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NIH Stroke Scale Neurological Assessment Flow Sheet

Date______________________Time:
Temp
Blood Pressure
Pulse

Respirations

Pulse Ox
1a. Level of consciousness
(Alert, drowsy, etc.)
Alert = 0
Drowsy = 1
Stuporous = 2
Coma = 3
1b. LOC Questions (Ask month and
age)
Answers both correctly = 0
Answers one correctly = 1
Both incorrect = 2
1c. LOC Commands (Ask to
open/close eyes and grip/release non-
paretic hand)
Obeys both correctly = 0
Obeys one correctly = 1
Both incorrect = 2
2. Best Gaze (only horizontal
movement tested; Eyes open-follows
finger or face
Normal = 0
Partial gaze palsy = 1
Forced Deviation = 2
3. Visual (introduce visual stimulus to
patient’s upper and lower field
quadrants)
No visual loss = 0
Partial hemianaopia = 1
Complete hemianopia = 2
Bilateral hemianopia = 3
4. Facial Palsy (show teeth/smile,
raise eybrows and squeeze eyes shut)
Normal = 0
Minor = 1
Partial = 2
Complete = 3

5a/5b. Motor arm left and right


(Extend left arm, palm down, to 90ºif
sitting or 45ºif supine)
No drift = 0
Drift = 1
Can’t resist gravity = 2
No effort against gravity = 3
No movement = 4
Amputation/joint fusion = UN
6a/6b. Motor arm left and right
(Elevate let to 30ºand flex at hip,
always supine)
No drift = 0
Drift = 1
Can’t resist gravity = 2
No effort against gravity = 3
No movement = 4
Amputation/joint fusion = UN
7. Limb Ataxia (Finger-nose, heel-
shin tests done on both sides)
Absent = 0
Present in one limb = 1
Present in two limbs = 2
Amputation/joint fusion = UN
8. Sensory (Use a pinprick to face,
arm, trunk, and leg-compare side to
side. Assess awareness of being
touched)
Normal = 0
Partial loss = 1
Severe loss = 2
9. Best Language (Ask to name
items, describe a picture, read a
sentence)
No aphasia = 0
Mild to moderate aphasia = 1
Severe aphasia = 2
Mute = 3

10. Dysarthria (Evaluate speech


clarity by asking patient to repeat
listed words)
Normal articulation = 0
Mild to moderate dysarthria = 1
Near to intelligible = 2
Intubated or other barrier = UN
11. Extinction and Inattention
(Use information from prior testing to
identify neglect or double simultaneous
stimuli testing)
No neglect = 0
Partial neglect = 1
Complete neglect = 2
NIH Score
Senses are the physiological capacities within organisms that provide inputs for perception

In philosophy, psychology, and cognitive science, perception is the process of attaining


awareness or understanding of sensory information. The word "perception" comes from the Latin
words perceptio, percipio, and means "receiving, collecting, action of taking possession,
apprehension with the mind or senses."[1]

Sight

Sight or vision is the ability of the eye(s) to focus and detect images of visible light on the retina
in each eye, and determine varying colors, hues, and brightness detected by each retinal receptor.
There is some disagreement as to whether this constitutes one, two or three senses.
Neuroanatomists generally regard it as two senses, given that different receptors are responsible
for the perception of color and brightness. Some argue[citation needed] that stereopsis, the perception of
depth using both eyes, also constitutes a sense, but it is generally regarded as a cognitive (that is,
post-sensory) function of the visual cortex of the brain where patterns and objects in images are
recognized and interpreted based on previously learned information. The inability to see is called
blindness.

Blindness may result from damage to the eyeball, especially to the retina, damage to the optic
nerve that connects each eye to the brain, and/or from stroke (infarcts in the brain). Temporary or
permanent blindness can be caused by poisons or medications.

[edit] Hearing

Hearing or audition is the sense of sound perception. Since sound is vibrations propagating
through a medium such as air, the detection of these vibrations, that is the sense of the hearing, is
a mechanical sense because these vibrations are mechanically conducted from the eardrum
through a series of tiny bones to hair-like fibers in the inner ear which detect mechanical motion
of the fibers within a range of about 20 to 20,000 hertz,[4] with substantial variation between
individuals. Hearing at high frequencies declines with age. Sound can also be detected as
vibrations conducted through the body by tactition. Lower frequencies than that can be heard are
detected this way. The inability to hear is called deafness.

[edit] Taste

Taste or gustation is one of the two main "chemical" senses. There are at least four types of
tastes[5] that "buds" (receptors) on the tongue detect, and hence there are anatomists who
argue[citation needed] that these constitute five or more different senses, given that each receptor
conveys information to a slightly different region of the brain[citation needed]. The inability to taste is
called ageusia.

The four well-known receptors detect sweet, salty, sour, and bitter, although the receptors for
sweet and bitter have not been conclusively identified. A fifth receptor, for a sensation called
umami, was first theorised in 1908 and its existence confirmed in 2000[6]. The umami receptor
detects the amino acid glutamate, a neurotransmitter commonly found in meat and in artificial
flavourings containing monosodium glutamate. Another taste sense for ginger, mild chilli, and
olive oil is perceived as a peppery tickle at the back of the throat (which senses polyphenols in
unprocessed olive oil).[7]

The University of Maryland School of Medicine announced in 2010 that bitter taste receptors
had been discovered on smooth muscle in human lung bronchi. These smooth muscles control
airway contraction and dilation - contrary to expectation, bitter substances such as quinine or
chloroquine opened contracted airways, offering new insight into asthma.[8]

Note: that taste is not the same as flavour; flavour includes the smell of a food as well as its taste.

[edit] Smell

Smell or olfaction is the other "chemical" sense. Unlike taste, there are hundreds of olfactory
receptors, each binding to a particular molecular feature. Odor molecules possess a variety of
features and thus excite specific receptors more or less strongly. This combination of excitatory
signals from different receptors makes up what we perceive as the molecule's smell. In the brain,
olfaction is processed by the olfactory system. Olfactory receptor neurons in the nose differ from
most other neurons in that they die and regenerate on a regular basis. The inability to smell is
called anosmia. Some neurons in the nose are specialized to detect pheromones.[citation needed]

[edit] Touch

Touch, also called tactition or mechanoreception, is a perception resulting from activation of


neural receptors, generally in the skin including hair follicles, but also in the tongue, throat, and
mucosa. A variety of pressure receptors respond to variations in pressure (firm, brushing,
sustained, etc.). The touch sense of itching caused by insect bites or allergies involves special
itch-specific neurons in the skin and spinal cord.[9] The loss or impairment of the ability to feel
anything touched is called tactile anesthesia. Paresthesia is a sensation of tingling, pricking, or
numbness of the skin that may result from nerve damage and may be permanent or temporary.

[edit] Balance and acceleration

Main article: Vestibular system

Balance, equilibrioception, or vestibular sense is the sense which allows an organism to sense
body movement, direction, and acceleration, and to attain and maintain postural equilibrium and
balance. The organ of equilibrioception is the vestibular labyrinthine system found in both of the
inner ears. Technically this organ is responsible for two senses of angular momentum
acceleration and linear acceleration (which also senses gravity), but they are known together as
equilibrioception.

The vestibular nerve conducts information from sensory receptors in three ampulla that sense
motion of fluid in three semicircular canals caused by three-dimensional rotation of the head.
The vestibular nerve also conducts information from the utricle and the saccule which contain
hair-like sensory receptors that bend under the weight of otoliths (which are small crystals of
calcium carbonate) that provide the inertia needed to detect head rotation, linear acceleration,
and the direction of gravitational force.

[edit] Temperature

Thermoception is the sense of heat and the absence of heat (cold) by the skin and including
internal skin passages, or rather, the heat flux (the rate of heat flow) in these areas. There are
specialized receptors for cold (declining temperature) and to heat. The cold receptors play an
important part in the dog's sense of smell, telling wind direction. The heat receptors are sensitive
to infrared radiation and can occur in specialized organs for instance in pit vipers. The
thermoceptors in the skin are quite different from the homeostatic thermoceptors in the brain
(hypothalamus) which provide feedback on internal body temperature.

[edit] Kinesthetic sense

Proprioception, the kinesthetic sense, provides the parietal cortex of the brain with information
on the relative positions of the parts of the body. Neurologists test this sense by telling patients to
close their eyes and touch their own nose with the tip of a finger. Assuming proper
proprioceptive function, at no time will the person lose awareness of where the hand actually is,
even though it is not being detected by any of the other senses. Proprioception and touch are
related in subtle ways, and their impairment results in surprising and deep deficits in perception
and action.[10]

[edit] Pain

Nociception (physiological pain) signals near-damage or damage to tissue. The three types of
pain receptors are cutaneous (skin), somatic (joints and bones) and visceral (body organs). It was
previously believed that pain was simply the overloading of pressure receptors, but research in
the first half of the 20th century indicated that pain is a distinct phenomenon that intertwines
with all of the other senses, including touch. Pain was once considered an entirely subjective
experience, but recent studies show that pain is registered in the anterior cingulate gyrus of the
brain.[11] The main function of pain is to warn us about dangers. For example, humans avoid
touching a sharp needle or hot object or extending an arm beyond a safe limit because it hurts,
and thus is dangerous. Without pain, people could do many dangerous things without realizing it.

[edit] Direction

Magnetoception (or magnetoreception) is the ability to detect the direction one is facing based
on the Earth's magnetic field. Directional awareness is most commonly observed in birds, though
it is also present to a limited extent in humans.[citation needed] It has also been observed in insects such
as bees. Although there is no dispute that this sense exists in many avians (it is essential to the
navigational abilities of migratory birds), it is not a well-understood phenomenon.[12] One study
has found that cattle make use of magnetoception, as they tend to align themselves in a north-
south direction.[13] Magnetotactic bacteria build miniature magnets inside themselves and use
them to determine their orientation relative to the Earth's magnetic field.[citation needed]

[edit] Other internal senses

An internal sense or interoception is "any sense that is normally stimulated from within the
body".[14] These involve numerous sensory receptors in internal organs, such as stretch receptors
that are neurologically linked to the brain.

• Pulmonary stretch receptors are found in the lungs and control the respiratory rate.
• The chemoreceptor trigger zone is an area of the medulla in the brain that receives inputs
from blood-borne drugs or hormones, and communicates with the vomiting center.
• Cutaneous receptors in the skin not only respond to touch, pressure, and temperature, but
also respond to vasodilation in the skin such as blushing.
• Stretch receptors in the gastrointestinal tract sense gas distension that may result in colic
pain.
• Stimulation of sensory receptors in the esophagus result in sensations felt in the throat
when swallowing, vomiting, or during acid reflux.
• Sensory receptors in pharynx mucosa, similar to touch receptors in the skin, sense foreign
objects such as food that may result in a gag reflex and corresponding gagging sensation.
• Stimulation of sensory receptors in the urinary bladder and rectum may result in
sensations of fullness.
• Stimulation of stretch sensors that sense dilation of various blood vessels may result in
pain, for example headach

Sensation and Perception – Chapter 4

1. Describe the five stages that constitute the process of sensory processing and
perception of information.

a. Receptors translate stimulus properties into nerve impulses (transduction)

b. Feature detectors analyzes stimulus features

c. Stimulus features are reconstructed into neural representations

d. Matching process results in recognition and interpretation of stimuli

2. How do psychologists differentiate between sensation and perception?

a. Sensation is the stimulus-detecting process by which our sense organs respond to and
translate environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.

b. Perception – making sense of what our senses tell us – is the active process of organizing
this stimulus input and gives it meaning.
3. What two kinds of sensory capabilities are studied by psychophysics
researchers?

e. Psychophysics studies relations between the physical characteristics of stimuli and


sensory capabilities.

f. Sensory capability 1; Limits of sensitivity e.g. what is the dimmest light, softest sound,
weakest salt solution a human can detect.

g. Differences between stimuli; e.g. what is the smallest difference in brightness, sound,
salt solution a human can detect.

4. What is the absolute threshold, and how is it technically defined and measured?

a. Absolute threshold is the lowest intensity at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the
time.

b. The lower the absolute threshold, the greater the sensitivity.

5. Why do signal detection theorists view stimulus detection as a decision? What


are the four possible outcomes of such a decision?

a. Signal detection theory is concerned with the factors that influence sensory judgments.

b. Hit > Miss > false alarm > correct rejection

6. What kinds of personal and situational factors influence signal detection


decision criteria?

a. Participants can be influenced to become bolder or more conservative by manipulating


the rewards and costs for giving correct or incorrect responses e.g. more conservative if Yes
is associated with cost of the possibility of false alarm thus resulting in higher detection
thresholds.

7. According to research results, what effects do subliminal stimuli have on


consumer behaviour, attitudes, and self-improvement outcomes?

a. A subliminal stimulus is one that is so weak or brief that, although it is received by the
senses, it cannot be perceived consciously.

b. Very little if any change in behaviour occurred as a result of subliminal stimuli. Change in
attitude however brought about different results e.g. positive thinking which created a sense
of expectancy.

8. What is the technical definition of a difference threshold? How does Weber’s


law help us compare jnd sensitivities in the various senses?
a. The difference threshold is defined as the smallest difference between two stimuli that
people can perceive 50% of the time.

b. Weber’s law states that the difference threshold, or jnd, is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the stimuli with which the comparison is being made and is expresses as
Weber fraction; the smaller the fraction, the greater the sensitivity to differences.

9. What accounts for sensory adaptation? Of what survival value is adaptation?

a. Sensory neurons are engineered to respond to a constant stimulus by decreasing their


activity, and the diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus is called sensory
adaptation e.g. background noise is not heard after a while; wrist watch is not felt after
wearing it for some time.

b. Adaptation frees our sense from the constant and mundane to pick up informative
changes in the environment.

10. How does the lens affect visual acuity, and how does its dysfunction cause the
visual problems of myopia and hyperopia?

a. Myopia (nearsightedness) a visual defect in which distant objects appear blurred because
their images are focused in front of the retina rather than on it

b. Hyperopia (farsightedness) an abnormal condition of the eye in which vision is better for
distant objects than for near objects. It results from the eyeball being too short from front
to back, causing images to be focused behind the retina.

11. How are the rods and cones distributed in the retina, and how do they
contribute to brightness, perception, colour vision, and visual acuity?

a. Rods function best in dim light thus are primarily black and white receptors. They do not
recognize colour sensations. Rods are found throughout the retina except in the fovea, a
small area in the centre of the retina that contains only cones.

b. Cones function best in bright light are colour receptors.

c. Visual acuity or ability to see fine detail is greatest when the visual image projects
directly onto the fovea.

12. What is transduction, and how does this process occur in the photoreceptors of
the eye?

a. The process where characteristics of a stimulus are converted into nerve impulses is
called transduction.

b. Rods and cones translate light waves into nerve impulses through the action of protein
molecules called photo pigments.

c. The absorption of light by the photo pigments produces a chemical reaction that changes
the rate of neurotransmitter release at the receptor’s synapse with the bipolar cells.
13. How is brightness sensitivity in rods and cones affected by the colour
spectrum?

a. Rods are far more sensitive that cones under conditions o low illumination.
Rods have greater brightness sensitivity than cones throughout the colour spectrum except
at the red end, where rods are relatively insensitive.

Cones are most sensitive to low illumination in the greenish-yellow range of the spectrum.

14. What is the physiological basis for dark adaptation? What are the two
components of the dark adaptation curve?

a. The physical and chemical adjustments of the eye, including dilation of the pupil and
increased activity of rods in the retina, that makes vision possible in relative darkness.

b. Photo pigment molecules are regenerated and the receptor’s sensitivity increases greatly.

c. Intensity of light to produce vision vs. Time in dark (minutes)

15. Describe the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory of colour vision. What kinds
of evidence support this theory, and what two phenomena challenge it?

a. According to Young-Helmholtz, there are three colour receptors in the retina.

b. Any colour in the colour spectrum can be produced by some combination of the
wavelengths that correspond to the colours blue, green, and red; known as additive colour
mixture.

c. Although their theory explained that yellow is produced by activity of red and green
receptors, people with red-green colour blindness are able to experience yellow.
Colour afterimage, in which an image in a different colour appears after a colour stimulus
has been viewed steadily and then withdrawn.

16. Describe the opponent-process theory. What evidence supports it?

a. The opponent color theory suggests that there are three opponent channels: red versus
green, blue versus yellow, and black versus white (luminance), with each responding in an
antagonist way. That is, either red or green is perceived and never greenish-red. (Note that
although yellow is a mixture of red and green in the RGB color theory; the eye doesn't
perceive it as such.)

17. How does the dual-process theory of colour vision combine the trichromatic
and opponent-progress theory?

a. Each of the receptors can function in two possible ways, depending on the wavelength of
the stimulus. The pattern of activity in the receptors yields our perception of the hue.

18. What are the two major types of colour blindness? How are thy tested?

a. Colour blindness is caused by a deficiency in the red-green, yellow-blue, or both system.


b. Tests of colour-blindness contain sets of coloured dots. Depending on the type of deficit,
a colour-blind person cannot recognize certain numbers embedded in the circles.

19. What kinds of feature detectors exist in the visual system? What is meant by
parallel processing of sensory information?

a. Groups of neurons within the primary visual cortex are organized to receive and integrate
sensory nerve impulses originating in specific regions of the retina.

b. One neuron may fire frequently when a horizontal line is detected while a different
neuron may only fire when it detects a vertical line.

c. When a red, white, and green beach ball sails toward you, separate but over lapping
modules within the brain simultaneously analyze its colours, shape, distance, and
movement by engaging in parallel processing of the information and constructing a unified
image.

20. What are the two physical characteristics of sound waves, and which auditory
qualities do these characteristics produce?

a. Frequency (Hz) determines pitch (tone)


Amplitude determines intensity (loudness) (db)

21. Describe how the middle and inner ear structures are involved in the auditory
transduction process.

a. The transduction system of the ear is made up of tiny bones, membranes, and liquid-
filled tubes designed to translate pressure waves into nerve impulses.

b. Sound waves travel into an auditory canal leading to the eardrum, a movable membrane
that vibrates in response to the sound waves.

c. Beyond the eardrum is the middle ear, a cavity housing three tiny bones. The vibrating
activity of these bones – the hammer, anvils and stirrup – amplifies the sound waves more
than 30 times.

d. The inner ear contains the cochlea, a coiled, snail-shaped tube about 3.5 cm in length
that is filled with fluid and contains the basilar membrane.

e. Resting on the basilar membrane is the Organ of Corti, which contains thousands of tiny
hair which are sound receptors.

22. Describe the frequency and place theories of pitch perception. In what sense
are both theories correct?

a. According to the frequency theory of pitch perception, nerve impulses sent to the brain
match the frequency of the sound wave.

b. The place theory of pitch perception suggests that the specific point in the cochlea where
the fluid wave peaks and most strongly bends the hair cell serves as a frequency coding
due.
c. At low frequencies, frequency theory holds true; at higher frequencies, place theory
provides the mechanism for coding the pitch of a sound.

23. How does the structure of the auditory system permit humans to localize
sounds? What sensory information is used by the brain in localization?

a. The two ears we have play a crucial role in sound localization. The nervous system uses
information concerning the time and intensity differences of sounds arriving at the two ears
to locate the source of sound in space.

b. Sounds arrive first and loudest at the ear closest to the sound. When the source of the
sound is directly in front of us, the sound wave reaches both ears at the same time and at
the same intensity.

24. What are the two varieties of deafness, and how do they differ in their physical
bases and in possible treatments?

a. Conduction deafness is caused by problems involving the mechanical system that


transmits sound waves to the cochlea.

b. Nerve deafness is caused by damaged receptors within the inner ear or damage to the
auditory nerve itself, and it cannot be helped by a hearing aid. Exposure to loud sounds is
the leading cause.

25. Describe the sensory principles that are applied to create sensory prosthetics
for visually and hearing impaired people.

a. Sensory prosthetics produce sensory input that can substitute to some extend, for what
cannot be provided by the normal sensory receptors.

b. A device that stimulates the visual cortex directly. When cells in the visual cortex are
stimulated electrically, discrete flashes of light called phosphenes are experienced by both
sighted and blind people.

c. A prosthetic devise for hearing impaired, called cochlear implant which is a device that
can restore hearing in people suffering from nerve deafness. The cochlear implant does not
amplify sound. The devise sorts out useful sounds and converts them into electrical
impulses. By passing the disabled hair cells in the cochlea and stimulating the auditory
nerve directly.

26. Describe the stimuli and receptors involved in gustation and olfaction. Why do
researchers sometimes refer to a “common chemical sense”?

a. Gustation is the act or faculty of tasting. Taste buds which are receptors located along
the sides and the back of the tongue which detect Sweet, Sour, Salty and Bitter tastes.

b. Olfaction is the act or process of smelling. The receptors for smell are long cells that
project through the lining of the upper part of the nasal cavity and into the mucous
membrane.
c. Food taken interacts with saliva to form a chemical solution that flows into the taste pore
and stimulates the receptors cells.

27. What is menstrual synchrony, and what evidence is there that pheromones are
involved?

a. Menstrual synchrony is the tendency of women who live together or are close friends to
become more similar in their menstrual cycles.

b. Pheromone is a chemical secreted which influences the behavior or development of


others of the same species, often functioning as an attractant of the opposite sex.

28. What four tactile sensations are humans sensitive to? How are these
sensations localized, and how are phantom limb sensations produced?

a. Pressure, pain, warmth, cold

b. The amount of cortex devoted to each area of the body is related to that part’s
sensitivity.

c. Phantom limb pain felt by an amputee that seems to be located in the missing limb. After
amputation of a limb, an amputee continues to have an awareness of it and to experience
sensations from it. These phantom limb sensations are also present in children born without
a limb, suggesting that perception of our limbs is 'hard-wired' into our brain and that
sensations from the limbs become mapped onto these brain networks as we develop.

29. Differentiate between bottom-up and top-down processing of sensory


information.

a. In bottom-up processing, the system takes in individual elements of the stimulus and
then combines them into a unified perception e.g. reading a sentence; first recognizing each
letter, then putting them together in a word.

b. In top-down processing, sensory information is interpreted in the light of existing


knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations. “Higher order” knowledge is used to interpret
the meaning of the words read.

30. What two complimentary processes occur in attention?

a. Focusing on certain stimuli

b. Filtering out other incoming information

31. Describe the results of shadowing experiments in relation to attentional


capabilities

a. Shadowing experiments demonstrate that we cannot attend completely to more than one
thing at a time. But we can shift our attention rapidly back and forth between the two
messages, drawing on our general knowledge to fill in the gaps.
32. What stimulus and personal characteristics influence attention?

a. Stimuli that attract our attention include intensity, novelty, movement, contrast, and
repetition. Internal factors such as interest, act as filters and influence what we notice and
what not.

33. How does our tendency to separate figure and ground contribute to
perception?

a. Figure-ground refers to humans' ability to separate elements based upon contrast. We


tend to organize stimuli into a central or foreground figure and a background.

34. Define and give examples of the four Gestalt laws of perceptual organization.

a. Similarity > Proximity > Closure > Continuity

35. In what sense is perception a kind of hypothesis testing? What is the role of
perceptual schemas in this process?

a. Perception is an attempt to make sense of stimulus input and causes us to search for the
“best” interpretation of sensory information.

b. The perceptual system actively searches its gigantic library of internal schemas for the
interpretation that best fits the sensory data.

36. What is a perceptual set? What factors can create such sets? How did the
Vincennes incident illustrate this concept? How is it involved in perceiving people?

a. Perceptual set is a readiness to perceive stimuli in a particular way.

b. Two groups are getting different information about something e.g. a person. After
meeting or listening to that person, the information given to the two groups is ‘absorbed’ in
their critique of the speaker.

c. The perception that the plane was a war plane and that it was descending toward the ship
fit the crew’s expectations and fears, and what they experienced at that moment become
“reality”.

37. What are the nature and adaptive value of perceptual constancies?

a. Perceptual constancies allow us to recognize familiar stimuli under varying conditions e.g.
shape sounds, size, and illumination.

38. Identify eight monocular cues for distance and depth. (requires only one eye)

a. Light and shadow


b. Linear perspective
c. Interposition
d. Height in the horizontal plane
e. Texture
f. Clarity
g. Relative size
h. Motion parallax; (Closer objects appear to move faster than objects far away)

39. Describe two binocular cues. (Requires two eyes)

a. View Master: Each eye sees a slightly different image


b. Convergence: Provided by feedback from the muscles that turn your eyes inward to view
a near object. (Cross eyed)

40. What is the primary cue for motion perception? How is stroboscopic movement
used in motion pictures and television?

a. The primary cue for perceiving motion is the movement of stimulus across the retina.

b. Stroboscopic movement is an illusory movement produces when a light is briefly flashed


in darkness and then, a few milliseconds later, another light is flashed nearby. Movie
projectors are working similar in that a still image or frame is advanced, a light is sent
through for a very short time; the next image or frame is advanced and so on giving the
illusion that the pictures are moving.

41. In what sense is an illusion a false perceptual hypothesis? In what ways are
constancies and context involved in producing visual illusions?

a. Illusions are compelling but incorrect perceptions


b. Most visual illusions can be attributed to perceptual constancies that ordinarily help us to
perceive more accurately e.g. size constancies result in part from our ability to use distance
cues to judge the size of objects.

42. How do endorphins exert their effects on pain perception?

a. Endorphins exert some of their pain-killing effects by inhibiting the release of


neurotransmitters involved in the synaptic transmission of pain impulses from the spinal
cord to the brain.

43. How do researchers determine whether endorphins underlie the analgesic


effects of a procedure such as acupuncture or hypnosis?

a. In acupuncture the needles that are being inserted into the skin produce an analgesic (a
medication capable of reducing or eliminating pain) effect by stimulating the release of
endorphins.

44. What is stress-induced analgesia, and what is its adaptive value? How do we
know if endorphins play a role in it?

a. Stress induced analgesia is a reduction of perceived pain in a stressful situation e.g.


accident where pain is not perceived until much later, giving the individual opportunities to
escape the situation and get out of a life threatening situation.

b. The release of Endorphins is part of the body’s natural response to stress..


45. Can endorphins have negative effects on the body?

a. Continuous high release of endorphins cause however the immune system not to work
correctly

46. What evidence is there that cultural learning, beliefs, and personality factors
influence pain perception?

a. Pain is perceived and endured differently in various cultures.

47. What evidence is there that cultural factors can influence picture
interpretations, constancies, and susceptibility it illusions?

a. The culture one grows up in, determine how we see things.

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