doi: 10.1111/j.1478-4408.2009.00194.

Evolution of right-first-time dyeing

production
J Parka,* and J Shore b
a
39 Stiles Road, Arnold, Nottingham NG5 6RE, UK
Email: parkdy@globalnet.co.uk
b
1 Cromley Road, High Lane, Stockport SK6 8BP, UK

The concept of right-first-time production has become an essential feature of textile processing to enable
companies to remain competitive and profitable through the many benefits achieved by this concept, not
least the major cost savings that are obtained. It is perhaps surprising that no formal research and
development programme was ever undertaken to achieve right-first-time in practical dyeing processes.
The successful evolution of the concept depended on work carried out over many years by a relatively
small number of organisations. Many application research and development projects were carried out,
mainly with the laboratory, pilot-plant and bulk-scale equipment of the major users and manufacturers of
dyes and equipment, to elucidate the important factors in achieving this concept.

Introduction significant saving, but both techniques were based on

In the dyehouses of 50 years ago, and for many centuries
before that, wrong-first-time (WFT) was the rule rather
than the exception, sometimes deliberately so. Only by
good fortune under favourable circumstances, such as a
series of repeat dyeings to the same shade on the same
substrate, could right-first-time (RFT) production be
achieved. Typically, a dyer would hold back a small
proportion of the dye recipe formulated for the target
shade, giving scope for modifying correction additions
after the WFT result became available for comparison
with the target. Adding more shading dye is always
simpler than the consequences of overshooting. Even as
late as three decades ago, a typical batchwise dyehouse
might achieve <50% of production that did not require
correction, either during the initial process or as a
reprocessing stage afterwards. Colour corrections in
exhaust dyeing averaged about three per batch. The skill
of the practical dyer was judged by the small number of
additions that were required.
The concept of ‘zero-defect’ production, originally
conceived in the USA, whereby only first- quality goods
were manufactured without the need for corrective action
or reprocessing, has been a goal of most companies for
several decades. Translated to the textile dyeing sector,
this meant that every batch of coloured material should
be the correct colour, every time, as assessed against the
target colour, without the need for adjustment during the
process or as a corrective reprocessing procedure. This
aim has been recognised by practical dyers for over five
decades, but many of the factors that require control to
achieve so-called ‘right-first-time’ processing had neither
been identified nor investigated.
The concept of RFT processing in exhaust dyeing
became established in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Originally it was termed ‘no addition’ dyeing if the dyeing
was found to be acceptable for colour at the assessment
stage, or ‘blind dyeing’ if colour assessment was carried
out after the batch had been removed from the dyeing
machine. Elimination of the inspection stage made a
achieving a high percentage of bulk production that did
not require colour correction or reprocessing. It was
recognised that the successful practical dyer must achieve
the following objectives:
– the material must match the target colour, usually
being colour constant or isomeric in different
illuminants;
– the colour must be applied uniformly and the
processed material must have satisfactory fastness and
physical properties;
– the cost of production must be within the allowed
budget;
– the material must be delivered on time.
Impact of dyeing theory
Understanding of the fundamentals of the dyeing process
began with studies of the physical chemistry of dye
absorption during the 1940s. This work underlined the
importance of time, temperature and liquor flow, and
their importance in the exhaustion, absorption, levelling
and penetration of dyes, principally for water-soluble
dyes when applied to textile substrates [1]. The
development of spectrophotometry in the 1950s was
required before the mechanism of dyeing with disperse
dyes could be fully elucidated [2]. Rattee [3] predicted
correctly in the 1980s that future progress in dyeing
research would be influenced by the development of
controlled application methods, the increasing use of
dyeing machine control systems and the need to shorten
dye-cycle times. The importance of dye properties and
control systems and their contribution to improving
dyeing reproducibility were also recognised at this time
[4]. An important aim of dyeing research was seen to be
the optimisation of dyeing procedures [5] by being able
to:
– characterise the performance of dyes, auxiliaries and
substrates by physico-chemical parameters;
– determine data for the performance of dyeing
equipment;

ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140 133
Park and Shore Evolution of RFT dyeing production
– develop calculation techniques to optimise dye and
auxiliary quantities;
– calculate optimum conditions for dyeing machine
operation.
Some of the successful applications of dyeing theory to
practical dyeing have included the following [6] which
have resulted in the development of the so-called
optimised dyeing procedures for most dye ⁄ fibre
combinations [7]:
– control of levelness by temperature and pH with
calculated amounts of auxiliaries and metered chemical
addition;
– selection of compatible dyes;
– determination of substrate characteristics;
– optimisation of dyeing machine parameters, such as
flow rate or circulation time.
By the mid-1990s, the performance of reactive dyes had
been defined by means of the reactive dye compatibility
matrix [8].
Significance of R&D for dye selection and
application
In parallel with research on dyeing theory, dye research
and development (R&D) has been characterised by a high
success rate in identifying targets and achieving
successful outcomes and therefore has had a significant
impact on practical dyeing [9]. This is not only because of
development of appropriate dyes but also the
characterisation of their properties and
standardisation. Between the years 1946 and 1977, a
series of papers was published by SDC technical
committees defining the application methods for various
dye ⁄ substrate combinations [10]. Factors affecting dye
evaluation and selection were identified and discussed
[11], with a range of tests being given for their evaluation
and testing [10]. Rules for the standardisation of dyes and
a standardisation specification were given [9,12]. As
discussed later, this work led to the ability to evaluate and
select dyes which could be combined to give maximum
reproducibility in the dyeing process. The improvement in
fastness properties was another important consequence.
Limits of accuracy
Three decades ago, several authors identified the
numerous factors which must be controlled or monitored
to achieve satisfactory reproducibility in dyeing [13–20].
These factors have to be within certain acceptable
tolerances, often referred to as ‘the limits of accuracy’, in
order to obtain a colour match within prescribed colour
matching limits to either the standard or a previous
production batch. A comprehensive investigation of the
many variables that affect the final colour was carried out
by J P Coats using a statistical procedure termed a
skeleton factorial design [13]. This reduced the
experimental work required to reasonable proportions.
Instrumental colour-difference measurement was used to
enable statistical estimates to be made of the effect of
each factor. This seminal paper showed that some factors
could be directly controlled within the dyehouse whereas
134 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140
others were outside its influence. Gailey [14,15] later
graded these and other factors according to levels of
importance in the dyeing of cotton with vat dyes or
polyester thread with disperse dyes. These gradings are
shown in Table 1.
Work carried out by the Shirley Institute [now BTTG]
indicated that the most important factors in the dyeing of
polyester fabric were as shown in Table 2 [18,19]. A
general procedure for determining the limits of accuracy
for any dyeing process was given [18–20]. In many cases,
the mean deviation must be 1% or less to achieve a
commercial match. Several attempts have been made to
establish a suitable specification for water to be used in
textile processing. Despite its relegation to the bottom of
Table 1, a typical specification was given by Gailey [21].
The importance of many of these factors was
substantiated by other workers. A classic paper [22]
detailed the variability that can occur in the moisture
content of disperse dyes caused by ambient storage
conditions. Because dyes contain different diluents added
during standardisation, and these can vary in
hygroscopicity, severe colour differences in terms of both
depth and hue can occur as a result of differences in
moisture content. More recently, the importance of the
moisture content of dyes used for wool dyeing has been
confirmed [23]. It was demonstrated by Sumner [24] that
inaccuracies in weighing and measurement of volume
Table 1 Factors requiring control in the dyeing of sewing thread
[15,16]
their Factors of prime Dyeability of substrate
importance Heat-setting conditions
(polyester): time,
temperature, tension
Dry weight of substrate
Colour value of dyes
Weight of dyes
Moisture content of dye
Accuracy of dissolving or
dispersing dye
Dyebath temperature
Factors of major Liquor-to-goods ratio
importance Weight of electrolyte (cotton
dyeing)
Weight of auxiliary product
Time of dyeing
Dyebath pH
Factors of minor Yarn construction (e.g. twist)
importance Degree of bleaching (cotton)
Degree of mercerisation (cotton)
Size content
Temperature of drying before dyeing
Water quality
Table 2 Most important factors for
polyester fabric dyeing [18,19]
Factors for polyester fabric dyeing
Substrate dyeability
Heat treatments above 150 C
before dyeing
Fabric preparation
Dyebath pH
Metal-ion content of the dyebath
Dye concentration

were two of the principal causes of poor reproducibility
in the dyeing process. Thus, the importance of the drug
room or dye dispensary was at last recognised. This
should be segregated from the main coloration area, often
on an upper storey of the building, with air-conditioning
installed, together with the necessary weighing,
measuring, mixing and dispensing equipment [25,26].
These developments, together with the availability of
dyes in various physical forms [25,26], have greatly
improved the accuracy achievable in this area. Colour
mapping of dyes allows dye combinations to be selected
within limited regions of colour space to minimise the
effect of dye weighing errors [27]. A similar technique
based on dye triangulation selects dyes based on ‘internal
primaries’ [28]. Many coloration problems arise as a
result of inadequate preparation of the substrate. Equally
important, as discussed earlier, is the dyeability of the
substrate. Methods were given for assessing this
important parameter [29].
Importance of instrumental colour
assessment
It has already been noted that instrumental colour
measurement made an important contribution to the
determination of the limits of accuracy. The development
of instrumental methods of colour assessment, correlated
with the visual assessment of trained colour observers,
was an important factor in the successful development of
RFT dyeing production.
Even when visual assessment of colour is carried out by
standardised methods, the results obtained can be
haphazard and are notoriously unreliable for various
reasons. As long ago as 1967, Gailey [30] identified the
factors that had to be considered when replacing visual
colour assessment by instrumental methods. The factors
in visual colour matching include illuminants, viewing
geometry, size of specimen, the age, sex and colour
discrimination of the observer, together with the
consistency of observers. There is often difficulty in
agreeing standards with the added difficulty of
establishing standard tolerances, whilst physical
standards quickly become soiled. Thus, there is likely to
be a significant proportion of ‘wrong decisions’ in the
visual appraisal process. In 1970, McLaren [31] found that
wrong decisions are likely to exceed 20% of assessments,
with trained colourists reversing their decisions in a
similar proportion if given the opportunity to reassess
standard and batch pairs. Visual assessments are more
reliable if conditions such as lighting, background and
size of sample are standardised [32]. J P Coats achieved
better consistency in visual assessments by placing a grey
scale within the viewing cabinet to indicate the acceptable
tolerance. As ca. 8% of the male population has abnormal
colour vision (compared with ca. 0.5% of females),
screening of assessors is necessary. The use of a panel of
three observers gives more consistent results. Individual
observers make at least 17% of wrong decisions [32]. An
improvement in the quality of colour matching, in terms
of accuracy, consistency and reproducibility, can only be
achieved by the use of instrumental methods based on
spectrophotometry and a colour-difference equation
ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140
Park and Shore Evolution of RFT dyeing production
which gives results that correlate with visual assessment
by a panel of experienced colour matchers.
As regards instrumental methods, Gailey [30] listed
the illuminant, the standard observer data used, viewing
geometry, textile structure, lustre, dichroism, fluorescence,
metamerism of the specimen, colour-difference equation
used and the uniformity of colour space as important
factors. At that time (1967), a uniform colour space had not
been developed and spectrophotometers were in their
infancy. However, by 1981 Rigg [32] concluded that
pass ⁄ fail formulae were equal to the results from a panel of
observers and superior to those of a single observer.
The development of colour-difference equations was
reviewed extensively by McLaren [33]. By 1960, there
were many different equations based on non-uniform
colour space, with no possibility of accurate
interconversion of colour-difference units. ANLAB colour
space, one of the most uniform up to 1981, was not
suitable for single number shade passing (SNSP).
However, it and its successor CIELAB readily allowed
colour differences to be split into three components and
permitted two methods of instrumental shade passing to
be developed; namely, colour-specific passing and the
development of optimised equations. Three different
methods of splitting components of colours were
described; namely, LAB, LCH and HBS [34].
In 1981 McLaren [35] reviewed colour measurement in
the UK, which had already been used for computer
colour matching (CCM) or recipe prediction over two
decades. Market penetration into match prediction had
been slow, even although the financial benefits were
apparent and well documented. Two organisations (Hatra
and ICI) took the initiative in 1970–1971 to promote
quality control functions, using a single colour-difference
equation, although both withdrew from this activity in
1976. An important aspect was the availability of Hatra
data based on 775 standard sample pairs around 31
colour centres. This was assessed instrumentally and
visually by up to 32 assessors giving more than 30 000
results. The number of dyehouses using instrumental
methods for quality control by that time, however, was
many times greater than for match prediction, largely
because of the need to purchase a spectrophotometer and
a computer separately, together with the difficulty of
programming involved. This was resolved by the
formation of ICS (now part of Datacolor) in 1969 which
provided a turnkey system, tailor-made for each user.
A major advance was the development of optimised
colour-difference equations which effectively
compensated for the visual non-uniformity of the colour
solid. The most important of these was the JPC 79
equation, developed by McDonald [36] and introduced
by J P Coats. McLaren [37] described the search for the
ideal shade passing formula, resulting in the
development of the JPC 79 equation. This equation was
shown to be much more reliable than the CIELAB
equation adopted in 1976, as assessed by every set of
data evaluated, with fewer wrong decisions than the
average observer. Two dyehouses were already using
the equation, for example [38], in addition to the J P
Coats operation in Paisley [39], SNSP having been
implemented [38].
135
Park and Shore Evolution of RFT dyeing production
The JPC 79 equation was suggested as a viable
alternative to visual colour matching [40] and a
comparison of various colour-difference equations
published by McLaren [33] based on figures for
instrumental assessment and visual wrong decisions
confirmed the value of the JPC formula. With minor
modifications the JPC 79 equation became the CMC (2:1)
equation [41,42] which gained the status of a British
Standard [43] and eventually became an international
standard. McDonald [44] reviewed the relationship
between visual and instrumental assessment of colour
difference, summarising work carried out between 1960
and 1980.
The CMC equation has been widely adopted and is
probably the leading colour-difference equation [45,46].
Following the introduction and widespread use of the
CMC equation, several other colour-difference equations
have been derived, most recently the CIEDE 2000
equation [47]. Despite claims that these equations gave
improvements, comparisons of different formulae
indicated that they were not significantly better than the
CMC equation [48–50]. The difficulties of changing from
an established and valuable equation, for which a large
database of results is available based on many years of
experience, were also underlined. In an extensive review
[51], the development of colour-difference formulae was
discussed.
Matching tolerances
With the availability of optimised colour-difference
equations, the difficulties associated with visual
assessment could be eliminated and this was a major
factor in the development of RFT processing, followed by
the concept of engineered standards, leading to major
improvements in colour quality [52]. SNSP was
established, allowing a single numerical tolerance to be
applied to any component of colour difference (such as
total colour difference, DE) and this tolerance is then
satisfactory for all areas in colour space. The numerical
tolerance is defined only by the end-use criteria as regards
the closeness of matching. Whether visual or instrumental
methods are used, a standard operating procedure (SOP)
is required and this must include factors such as
preparation, handling and measurement of samples.
Conditioning of samples for illuminant, humidity and
temperature is essential and the variations which can be
obtained as a result of differences in moisture content
alone have been reported. Inappropriate storage
conditions can also lead to significant colour changes [52].
Kuehni [53] criticised instrumental colour assessment,
concluding that the best formula for predicting mean
perceived small colour differences of industrially
produced coloured goods had an accuracy of about 65%,
which should be considered unsatisfactory. This reduces
confidence in the reliability of objective colour control
and it seems that a major improvement in performance is
unlikely to be achieved. However, Kuehni’s conclusion is
somewhat at variance with the results obtained in
practice together with the penetration and acceptance
achieved in industry and retailing by instrumental colour-
difference assessment. The small colour differences
136 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140
demanded in bulk dyeing by organisations such as
automotive manufacturers and textile retailers [within the
range of DE(CMC) 0.3–0.5] cannot be obtained by dyeing
processes based on visual matching and correction, but
only by RFT blind dyeing methods and instrumental
colour assessment.
Computer colour matching
As discussed by McLaren [35], a convincing case in
financial terms could have been made as long ago as 1962
for the installation of a colour physics package based on
the savings made and the short payback periods obtained.
Typical cost savings were discussed [54]. Technical
benefits contribute significantly to RFT, as already
mentioned, from the screening, evaluation, selection and
quality control of dyes. Major rationalisation of dyes, with
the use of compatible and cost-effective products, makes
further significant savings possible.
Three major objectives
The importance of the support laboratory has been
underlined [10,55–57] and the value of automation in the
laboratory discussed [58,59]. It is essential to achieve
three major objectives in RFT processing [60]:
– within-laboratory reproducibility and accuracy;
– accurate transfer and scale-up from laboratory to bulk;
– repeatability between bulk batches dyed to the same
colour.
It was noted in 1989 that little quantitative data had been
published on the accuracy of laboratory dyeing methods
[58,61]. However, two earlier papers had criticised the
reproducibility of laboratory dyeing on the evidence of
colour differences between dyeings carried out
simultaneously using a standard formula [62,63].
Laboratory weighing procedures were found to be a major
source of error [63]. Many practical dyers apparently
agreed with these conclusions, as traditionally their first
action was to subtract 10–15% from the quantities given
in the laboratory recipe before proceeding to bulk. This
guaranteed at least one colour addition and removed any
possibility of RFT dyeing [58].
As a result of numerous independent audits carried out
worldwide, it was found that many important factors
varied between the laboratory and production. It was
possible to quantify the variations in reproducibility
which occurred both in the laboratory and in production
processes. Typical results from these audits are shown in
Table 3 for five laboratory technicians dyeing five
standard formulae on five consecutive days and for 29
batches which were blind-dyed in a dyehouse with
industry-average control strategy. Typical results from a
CCM system in such a facility are also shown [10,56].
The acceptable limits in major dyehouse factors are
shown in Table 4, whilst the limits of accuracy which
may apply, even in a well-controlled operation, are
indicated in Table 5. High-accuracy laboratory dyeing,
essential for dye evaluation, database preparation for
CCM and for colour matching, became possible even in
small support laboratories from the early 1990s onwards.
This was as a result of the development of low-cost
 Park and Shore Evolution of RFT dyeing production

Table 3 Colour differences so that the predicted recipe could be transferred into bulk
and give within-tolerance (RFT) dyeing without a
Parameter DE(CMC) preliminary laboratory check [21,65]. This organisation
was also the first to utilise a feedback system developed
Matching tolerance 0.8 by McDonald [66] in 1980 and later patented, whereby
Laboratory results the results from previously successful predicted recipes
Within-technician Average 0.83
were used to obtain predictions for new colours. A
variation Spread 0.2–3.4
Between-technician Average 1.44 similar approach was later developed as the ‘smart-match’
variation Spread 0.22–4.7 (DCI, Datacolor International) technique [67]. However, it
Bulk production is cost-effective to ensure accurate laboratory dyeing. It
Blind-dyeing techniques Standard vs batch 1.8
has been shown [68] that a bulk correction of a 300-kg
Spread of results 0.4–2.8
production batch costs as much as three to 25 laboratory
Results from CCM: average colour difference from target dyeings or one sample dyeing of 3–10 kg, whereas a re-
First prediction Average 2.9 dyeing of this batch equates in cost with 25–85 laboratory
Spread 1.32–5.3
dyeings, depending on the process and dyehouse
After correction Average 1.8
Spread 0.8–3.8 infrastructure.
Well-run system with 1.0 or less
high-quality database Cost of non-conformance
The batchwise dyer incurs severe financial penalties if RFT
Table 4 Acceptable variability in dyehouse factors processing fails and a significant proportion of batches are
WFT. Several authors have quantified the effects of not
Factor Variability (%) achieving RFT processing. Gailey [14] calculated that, as a
result of this failure, dyeing machinery utilisation
Moisture content of substrate ± 0.5 efficiency was no better than 30–60%, whilst machine
Weighing of substrate ± 0.5 allocation was only two to six per operative for batch
Moisture content of dyes ± 3.5 processes with 2- to 4-h cycle times. Boyd [69] and his
Weighing of dyes, chemicals and Less than ± 0.5
auxiliaries
co-workers, who included a cost accountant, carried out
Dye standardisation ± 2.5 detailed costing for dyeing batches of acrylic, polyester,
Dyebath pH ± 0.35 units nylon and wool yarns and examined various options in the
processing sequences. Details were given of the savings
that could be attained by blind dyeing techniques, both in
Table 5 Limits of accuracy
time and financially. Similar studies were carried out on
RFT dyeing of cotton [70] and the processing of cellulosics
Colour
Factor difference DECMC
[68,71] and polyester [72].
There was broad agreement between these various
Visual limit of trained observer 0.6
authors on the costs of WFT. A colour correction added
Substrate variability in dyeing Up to 4.0 between 24% and 36% to the total dyeing cost of the initial
Variability in water supply Up to 3.0 dyed batch, depending on the dye ⁄ substrate system and
Instability of solutions or dispersions 3.0–5.0 the stage of manufacture at which dyeing was carried out.
Computer prediction: typical system 2.5–3.0
Computer prediction: optimised system Below 1.0
Stripping and re-dyeing increased the initial dyeing cost by
Variations in dye weighing of ± 2.5% 0.15 between 170% and 200%. These costs, however, are only
Repeat knitting or card wrapping for 0.2 some of the penalties incurred, as they can be equalled or
colour assessment exceeded by the loss in revenue and profit which occurs
Batch levelness 0.2
Repeatability in bulk 0.2
when machines that should be processing the next batches
Laboratory dyeing reproducibility 0.12 are occupied with corrective treatments, as shown in
Spectrophotometer reproducibility 0.05–0.2 Table 6 [71]. Methods of optimising batchwise dyeing
processes were evaluated [69] and reviewed [73].
In addition to the cost savings obtained by RFT
equipment for solution and dispersion preparation,
processing, there are several other benefits, including
together with low-cost electronic dispensing pipettes for
improved quality through shorter processing times,
dyebath preparation [10].
increased productivity from the same equipment and time
Sophisticated computer programs were developed so
frame, improved production planning and less capital
that high-quality recipe predictions were obtained from
commercial CCM systems by the 1980s. These predicted
recipes were usually checked in the laboratory to allow Table 6 Cost comparisons [71]
for changes in the ‘random’ variables (as defined later)
and to achieve what was described as the ‘match of the Process Cost Productivity Profit
day’ [54]. This could be translated into bulk as an RFT
dyeing. The J. P. Coats organisation developed the Blind dyeing 100 100 100
Small addition 110 80 48
prediction program further, using non-linear equations
Large addition 135 64 )45
incorporated by McDonald in 1968 to accommodate the Strip and re-dye 206 48 )375
variations in dye uptake at different concentrations [64],

ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140 137
Park and Shore Evolution of RFT dyeing production

expenditure on processing equipment [74]. RFT Table 7 Important factors influencing RFT production [74]
processing is an essential prerequisite to the introduction
of automation and robotics. Gailey [14,75,76] and Park Monitor by
[77] discussed various aspects of control and automation laboratory Control
Factor check by SOP
of yarn package dyeing, including both small- and large-
batch production. Package dyeing techniques, based on
Starting materials
circulating-liquor machines, including fibre, yarn in hank
Purity of water X
and package form and the beam dyeing of fabric are Dyeability of textile substrate X
amenable to robotisation as discussed by Bocus for yarn Preparation of textile substrate X
[78]. Further major improvements in quality and Standardisation of dye supply X
Moisture content of dye supply X
productivity resulted from the development of the
Dyeing process control
parallel-sided dyeing package (PSDP) to replace the cone Weighing of substrate batch to be dyed X
[79]. PSDP is ideal for robotic handling. Richardson [70], Weighing and dispensing of dyes X
Farrington [80], Finnie [81] and Diggle [82] discussed the Weighing and dispensing of chemicals X
Control of liquor ratio X
development of RFT processing in fabric dyeing. In
Control of pH X
circulating-fabric machines, automation can also be Time ⁄ temperature profile X
developed but total robotisation has proved difficult Control of liquor flow X
because of the need to load and unload fabric manually, Control of substrate circulation X
Colour control
although some elements such as anti-tangle monitors are
Selection of dyes X
available. Park and Shore [83] have discussed the Behaviour of dyes in combination X
application of dyeing theory in practical applications to Accuracy of laboratory dyeing recipe X
obtain improvements in productivity and levelness by Accuracy of transfer to bulk-scale recipe X
Batch to batch reproducibility in X
controlling liquor or material circulation. Optimised
bulk-scale dyeing
dyeing techniques have also been developed and the Method of colour assessment X
Optidye programs (DyStar) [83] have been extended to Determination of metamerism index X
include dye selection, computer colour matching and
optimum processing conditions, allowing for fibre type,
other benefits are obtained from RFT processing. Further
dyes selected and machinery used. The modern concept
savings are obtained, particularly in labour, by
of controlled coloration depends on implementing all the
introducing control systems at various levels of
aspects of the original RFT philosophy and is achieved
sophistication, using semi-automated (SAC) or fully-
through a combination of management, dye and
automated (FAC) systems, with the ability to reproduce,
application technologies [84].
both accurately and consistently, the factors demanded
by appropriate SOPs. The installation of robotic systems
Factors for RFT processing can convert blind dyeing into a lights-out operation.
From the mid-1980s, the important factors to obtain However, if either SAC or FAC systems have been
dyeing reproducibility were being identified [85,86]. As installed previously, it is unlikely that further major
seen from the above discussion, the combined efforts of savings in labour will be made by robotisation. Indeed, a
laboratory and technical staff of dye- and machinery- slight increase in labour requirement may even be
makers and -users were able to identify approximately necessary. Thorough feasibility studies with financial
twenty factors which must be monitored or controlled to justifications are necessary for the installation of all levels
achieve RFT processing in the dyeing process. These are of control equipment [74]. Commercially available control
shown in Table 7 [74]. Similar factors must be defined systems were available by 1979 [17] and these, including
for preparation and finishing procedures and the dispensing, have been discussed recently [26,87].
necessary limits of accuracy determined by technical
audits and applied to processing procedures. These Case studies
factors must be incorporated into SOPs for both
Although a significant number of exhaust dyeing
laboratory and production which must correlate and be
operations worldwide have successfully implemented the
applied vigorously.
philosophy to achieve the concept of RFT production,
Most of the factors listed in Table 7, often referred to
there have been relatively few case studies published to
as ‘assignable’ variables, are controlled directly by SOP
describe these projects or to document the success
and relatively few, known as ‘random’ variables, require
achieved. One pioneering organisation able to
routine and regular testing. It is often the failure to
demonstrate the financial benefits of RFT processing [69]
monitor these random variables, in particular water
and which had implemented SNSP [38], as discussed
quality and substrate dyeability, which prevents
earlier, subsequently introduced the use of non-physical
dyehouses from achieving a high level of RFT production
standards. This was carried out in a modernised package
by blind-dyeing techniques (Table 5).
dyehouse [88] which consistently achieved an RFT
production of more than 98%. A major study was carried
Use of control systems out on the re-equipping of a large yarn dyehouse in the
It is possible and has been demonstrated that RFT USA, taking into account many personnel, management
production can be obtained in manually operated and engineering issues in addition to the technical factors
dyehouses. As indicated, major financial savings and listed in Table 7. On completion of the modernised

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dyehouse, including a new laboratory suite, RFT
production was obtained for 98.5% of repeat batches with
96% of new shades being RFT, these being recipes used
direct from the laboratory [89]. Similar results have been
reported from fabric dyeing operations [80–82]. It is
estimated that between 20% and 25% of exhaust
dyehouses throughout the world have implemented the
full philosophy of RFT dyeing as discussed in this paper.
Many more have undoubtedly obtained major benefits by
reaching an intermediate stage, for example, by
introducing colour measurement technology and other
aspects of the total concept.
Conclusion
The textile marketing chain is long and complex.
Globalisation of the textile industry has resulted from the
computerised analysis of sales data from retailing in any
region of the world to be readily transferred to textile
manufacturing and its associated dyeing service, so that
supply and demand can be closely integrated. Quick
response (QR) is a mode of operation whereby
manufacturing industry supplies products to its
customers as and when required. The concept of just-in-
time (JIT) means having only the right products in the
right place at the right time, with consistency of quality
[90]. The RFT philosophy is intended to provide higher
quality with QR, as well as maximising productivity,
process efficiency and profitability [74].
Although the concept of RFT was never the subject of
formalised major R&D projects, it evolved through the
foresight, determination and ultimate success of relatively
few organisations over a considerable time span in the
dye- and machinery-making and -using industries. The
contribution over many years by the team at J. P. Coats
in Paisley, led by Ian Gailey, should not be under-
estimated, particularly regarding their lasting
contributions to the areas of limits of accuracy and
reproducibility, computer colour matching and colour-
difference measurement.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Dr R McDonald for
useful information and comments.
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The authors have spent a lifetime in the textile
coloration industry, and have won plaudits for their
significant contributions to the technical literature
over many years.

140 ª 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation ª 2009 Society of Dyers and Colourists, Color. Technol., 125, 133–140