Some of the socio-economic factors that vendors will be evaluated on:

Business Issues: Financial Case and long-term company viability.

Customer Capability: customer experience with product, Expectations, Internal politics

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Marketplace Variables: product or technology reputation, maturity/stability, restrictions, market
trends and viability of products or technology over the long-term
Vendor Capability Variables: vendor profile, reputation, certification, stability, availability

1.2 Review strategic goals and determine future

requirements
Strategic Objectives or goals

Strategic objectives are long-term organizational goals that help to convert a mission statement from
a broad vision into more specific plans and projects. They set the major benchmarks for success and
are designed to be measurable, specific and realistic translations of the mission statement that can
be used by management to guide decision-making. Strategic objectives are usually developed as a
part of a two- to four-year plan that identifies key strengths and weaknesses and sets out the specific
expectations that will allow the company or organization to achieve its more broad-based mission or
vision statement.

IT strategic plan (information technology strategic plan)

An information technology (IT) strategic plan is a document that details the comprehensive
technology-enabled business management processes an organization uses to guide operations. It
serves as a guide to IT-related decision making, with IT tasks prioritized and implemented using the
plan as a framework.

The plan also helps guide an organization as it formulates its overall IT strategy. While an IT strategy
focuses on how IT will help the business succeed, an IT strategic plan is a roadmap to help the
business implement those strategies. The plan outlines areas where IT can contribute business value
and where an organization can gain competitive advantage by making the best use of technology
resources.

The objectives outlined in an organization's IT strategic plan align with the organization's goals and
mission but are pliable enough to accommodate new business priorities and technologies that have
the potential for driving business growth. It is important for an organization's IT team to know its
priorities and identify the IT projects that the business should invest in. According to Gartner, an IT
research and consultancy company, the plan delineates what has to be done, in what priority and
how the plan's success will be measured.

Components of an IT strategic plan

The IT strategic plan should outline a mission statement that states what it plans to achieve and how
the IT strategy relates to the organization's overall business objectives. Often the first step to
creating an effective IT strategic plan is to start with reviewing the organization's strategic plan,
which helps in identifying the areas where the use of technology can improve operations.

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The IT strategic plan should include a SWOT analysis of its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats to identify both internal and external factors that can affect IT's ability to contribute to an
organization's success. This process will also help analyse the gap between where the IT department
currently is in achieving its goals and what it wants to achieve. The department can then identify the
barriers and the resources needed to bridge the gap.

The SWOT analysis also helps to identify any of the company's technological assets that might be an
unknown competitive advantage and that the organization should consider investing.

Finally, it is important that the IT strategic plan be clear about its ultimate goals, including a list of
technology investments that the IT department deems a priority to contribute to the organization's
success. However, the plan should also include evaluations of the company's current IT budget and
allocate project-specific resources and responsibilities within the IT department to meet these
objectives.

1. Mission statement

A mission statement is a communication of an organization’s purpose, usually expressed with public

relations (PR) or marketing in mind.

Mission statements should be brief and clearly articulated statements of the most important things
potential customers or the general public should know about the organization. Typically, a mission
statement answers these three questions: What do you do, how do you do it, and why do you do it?
Many organizations also provide vision statements, which describe mid-term and long-term goals.

2. SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis)

SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats analysis) is a framework for
identifying and analysing the internal and external factors that can have an impact on the viability of
a project, product, place or person.

SWOT analysis is most commonly used by business entities, but it is also used by non-profit
organizations and, to a lesser degree, individuals for personal assessment. Additionally, it can be
used to assess initiatives, products or projects.

When and why you should do a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis is often used at the start of or as part of a strategic planning exercise. The
framework is considered a powerful support for decision-making because it enables an entity to
uncover opportunities for success that were previously unarticulated or to highlight threats before
they become overly burdensome. For example, this exercise can identify a market niche in which a
business has a competitive advantage or help individuals plot career success by pinpointing a path
that maximizes their strengths while alerting them to threats that can thwart achievement.

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Elements of a SWOT analysis

As its name states, a SWOT analysis examines four elements:

 Strengths: Internal attributes and resources that support a successful outcome

 Weaknesses: Internal attributes and resources that work against a successful outcome
 Opportunities: External factors that the entity can capitalize on or use to its advantage
 Threats: External factors that could jeopardize the entity's success

A SWOT matrix is often used to organize items identified under each of these four elements. A SWOT
matrix is usually a square divided into four quadrants, with each quadrant representing one of the
specific elements. Decision-makers identify and list specific strengths in the first quadrant,
weaknesses in the next, then opportunities and, lastly, threats.

Entities undertaking a SWOT analysis can opt to use any one of the various SWOT analysis templates
in existence; these templates are generally variations of the standard four-quadrant SWOT matrix.

How to do a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis generally requires decision-makers to first specify the objective they hope to
achieve for the business, organization, initiative or individual.
From there, the decision-makers list the strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities and
threats.

Cate Costa provides an example of a simple SWOT analysis.

Various tools exist to guide decision-makers through the process, often using a series of questions
under each of the four elements. For example, decision-makers may be guided through questions
such as "What do you do better than anyone else?" and "What advantages do you have?" to identify
strengths; they may be asked "Where do you need improvement?” to identify weaknesses. Similarly,
they'd run through questions such as "What market trends could increase sales?" and "Where do
your competitors have market advantages?" to identify opportunities and threats.

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Using a SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis should be used to help an entity -- whether it is an organization or an individual -- to

gain insight into its current and future position in the marketplace or against a stated goal.
The idea is that because entities can see competitive advantages and positive prospects, as well as
existing and potential problems, they can develop plans to capitalize on positives, address deficits or
do both.

In other words, once the SWOT factors are identified, decision-makers should be better able to
ascertain if an initiative, project or product is worth pursuing and what is required to make it
successful. As such, the analysis aims to help an organization match its resources to the competitive
environment in which it operates.

3. IT budget (information technology budget)

IT budget is the amount of money spent on an organization's information technology systems and
services, including compensation for IT professionals and expenses related to the construction and
maintenance of enterprise-wide systems and services.

The IT budget is typically overseen by the chief information officer (CIO), the IT organization's top
executive. However, as IT has become central to business results, the scope and allocation of an IT
budget has become more complex, because not all IT spending falls within the IT department.

In fact, current studies have found that 35% to 50% of an organization's overall expenditure on
technology is controlled by business divisions others than IT. Case in point: In PwC’s 6th Annual
Digital IQ Survey report, released in March 2014, on average, 47% of IT spending reported by survey
respondents was outside of the CIO’s budget.

IT budget components

If that's indeed the case, what does the IT budget include -- and what is likely outside its confines?
To start, compensation costs for IT professionals fall within the IT budget, including costs for external
consultants used by the IT department. Expenses related to building and maintaining enterprise-
wide and so-called back-office systems are also included in an IT budget. These encompass, for
example, the enterprise resource planning (ERP) application as well as accounting, finance and HR
applications.
The IT budget also encompasses hardware expenditures; bills for laptops, organization-issued mobile
devices, servers, routers and other networking equipment, for example, are typically paid out of the
IT department.

Other costs that usually reside within the IT budget include data center expenses and bills for cloud
platforms.

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Items that tend to fall outside the IT budget include applications deployed for and used by specific
business units. Marketing applications, such as those that enable social media campaigns and
content management systems, are cases in point; those costs tend to fall under the marketing spend
rather than the IT budget.

IT budget approval process

Although the CIO has responsibility for the IT budget, the CIO is not the only person to devise and
approve of the entire package. Indeed, even for the technology spend that falls within the IT
department and thus with centralized IT budgets, CIOs often devise and manage that budget in
conjunction with executive IT steering committees; other executives and directors; and other
information chief executives, including the chief digital officer, the chief data officer and the chief
analytics officer.

While the IT budget rarely includes all of an organization's technology spending, best practices
dictates that the IT department still gather a holistic view of technology costs regardless of where
they reside. This allows IT leaders as well as the rest of the C-suite to ensure that there are no
redundancies between the centralized IT budget and other business unit budgets, thereby keeping
overall IT spending lean and in check.
Technology Trends for the actual and future business competitiveness

1) Big data to power an intelligent system: Data is something that all companies have, and their
most important resource. Big data was created to analyse and manage the huge amount of
digitally-available information, whose primary objective is to make smarter decisions and more
accurate predictions for companies.

2) Machine learning will make great strides: Also known as automated learning, machine learning
is expected to be consolidated as a tool that helps companies obtain a greater commercial value
and benefit from the data they already own.

So, in addition to ensuring the collection and storage of vast amounts of data, it's important to
know how to use them, group them in clusters and create projective learning models by
developing algorithms that make the interpretation and benefit from the available information
possible. This will help you detect similar behavioural patterns and make more accurate
predictions.

3) Artificial intelligence as the key to business breakthrough: Quintessentially, this is the tool of
the New Age. Artificial intelligence aims to emulate human behaviour (the ability to make
decisions, learn, comprehend, develop language and communicate interpersonally, etc.) and
even improve it (cognitive computing). In fact, many of the other trends only make sense or work
thanks to AI.

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 Developing intelligent systems that can run independently and self-adapt will be an important
goal for technology experts and suppliers. Investments in AI made by organizations should focus
on arranging and integrating data, creating algorithms, selecting training methodology, and
creating models.

4) The sudden use of blockchain: Cryptocurrencies took their first steps. And developers are
starting to find new ways to use them outside of finance. The possibility of creating easily
distributed, public, and resistant databases is definitely gaining attention. Blockchain technology
will transform the way we store and manage data, creating a database that will be lightyears
ahead of the current centralized models.

5) Edge computing, the new cloud: Within this context, IT experts seek to create the most diverse
and advanced artificial intelligence capacities in a platform environment on the open cloud. Edge
computing was created to revolutionize the traditional idea behind the cloud. It refers to the
power of data processing around a network, instead of handling it in a cloud or central data
repository.

6) The Internet of things (IoT) will continue to take the lead: The Internet of things has been one
of the most popular terms over the past few years in the technology industry. It refers to the
networking of all kinds of things through the Internet. It aims to make devices communicate with
each other and, as a result, become more intelligent and independent.

7) Cybersecurity, first and foremost: Safeguarding a company's data and information has become
an indisputable priority. Protecting information and keeping it far from any possible attack is very
important. That's why cybersecurity is one of the fastest growing areas in the Information
Technology Sector.

1.3 Assess physical infrastructure and financial

parameters against strategic goals
Physical Infrastructure (IT infrastructure)

Infrastructure is the foundation or framework that supports a system or organization. In computing,

information technology infrastructure is composed of physical and virtual resources that support the
flow, storage, processing and analysis of data. Infrastructure may be centralized within a data center,
or it may be decentralized and spread across several data centers that are either controlled by the
organization or by a third party, such as a colocation facility or cloud provider.

Infrastructure components

Data center infrastructure often includes the power, cooling and building elements necessary to
support data center hardware. The data center hardware infrastructure usually involves servers;

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storage subsystems; networking devices, like switches, routers and physical cabling; and dedicated
network appliances, such as network firewalls.

A data center infrastructure also requires careful consideration of IT infrastructure security. This can
include physical security for the building, such as electronic key entry, constant video and human
surveillance of the premises, carefully controlled access to the server and storage spaces, and so on.
This ensures only authorized personnel can access the data center hardware infrastructure and
reduces the potential for malicious damage or data theft.

Outside of the data center is an internet infrastructure, which includes transmission media, such as
fibre optic cables, satellites, microwave -- line of sight -- antennas, routers, aggregators, repeaters,
load balancers and other network components that control transmission paths. Internet
infrastructures are designed, built and operated by internet service providers (ISPs), such as Verizon
and AT&T. When a business engages an ISP for internet access, the ISP typically ties into the data
center infrastructure within a dedicated and secured building space.

The role of cloud computing is changing the way infrastructures are designed and implemented.
Where traditional, business-owned data centers are private, capital-intensive resources, cloud
computing enables organizations to access a cloud provider's data center infrastructure and services
for a fee. This infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS) model allows flexible computing on demand. Users
can invoke a cloud provider's compute, storage and services without the need to deploy those
resources locally -- and adjust cloud infrastructure usage as workload needs change.

The software-as-a-service (SaaS) model offers similar benefits for specific workloads. A third-party
provider hosts hardware, software, servers, storage and other infrastructure components, and it
allows users to access the provider's hosted workloads instead of deploying and maintaining those
workloads locally. For example, users can employ SaaS workloads for databases, HR applications,
analytical applications, office productivity suites and many others.

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How infrastructures are created

To create a traditional data center infrastructure, organizations typically follow a formalized process
that starts by analyzing and accessing business goals, making architectural and design decisions,
building and implementing the design, and then optimizing and maintaining the infrastructure. The
process usually involves detailed expertise, including data center building design, subsystem and
component selection, and quality construction techniques.

However, the way IT infrastructures are created is continually changing. Traditional heterogeneous
infrastructure development is a highly manual process that requires enormous integration,
optimization and systems management efforts -- especially when integrating servers, storage,
network and other components from diverse vendors.

Today, some vendors provide pre-integrated and preoptimized collections of compute, storage and
network equipment that optimize the IT hardware and virtualization platform into a single system

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that can be deployed, expanded and managed easily. This modular approach is called converged
infrastructure (CI). This notion has advanced into single-vendor systems that offer even tighter
integration and management over compute, storage, network and virtualization. This advanced
approach is called hyper-converged infrastructure (HCI).

Infrastructure management

Regardless of how it is created, an IT infrastructure must provide a suitable platform for all the
necessary IT applications and functions an organization or individual requires. This means the design
and implementation of any IT infrastructure must also support efficient infrastructure management.
Software tools must allow IT administrators to view the infrastructure as a single entity, as well as
access and configure granular operating details of any device in the infrastructure. This single-pane-
of-glass objective results in more effective and efficient infrastructure management. Solid
management also allows admins to optimize resources for different workloads, and to more readily
understand and handle the impact of any changes on interrelated resources.

Infrastructure management is often divided into multiple categories. For example, a building
management system (BMS) provides the tools that report on data center facilities parameters,
including power usage and efficiency, temperature and cooling operation, and physical security
activities. Systems management includes the wide range of tool sets an IT team uses to configure
and manage servers, storage and network devices. Increasingly, systems management tools are
extending to support remote data centers, along with private and public cloud resources.
Management tools are also making extensive use of automation and orchestration to improve
efficiency, reduce errors and comply with established best practices or business objectives.

Types of infrastructures

As business needs and available technologies advance, organizations can use a more diverse
assortment of data center infrastructure types to meet business goals. While these infrastructure
types are not necessarily mutually exclusive, they are rarely discussed together.

An immutable infrastructure is an approach to managing services and software deployments on IT

resources wherein components are replaced, rather than changed. An application or service is
effectively redeployed each time any change occurs. For example, a patch or hotfix might update a
conventional app, but an immutable infrastructure does not support this. Instead, IT deploys the
newer app, redirects traffic to it and retires the old app.

A composable infrastructure is a framework that treats physical compute, storage and network
fabric resources as services. Resources are logically pooled, so administrators don't have to
physically configure hardware to support a specific software application. Admins can organize and
manage the resources through software tools using a high level of automation and orchestration,
enabling software-defined infrastructure capabilities for the data center.

A dynamic infrastructure is a framework that can automatically provision and adjust itself as
workload demands change. This minimizes the time and effort needed to manage the infrastructure

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and vastly reduces errors, while ensuring resources are used as efficiently as possible. IT
administrators can also choose to manage these resources manually.

A critical infrastructure is a framework for which assets are so essential that their continued
operation is required to ensure the security of a given nation, its economy and the public's health
and safety. The concepts surrounding high availability (HA) and resilience are essential here, often
including remote data centers and cloud resources to support workload redundancy.

A contact-center infrastructure is a framework composed of the physical and virtual resources that a
call-center facility needs to operate effectively. Infrastructure components include automatic call
distributors, integrated voice response units, computer-telephony integration and queue
management.

A cloud infrastructure includes an abstraction layer that virtualizes resources and logically presents
them to users over the internet through application program interfaces and API-enabled command-
line or graphical interfaces. Additional capabilities include user self-service, automated billing or
chargeback, and user-side reporting, so users can see the resources and services they deploy, as well
as corresponding costs. Similarly, a cloud storage infrastructure is a framework composed of
hardware and software that supports the computing requirements of a private or public cloud
storage service.

A dark infrastructure is the part of a framework that is composed of undocumented, but active,
software or services whose existence and function is unknown to system administrators -- despite
the fact it may be integral to the continued operation of documented infrastructure. This is often
referred to as shadow IT, and it can become a serious security or compliance vulnerability for the
organization.

Financial parameters to analyse the businesses

The technology sector is a category of companies and related stocks that conduct research,
development and or distribution of technologically based goods, services, and products. This sector
encompasses businesses that manufacture electronics; create software, and build, market, and sell
computers and products related to information technology.

Technology companies are unique in they often carry little or no inventory, are commonly not
profitable and they might not even make revenue. Additionally, many technology companies take on
large venture capital investments or issue large amounts of debt to fund research and development.

The strategy of technology companies is generally different from other companies in that many of
them seek to be acquired rather than turn a profit. Due to these facts, there are key financial ratios
used when analysing a technology company.

Financial ratios are relationships determined from a company's financial information and used for
comparison purposes. Examples include such often referred to measures as return on investment
(ROI), return on assets (ROA), and debt-to-equity, to name just three.

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These ratios are the result of dividing one account balance or financial measurement with another.
Usually these measurements or account balances are found on one of the company's financial
statements—balance sheet, income statement, cashflow statement, and/or statement of changes in
owner's equity.

Financial ratios can provide small business owners and managers with a valuable tool with which to
measure their progress against predetermined internal goals, a certain competitor, or the overall
industry. In addition, tracking various ratios over time is a powerful means of identifying trends in
their early stages. Ratios are also used by bankers, investors, and business analysts to assess a
company's financial status.

1. Liquidity Ratios
Liquidity ratios give information about a company's ability to meet short-term obligations. Since
many technology companies do not make a profit or even generate revenue, it is extremely
important to analyse how well a technology company can meet its short-term financial obligations.

Liquidity ratios demonstrate a company's ability to pay its current obligations. In other words, they
relate to the availability of cash and other assets to cover accounts payable, short-term debt, and
other liabilities. All small businesses require a certain degree of liquidity in order to pay their bills on
time, though start-up and very young companies are often not very liquid.

In mature companies, low levels of liquidity can indicate poor management or a need for additional
capital. Any company's liquidity may vary due to seasonality, the timing of sales, and the state of the
economy. But liquidity ratios can provide small business owners with useful limits to help them
regulate borrowing and spending.

To analyse for this, use the following ratios:

Current ratio = (current assets / current liabilities)

This ratio is the most common liquidity ratio for measuring a company's ability to pay its short-term
financial obligations. It is also the least conservative of the liquidity ratios. In the technology industry,
it is important to have a high current ratio since the business normally needs to fund all of its
operations from current assets such as the cash received from investors.

Cash ratio = (cash + marketable securities) / current liabilities)

The cash ratio is the most conservative of all the liquidity ratios, making it the hardest evaluator of
whether a company can meet its short-term obligations. This is the most important liquidity ratio for
a technology company because the company normally only has cash and no other current assets,
such as inventory, to meet its current obligations.

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Additionally, technology companies may have a large number of marketable securities through
acquisitions and investments, and these securities should be included in the liquidity calculations.

2. Financial Leverage Ratios

Opposite of liquidity ratios, financial leverage ratios measure the long-term solvency of a company.
These types of ratios take into account long-term debt and any equity investments, both of which
highly impact technology companies.

Leverage ratios look at the extent to which a company has depended upon borrowing to finance its
operations. As a result, these ratios are reviewed closely by bankers and investors. Most leverage
ratios compare assets or net worth with liabilities. A high leverage ratio may increase a company's
exposure to risk and business downturns, but along with this higher risk also comes the potential for
higher returns.

Debt-to-equity ratio = (total debt) / (total equity)

This ratio is extremely important for the analysis of technology companies. This is due to the fact
technology companies make large amounts of investments in other technology companies and take
on investments and debt from other organizations to fund product development.

When a technology company decides to acquire another company or fund necessary research and
development, it normally does so through outside investments or by issuing debt. When a
stakeholder analyses a technology company, it is important to look at the amount of debt the
company has issued. If this ratio is too high, it could mean the company will become insolvent before
turning a profit and paying back the debt.

3. Profitability ratios
While most technology companies are not profitable, even large ones such as Amazon, it is
necessary to look at what margins these companies have; other ratios, such as the gross profit
margin, are a good indicator of future profitability even if there is no current profit.

Profitability ratios provide information about management's performance in using the resources of
the small business. Many entrepreneurs decide to start their own businesses in order to earn a
better return on their money than would be available through a bank or other low-risk investments.

If profitability ratios demonstrate that this is not occurring—particularly once a small business has
moved beyond the start-up phase—then entrepreneurs for whom a return on their money is the
foremost concern may wish to sell the business and reinvest their money elsewhere. However, it is
important to note that many factors can influence profitability ratios, including changes in price,
volume, or expenses, as well as the purchase of assets or the borrowing of money. Some specific
profitability ratios follow, along with the means of calculating them and their meaning to a small
business owner or manager.

Gross profit margin = (sales - cost of goods sold) / sales

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This profit margin measures the gross profit earned on sales. It is only applicable if a technology
company is generating revenue, but a high gross profit margin is a signal that once the company
scales, it could become very profitable. A low gross profit margin is a signal the company is unable to
become profitable.

4. Efficiency ratios

By assessing a company's use of credit, inventory, and assets, efficiency ratios can help small
business owners and managers conduct business better. These ratios can show how quickly the
company is collecting money for its credit sales or how many times inventory turns over in a given
time period. This information can help management decide whether the company's credit terms are
appropriate and whether its purchasing efforts are handled in an efficient manner. The following are
some of the main indicators of efficiency:

Annual inventory turnover: Cost of Goods Sold for the Year/Average Inventory—shows how
efficiently the company is managing its production, warehousing, and distribution of product,
considering its volume of sales. Higher ratios—over six or seven times per year—are generally
thought to be better, although extremely high inventory turnover may indicate a narrow selection
and possibly lost sales. A low inventory turnover rate, on the other hand, means that the company is
paying to keep a large inventory, and may be overstocking or carrying obsolete items.

Inventory holding period: 365/Annual Inventory Turnover—calculates the number of days, on

average, that elapse between finished goods production and sale of product.

Inventory to assets ratio Inventory/Total Assets—shows the portion of assets tied up in inventory.
Generally, a lower ratio is considered better.

Accounts receivable turnover Net (credit) Sales/Average Accounts Receivable—gives a measure of

how quickly credit sales are turned into cash. Alternatively, the reciprocal of this ratio indicates the
portion of a year's credit sales that are outstanding at a particular point in time.

Collection period 365/Accounts Receivable Turnover—measures the average number of days the
company's receivables are outstanding, between the date of credit sale and collection of cash.

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CHAPTER 2. RESEARCH VENDORS, SUPPLIERS AND ICT
INDUSTRY SPECIALISTS
Understanding and taking into account the priorities and concerns of different stakeholders informs
evaluation planning, communication strategies during and after the evaluation and supports the
utilisation of evaluation findings.

Involving stakeholders during evaluation planning and implementation can add value by:
 providing perspectives on what will be considered a credible, high quality and useful evaluation
 contributing to the program logic and framing of key evaluation questions
 facilitating quality data collection
 helping to make sense of the data that has been collected
 increasing the utilization of the evaluation’s findings by building knowledge about and support
for the evaluation.

Engaging stakeholders is also important for managing risks especially when evaluating a contentious
program or policy in which key stakeholders are known to have opposing views. It is important to
understand different perspectives on what will be considered credible evidence of outcomes and
impacts.

2.1 DETERMINE SUITABLE SUPPLIERS AND VENDORS

A vendor, also known as a supplier, is an individual or company that sells goods or services to
someone else in the economic production chain.

Vendors are a part of the supply chain: the network of all the individuals, organizations, resources,
activities and technology involved in the creation and sale of a product, from the delivery of source
materials from the supplier to the manufacturer, through to its eventual delivery to the end user.

Parts manufacturers are vendors of parts to other manufacturers that assemble the parts into
something sold to wholesalers or retailers. Retailers are vendors of products to consumers. In
information technology as well as in other industries, the term is commonly applied to suppliers of
goods and services to other companies.

A tier 1 vendor is a large and well-known vendor, often enjoying national or international recognition
and acceptance. Tier 1 vendors may be both manufacturers and value-added resellers (VARs). A tier
2 vendor is a smaller and less well-known provider that is often also limited in its geographic
coverage as well. As a consequence, a tier 2 vendor is generally regarded as a secondary source
rather than the preferred source.

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Some organizations implement internal units known as vendor management offices (VMO)
dedicated to evaluating third-party providers of goods and services, supervising day-to-day
interactions and managing longer-term relationships.

Vendor management is the multi-stage process of initiating and developing relationships with
providers of goods and services that a purchasing company (“the buyer”) needs for day-to-day
operations and the fulfilment of its mission. From the buyer’s perspective, primary stages of vendor
relationship management include:

 Vendor selection: Using an up-to-date risk profile and qualifying and segmenting based on
category, location, and business unit
 Risk assessment: Performing risk due diligence based on the nature of your vendor
engagement
 Contract negotiation: Establishing terms and risk KPIs
 Onboarding: With understanding of risk assessment and audit status
 Managing performance and monitoring/mitigating risk: Utilizing a matrix-based, single view
of vendor and a data-driven incident model

Vendor management exists to handle that complexity: it’s a discipline that researches and sources
vendors, and gets quotes for pricing, capabilities, quality and turnaround times. It also covers
contract negotiations, relationship management, job assignments, performance evaluation and
payment dissemination.

The way to effectively and productively manage vendors is by applying vendor management. This
process gives you the means to establish service, quality, cost and job satisfaction goals. Remember,
vendors are but one arm of your project. You want to manage them but not to the detriment of your
larger goals and objectives.

Vendor Management Systems

There are tools for managing vendors, such as a Vendor Management System (VMS), which is a
computer program that distributes job requirements to staffing companies, recruiters, consulting
companies and other vendors. It helps with hiring, the interview process and the payment process.

Another tool is called a Contracted Service Management (CSM) system, which works with the
software of large manufacturing facilities to capture real-time data between vendors and clients.
This collaborative effort helps simplify the timekeeping process and improves project cost visibility.

Another term used in vendor management is Employer of Record (EOR). This is a way to ease the
managing of independent contractors. This includes auditing, reviews and other management issues.

Vendor Management Process

The vendor management process can be broken down into four steps:

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Establish Business Goals: Clearly define your business goals and be as specific as possible (consider
making SMART goals). In order to successfully enlist the aid of a vendor, you need to know exactly
what it is that you’re trying to achieve. The management of vendors is also easier when you have
defined performance parameters to compare.

Choose the Best Vendor: Who fits your needs and matches your performance characteristics? You’ll
have to weigh the pros and cons of all the vendors, and they will have both, so this step needs to be
taken after a thorough vetting. Some questions to ask are: Does the vendor have extensive
experience? Have they worked in similar environments? Are they stable? Do they have standardized
processes and provide economies of scale? Have they been sued?

Manage Vendors: This is the daily activity of monitoring performance and output. It’s the best way
to make sure that the terms of the contract are being fulfilled. This step involves lots of
communication to offer approvals, disapprovals, changes, feedback and whatever else is necessary
to deepen the relationship.

Consistently Meet Goals: You want to meet your goals not once or twice, but consistently over the
course of your relationship with the vendor. This means managing the vendor regularly to better
influence them to meet performance objectives on a regular basis.

The vendor management process can be broken down into four steps:

Establish Business Goals: Clearly define your business goals and be as specific as possible (consider
making SMART goals). In order to successfully enlist the aid of a vendor, you need to know exactly
what it is that you’re trying to achieve. The management of vendors is also easier when you have
defined performance parameters to compare.

Choose the Best Vendor: Who fits your needs and matches your performance characteristics? You’ll
have to weigh the pros and cons of all the vendors, and they will have both, so this step needs to be
taken after a thorough vetting. Some questions to ask are: Does the vendor have extensive

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experience? Have they worked in similar environments? Are they stable? Do they have standardized
processes and provide economies of scale? Have they been sued?

Manage Vendors: This is the daily activity of monitoring performance and output. It’s the best way
to make sure that the terms of the contract are being fulfilled. This step involves lots of
communication to offer approvals, disapprovals, changes, feedback and whatever else is necessary
to deepen the relationship.

Consistently Meet Goals: You want to meet your goals not once or twice, but consistently over the
course of your relationship with the vendor. This means managing the vendor.

Finding the right suppliers is one of the most important parts of making your business a success. It
doesn’t matter what industry you’re in, having reliable suppliers means you can provide your
customers with quality products and services, at the right price.

Key factors to think about when comparing suppliers

Once you’ve made a shortlist of potential suppliers, you’ll need to compare their services and
offerings to find the best fit for your business.

Here are some of the key factors to considering when choosing a supplier:

Price – Affordability is one of the most important factors to consider as this can affect your bottom
line. However, it’s equally important to remember that cheap doesn’t necessarily represent value for
money! If you pass poor quality products onto your customers, or compromise on service because of
your supplier, you’ll run the risk of damaging your business’s reputation.

Reliability – Can the supplier deliver the right goods or services on time? Having a reliable supplier is
crucial. It can help you to manage your stock and set expectations for your customers about delivery
and wait times.
Large vs small suppliers – Large suppliers generally have enough resources and systems in place to
make sure they can still deliver on time if anything goes wrong. However, you may be able to
establish a closer relationship with a smaller supplier.

Stability – Find out how long the supplier has been in business for. An experienced supplier might be
a better choice for your business, particularly if you want to have a long-term contract, or if they’re
the only supplier of a certain item. However, a new supplier may be able to work with you to provide
a better service allowing you to grow your businesses together.

Location – Suppliers that are located further away might mean longer delivery times and extra
freight costs. Local suppliers might be better if you need something quickly.

Supplier groups – By using only one supplier, you might be able to develop a closer business
relationship with them. However, relying on only one supplier can also be risky. If that business shuts
down, moves or can’t deliver, your own business could suffer. Sometimes it can be better to use a
carefully selected group of suppliers, to reduce the risk of any problems occurring.

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Check the supplier - Make sure you ask for a supplier’s references and check them. You can also
search the Personal Property Securities Register (PPSR) to find out if the goods the supplier is selling
are being used as security for a debt or other obligation.

Review and maintain your supplier relationships

Once you’ve selected a supplier and start working with them, it’s important to continually review,
evaluate and maintain your relationship with them.

Here are a few tips to help you to keep a positive relationship with your suppliers:
 Regularly monitor your suppliers against your business’s priorities – as your business and the
suppliers grow, often the priorities change.

 Have regular contact with your suppliers to discuss your business progress and help you
maintain stock flow.

2.2 Source information from suppliers and vendors

The sources of information regarding the potential suppliers and vendors are:

1. Newspaper advertisements:

Newspapers columns are full of advertisements from various firms indicating the items of stores
which they manufacture, import, and stock or specialise in.

2. Trade directories:

Directories are available which give classified information of suppliers industry wise. Very detailed
information is available there in regarding names and addresses of manufacturers, their regional and
branch offices, their authorised agents and their range of products.

3. Catalogue, price lists etc:

Prices obtainable from catalogues and price lists are generally not final and are subject to
confirmation at the time of placing the order. Catalogues and price lists should be properly classified
and arranged to enable easy reference. Either they could be kept according to commodity groups as
such as pipes and fittings, tools, alloy steel, abrasives, etc., or numbered serially and covered with
index cards or lists prepared according to commodity groups.

If necessary, a supplier wise card index or list may also be maintained to facilitate locating catalogues
of various firms. The card or list will be arranged alphabetically and will show supplier’s name,
particulars of their catalogues and the serial number.

4. Trade journals:

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Most leading companies advertise in trade journals like the Indian Trade Journal. Sometimes
excellent articles appear in them regarding specific industries. Valuable information can be obtained
from such journals.

5. Salesmen:

Salesmen are excellent sources for supply and material information. Not only are they usually well
informed about the capabilities and features of their own products, but they are also familiar with
similar and competitive products as well.

By the very nature of their specialised knowledge, sales people can often suggest new applications
for their products which will eliminate its search for new suppliers. From their contacts with many
companies, sales men and sales women learn much about many products and services and all of this
information is available to the alert, receptive buyer.

This is a key reason why sales personnel should always treat courteously and given ample time to
make their sales presentations. To deny them this opportunity is to risk the loss of valuable
information, including information concerning new and reliable sources of supply.

6. Advertised tender:

Tender is the process of ascertaining availability and price of materials in sealed covers which are
opened and scrutinized, at a predetermined time by a tender committee. It is implied that the
materials covered by the tender should give scope for competition.

The tender system induces the bidders to quote the lowest Price, safeguards the interests of both
the buyer as well as that of bidder, ensures impartially and fairness, inspires confidence in the
suppliers and leaves no room for malpractice such as favouring a particular bidder or tampering with
prices in the purchase section.

7. Telephone directories:

Telephone directories of large cities contain classified advertisements from suppliers.

8. Exchange of information between similar companies:

If satisfactory trade relations are maintained, even one’s own competitors will part with the
information he has.
9. Trade exhibitions and fairs:

Visits to exhibitions and fairs should give valuable information regarding potential suppliers. Such
exhibitions and fairs are held industry wise and also for specific purposes, e.g., import substitution.

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Some such exhibitions are held regularly at specific intervals when available information can be
updated.

10. Personnel from other departments of the company:

Personnel from other departments of a firm can often provide purchasing with helpful information
about prospective suppliers. Through their associations in professional organisations, civic
associations, and social groups, these employees often learn about outstanding suppliers.

Scientific, technical and research personnel who use sophisticated materials or services always have
many valuable suggestions to make regarding possible sources of supply. From their attendance at
conventions and trade exhibits, and from their discussions with associates, these personnel are
particularly well informed regarding new products, new methods and new manufacturers.

11. Enquiry:

This is a simple method of ascertaining availability and price of materials through open offers. It is
adopted when there is no room for competition on account of (a) the value being very small, (b) the
materials being of a proprietary nature, (c) the policy being to buy only from one particular firm, (d)
the source of supply being limited or not established as in the case of machined components and
fabricated parts. The buyer may, however endeavour to obtain price reduction by negotiation. The
enquiry form (form7) is simpler then the tender form (form 8) but both call for price, terms of
payment, delivery time, etc.

12. Yellow pages:

Another commonly known directory is the classified yellow pages section of telephone directories.
This source of information is frequently of limited value to industrial buyers because local telephone
books list only local companies.
However, buyers can readily obtain telephone books for all major cities from the telephone
company. The size and capability of companies are also difficult to determine, as management and
financial data are normally not included in the advertisements.

The yellow pages do, however, have the virtue of being well indexed. Also, they can serve as a useful
starting point if other sources have proved fruitless, and if local sources are desired.

Supplier sourcing or selection is a Mission Critical Process that impacts various Supply Chain metrics
including Total Cost of Ownership.

Sourcing is a small part of procurement that is concerned about the selection of suppliers to support
business operations.

The Critical Steps of Effective Supplier Selection are:

Step 1: Identify Supplier Selection Criteria

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Supplier selection criteria are attributes that a procurement department values in its arrangements
with suppliers.

Step 2: Determine Supplier Selection Constraints

Supplier Selection Constraints (SSC) are Critical to Quality (CTQs) Criteria that if not satisfactorily
met, will lead to suppliers being disqualified from being considered for contracts or orders.

Step 3: Develop the Hierarchy of Constraints & Criteria

The Hierarchy of Constraints & Criteria is a list of supplier selection constraints and criteria that sorts
them in order from most important to least important.

Step 4: Weight Your Constraints & Criteria

In most sourcing situations, the importance of each supplier selection constraint and criterion is not
equal. Therefore, constraints and criteria must be “weighted” or given different degrees of
significance. These “weights” will come into play when comparing suppliers who have different
strengths. Applying different weights to scores is referred to as using weighted average scoring.

Step 5: Develop A Scoring Scheme

Supplier scorecards include scores for all the supplier selection criteria (e.g., Cost & Value, Quality &
Safety, Delivery, etc.) that the supplier selection team has decided to apply to a procurement.
Typically, each criterion is scored on a scale of 0 to 100, with 0 being the worst rating and 100 being
the best. This rating is called a “raw score.”

Step 6: Analyse Proposals

All the work done to this point should have been done prior to issuing the RFP. Then, you just need
for proposals to roll in. Once you’ve received proposals, you can continue with this step.
The first thing you do after receiving proposals is to review them to identify any suppliers’ inability to
comply with constraints.

Step 7: Apply Common Sense

Now, despite developing such a scientific way to select the best supplier, remember that suppliers
should be selected by people, not spreadsheets. There is a chance that there was a fundamental flaw
in how you developed your criteria, weighting, or scorecard. If there was, you don’t want your
organization to be victimized by that flaw. Again, supplier selection is a critical decision, so you want
to get it right. Apply common sense and select the right supplier for the order, contract, or project.

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2.3 Assess vendor information against industry
standards
The vendor selection process can be a very complicated and emotional undertaking if you don't
know how to approach it from the very start. Here are five steps to help you select the right vendor
for your business. This guide will show you how to analyse your business requirements, search for
prospective vendors, lead the team in selecting the winning vendor and provide you with insight on
contract negotiations and avoid negotiation mistakes.

Analyse the Business Requirements

Before you begin to gather data or perform interviews, assemble a team of people who have a
vested interest in this particular vendor selection process. The first task that the vendor selection
team needs accomplish is to define, in writing, the product, material or service that you are
searching for a vendor. Next, define the technical and business requirements. Also, define the
vendor requirements. Finally, publish your document to the areas relevant to this vendor selection
process and seek their input.

Have the team analyse the comments and create a final document. In summary:

 Assemble an evaluation team

 Define the product, material or service

 Define the technical and business requirements

 Define the vendor requirements

 Publish a requirements document for approval

Vendor Search

Now that you have an agreement on the business and vendor requirements, the team now must
start to search for possible vendors that will be able to deliver the material, product or service. The
larger the scope of the vendor selection process the more vendors you should put on the table. Of
course, not all vendors will meet your minimum requirements and the team will have to decide
which vendors you will seek more information from. Next, write a Request for Information (RFI) and
send it to the selected vendors.

Finally, evaluate their responses and select a small number of vendors that will make the "Short List"
and move on to the next round. In summary:

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  Compile a list of possible vendors
 Select vendors to request more information from
 Write a request for information (RFI)
 Evaluate responses and create a "short list" of vendors

Request for Proposal (RFP) and Request for Quotation (RFQ)

The business requirements are defined, and you have a short list of vendors that you want to
evaluate. It is now time to write a Request for Proposal or Request for Quotation. Whichever format
you decide, your RFP or RFQ should contain the following sections:

 Submission details
 Introduction and executive summary
 Business overview and background
 Detailed specifications
 Assumptions and constraints
 Terms and conditions
 Selection criteria

Proposal Evaluation and Vendor Selection

The main objective of this phase is to minimize human emotion and political positioning in order to
arrive at a decision that is in the best interest of the company. Be thorough in your investigation,
seek input from all stakeholders and use the following methodology to lead the team to a unified
vendor selection decision:

 Preliminary review of all vendor proposals

 Record business requirements and vendor requirements
 Assign importance value for each requirement
 Assign a performance value for each requirement
 Calculate a total performance score
 Select the winning vendor

Contract Negotiation Strategies

The final stage in the vendor selection process is developing a contract negotiation strategy.
Remember, you want to "partner" with your vendor and not "take them to the cleaners." Review
your objectives for your contract negotiation and plan for the negotiations be covering the following
items:

 List rank your priorities along with alternatives

 Know the difference between what you need and what you want
 Know your bottom line, so you know when to walk away
 Define any time constraints and benchmarks

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  Assess potential liabilities and risks
 Confidentiality, non-compete, dispute resolution, changes in requirements
 Do the same for your vendor (i.e., walk a mile in their shoes)

Contract Negotiation Mistakes

The smallest mistake can kill an otherwise productive contract negotiation process. Avoid contract
negotiation mistakes and avoid jeopardizing an otherwise productive contract negotiation process.

2.4 Review emerging standards and applications for

compatibility with supplier and vendor information
Standard - A definition or format that has been approved by a recognized standards organization or
is accepted as a de facto standard by the industry. Standards exist for programming languages,
operating systems, data formats, communications protocols, and electrical interfaces.

There are four ways that a standard can be developed:

Ad hoc method - a group of interested people and organizations agree on a standard specification. It
is informal and are mutually agreed on by the participating groups.

De Facto Standard - A single vendor controls a large enough share of the market to make its product
the market standard. An example of this type would be Microsoft.

Government Mandate Method - A government agency creates a standard and legislates its use. The
CMS's UB92 insurance claim form is an example.

Consensus Standard - A format, language, or protocol that has been approved by formalized
committees that are open to participation by all interested parties and operate on a consensus basis.
Most health care standards are produced this way. An example is HL7.

General Hardware Standards and Considerations

Hardware standards are rules and/or definitions that specify hardware requirements that are
necessary for an intended purpose. Most often hardware standards are developed by and for
organizations, groups, businesses and universities (to name a few). These standards help to assure
that the components (hardware) are interchangeable and compatible with the software. Some of
the issues that hardware standards address include the amount of memory needed, will there be
need to network, who will back up the information, how will failed hardware be replaced, what type
of security will be needed. With the proliferation of standards, it becomes important to determine
which to adopt or adhere to. Here are a few resources to get you started.

General Software Standards and Considerations

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From a user’s standpoint, standards are extremely important in the computer industry because they
allow the combination of products from different manufacturers to create a customized system.
Without standards, only hardware and software from the same company could be used together. In
addition, standard user interfaces can make it much easier to learn how to use new applications.

In the networked environment, the ability to easily share information is crucial. Central to
information sharing is the software environment, particularly software used for word processing,
spreadsheets, databases, network browsing, and electronic mail. Developing software standards, will
greatly improve functions between these systems. Standards can facilitate exchange of information.
The advantages of software standards are:

 Improved Data Sharing

 Simplified Budgeting and Purchasing
 Improved Support
 Improved Training
 Smoother Software Installation and Upgrades

Software standards enable software to interoperate. There is not consensus on what the standards
should include. Software standards are one of the unsolved problems in software engineering. There
are multiple reasons behind software standards such as safety, economic and social reasons. Non-
standard implementation of standards or specifications by multiple organizations results in a
requirement for implementation specific code and special case exceptions as a necessity for cross-
platform interoperability. Notable modern examples include web browser compatibility and web-
services interoperability. The arbitrariness of most software concepts, which is related to historical
hardware and software implementation, lack of common standards worldwide, and economic
pressures.

An open standard is a standard that is publicly available and has various rights to use associated with
it. The terms "open" and "standard" have a wide range of meanings associated with their usage. The
term "open" is usually restricted to royalty free technologies while the term "standard" is sometimes
restricted to technologies approved by formalized committees that are open to participation by all
interested parties and operate on a consensus basis.

Purpose of an Open Standard

The purpose of an open standard is to increase the market for a technology by enabling potential
consumers or suppliers of that technology to invest in it without having to either pay monopoly rent
or fear litigation on trade secret, copyright, patent, or trademark causes of action. No standard can
properly be described as "open" except to the extent it achieves these goals.

The industry has learned by experience that the only software-related standards to fully achieve
these goals are those which not only permit but encourage open-source implementations. Open-
source implementations are a quality and honesty check for any open standard that might be
implemented in software; whether an application programming interface, a hardware interface, a
file format, a communication protocol, a specification of user interactions, or any other form of data
interchange and program control.

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Principles for regulating emerging standards/technologies

1. Adaptive regulation

Adaptive approaches to regulation, on the other hand, rely more on trial and error and co-design of
regulation and standards; they also have faster feedback loops. More rapid feedback loops allow
regulators to evaluate policies against set standards, feeding inputs into revising regulations.
Regulatory agencies have a number of tools to seek such feedback: setting up policy labs, creating
regulatory sandboxes (detailed in the next section), crowdsourcing policymaking, and providing
representation to industry in the governance process via self-regulatory and private standard-setting
bodies.

2. Regulatory sandboxes

The role of a regulator is no longer just a regulator; it's more of a partner in bringing safe and
effective technologies to the table for people to have that high confidence in those technologies.

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Accelerators are designed to speed up innovation. They often involve partnerships with private
companies, academic institutions, and other organizations that can provide expertise in certain
areas. Sandboxes are controlled environments allowing innovators to test products, services, or new
business models without having to follow all the standard regulations.

3. Outcome-based regulation

Outcome-based regulation specifies required outcomes or objectives rather than defining the way in
which they must be achieved. This model of regulation offers businesses and individuals more
freedom to choose their way of complying with the law.

Often, emerging technologies’ real potential can be harnessed only when they are meshed together,
such as using blockchain to secure data generated by autonomous vehicles or using a combination of
machine learning and natural language processing to prescribe medication via a chatbot. For such
connections to happen, innovators need room to innovate. Outcome-based regulation can provide
the leeway needed to experiment.

4. Risk-weighted regulation

Speed to market is imperative for businesses, especially start-ups with business models predicated
on emerging technologies. Speed to market also can make digital services and products more
effective. As they are used, they usually collect data on their users. With the help of advanced
analytics and, in many cases, AI, the data can then be analysed to detect new patterns and trends,
information that can make the product more accurate, safe, effective, and personalized. Because of
this iterative factor, the sooner safe and effective products get to the market, the better.
One way to accelerate the approval of business models based on emerging technologies would be to
draw inspiration from the precheck systems for airline travel used in many countries. These work by
using data to certify low-risk flyers, who then receive a lower level of scrutiny and inspection.

5. Collaborative regulation

As the digital economy expands, with new business models, technologies, products, and services,
regulators around the world can benefit from collaborative approaches such as co-regulation, self-
regulation, and international coordination. Through multi-stakeholder meetings that produce
concrete policy guidance and voluntary standards, regulators and firms as well as other interested
parties can be engaged in the process.

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CHAPTER 3. EVALUATE AND REPORT ON
HARDWARE TECHNOLOGY OPTIONS

3.1 Review and test hardware to identify suitability

for organisational requirements
Testing Cabling infrastructure: Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from
one network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with
LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of
cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol,
and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other
aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network.

ACR

The first thing to understand about testing data cables is the ACR. This stands for attenuation to
crosstalk ratio. The pink area in the graph is the attenuation. Attenuation is the reduction in signal
strength over the length of the cable and frequency range. The blue area is the crosstalk. Crosstalk is
the external noise that is introduced into the cable. So, if the two areas meet, the data signal will be
lost because the crosstalk noise will be at the same level as the attenuated signal.
ACR is the most important result when testing a link because it represents the overall performance
of the cable.

Length

The length of a cable is one of the more obvious causes of attenuation because the longer it is, the
more resistance it has, and therefore less of the signal will get through. To measure the length, a
cable tester uses Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR). A pulse is sent down the cable and when it
reaches the far end it reflects back. By measuring the time, it takes to travel down the cable and back

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again, the tester can determine how long the cable is. To do this, the tester also needs to know how
fast the pulsed signal is traveling. This is called the Nominal Velocity of Propagation (NVP) and is
expressed as a percentage of the speed of light. The NVP is usually somewhere between 60% and
90% of the speed of light, with most Cat 5E cables being around 70%. Due to the twists in the cable,
the measured length will be greater than the physical length, so if a run looks like it might be over
80m it would be wise to check it before it is tied up and terminated.

Attenuation

This is the decrease in signal strength (expressed as negative dB) from one end of a cable to the
other. The main causes of attenuation are impedance, temperature, skin effect and dielectric loss.

Impedance

Impedance is the combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance in a cable. It is measured in

Ohms and opposes the flow of current.

Skin effect

Skin effect is phenomena which happens at high frequencies where the signal tries to escape from
the confines of the copper and into the air. The signal travels along the outer 'skin' of the copper
which effectively reduces the cross-sectional area of the cable and therefore increases its resistance.

wire map

This test is to ensure that the two ends have been terminated pin for pin, i.e. that pin 1 at the patch
panel goes to pin 1 at the outlet, pin 2 goes to pin 2 etc. etc. The wire map also checks for continuity,

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shorts, crossed pairs, reversed pairs and split pairs. A split pair is probably the only thing that
requires an explanation here, as they are undetectable with a simple continuity tester. This is
because pin for pin they seem to be correct. As explained on the Cabling Basics page, balanced line
operation requires that the signal is transmitted over a pair of wires that are twisted together. With
a 'split pair' the signal would be split between two different pairs.

return loss

When a cable is manufactured, there are slight imperfections in the copper. These imperfections all
contribute to the Structural Return Loss (SRL) measurement. Each one causes an impedance
mismatch, which adds to the cable's attenuation.

DC loop resistance

This is simply the resistance between the two conductors of a twisted pair which is looped back at
the far end. The primary purpose of this test is to make sure that there are no high resistance
connections in the link.

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NEXT

This stands for near-end crosstalk and it occurs because alternating current flow produces an
electromagnetic field around the cable. This field then induces a current flow in adjacent cables. The
strength of this field increases with the frequency of the signal and because the speed of data
transmissions is ever increasing, NEXT is a big problem.

The name 'crosstalk' comes from the telecommunications industry. You may have heard a faint
conversation in the background while on the phone yourself. This is caused by the electromagnetic
effect between adjacent telephone wires. In the transmission of data, cross talk is at its highest level
in the RJ45 connection as it enters the cable, or at the 'Near End'. The term 'Near End' is slightly
confusing because data can travel in both directions, and the NEXT test is carried out in both
directions automatically by the tester, so the NEXT result is relative to the end of the cable that it
was carried out on.
The twists in a cable help to cancel out the effects of NEXT and the more twists there are, the better
the cancellation, however, the twists also increase attenuation, so there is a trade-off between NEXT
cancellation and attenuation. The twist rates in data cables are optimised for the best overall
performance. The twist rates are also varied for each pair within the cable to help combat crosstalk.

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PSNEXT

This stands for Power Sum Near End Cross Talk and is actually just a calculation. When a tester
carries out the NEXT test, it measures the cross- talk on each pair as affected by each of the other
three pairs individually, PSNEXT is simply the addition of the three NEXT results for each pair. So this
is the combined effect that a pair would be subject to when used in a network that supports a four
pair transmissions method, e.g.. Gigabit Ethernet.

FEXT, ELFEXT and PSELFEXT

Basically, Far End Cross Talk (FEXT) is like NEXT, but it is measured at the far end (well that seems
logical!). On its own FEXT doesn't mean too much, because the length of the cable determines how
much the signal is attenuated before it can affect the pairs at the far end. To compensate for this,
and to provide a more meaningful result, the attenuation is subtracted from the FEXT test and the
result is then called Equal Level Far End Cross Talk (ELFEXT).
And of course, no test parameter these days would be complete without adding the results together
for each pair and calling it a Power Sum measurement, so now we have Power Sum Equal Level Far
End Cross Talk or PSELFEXT for short.

delay

This is the propagation delay, or the time it takes for the signal to travel from one end of the cable to
the other. It is not very important on it own because its value is directly proportional to the length of
the cable. What is important is the relationship between the delays on each of the four pairs.

delay skew

Now this is important. Delay skew is the difference between the fastest and slowest pairs. Some
networks use a four-pair transmission method. This means that the signal is split into four, sent
down the four pairs in the cable and re-combined at the far end. It is essential that the signals reach
the far end at near enough the same time, otherwise the signal will not be re-combined correctly.

Testing internet connection

Basic Internet Terminology
 A modem can generally refer to either cable or ADSL modems. Dial-up modems are mostly
obsolete.

 A LAN is wired connection.

 A WLAN is a wireless connection.
 ISP refers to the company that provides you access to the Internet (e.g. Shaw, Telus, etc.).
 A router combines the splitting power of a network hub with the ability to protect you with a
hardware firewall. Your connection may be hard wired or wireless.
 An IP address is usually represented with a numeric series of numbers separated with dots (e.g.
192.168.1.1) and will vary by ISP and by router brand.
 A (web) browser is a program used to view web pages on the Internet. There are many
browsers.

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Troubleshooting Basics
If you have no Internet access a series of troubleshooting steps will help to determine where the
breakdown is and how to resolve the problem.
When your Internet service is disrupted, there can be many things that have gone wrong. The best
way to start is to determine if everything is broken (i.e. you can't access any websites or Internet
services) or if the difficulty is only with a certain program or a specific website not responding.

If Access is Limited

If you are able to view certain sites, but not others, or if only some of your programs are working, try
the following:

 If you are able to view local content but cannot see sites hosted across the country or
elsewhere, there could be a blockage in the Internet grid. Have a look at The Internet Traffic
Report which monitors the flow of data around the world. On their site, you can view data
for specific cities, helping to pinpoint potential problems. There is little you can do about this
sort of problem other than to wait it out.
 If your email works fine but your problem appears to be related only to your web browser,
have a look at Browser Problems.
 If you can surf the Web OK, but you have difficulty sending or receiving email, have a look at
Email Problems.

Check to See if the Problem is the Computer

If you have more than one computer, see if both computers are experiencing difficulties accessing
the Internet. If the second computer has full access then your problem is localized to the first
computer (you can skip any tests that don't deal with the computer itself).

Reboot the Computer

Try rebooting your computer to see if that fixes the problem. You'd be surprised how often that
simple step resolves issues.

If restarting Windows doesn't work, you'll have to verify each potential problem to verify that it is or
isn't the problem until you restore access.
Troubleshooting Steps
Try the following series of steps, in order, to see if this fixes your problem. You can stop when you
resolve the issue(s) you are having.

 Check the network icon (or wireless connection settings) to see if you have Internet access.
 Check for changes to proxy settings.
 Check the network cables if your computer is wired to the router.
 Reset your router.
 Check your firewall or security software.
 Check your browser or email software.

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Check the Network

Check the network connection on your computer. Depending upon your operating system and your
settings, there may be a network icon at the top or bottom of the screen or it may be hidden.

Your Internet connection can be one or both of the following:

 Wired: connected directly to the router using a network cable (LAN); or

 Wireless: connected via a wireless connection (WLAN).

Check the Wireless Settings

If your connected wirelessly (i.e. there is no network cable from your computer to the router) you'll
see a listing of available networks and the wireless network you're currently logged into (if any).
You'll need to verify that your connection is strong enough and that the settings don't indicate any
problems.
If you're having difficulties connecting or if there is a problem with the connection, you'll need to
diagnose it.

Windows

Windows users can click the network icon (you may need to click the little pyramid icon beside the
clock to see all the settings). The Windows 7 icon changes colour according to the condition of your
network access:

 White is normal but you may only have access to the network (but not the Internet).
 Red indicates that there is no access to either the network or the Internet.
 Yellow indicates a problem.

Click on Open the Network and Sharing Center which should open in a new window.

At the top is a diagram of your network. There should be solid lines between your computer, the
network and the Internet:

If there isn't, click on Troubleshoot problems (Diagnose and Repair in Vista) and follow the prompts.

Mac

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Open the Network Preferences from the WLAN icon or look in the Systems Preferences to see your
network connections. You may have active connections for Ethernet (LAN) and/or Wi-Fi (WLAN).

If everything is normal, you should see “connected” indicated in the appropriate location(s).
If not, click on Assist Me at the bottom then Diagnostics on the dialogue box that appears. Follow the
instructions for the connection that is having problems.

Linux

There are two areas dealing with your network connections:

 under Administration (Network: configure network devices and connections); and

 under Preferences (Network Connections: manage and change your network connection
settings).
You'll need to unlock the Network Settings with the Administrator password to make changes.

Check the Proxy Settings

Most users should not touch the proxy settings, leaving them at the default which is System Settings.
However, changing the proxy settings can disable Internet access and is something that many
unwanted infections do to maintain control of your computer.

Browser Proxy Settings

Each browser has proxy settings, but most make the changes in the System settings.
System Proxy Settings

If you're in an office where your computer is provided by your employer, you'll want to verify the
settings with whoever is responsible for the network).

It is generally not recommended that users change these, but it is possible your Internet connection
isn't working because something else changed the proxy settings.

 Windows users will find these in the Internet Options. Click on the Connections tab then click
the LAN Settings button. Only Automatically detect settings should be checked. Uncheck Use
a proxy server for your LAN then verify that you have Internet access.
 Mac users will find these in the Proxies tab in Network Preferences. Normally none of the
options should be checked other than Use Passive FTP Mode at the bottom. My computer
also has *local, 169.254/16 under Bypass proxy settings for these Hosts & Domains.
 Linux users will find these settings in the Network Proxy Preferences (click on Preferences then
Network Proxy). The default should be Direct internet connection.

Check the Cables

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The trouble-shooter may prompt you to check the router settings, but first you'll need to ensure that
the network cables are firmly attached and that your modem is connected to either the cable outlet
or the phone line (depending upon which service you're using).

Check the connections at both ends of all wires. This may sound silly, but things get pulled or simply
break. Check the connection to the cable jack or phone line as well as the network cable (CAT5 or
CAT6) between the modem and the computer or router (on most systems there should be a green
LED lit if the network cable connection is working).

You may need to replace the cables if the connector retainer (a small, springy plastic that holds the
cable firmly in place) is broken or has lost its ability to retain a firm connection.

Testing of modems:

Step 1) Replace your modem if more than 3 years old

Technology marches on pretty quickly these days. And at only $200 or less it’s cost efficient to
replace your modem to a new one every few years.

Step 2) Reboot your Modem and Router at least once per week
It’s the stock advice, but it solves an astonishing number of problems.

Step 3) Check for Modem Firmware Upgrades Regularly

Manufactures often have newer firmware or drivers for wireless access points than what comes with
the device. Ensuring you are using the latest of both can often improve both the stability and speeds
of your wireless network.

Step 4) Upgrade to a Fibre, Cable (HFC), Wireless or Bonded-DSL connection.

Testing the Computer Network

Check the physical connections.

Check that the Link light — the little red or green light next to the RJ-45 port — is lit on every
computer. You must check this light both on the computer itself and on the switch or router the
computer is plugged into. If this light is not on, you have a connection problem — most likely a bad
cable.

Verify that you can log on.

When you’re sure the physical connections are good, you should attempt to log on to each of your
network computers using a valid domain user account.

Check the network configuration.

Click the Start button, type cmd and press Enter. Then, enter the command ipconfig /all and press
Enter.

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This command will spit out numerous lines of information. The line you’re looking for should
resemble this:

IPv4 Address. . . . . . . . . . . : 192.168.1.125(Preferred)

If this part of the output does not show a valid IP address, you need to check that your IP
configuration is set correctly and that your DHCP server is working.

Verify that the computers can ping each other.

Another basic test you should perform is to use the ping command from a command prompt to
make sure that the computers on your network can contact one another.

Next, try to ping your servers by name. For example, if your file server is named FileServer01, use the
command ping FileServer01.

Testing the servers

Windows Server testing is primarily stress-oriented testing that include client/server I/O, network
stress, CPU consumption, and memory consumption. The specific tests you must run depends on the
features that you implement on the server.

General server stress testing

Several kinds of stress tests get run against a server, including basic system functionality, system
stress and shutdown/restart tests. LoadGen is a test tool that generates load on a system under test
(SUT). LoadGen is started on the master client and can use multiple stress client computers to
generate network load on the SUT.

System functionality tests

The system functionality tests are individual tests of the capabilities of the system. Some tests are
run for every system, and some tests only run if the capability exists in the system.

System stress test

The System Stress Test consists of several server scenario workloads that operate from the user level
address space that is applied to the system to exercise the system hardware, system-specific devices
and drivers, network and storage adapters and drivers, and any filter drivers that might be part of
the system configuration, such as multipath storage drivers, storage or file system filter drivers, or
intermediate layer network drivers.

The workloads applied are

 SQL I/O Simulation
 Local Storage I/O

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  Disk Stress with Verification
 Client-Server Storage I/O
 Winsock Network Traffic

These workloads automatically scale to the number of network and storage adapters in the system
that have connected clients or storage devices, respectively. For example, if the test discovers one
network adapter and one storage adapter (together with the necessary connected clients or storage
devices, respectively), the test creates workload processes for that number of adapters to provide
the stress workload. If the system has multiple network and storage adapters, test processes are
created for each of those adapters, drivers, and connected resources (clients or storage devices) to
provide the same relative stress workload. Additionally, the network and storage adapters and their
respective resources do not need to be the same type. For example, Gigabit Ethernet and 10 Gigabit
Ethernet adapters can be tested at the same time, as long as network clients are connected to both
devices.

The system test achieves the same relative amount of stress on the system, regardless of the
number or type of processors, amount of memory, or the number of network and storage adapters
in the system. The test detects the number of processors/cores in the system, as well as the amount
of memory in the system. The test then creates as many processor-specific and memory-specific
stress processes as are needed to achieve a predetermined level of processor and memory utilization
and will terminate those processes if the utilization level exceeds the predetermined level of stress.
Therefore, the level of utilization for those resources is always commensurate with the capabilities of
the system. A system that supports only a few processors/cores and an appropriate amount of
memory for the system has the same relative levels of stress as a larger system with more
processors/cores and a greater amount of memory.

Shutdown/Restart Test

The server test also includes a shutdown and restart test. This test signals the system to shut down
and restart. The test records the event log information related to shutting down and restarting the
system, such as vetoes that prevent shutdown, the start-up event, and any driver errors that are
received after restarting the system. This test makes sure that all device drivers in the system comply
with system shutdown, do not veto, and cleanly restart in the system without conflicting with other
drivers.

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3.2 Identify possible project risks associated with
identified hardware
Projects risks: variations in locating and obtaining hardware influenced by changes in:

 scope
 time
 cost
 quality

Managing a project is often a series of trade-offs and compromises to keep things moving towards a
successful completion. The Triple Constraint is a model that helps managers know what trade-offs
are going to work and what impact they’ll have on other aspects of the project.

By using a project management dashboard, a manager can keep sight of the project as it progresses.
Metrics such as the schedule, cost and scope of the project are easy to track. With this information, a
manager can identify issues and adjust the Triple Constraint to prevent those issues from developing
into problems.

The Triple Constraint appears simple, but that’s only on the surface. Each of the three points of this
triangle can be unpacked to reveal deeper meaning.

Cost

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The financial commitment of the project is dependent on several variables. There are the resources
involved, from materials to people, which include labour costs. There are other outside forces that
can impact a project, which must be considered in the cost of the work.

There are also the fixed and variable costs inherent in any project, such as the economic cost of
teams with varying skills and productivity, which must be calculated. This can seriously come into
play with the use of contract workers or outsourcing.

Cost processes include cost estimating to figure out the needed financial commitment for all
resources necessary to complete the job. Cost budgeting creates a cost baseline. Cost control works
to manage the fluctuation of costs throughout the project.

There are several methods for estimating project cost:

 Historic Data: Using the costs of similar projects for comparison

 Resource Costs: Determining the rate of cost for goods and labour by unit
 Bottom Up: Estimating from the lowest- to the highest- level work package
 Parametric: Measure statistical relationship between historic data and other variables
 Vendor Bid: Average of some vendor bids on project
 Reserve: Aggregate cost of activities
 Quality Analysis: Estimate cost of highest quality for activities
Cost is one of the more complicated points on the Triple Constraint triangle. To ensure that your
estimates are as accurate as possible, it’s recommended to use project management tools to
calculate the cost variances.

Scope

As mentioned, project scope deals with the specific requirements or tasks necessary to complete the
project. Scope is important to manage on any project, whether agile software projects or well-
planned waterfall projects, because if you can’t control the scope of the project, you’re not likely to
deliver it on time or under budget!
When managing scope its critical that you prioritize your tasks, enabling you to plan and assign
resources effectively. Without creating a sense of order, it’s easy to become overwhelmed, enabling
scope creep. Make sure that you knock out prerequisite tasks so your project can develop smoothly
without hangups.

Another key factor in managing and establishing scope is handling stakeholder expectations.
Stakeholders can often have new demands that popup during a project, and you need to be able to
assuage their expectations. This can especially be the case in long term projects where there might
be new stakeholders introduced in the middle of the project.

In order to accommodate the requests of stakeholders, and new demands that arrive naturally as
projects unfold, you need to be able manage change. This can include managing change requests.
When managing change requests, be sure to only accommodate those that are necessary to achieve
project goals and deliverables.

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These scope management steps are all essential because the amount of time each task will require is
critical to the quality of that final product. This can have a great impact on schedule and cost,
especially so if the project is on a large scale.

Time

At its basic, the schedule is the estimated amount of time allotted to complete the project or
producing the deliverable. Usually, this is figured out by first noting all the tasks necessary to move
from the start to the finish of the project.

A Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) is used to take the large project goal and break it down into a
series of more manageable tasks. These tasks are then prioritized, dependencies are linked, and then
placed on a timeline.

A Gantt chart is one way to visualize the project schedule, with each task a point on that timeline,
with task dependencies linked, and durations determined. Having historic data can help make more
accurate estimates.
According to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), the schedule can be managed
through a process of time management. Those steps are as follows.

Plan Schedule Management: Creating policies, procedures and documentation for planning,
executing and monitoring the project schedule.

Define Activities: Identifying and documenting what actions must be done to produce the project
deliverables.

Sequence Activities: Identifying and documenting the logical order of work to be most efficient
Estimate Activity Resources: What type and how many materials, people, equipment, supplies, etc.
are needed to perform each activity.

Estimate Activity Durations: How long will it take to complete each activity with the resources
estimated.

Develop Schedule: Analyse activity, duration, resources and timeline to develop a schedule
Control Schedule: Comparing planned schedule to actual progress to determine if your project is on
track.

Every business need to routinely purchase computer hardware and software, from the smallest
startup to the largest corporation. There are a lot of elements to take into consideration, but which
should you prioritize when it comes time to make that buy?

The three most important factors to consider when purchasing computer hardware and software
are:
 Quality
 Price
 Service after the sale

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Because these three points are all related, they should be considered together to ensure the best
purchase.

Quality

The quality of a product is essentially its goodness or “badness.” You can determine quality by asking
yourself the following questions:

 How well does this product meet my specific needs?

 Does it have the features and functions I require?
 How well is it made?
 How long will it last?

Online reviews can help you answer these questions, especially those found on respected sites such
as Newegg, which are authored by real men and women in the tech sphere who actually use the
products they’re reviewing.

The bottom line: Doing your research and reading reviews is an important component of gauging a
product’s quality. If a product has good reviews and comes from a respectable brand, you may be
tempted to pull the trigger on your purchase. However, you also need to understand how the
product will interact with the technology you already have in place. Getting a second opinion is an
absolute must, whether it be from a managed services provider or another type of IT consultant.

Price

Everyone has a budget, but that doesn’t mean buying cheap is necessarily the way to go. After all, if
you purchase a product that breaks easily or doesn’t fully meet your needs, you’ll end up needing to
replace it, thereby busting your budget.

The bottom line: Keep in mind that the actual cost of a product is only one part of the Total Cost of
Ownership (TCO) – the sum of all costs incurred over the product’s useful life. In addition to the
initial price, quality and service after the sale also impact TCO, reaffirming that buying based on the
lowest available price alone is not a smart move.

Service after the sale

Quality and price are both important factors, but you need to consider them alongside service after
the sale to get the full picture. Here are a few aspects you’d be wise to look into before purchasing:

Return policy: If the product isn’t satisfactory, how much will it cost to return, including shipping
costs and restocking fees? How much time will your staff waste dealing with a cumbersome return
process? Will your operations be impacted by not having a working product in place? Since many IT
purchase decisions are made to mitigate costly problems, the financial hits will likely continue until
the issue is resolved, so it’s best to avoid returns whenever possible. Most importantly, make sure

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you can return your purchase in the first place! Sometimes, products are final-sale – especially those
that are very low-cost (i.e. used goods or items sold by cut-rate vendors).

Warranty: Warranties apply to the state of the product when you purchased it. If something is
wrong with the product, the vendor will repair or replace it at no charge, as long as the warranty – or
subsequent warranty extension – is in effect. Does the seller you’re interested in offer a good
warranty, or any warranty at all? Check reviews to make sure the company stands behind its
warranty policy and is easy to reach when problems arise.

Service agreement: When you’re dealing with IT hardware and software, you can expect ongoing
improvements to be released and applied in the form of updates and new versions. These updates
are made for a variety of reasons, including boosting general performance, introducing specific
features and addressing recently discovered security vulnerabilities. Service agreements are
essential for IT products that are critical to business functions because operational losses due to
outdated hardware or software can be very costly.

3.3 Document findings in a report and present to

appropriate person
Evaluating Hardware Acquisition, Installation, and Maintenance
A significant part of the information architecture is the computing hardware. These systems include
the following:

Processing components—The central processing unit (CPU). The CPU contains the
electrical/electronic components that control or direct all operations in the computer system. A
majority of devices within the information architecture are CPUs (supercomputers, mainframes,
minicomputer, microcomputer, laptops, and PDAs).

Input/output components—The I/O components are used to pass instructions or information to the
computer and to generate output from the computer. These types of devices include the keyboard,
the mouse (input), and monitors/terminal displays.

Computers logically fall into categories and differ depending on the processing power and size for
the organization. The following are the basic categories for computers:

Supercomputers—These types of computers have a large capacity of processing speed and power.
They are generally used for complex mathematical calculations. Supercomputers generally perform a
small number of very specific functions that require extensive processing power (decryption,
modeling, and so on). Supercomputers differ from mainframes in that mainframes can use diverse
concurrent programs.

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Mainframes—Mainframes are large general-purpose computers that support large user populations
simultaneously. They have a large range of capabilities that are controlled by the operating system. A
mainframe environment, as opposed to a client/server environment, is generally more controlled
with regard to access and authorization to programs; the entire processing function takes place
centrally on the mainframe. Mainframes are multiuser, multithreading, and multiprocessing
environments that can support batch and online programs.
Minicomputer—Minicomputers are essentially smaller mainframes. They provide similar capabilities
but support a smaller user population (less processing power).

Microcomputer (personal computers)—Microcomputers are primarily used in the client/server

environment. Examples include file/print servers, email servers, web servers, and servers that house
database- management systems. Individual workstations also fall into the microcomputer category
and are used for word processing, spreadsheet applications, and individual communications (email).
Microcomputers are generally inexpensive because they do not have the processing power of larger
minicomputers or mainframes.

Notebook/laptop computers—Notebook and laptop computers are portable and allow users to take
the computing power, applications, and, in some cases, data with them wherever they travel.
Notebooks and laptops today have as much computing power as desktop workstations and provide
battery power when traditional power is not available. Because of the mobile nature of notebook
and laptop computers, they are susceptible to theft. Theft of a laptop computer is certainly the loss
of a physical asset, but it also can include the loss of data or unauthorized access to the
organization's information resources.

Personal digital assistants (PDAs)—PDAs are handheld devices and generally have significantly less
processing power, memory, and applications than notebook computers. These devices are battery
powered and very portable (most can fit into a jacket pocket). Although the traditional use of a PDA
is for individual organization, including the maintenance of tasks, contacts lists, calendars, and
expense managers, PDAs are continually adding functionality. As of this writing, a significant number
of PDAs provide wireless network access and have either commercial off-the-shelf software or
custom software that enables users to access corporate information (sales and inventory, email, and
so on). Most PDAs use pen (stylus)–based input instead of the traditional keyboard, effected by using
either an onscreen keyboard or handwriting recognition. PDAs are synchronized with laptop/desktop
computers through serial interfaces through the use of a cradle or wireless networking (802.11 or
Bluetooth). The synchronization can be user initiated or automated, based on the needs of the user.

There are computing attributes, including multiprocessing, multitasking, and multithreading. These
attributes are defined as follows:

 Multitasking—Multitasking allows computing systems to run two or more applications

concurrently. This process enables the systems to allocate a certain amount of processing
power to each application. In this instance, the tasks of each application are completed so
quickly that it appears to multiple users that there are no disruptions in the process.

 Multiprocessing—Multiprocessing links more than one processor (CPU) sharing the same
memory, to execute programs simultaneously. In today's environment, many servers (mail,

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 web, and so on) contain multiple processors, allowing the operating system to speed the
time for instruction execution. The operating system can break up a series of instructions and
distribute them among the available processors, effecting quicker instruction execution and
response.

 Multithreading—Multithreading enables operating systems to run several processes in rapid

sequence within a single program or to execute (run) different parts, or threads, of a
program simultaneously. When a process is run on a computer, that process creates a
number of additional tasks and subtasks. All the threads (tasks and subtasks) can run at one
time and combine as a rope (entire process). Multithreading can be defined as multitasking
within a single program.

Risks and Controls Relating to Hardware Platforms

In aligning the IT strategy with the organizational strategy, IT provides solutions that meet the
objectives of the organization. These solutions must be identified, developed, or acquired. This can
be done by reviewing control issues regarding the acquisition, implementation, and maintenance of
hardware. Governance of the IT organization and corresponding policies will reduce the risk
associated with acquisition, implementation, and maintenance.

Configuration management accounts for all IT components, including software. A comprehensive

configuration-management program reviews, approves, tracks, and documents all changes to the
information architecture. Configuration of the communications network is often the most critical and
time-intensive part of network management as a whole. Software development project
management involves scheduling, resource management, and progress tracking. Problem
management records and monitors incidents and documents them through resolution. The
documentation created during the problem-management process can identify inefficient hardware
and software and can be used as a basis for identifying acquisition opportunities that serve the
business objectives. Risk management is the process of assessing risk, taking steps to reduce risk to
an acceptable level (mitigation) and maintaining that acceptable level of risk. Risk identification and
management works across all areas of the organizational and IT processes.

One of the key challenges facing IT organizations today is the speed of new technology releases in
the marketplace and detailed baseline documentation for their organizations. IT organizations need
a process for documenting existing hardware and then maintaining that documentation. This
documentation supports the acquisition process and ensures that new technologies that meet the
business objectives can be thoroughly tested to ensure that they are compatible with the existing
information architecture.

A configuration-management audit should always verify software licensing for authorized use.

The COBIT framework provides hardware policy areas for IT functions. These policy areas can be
used as a basis for control objectives to ensure that the acquisition process is clearly defined and
meets the needs of the organization. The COBIT areas address the following questions:

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  Acquisition—How is hardware acquired from outside vendors?
 Standards—What are the hardware compatibility standards?
 Performance—How should computing capabilities be tested?
 Configuration—Where should client/servers, personal computers, and others be used.
 Service providers—Should third-party service providers be used?

The acquisition of hardware might be driven by requirements for a new software acquisition, the
expansion of existing capabilities, or the scheduled replacement of obsolete hardware. With all these
events, senior management must ensure that the acquisition is mapped directly to the strategic
goals of the organization. The IT steering committee should guide information systems strategy—
and, therefore, that its acquisitions—align with the organization's goals.

Change Control and Configuration Management Principles for Hardware

The change-control and configuration-management processes detail the formal documented

procedures for introducing technology changes into the environment. More specifically, change
control ensures that changes are documented, approved, and implemented with minimum
disruption to the production environment and maximum benefits to the organization.

During the normal operation of the IT infrastructure, there will be changes to hardware and software
because of normal maintenance, upgrades, security patches, and changes in network configurations.
All changes within the infrastructure need to be documented and must follow change control
procedures. In the planning stages the party responsible for the changes (such as end users, line
managers or the network administrator) should develop a change-control request. The request
should include all systems affected by the change, the length of resources required to implement the
change (time and money), and a detailed plan.

The plan should include what specific steps will be taken for the change and should include test
plans and back-out procedures, in case the change adversely affects the infrastructure. This request
should go before the change-control board that votes on the change and normally provides a
maintenance window in which the change is to be implemented. When the change is complete and
tested, all documentation and procedures that are affected by the change should be updated. The
change-control board should maintain a copy of the change request and its review of the
implementation of the change.

The change-control board provides critical oversight for any production IT infrastructure. This board
ensures that all affected parties and senior management are aware of both major and minor changes
within the IT infrastructure. The change-management process establishes an open line of
communication among all affected parties and allows those parties and subject matter experts
(SMEs) to provide input that is instrumental in the change process.

In addition to change and configuration control, the IT organization is responsible for capacity
planning. A capacity plan and procedures should be developed to ensure the continued monitoring
of the network and associated hardware. Capacity planning ensures that the expansion or reduction
of resources takes place in parallel with the overall organizational growth or reduction. The audit
procedures should include review of the following:

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Hardware performance-monitoring plan—Includes a review of problem logs, processing schedules,
system reports, and job accounting reports.

Problem log review—The problem log assists in identifying hardware malfunctions, operator actions,
or system resets that negatively affect the performance of the IT infrastructure. The IT organization
should regularly monitor the problem log to detect potential IT resource capacity issues.

Hardware availability and performance reports—Review and ensure that the services required by
the organization (CPU utilization, storage utilization, bandwidth utilization, and system uptime) are
available when needed and that maintenance procedures do not negatively impact the
organization’s operations.

The IT organization should work closely with senior management to ensure that the capacity plan
will meet current and future business needs, and to implement hardware-monitoring procedures to
ensure that IT services, applications, and data are available. The IT organization should regularly
monitor its internal maintenance, job scheduling, and network management to ensure that they are
implemented in the most efficient and effective manner.

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