Chapter 5

Flow of Incompressible Fluids in Conduits and Thin Layers

This chapter deals with the steady flow of incompressible fluids through closed pipes and channels. Also, the frictional losses (total friction, hf) in
pipeline elements.

A. Shear Stress and Skin Friction

Fluid friction – defined as any conversion of mechanical energy to heat in a flowing stream
- appears in boundary layers because the work done by shear forces in maintaining the velocity gradients in
both laminar and turbulent flow is eventually converted into heat by viscous action.
(a) Skin friction - friction generated in unseparated boundary layers
(b) Form friction – additional energy dissipation that appears within the wakes when boundary layers separate

Consider flow of fluid through a straight horizontal pipe:

Pt. a Pt. b

Pa + gZa + a Va2 + Wp = Pb + gZb + b Vb2 + hf

 gc 2 gc  gc 2 gc

Since : Za = Zb,
Va = Vb ;
Wp = 0

Then: hf = hf s = Pa – Pb = Ps
 
where: Ps = frictional pressure drop/pressure loss due to skin friction only, when no other elements is
present in the pipe
hf s = skin friction
= friction loss due to contact between a solid wall and a fluid stream
= 4 w L ( where: w = wall shear )
D

NOTE: If boundary layer separation occurs, h f is greater than hf s

i. Fanning Friction Factor, f :

- The Fanning friction factor is defined as the drag force per wetted surface area (shear stress at the surface) divided by the
product of density and velocity head.
- The fanning friction factor relates only to skin friction

f = 2w but hf s = 4 w L = 2w ( 2 L V2 )

 V2 D  V2 D

Thus: hf s = 4 f L V2
2D
a) Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Laminar flow:

32v( L2  L1 )
Hagen-Poiseuille: Ps =
D2

But: hf s = 4 f L V2
2D

4 f L V2 = Ps = 32   (L2 –L1)

2D   D2
 Then : f = 16  but Re = DV
DV 

f = 16
Re

b) Pressure Drop and Friction Loss in Turbulent

hf s = 4 f L V2
2D
where: f =  ( 𝜖 , Re ) = function of surface roughness, 𝜖 and Reynolds Number, Re
1) using figure 6.9 (Perry’s Handbook)
2) using Colebrook equation 6-38 of the Handbook

1 𝜖 1.256
= −4𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ + ]
√𝑓 3.7𝐷 𝑅𝑒√𝑓

Surface Roughness, 𝜖 values of various can be taken from Table 6-1 of Handbook

P s , frictional pressure drop = 4 f  L V2

2D
B. Friction Losses in Expansion, Contraction and Pipe Fittings
Skin friction losses in flow through straight pipe are calculated by using the Fanning friction factor. However, if the velocity of the fluid is
changed in direction or magnitude, additional friction losses occur. This results from additional turbulence which develops because of
vortices and other factors.
i. Sudden enlargement (expansion) losses
If the cross-section of a pipe enlarges very gradually, very little or no extra losses are incurred but if the change is
sudden, it results in additional losses due to eddies formed by the jet expanding in the enlarged section.

hf e = Ke Va2 where: Ke = expansion loss coefficient = [ 1 – (Sa/Sb) ]2

2gc Va = average velocity in the smaller upstream pipe
S = cross-sectional area

ii. Sudden contraction losses

When the cross-section of the pipe is suddenly reduced, the stream cannot follow around the sharp corner, and
additional frictional losses due to eddies occur.
 hf c = Kc Vb2 where: Kc = contraction loss coefficient = 0.5 [ 1 – (Sb/Sa) ]
2gc Vb = average velocity in the smaller downstream pipe
S = cross-sectional area

C. Friction Losses in fittings and Valves

Pipe fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines in a pipe and cause additional friction losses. In a short pipe with many fittings,
the friction loss from these fittings could be greater than in the straight pipe.

hf f = Kf Va2 where: Kf = loss factor for the fitting ( table 6-4 and table 6-5, p.6-18, Perry’s HB)
2gc Va = average velocity in pipe leading to the fitting
PROBLEMS:
1. Calculate the frictional pressure drop in pascal for olive oil at 293 K through a commercial pipe having
an inside diameter of 0.0525 m and a length of 76.2 m. The velocity of the fluid is 1.22 m/s. Is the flow
laminar or turbulent? Use the friction factor method. For olive oil, density = 919 kg/m3; viscosity = 84
x 10–3 Pa.s
2. A liquid having a density of 801 kg/m3 and a viscosity of 1.49 cP is flowing through a horizontal straight
pipe at a velocity of 4.57 m/s. The commercial steel is 1 ½ -in. Schedule 40. For a length of 61 m,
calculate (a) friction loss (b) for a smooth tube of the same diameter, calculate the friction loss (c) what
is the % reduction?
3. Water at 60F is pumped from a reservoir to the top of a mountain through a 6-in Schedule 120 pipe at an
average velocity of 12 ft/s. The pipe discharges into the atmosphere at a level of 3000 ft above the level
in the reservoir. The pipeline itself is 4500 ft long. If the overall efficiency of the pump and the motor
driving it is 70% and the cost of electric energy to the motor is 4 cents per kW-hr, what is the hourly
energy cost for pumping this water?
4. A centrifugal pump takes brine from the bottom of a supply tank and delivers it into the bottom of another
tank. The line between the tank is 600 ft of 4 –in schedule 40 pipe. The flowrate is 400 gal/min. In the
line are two-gate valves, four standard tees, and four ells. What is the energy cost for running this pump
for one 24-hr day? The specific gravity of brine is 1.18, the viscosity of brine is 1.2 cP and the energy
cost is $400 per hp-year on a basis of 300 days per year. The overall efficiency of the pump and motor
is 60%.