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08/APR/2018
The origins
Ali was born in Delhi in 1910 and his work first featured in Angarey, a
1932 avant garde Urdu volume that carried short stories by leading
progressive writers of the time. He later migrated to Pakistan and became a
diplomat. Published in 1940, his novel offers a nostalgic portrait of Indian
Muslims in Old Delhi and their decline following their encounter with
British colonisers. It, however, can hardly be termed as the progenitor of
Pakistani fiction writing in English.
Muneeza Shamsie has written about what she calls “Duality and Diversity
in Pakistani English Literature” in the Journal of Postcolonial Writing in
2011. “Pakistani English literature shares with other South Asian English
literatures a regional dynamic as well as a long colonial history, but the
Pakistani imagination is also linked to the wider Islamic world.” The
Islamic connection, thus, only partially encompasses the idea of Pakistan.
A little less than a decade from the moment Jinnah made this famous
declaration, the 1956 constitution renamed Pakistan as an “Islamic
Republic”, bringing religion right back into the business of the state. This
confusion over the separation of religion and the state certainly complicates
the possibility of equating Muslim nationalism with Pakistani nationalism
as has been argued by some theorists.
A postcolonial discomfort
The anglophone novel in South Asia emerged out of the colonial encounter.
Postcolonial criticism, therefore, has dedicated a lot of time and ink to the
question of whether anglophone postcolonial writing is truly postcolonial,
written as it is in the language of the colonisers. Feroza Jussawalla,
professor of literature at the University of New Mexico, claims in her 1985
book, Family Quarrels: Towards a Criticism of Indian Writing in English:
“Indians write in English to impress the British … they write at the
inspiration of Western writers.”
Other critics, too, have documented this discomfort with English language
in the postcolonial context. Tariq Rahman, in his excellent history of
anglophone Pakistani literature, recounts these debates but offers no
resolution to this particular issue. Looming in the background of all this, of
course, is the spectre of Thomas Macaulay’s oft-quoted 1835 Minute on
Indian Education that became the basis for the English Education Act in
India. He sought to create “a class of persons Indian in blood and colour,
but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals and in intellect”. While it is
tempting to see the very existence of English writing in the postcolonial
state as evidence of the success of Macaulay’s mission, such a move would
be something of an oversimplification.
This is why it is common to see words and phrases from indigenous Indian
languages in anglophone South Asian literature, always accompanied by
their translations. Here is one example. Sidhwa writes, “She calls him Jan:
life.” Implicit in her translation of ‘Jan’ is the fact that the writer is not
writing for an audience of Urdu-Hindi speakers alone.
Hanif Kureishi (in his 1990 book, The Buddha of Suburbia, and 1998
book, Intimacy), for instance, explores the familiar form of cultural
disconnect felt by those straddling two cultures as the first wave of
Pakistani diaspora lived out their lives in the United Kingdom. Bina Shah’s
2001 novel, Where They Dream in Blue, chronicles an attempt to know a
possibly unknowable Pakistan as her young Pakistani-American
protagonist, Karim Asfar, follows his identity crisis to Karachi. Plagued
with concerns about having a hybrid identity, he wonders about his fellow
hyphenated Americans: “Were they Americans, or Pakistanis? Where did
they belong? Who owned their loyalties? When the Gulf War erupted,
should they have supported the Iraqis, because they were Muslim, or
Americans, because they were born in America?”
After 9/11, there has also been a shift from questions around immigration
and assimilation to ones around migrants returning ‘home’. This is evident
in Hamid’s 2007 novel, The Reluctant Fundamentalist, and H.M. Naqvi’s
2009 novel, Home Boy. Both these books ask whether assimilation is even
desirable.
For The Reluctant Fundamentalist’s Changez, the question comes to a head
when he experiences a loss of self during a visit home from New York,
where he has been living for years. He finds himself mistaking, at first, the
“enduring grandeur” of his family home for shabbiness – just as an
American would. For him, to think about his home in this way is shameful
for it suggests that he is becoming a foreigner in his own land. As he
dreams “not of Erica”– his girlfriend and a stand in for America in the
novel – “but of home”, it becomes apparent that sooner or later he will have
to choose between the two.
The early English novels of India and Pakistan shared many similarities —
take the shared thematic concerns over Partition in Sidhwa’s Ice-Candy
Man, Khushwant Singh’s 1956 novel, Train to Pakistan, and Attia Hosain’s
1961 novel, Sunlight on a Broken Column. The trauma of 9/11 brought a
major shift for Pakistan – and its literature – away from its South Asian
links as its Islamic identity and strategic location have embroiled it in what
has become a prolonged campaign against Islamic militants in Afghanistan
as well as in its own Pakhtun regions.
The country’s public perception in the wake of this fight has very much
shaped its literary and cultural discourse. Cultural theorist Claire Chambers
notes this change while talking about Granta magazine’s 2010 Pakistan
issue. “[It] adds to a sense of publishers and academics moving away from
the fashionable Indo-chic of the 1980s and 1990s towards grittier, post-9/11
‘renditions’ of Pakistan as the eye of the storm in the war on terror,” she
writes. That this grittier post-9/11 rendition should come from writers who,
as Chambers says, citing Muneeza Shamsie, “neither have hyphenated
identities nor can be considered Pakistani exiles, but write in liminal
positions between West and East”, is not simply coincidental.
The anglophone Pakistani novel has always been on a quest for identity,
belonging and immigration. It follows, then, that these concerns are adapted
to the contemporary moment by the contemporary Pakistani novel in
English to the extent that Cara Cilano reads an end of nationalism in
Kamila Shamsie’s ambitious novel Burnt Shadows that travels from Japan
to India to Pakistan to Afghanistan and to the United States.
As the space for hybrid identities shrinks, so does the proclivity among
writers towards being citizens of nowhere and everywhere — water lilies,
rooted but able to float, as Hamid puts it in his 2014 collection of
essays, Discontent and its Civilizations: Dispatches from Lahore, New
York, and London.
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