Agriculturalscience Year13

The Ministry of Education owns the copyright of this text book, Agricultural Science for Year 13, which
is on the Year 13 Agricultural Science Syllabus, 2018.

Schools may reproduce this in part or in full for classroom purposes only. Acknowledgement of the
Technology and Employment Skills Training Section of the Ministry of Education Copyright must be
included in any reproduction.
Any other use of this book must be referred to the Permanent Secretary for Education through the
Director Technology and Employment Skills Training.
Issued free to schools by the Ministry of Education
Trial version 2018
Year 13, this is based on the Year 13 Agricultural Science Syllabus, 2018.
Copyright ©28th January, 2018

Technology and Employment Skills Training
Ministry of Education, Heritage & Arts, Fiji
All Rights Reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
Retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise,without the permission of the
Technology and Employment Skills
Training Section of the
Ministrof Education,
Heritage & Arts
Fiji
Published by
Technology and Employment Skills Training Section
Ministry of Education
Level1, Harbour Front Building
Rodwell Road
Private Mail Bag
Suva
Fiji
Phone 3306077
Email: www.education.gov.fj
: test_info@govnet.gov.fj
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PREFACE
Welcome to Agriculture for Year 13.

This book was designed to complement lessons prepared by teachers for the learning and teaching of the
Year 13 Agricultural Science Syllabus implemented in 2018.
Teachers are encouraged to use other resource materials to reinforce lesson content.
Ministry of Education
Suva
15th January 2018
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This textbook has been produced by the Agricultural Science Section of the Technology and Employment
Skills Training Section of the Ministry of Education.
It has been written and compiled by:

(i) Mrs. Salote Matameli (Assemblies of God High School)
(ii) Mr.Vikal Prakash (Suva Grammar Secondary School)
(iii) Mr.Cabemaiwai Turagasau (Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna Memorial)
(iv) Ms.Josifini Tuwai (Rishkul Sanatan College)
The publication has been made possible through the support and assistance provided by the Agricultural
Science Senior Education Officers; Mrs. Viori Odro and Mrs. Seforosa Savena with guidance from the
Principal Education Officer of the Technology and Employment Skills Training Section; Mrs. Makelesi
Driu and other Senior Staff of the TEST Section of the Ministry of Education, Fiji for their patience and
support in vetting and publishing this book.
Acknowledgement is also extended to Google International for the availability of images used to illustrate
concepts presented in this book.
Above all the family members of the writers are thanked for their patience and whole hearted support.
While every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, the Ministry of Education
apologises for any accidental infringement
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TABLE OF CONTENT
STRAND SUB-STRAND PAGE

AS 13.1 AGRICULTURAL AS 13.1.1 Current Agricultural Issues 7
CONCEPTS  AS 13.1.1.1 Import and Export Legislation

 AS 13.1.1.2 Green Economy
 AS 13.1.2 Careers 21
AS 13.2 FARM AS 13.2.1. Physical Capital 28
MANAGEMENT  AS 13.2.1 Internal combustion engine

AS 13.2.2 Financial Capital 45
 AS 13.2.2 Management tools used for farm performance
and assessment
AS 13.3 AGRONOMY AS 13.3.1 Soils 64
 AS 13.3.1 Soil chemistry
AS 13.3.2 Horticulture
 AS 13.3.2.1 Plant Breeding 94
 AS 13.3.2.2 Sustainable farming methods
 AS 13.3.2.3 Organic Container Garden
 AS 13.3.2.4 New initiative’s and trends in crop
production
AS 13.4 LIVESTOCK AS 13.4.1 Potential Livestock 146
PRODUCTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY 199
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ABOUT THIS BOOK
INTRODUCTION
This is a guide to the way in which the rest of the book is set up.
It also contains suggestions on how the book is to be used.
The content of this book is based on the Year 13 Agricultural Science Syllabus prepared by the
Technology and Employment Skills Training [TEST] Section of the Ministry of Education and
implemented in 2018.
As a subject of the Technology Key Learning Area, this book contains concepts and skills which relate to
real life situations. As such practical work is encouraged to ensure learning of these lifelong skills.
Like the respective syllabus, this book is divided into four strands and six subs – strand, details of which
are:
STRAND SUB-STRAND
AS 13.1 AGRICULTURAL AS 13.1.1 Current Agricultural Issues
CONCEPTS AS 13.1.1.1 Import and Export Legislation
AS 13.1.1.2 Green Economy
AS 13.1.2 Careers
AS 13.2 FARM MANAGEMENT AS 13.2.1.1 Physical Capital
AS 13.2.1 Internal combustion engine
AS 13.2.2 Financial Capital
AS 13.2.2.1 Management tools used for farm performance and
assessment
AS 13.3 AGRONOMY AS 13.3.1 Soils
AS 13.3.1.1 Soil chemistry
AS 13.3.2 Horticulture
AS 13.3.2.1 Plant Breeding
AS 13.3.2.2 Sustainable farming methods
AS 13.3.2.3 Organic Container Garden
AS 13.3.2.4 New initiative’s and trends in crop production
AS 13.4 LIVESTOCK AS 13.4.1 Potential Livestock
PRODUCTION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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The Content Learning Outcomes for each Sub-strand have been unpacked and presented as Lessons.
Lessons follow the format below:
To gain maximum benefit from this guide you will have to follow all the instructions carefully. Given
below are the key points which you need to be familiar with to use this guide correctly.
LESSON OUTCOME
These are specific objectives for individual lessons. This is what you are required to facilitate and the
students to master at the end of each class.
VOCABULARY LIST
This contains definitions of some challenging words that have appeared for the first time during the
course.
NOTES
This contains detailed information for you to be able to facilitate each lesson. This is designed to provide
you with the necessary knowledge to be able to achieve the objective of the lesson.
NB: However the information you can use is not just limited to the notes.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
The students are presented with series of tasks which they must complete. These tasks are based on the
learning outcome of one particular lesson. This is COMPULSORY and will help achieve the aims of an
individual lesson.
SUMMARY
This highlights the main points of the lesson.
SELF EVALUATION
At the end of each class there are a set of questions that the students can use to see how much they have
learnt in that lesson and evaluate themselves for each lesson.
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AS 13.1.1 GENERAL AGRICULTURE
INTRODUCTION
This strand will facilitate the exploration of some current
environmental issues, modern practices, production issues and careers
relating to agriculture.
Students will be introduced to general concepts relating to import and
export legislation and importance of green jobs for sustainability.
Students will be encouraged to research career opportunities in
agricultural fields associated with the content of this syllabus.
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SUB STRAND AS 13.1.1 GENERAL AGRICULTURE
CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME
AS 13.1.1.1 Recognise the importance of trade and its impact on the economy.
LESSON 1 IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to identify agricultural exports and imports for the last
two years in relation to trading in Fiji.
VOCABULARY
1. Import: An import is a good or service brought into one country from another. The word
"import" is derived from the word "port," since goods are often shipped via boat or
aeroplane to foreign countries.
2. Export: In international trade, "exports" refers to selling goods and services produced in
the home country to other markets.
NOTES
Import and export trade plays an important role in the development of the economy of Fiji. Fiji exports
agricultural and non- agricultural produce to other countries and also imports products that are not
available in our country due to certain reasons.
Fiji’s domestic exports, which largely comprises of agricultural and fisheries commodities include sugar,
fish, coconuts, taro, copra, pawpaw and ginger. Other major exports include garments, mineral water and
gold which are part of the main pillars of domestic exports which earns a huge amount of foreign
currency for Fiji.
Current statistics that shows our international trade

Fiji recorded a trade deficit of FJD$316 million in the Agriculture Crop and Livestock Sub Sector in
2015. The trade deficit decreased at a diminishing rate. Import bill for crop and Livestock sub sector
declined in 2015 by 7%. Domestic Export increased by 10% in 2015. This shows there is positive growth
of the sector in terms of developing local produced commodities which boosted the exports and
substituted imported commodities in 2015.
Crop & Livestock Sub-sector Trade Balance
Source FARS/FBOS
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Export Commodities in 2014 and 2015.
Top 7 Exported Fresh /Chilled Crop & Livestock 2015
9,000
8,000 The graph shows the
7,000 top 7 fresh and
6,000 chilled agriculture
5,000 commodities
4,000 exported in 2015
3,000 compared against
2,000 the same commodity
1,000 in 2014. Even though
0 there was a drop in
Taro Cassava Other Eggplants Pawpaw Ginger Yaqona
Vegetables
the volume of taro
exports in 2015, the
2014 Volume (mt) 2015 Volume(mt)
value increased.
Source FARS/FBOS
Top 10 Exports Destinations of Crop & Livestock Commodities

(Fresh/Chilled & Processed)
There were altogether 46 export destinations in 2015 of which New Zealand became dominant in quantity
exported
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Import Commodities in 2014 and 2015
Top 8 Imported Fresh/Chilled Crop & Livestock Product in 2015
The figure shows the

top 8 fresh & chilled
agriculture
commodities
imported in 2015.
The Top 8
commodities were
selected based on
volume (highest).
2015 Top 10 Importing Countries of Crop & Livestock Commodities (Fresh/Chilled & Processed)
Fiji imported crops &

livestock commodity
products from 79
countries in 2015 of
which Australia became
dominant with a total
volume of 150 million
Kg
Source FARS/FBOS
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Define the terms import and export.
2. Explain one reason why Fiji imports are more.
3. Discuss one way of reducing trade deficit of Fiji’s agriculture crop and livestock sub sector
SUMMARY
Since 1989 Fiji adopted an export oriented, outward looking approach with regards to trade relations.
Import restrictions were lifted in favour of export promotion, and as such Fiji now has a more open
economy with increased volumes of both exports and imports.
Given the enormous export potential within the agriculture sector Government plans to intensify its
Export Promotion Programme through awareness seminars/workshops for farmers. To facilitate the
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programme, Government in 2016 allocated $1million with the ultimate aim of improving agricultural
production levels and exports. This is to increase export and reduce Imports.
SELF EVALUATION
Can the imported products be produced locally? If Yes how and if No why.

AS 13.1.1.2 Explore current issues which impact trade and discuss ways to solve the issues.
LESSON 1 CURRENT ISSUE THAT IMPACT IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL

PRODUCTS IN FIJI
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will identify current issues which impact the import and
export of agricultural products in Fiji.
VOCABULARY
1. Balance of trade: the difference between a country's total imports and exports.
2. Devaluation: The official lowering of the value of one country's currency in terms of one or more
foreign currencies.
3. Duty: A tax imposed on imports by the customs authority of a country.
NOTES
Some of the current issues which impact the import and export of
agricultural products in Fiji are:
1. Transportation
The operation of transportation determines the efficiency of moving
products. Different modes of transport offer different quality of service in
particular with respect to speed and reliability – in return for different
freight charges.
Transport costs shape not only the volume of trade, but also the choice of
transport mode. Most goods are transported by ship, but a striking
development in recent years has been the growing volume of goods
shipped by air. Furthermore, planes tend to carry more valuable goods over longer distances.
The transport mode will be determined by the type of good that is to be transported for e.g. importing
fresh fruit or other perishable items, speed is important. Transport by ship or road may not be quick
enough.
Transport and distribution are key considerations when planning for international trade. Choosing the
right mode of transport is essential to ensure that import or export operation is efficient and cost-effective.
2. Marketing Services
Marketing services involves the moving of agricultural products from
the farm to the consumer. Numerous interconnected activities are involved in
doing this, such as planning production, growing and harvesting, grading,
packing, transport, storage, agro- and food processing,
distribution, advertising and sale.
Marketing services are growing dramatically
Marketing service:-
• leads to customer retention and loyalty
• leads to profits
• helps manufacturing companies differentiate between themselves
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3. International Marketing
International marketing is defined as the performance of business activities designed to plan, price,
promote, and direct the flow of a company´s goods and services to consumer or users in more than one
nation for a profit.
International marketing looks into meeting the demand of the customers from other international market.
It looks into satisfying the market requirements from other countries and also the importing country.
International marketing helps:
• increase market potential
• trade and investment potential
• accessibility to resources.
Some of the threats in International marketing are the increasing:

• number of competitors.
• intensity of competition
• market uncertainty
4. Guidance and Regulation

Fiji has trade ties with the rest of the world. Its location has allowed Fiji to become a supplier of some of
our products to the international markets. The Government has a number of policies that seek to develop
and assist Fijian Businesses involved in international trade. Regulations also exist to protect domestic
industries, consumers and the environment from harmful and dangerous goods imported from overseas.
The Fiji Biosecurity department is the FIRST LINE OF DEFENCE in safeguarding Fiji.
HOW DO QUARANTINE CONTROLS AFFECT INTERNATIONAL TRADE?
Market Access
The Fiji Biosecurity Services Division works to remove trade barriers and improve access in key
markets for Fiji’s primary and processed food industries.
To become an importer or exporter, there are obligations need to be met. The Fiji Customs Service and
the Ministry for Agriculture need to clear business or commercial goods for import and export, and
document what’s coming into and going out of the country.
5. Economic and Agricultural statistics
The economic and agricultural statistics will provide information for investors and other outside markets
to get a clear view of the country’s economy and all the necessary information that will lure them to
import local products from our country.
6. Trade Policies
• Since Fiji’s accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1996, the Government has
adopted an export oriented and outward-looking trade policy.
• The WTO provides secure and predictable market access to more than 153 Members. It helps
Fiji pursue free trade and minimise trade distortions.
• Fiji has gradually liberalised its trade and reduced import restrictions in favor of export
promotion, and this has resulted in increased volumes of exports and imports.
• The open trading approach has led to increased prosperity and opportunities in the economy,
creating thousands of jobs in industries like tourism.
Some of the trade agreements to which Fiji is a party include:
i. The Melanesian Spearhead Group (MSG)
ii. -trade Agreement which is a free trade agreement that allows trade to take place freely between
Fiji, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands.
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iii. The Pacific Island Countries Trade Agreement (PICTA)
-which seeks to establish a free trade area among the fourteen Forum Island Countries (FICs).
iv. The Interim Economic Partnership Agreement (IEPA)
-the IEPA provides duty free and quota free market access on all products from Fiji except for
sugar and rice, which are subjected to longer transitional periods.
v. The South Pacific Regional Trade and Economic Cooperation Agreement (SPARTECA)
-is a non-reciprocal agreement that allows Fiji and other Forum Island Countries (FICs) to export
almost all of their products to Australia and New Zealand duty free. Fiji also benefits from the
SPARTECA-TCF Scheme which allows its textiles, clothing and footwear (except wool and wool
blend fabrics) to be exported to Australia duty free under more favorable rules of origin;
vi. The Pacific Agreement on Closer Economic Relations (PACER)
vii. -it also provides for assistance to FICs including Fiji, to enable them to address customs
matters, standards and conformance and quarantine issues.
7. Consumer Behavior
This involves people who purchase produce or products, as well the people who actually use them. It
deals with the buying decision and use of the products. Understanding consumer behavior is crucial for:
• effective marketing
• helping managers identify appropriate people to target
• design products
• communicate attractive offerings.
• Every element of the marketing plan benefits from an understanding of the customer, and with the
rapid pace of change in consumer markets today this is only going to become more important.
8. Natural Disasters
Natural disasters such as tsunamis, hurricanes and volcanic eruptions are other factors that can
unexpectedly impact the transportation of imports and exports. The actual production of imports and
exports can be impacted by natural disasters as well.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain how the market place functions for producers and consumers.
2. Why is it important to have border controls in all ports of entries?
3. In your own words explain why Biosecurity Officers are our First Line of Defence.
4. List 3 issues that affect our import and export trade and explain how they affect Fiji.
SUMMARY
Since 1989 Fiji adopted an export oriented, outward looking approach with regards to trade relations.
Import restrictions were lifted in favour of export promotion, and as such Fiji now has a more open
economy with increased volumes of both exports and imports.
Given the enormous export potential within the agriculture sector Government plans to intensify its
Export Promotion Programme through awareness seminars/workshops for farmers. To facilitate the
programme, Government in 2016 allocated $1million with the ultimate aim of improving agricultural
production levels and exports. This is to increase export and reduce Imports.
SELF EVALUATION
Explain the involvement of Fiji in one of the trade agreements ((MSG, PICTA, IEPA, SPARTECA, and
PACER).
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LESSON 2 IMPROVING TRADING IN FIJI
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to discuss possible solutions to improve trading in Fiji.
VOCABULARY
1. Quota: The quantity of goods of a specific kind that a country permits to be imported without
restriction or imposition of additional duties.
2. Exchange permit: A government permit sometimes required by the importer’s government to enable
the importer to convert his or her own country’s currency into foreign currency with which to pay a
seller in another country.
NOTES
To improve trading in Fiji there are strategies that can be undertaken to overcome issues that is affecting
the economy. The following areas can be looked into:
• Import substitution and strategies on how to achieve them
• Strategy on Food and Nutrition Security in relation to Climate change
• Economic Development – economic earning, high value crop development
• Biological and Organic production – effective and sustainable techniques.
• Trade Facilitation and Market Access
1. Import Substitution: is a trade and economic policy which advocates replacing foreign imports with
domestic production. It is based on the idea that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign
dependency through the local production of industrialised products. The Fiji Government sees agriculture
as fundamental to reviving the economy, promoting food security and sustainable development. As such,
a lot of effort is directed at raising exports, increasing food security by growing more local foods and in
the process reducing imports (import substitution)
2. Local Production
Increase local production, aiming to become self-sufficient in all fruits, vegetables and meat grown in our
local climate.
• Intensify crop production – to increase vegetables and fruit production to ensure it meets and
matches quality standards similar or better than imports.
• Crop scheduling i.e. seeds and seedling arrangement and timing of seed sowing to set a cyclic
pattern of 3 to 4 weeks of transplanting of vegetables – depending on the type of vegetables, for
consistency of production.
• Focus on high value vegetable varieties i.e. imported varieties that we grow very well here in Fiji.
• Crop scheduling and frequency of sowing short term fruit / vegetables such as, Eggplant
Cucumbers, Capsicum, Watermelon, and Rock melon for consistency of supplies on the local
market.
• Organic production for niche markets – strengthen organic production
• Technical field support to vegetable and fruit growers – ensure quality field visits and advisory
services to growers to provide on the spot guidance
• Implement field days and demonstration training – learn by doing on the spot
• Provide information bulletin and media release and guidance on vegetable and fruit production
and potential
• Engage in partnership of public and private sectors to drive the plan.
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• Stakeholder engagement and new technology. e.g. the extraction of coconut oil via the cold press
method for cooking and use in the cosmetic industry. Coconut oil can substitute for Soybean oil,
Peanut oil, etc. that we import)
• Outer Islands and rural community engagement.
• Engage in partnership with Tourism.
• Partnership with Development Partners (Technical Assistance)
3. Food and Nutrition Security

is when all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and
active life.
How to achieve Food and nutrition security
Governance mechanisms on food and nutrition security e.g. Collaborative work with Ministries in
conducting training on organic farming and other initiatives in growing home garden.
• Increase investments in sustainable agriculture.
• Transform food production and consumption patterns.
• Greater public and private productive investment in family farming.
• Adapting agricultural practices to climate change.
• Fostering local food markets.
• Improving property rights over land and water.
4. Economic Development
Although Fiji remains a developing country with a large subsistence agriculture sector, it is described as a
middle-income country and one of the more developed of the Pacific island economies.
The Fijian economy needs economic diversification and new entrepreneurs to make use of the
opportunities offered by growing sectors such as tourism, horticulture and agro-exports.
The pristine environment, in which agricultural production takes place as well as other environmental and
ecological factors, supports the supply of organic produce. This is a major development in the fresh food
market worldwide and provides lucrative opportunities to investors and stakeholders to tap into, to reduce
imports.
5. Biological and Organic production

Natural food are food items that are not altered chemically. Organic food refers to food items that are
produced, manufactured and handled using organic means.
Today, many communities still have agriculture systems based on traditional practices which ensure
environmental integrity and do not use chemical inputs. These products to be exportable to overseas
markets as ‘organic’ they must be certified.
Since the advantages of organic goods are becoming more well-known and wide-spread, the demand has
increased throughout the world. Examples of organic good are food, clothing, body products and
housewares.
Organic agriculture provides important opportunities for Fiji to export a number of high-value, low
volume crops to niche markets, thereby enhancing economic sustainability and reduce import.
6. Trade Facilitation and Market Access
Improving market access and trade facilitation in Fiji will enhance agricultural production and reduce
imports.
Trade facilitation is the simplification and harmonisation of international trade procedures. This includes
activities, practices, and formalities involved in collecting, presenting, communicating and processing
data required for the movement of goods in international trade.
How to improve trade facilitation and market access in Fiji.
• Elimination of bribery and other corrupt practices of officials involved in the clearance and
release of imported goods
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• Computerisation and automation of trade procedures e.g. online submission and
• approval of customs declarations, cargo manifests, electronic payment of
fees and customs duties.
• Reduction and simplification of the documentation requirements for import and export
procedures
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain why food and nutrition security is important for a country.
2. Explain the importance of sustainable development in agriculture.
SUMMARY
There are many factors that affect trading in Fiji but also there are strategies that can be
implemented to overcome these issues which require everybody to help and develop the
agriculture sector.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss one way in which farmers can sustain agricultural production.

AS 13.1.2.1 Explore and discuss the green economy concept and its importance in achieving
the Sustainable Development goals.
LESSON 1 Green Economy and Sustainable Development Goals

LESSON OUTCOME
i. At the end of this lesson the students will be able to:
ii. define green economy
iii. state examples of green economy concept in the community
iv. explain the benefits of green economy towards achieving the Sustainable development goal.
VOCABULARY
1. Eco–friendly: implies a product or process than has a reduced impact on the environment.
2. Green: is a generally positive term referring to the environment, organics or even a green
lifestyle.
3. Green lifestyle or green living: describes a lifestyle reflecting a strong commitment to the
environment.
NOTES
The green economy is defined as an economy that aims at reducing environmental risks and
ecological scarcities, and that aims for sustainable development without degrading the environment
A green economy is more than sustainable development. It is an economy that pursues growth and
development objectives while also promoting sustainability through more efficient use of resources. For
this to happen, innovations in biological sciences, in resource management, in agricultural practices and
in economic and policy incentives will be essential.
The transition to a green economy in agriculture requires supportive enabling environments that promote
investments, entrepreneurship and innovation. It also requires a keen focus on inclusivity, ensuring that
smallholder farmers and particularly women and youth are able to engage. Global trade rules need to be
sensitive to these challenges and the WTO addresses this issue by supporting developing countries to
invest public funds into agricultural crops important for food security and inclusive economic growth
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Green Economy Concept in the Community
'Green' encompasses virtually all sectors of society: food, energy, transportation, education,
government, etc.
SECTOR DESCRIPTION
Agriculture and Natural Green careers in the agricultural field work directly with manufactured
Resource Conservation plants and animals to make sure that they are raised within acceptable green
standards.
Clean Transportation The transportation industry has been at the forefront of the green
and Fuels movement, and has been designing environmentally friendly vehicles and
machinery and searching for sustainable alternative fuel sources.
Green Buildings Many companies have decided to green their business, which in part
requires the buildings they own to be reformed to fit green standards. Once
renovations are completed, construction workers, engineers, installers and
maintenance workers who are trained in green technology will have a leg
up in their respective industries.
Pollution Prevention and Pollution prevention, also known as cleaner production, deals with the
Environmental Cleanup reduction of pollution and waste. These green careers differ from pollution
controls in that they work to prevent pollution from happening, rather than
dealing with it after the fact.
Renewable Energy These two green career categories are similar and often overlap. Those in
Production and Energy the field of renewable energy production design the equipment and
Efficiency technology that utilizes renewable energy sources like water, solar, and
hydro power, as a main resource of energy. Careers in energy efficiency
use renewable energy sources to provide the same level of energy service
while actually using less energy.
Green Policy and Prime Minister Bainimarama has made it a priority to invest money into the
Direction growing green sector, vowing to be a leader in renewable energy
production. Along with his leadership, policy makers across the country are
following suit, creating plans that invest taxpayer dollars into sound
ecological policies that will lead Fiji to a brighter and cleaner future.
Green Funding Though choosing to green your business or home is always an ecologically
sound decision, it might not always be in your economical favor. Financial
advisors and analysts exist to determine how to invest funds and towards
what products, appliances and other technology to invest in.
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BENEFITS OF GREEN ECONOMY
There are three pillars of development in the global economy. The three pillars are economic,
environmental and social.
Some of the benefits of the green economy concept under the three pillars of development are:
PILLARS OF BENEFITS SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT DEVELOPMENT GOAL
1 ECONOMIC Increased Gross Domestic Product – in Decent work and
particular through the production of green goods economic growth
and services; for e.g. the production of organic Affordable and clean
produce in organic farming boosting production energy
and income for the country. Industry, innovation and
Increased revenue from pricing ecosystem infrastructure
services: Responsible consumption
Economic diversification, including improved and production
management of economic risks and reduced
vulnerability; : not depending only one more
product but diversified into more produce
Innovation, access and uptake of green
technologies: the use of renewable energy in the
providing source of energy.
2 ENVIRONMENTAL Increased productivity and efficiency of natural Clean water and

resource use; sanitation
Natural capital used within ecological limits; Climate action
Reduced adverse environmental impact and Life below water
improved natural hazard/risk management Life on land
especially to future changes in climate. Sustainable cities and
communities
3 SOCIAL Increased livelihood opportunities, income No poverty
and/or quality of life, notably of the poor; Zero hunger
Decent jobs that benefit poor people created and Good health and well –
sustained; being
Enhanced social, human and knowledge capital; Reduced inequities
Reduced inequality.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain the implications of a Green Economy for poverty reduction
2. Discuss the implication of a Green Economy on the nation’s economic growth
SUMMARY
Green economy concept is beneficial to the environment, to the economy and the development of a social
being.
SELF EVALUATION
Explain one example of green economy concept in your community.
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AS 13.1.3 Explore on the types of green jobs in Fiji.
LESSON 1: Green Job
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to describe the types of green jobs in Fiji.
NOTES
A green job is any job or self-employment that genuinely contributes to a more sustainable world.
A green job is the coming together of a company or organization, with an individual motivated and
capable of performing the role.
Types of Green jobs.

It must be noted that the green careers that are in highest demand are in fields that already exist. The job
tasks don’t change, but there is a growing need for them as the demand for green goods and services
increases.
In addition, there are in-demand green careers in existence that do add new tasks to the job description.
These jobs are best for those who are considering a career change, as all new training material will cover
the latest green policies and procedures. New green jobs accommodate any applicant with the desire to
change the current environmental state.
SECTOR GREEN JOBS
Agriculture and Landscape Architects

Natural Resource Hydrologists
Conservation Geoscientists
Zoologists and Wildlife Biologists
Forest and Conservation Technicians
Fish and Game Wardens
Clean Transportation Rail-Track Laying and Maintenance Equipment Operators.

and Fuels Locomotive Engineers.
Industrial Machinery Mechanics.
Railroad Conductors and Yardmasters.
Mechanical Engineers.
Green Buildings Civil Engineers.
Carpenters.
Construction laborers.
Construction and Building Inspectors.
Insulation Workers.
Structural Iron and Steel Workers.
Electricians.
Maintenance and Repair Workers.
Sheet metal Workers.
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Pollution Prevention Environmental Engineers.
and Environmental Environmental Engineering Technician.
Cleanup Environmental Scientists.
Refuse and Recyclable Material Collectors.
Hazardous Materials Removal Workers.
Renewable Energy Computer Software Engineers.

Production and Energy Nuclear Power Reactor Operators.
Efficiency Solar Energy Systems Engineers.
Geothermal Technicians.
Wind Energy Engineers.
Nuclear Engineers
Green Policy and Public Relations Specialists.

Direction Training and Development Specialists.
Natural Sciences Managers.
Industrial Engineer.
Marketing Managers.
Occupational Health and Safety Specialists.
Urban and Regional Planners
Green Funding Personal Financial Advisors.

Financial Analysts.
Sales Representatives.
Wholesale and Manufacturing.
Technical and Scientific Products.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Write an essay of 150-200 words on the importance of green jobs.
SUMMARY
With a lot economic, environmental and social issues happening nationally, globally new initiative
developed by government on how to solve these issues. A lot of initiative has been focusing on the green
economy or green revolution. This has resulted also in the development of green jobs or careers to cater
for the national and global changes.
SELF EVALUATION
Which type of job is highly in demand (Ready available job or green job)
20
AS 13.1.4 Discuss careers related to the content of Year 13 Syllabus.
LESSON 1: CAREERS RELATED TO THIS SYLLABUS
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will discuss possible green jobs and careers related to the concepts
covered in the Year 13, 2018 Agricultural Science syllabus and this textbook.
VOCABULARY
1. Career Pathways Groups of jobs that require similar skills and interests.
A mental picture or written description of your interests, abilities, values,
2. Personal Profile
priorities and other information.
A permanent record of all the classes you take and grades you earn while
3. Transcript in high school or college. It may also show any honors or awards you
receive.
The highest degree offered by colleges and universities. This degree can
4. Doctoral Degree
take five or more years after a bachelor’s degree to complete.
NOTES
A career path is just that – a journey, rather than a single one-time decision. Every career path has
milestones along the way. Understanding the chronological steps of a career path will assist in making e
decisions on how to go about building experience and working through the ranks of the chosen
occupation.
Some of the listed careers related to the content of the Year 13 syllabus:-
Careers Essential information Education Requirements. Career Pathways/Duration

A)Import and trade Import-export specialists Most positions require a Certificates, associate's
legislation facilitate shipments bachelor's degree and degrees, and bachelor's
crossing international five years of experience. degrees are all available.
borders. They may also They also require Certificate programs prepare
• Import-Export be called import/export computer and students for entry-level jobs
Specialist coordinators or management skills. A as import-export specialists.
import/export managers. proficiency in another An associate's degree
Their main duty is to language is also program can further the
• Compliance ensure that the shipment desirable. career of those already in the
Officer adheres to customs profession or help those who
regulations. They may are thinking about entering
also track shipments and the profession.
• Logistician work with clients on
reducing duties owed
Import-export specialists
• Marketing have many duties.
Manager Primarily, they
document shipments to
ensure that they are in Program Length about 3-4
21
• Marketing compliance with customs years
director rules and regulations.
Import-export specialists
also counsel clients on Program Length about 3-4
• International matters like tariffs, years
trade lawyer insurance, and quotas. Bachelor's degree
• Shipping
Specialist Oversees trade Program Length about 3-4
regulatory compliance years
Bachelor's degree
Program Length about 3-4

years
Bachelor's
degree/master's degree
Research international Program Length about 3-4
markets; understand years
trade regulations;
develop pricing and
advertising strategies Bachelor's degree; MBA
recommended Program Length about 3-4
years
Negotiate contracts;
monitor trade
regulations; file legal Law degree
documents
Arrange transportation
logistics; manage
shipping and delivery Bachelor's degree
schedules; maintain
customer relationships
22
Careers Essential information Education Career Pathways/Duration
Requirements.
D) Farm Mechanics and Advanced education in The duration of Fresh graduates may appear
Maintenance this field can augment certificate and associate very appealing to the
your critical thinking degree programs is up to employers owing to their up
• Mobile Heavy and problem solving 1-2 years. On- job to date knowledge and
Equipment skills. You can gain training is often a part of training. Highly qualified,
Mechanics essential understanding the degree program. By skilled and experience diesel
• Automotive of cooling systems, power interacting with mechanics can expect to work
Mechanics train principles charging professional diesel in a variety of areas like:
• Farm Equipment systems, brake air mechanics, you can gain Mobile Heavy Equipment
Mechanics systems and engine comprehensive Mechanics
performance. Using knowledge of latest tools Automotive Mechanics
mechanical tools and and techniques used to Farm Equipment Mechanics
equipment correctly is repair and maintain You can set up your own
one of the most diesel based automobiles business in these areas as
fundamental requisites or machineries. well.
to pursue a career in this
field.
• Mechanical Mechanical engineers Mechanical engineers work in

Engineer. need good To become a mechanical different settings, ranging
communication skills, the engineer, you need to from offices to rail corridors
ability to work in a team have tertiary in remote areas or workshops.
and have an interest in qualifications (bachelor They may travel frequently or
learning and being degree or higher). relocate temporarily. They
challenged. You need to Mechanical engineers may work with other
be ready to take on new should have a sound professionals on temporary
tasks and research knowledge of mechanical project teams.
options and solutions; engineering principles
enjoy problem-solving including: mechanics,
and seeking advice from fluid dynamics,
a variety of stakeholders; thermodynamics, design,
like working in a diverse vibrations, dynamics,
multi-discipline industrial engineering,
environment; be willing electrical principles and
to perform allocated engineering management
tasks and deliver to an
agreed program of work
Careers Essential information Education Career Pathways/Duration
Requirements.
F) Farm performance
analysis. For this Position, the Specialist vocational training
Management of livestock skills required could and further education are
• Farmer and/or Cropping have been developed available at FNU and USP.
operations. through on the job
training, previous work
experience in other
related roles and/or
23
• Farm through specialized or
Manager/Owner Manage farm operations vocation training.
/Overseer including livestock Tertiary Qualification in
management, crop For this Position, the Science, Humanities or
cultivation, fruit and skills required could Commerce.
vegetable production and have been developed Specialist vocational training
other agricultural through on the job and further education are
enterprises. training, previous work available at FNU and USP.
experience in other
related roles and through
specialized and/or
• Market Analyst vocation training and/or
To work with various through a Tertiary Tertiary Qualification in
functional groups within Qualification in Science, Science, Humanities or
a business to provide a Humanities or Commerce.
range of analytical Commerce. Specialist vocational training
solutions and services and further education are
that can be utilized by For this Position, the available at FNU and USP.
the management team to skills required could
make business decisions. have been developed
through on the job
training, previous work
experience in other
related roles and through
specialized and/or
vocation training and/or
through a Tertiary
Qualification in Science,
Humanities or
Commerce.
24
Careers Essential information Education Requirements. Career
Pathways/Duration
G) Chemical properties
of soil. Study biological, A Soil Scientist requires a Study environmental
chemical, physical and degree in science or applied factors affecting
hydrological properties science majoring in soil commercial crop
of soils, conduct research science, or a degree in production and pasture
and advises on agricultural science. growth
conservation and Research scientists or
management practices academics usually require a Develop procedures and
masters or doctorate degree techniques for solving
• Soil Scientist Study the chemistry, in the specialist field. agricultural problems
physics and biology of and improving the
soils for their efficiency of production
management
Degree in science or
Undertake testing of soils applied science majoring
for nutrient status and in soil science, or a
fertiliser application degree in agricultural
science.
Investigate problems
such a soil acidity, A masters or doctorate
salinisation, soil degree in the specialist
structure degradation field.
and rehabilitation A Hydrologist requires a
• Hydrologist Evaluate and manage degree in science or applied
quality, quantity, science majoring in
reliability and hydrology, available at many
sustainability of all universities. Research Undertake groundwater
aspects of water scientists or academics resource investigation
resources. usually require a masters or and assessment, salinity
Conduct technical work, doctorate degree in the management,
monitoring financial and specialist field. investigation of surface
water – groundwater
interaction and natural
resource management.
Degree in science or
applied science majoring
in hydrology, available at
many universities.
Research scientists or
academics usually
require a masters or
doctorate degree in the
specialist field.
Pathways/Duration
H) Cultivation of
potential crops
Perform annual tasks to For this Position, the skills Tertiary Qualification in
• Farm grow a wide variety of required could have been Science, Humanities or
25
Manager/Owner/ crops such as grains, developed through on the job Commerce.
Overseer sugar cane, fruits, and training, previous work Specialist vocational
vegetables etc. experience in other related training and further
roles and through specialised education are
Select crop types and and/or vocation training available at FNU and
determine area to be and/or through a Tertiary USP
sown Qualification in Science,
Conduct a wide range of Humanities or Commerce.
farming operations
including cultivation,
sowing, spraying and
harvesting
Pathways/Duration
K) Rearing of potential Manage the breeding For this Position, the skills Tertiary Qualification in
livestock. and raising of a wide required could have been Science, Humanities or
range of animals developed through on the job Commerce.
• Farm including beef and dairy training, previous work Specialist vocational
Manager/Owner/ cattle, sheep, pigs, horses experience in other related training and further
Overseer and poultry etc. roles and through specialized education are
and/or vocation training available at FNU and
Care and raise livestock and/or through a Tertiary USP
for the production of Qualification in Science,
meat, wool, milk and Humanities or Commerce.
other animal products.
Ensure good animal

health is maintained
through provision of
adequate quality and
quantity of pasture and
other feed.
Organize and conduct

general farm activities
including livestock
control, pest
management, shearing,
milking and mating
• Veterinarians
Types of veterinarians: Veterinarians care for Veterinarians must have a Veterinarians must
Companion animal the health of animals and Doctor of Veterinary complete a Doctor of
veterinarians work to improve public Medicine degree from an Veterinary Medicine
health. They diagnose, accredited veterinary college (D.V.M. or V.M.D.)
Food animal treat, and research and a state license degree at an accredited
veterinarians (work with medical conditions and college of veterinary
farm animals such as diseases of pets, Although not required, most medicine.
pigs, cattle, and sheep, livestock, and other applicants to veterinary
which are raised to be animals. school have a bachelor’s A veterinary medicine
26
food sources.) degree. Veterinary medical program generally takes
colleges typically require 4 years to complete and
Food safety and applicants to have taken includes classroom,
inspection veterinarians. many science classes, laboratory, and clinical
inspect and test livestock including biology, chemistry, components.
and animal products for anatomy, physiology, zoology,
major animal diseases, microbiology, and animal In veterinary medicine
provide vaccines to treat science. Most programs also programs, students take
animals, enhance animal require math, humanities, courses on animal
welfare, conduct and social science courses anatomy and physiology,
research to improve as well as disease
animal health, and prevention, diagnosis,
enforce government food and treatment. Most
safety regulations. They programs include 3
design and administer years of classroom,
animal and public health laboratory, and clinical
programs for the work. Students typically
prevention and control of spend the final year of
diseases transmissible the 4-year program
among animals and doing clinical rotations
between animals and in a veterinary medical
people-Zoonotic centre or hospital.
Diseases)
Research
veterinarians (work in
laboratories, conducting
clinical research on
human and animal
health problems.)
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Select a career of your choice.
2. Conduct a research on the career pathway using the template recommended by
the counselor or Careers teacher in the school.
3. Discuss findings with your parents, friends or classmates and begin preparing for
your future career. .
27
AS 13.2.1 PHYSICL CAPITAL
AS 13.2.2 FINANCIAL CAPITAL
INTRODUCTION
This strand will facilitate the exploration of an internal combustion engine and
a selection of farm assessment tools.
Students will be introduced to general concepts relating to parts of an engine,
functions, types, operation and maintenance of the different engine system to
maintain farm machines.
They will also study and use selected farm management tools to assess farm
performance.
28
SUB STRAND AS 13.2.1 PHYSICAL CAPITAL
AS 13.2.1.1 Demonstrate knowledge on the internal combustion engines of farm
machines use in Fiji.
LESSON 1 ESSENTIAL PART AND FUNCTIONS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINES
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson, the student will be able to describe the parts of the internal combustion
engine.
VOCABULARY
1. Internal combustion engines: engines in which burning of fuel takes place inside the
cylinder.
2. Reciprocating: moving backwards and forwards in a straight line.
NOTES
For a farmer to perform operations on the farm there is a need for a farm machine. Farm
machines operate with the presence of an internal combustion engine. Internal combustion
engines come in a wide variety of types, but have certain resemblances, and thus share many
common types of components. An internal combustion engine is the engine in which
combustion (burning of fuel) takes place inside the cylinder of engine.
There are several possible ways to classify internal combustion engines.
1. By number of strokes
Two-stroke engine
Four-stroke engine (Otto cycle)
2. By type of ignition:
Compression-ignition engine
Spark-ignition engine
ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE.
29
Main Parts of an Internal Combustion Engine:
PARTS FUNCTION PICTURES

Cylinder block Cylinder is the main body of IC
engine. Cylinder is a part in which
the intake of fuel, compression of
fuel and burning of fuel take place.
The main function of cylinder is to
guide the piston. The upper side of
cylinder is consists of a combustion
chamber where fuel burns. To handle
all this pressure and temperature
generated by combustion of fuel,
cylinder material should have high
compressive strength. So it is made
by high grade cast iron. It is made by
casting and usually cast in one piece.
Cylinder head The top end of cylinder is closed by

means of removable cylinder head..
The main function of cylinder head
is to seal the cylinder block and not
to permit entry and exit of gases on
cover head valve engine. Cylinder
head is usually made by cast iron or
aluminum. It is made by casting or
forging and usually in one piece.
Piston A piston is fitted to each cylinder as

a face to receive gas pressure and
transmit the thrust to the connecting
rod. It is the prime mover in the
engine. The main function of piston
is to give tight seal to the cylinder
through bore and slide freely inside
of cylinder.
Piston rings Piston should be light and sufficient

strong to handle the gas pressure
generated by combustion of fuel. So
the piston is made by aluminum
alloy and sometimes it is made by
cast iron because light alloy piston
expands more than cast iron so they
need more clearances to the bore.
30
PARTS FUNCTION PICTURES
Connecting There are two end of
rod connecting rod one is known
as big end and other as small
end. Big end is connected to
the crankshaft and the small
end is connected to the piston
by use of piston pin. The
connecting rods are made of
nickel, chrome, and chrome
vanadium steels. For small
engines the material may be
aluminum.
Crankshaft The crankshaft of an internal

combustion engine receives
the efforts or thrust supplied
by piston to the connecting rod
and converts the reciprocating
motion of piston into rotary
motion of crankshaft. The
crankshaft mounts in bearing
so it can rotate freely. The
shape and size of crankshaft
depends on the number and
arrangement of cylinders.
Crankcase The main body of the engine

to which the cylinder are
attached and which contains
the crankshaft and crankshaft
bearing is called crankcase. It
serves as the lubricating
system too and sometime it is
called oil sump. All the oil for
lubrication is placed in it.
Valves To control the inlet and

exhaust of internal combustion
engine, valves are used. The
number of valves in an engine
depends on the number of
cylinders. Two valves are used
for each cylinder one for inlet
of air-fuel mixture inside the
cylinder and other for exhaust
of combustion gases.
Camshaft Camshaft is used in IC engine
to control the opening and
closing of valves at proper
timing. For proper engine
output inlet valve should open
at the end of exhaust stroke
31
and closed at the end of intake
stroke.
Gudgeon pin These are hardened steel

or piston pin parallel spindles fitted through
the piston bosses and the small
end bushes or eyes to allow the
connecting rods to swivel.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Identify and label the essential parts of an internal combustion engine and describe the functions
of each parts.
SUMMARY
Internal combustion engines are may be classified according to type of fuel used as petrol
engine and diesel engine and also the number of stroke per cycle as four stroke engine and two
stroke engine.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the major parts of the internal combustion engines
LESSON TWO: TWO TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to know the two types of internal
combustion engines.
VOCABULARY
1. Engine: mechanical device which converts one form of energy into another
NOTES
There are two main types of internal combustion engines: spark ignition (SI) engines (petrol or
gasoline engine) and compression ignition (CI) engines (diesel engine). Both these engines are
further classified as 2 – stroke and 4-stroke engines.
The two types of Internal Combustion Engine are
• Four stroke Petrol & Diesel Engine
• Two Stroke Petrol & Diesel Engine
TWO STROKE ENGINES
Two stroke engines are used to provide power for small machines for farms or in horticultural
work. Examples of two stroke engine are hand operated hedge trimmers, hand operated chain
saws, grass cutters and horticultural sprayers. In a two stroke cycle engine, the induction and
compression stroke occur at the same time during the upward movement of the piston (this is
the first stroke of the 2 stroke engine). Ignition and exhaust take place during the downward
movement of the piston (this is the second stroke).
Valves are not normally fitted in 2 stroke engine, instead opening known as ports are arranged
in the walls of the cylinder
FOUR STROKE ENGINES
A four stroke engine is an internal combustion engine which converts gasoline engine or diesel
engine (compression ignition engine) into motion. The four strokes diesel/petrol engine consists
of Induction, Compression, Power and Exhaust stroke. The basic construction of a four stroke
32
diesel engine is same as that of four stroke petrol engine, except instead of spark plug, a fuel
injector is mounted in its place.
A petrol engine is an internal combustion engine with spark ignition designed to run on petrol
and diesel engine is the ignition of the fuel that has injected into the combustion chamber by
injector. The examples of four stroke engines are mainly used in cars, tractor and combine
harvester.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Name some machines used in the school.
2. Identify them as two strokes or four strokes.
3. Present findings to the class.
SUMMARY
There are two types of internal combustion engine namely the spark ignition engine and the
compression engine.
SELF EVALUATION
What are the main differences between the four stroke diesel engine and four stroke petrol
engines?
LESSON THREE: PRINCIPLES OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to discuss the operation of a four stroke engine
VOCABULARY
1. Bore: Cylinder in which piston moves up and down.
2. Stroke: It is one movement of the piston, i.e. from T.D.C to B.D.C or from B.D.C to
the T.D.C.
NOTES
The ignition system of an internal combustion engines depends on the type of engine and
the fuel used. Petrol engines are typically ignited by a precisely timed spark and diesel
engines by compression heating. In a spark ignition engine, a mixture is ignited by an
electric spark from a spark plug- the timing of which is very precisely controlled. A four-
stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston strokes
(intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle. The piston
make two complete passes in the cylinder to complete one operating cycle. An operating
cycle requires two revolutions (720°) of the crankshaft. The four-stroke cycle engine is the
most common type of small engine. A four-stroke cycle engine completes five Strokes in
one operating cycle, including intake, compression, ignition, power, and exhaust Strokes.
The fuel used in an engine is either petrol or vaporized oil.
An electric spark is provided by the spark plug to ignite the fuel and air mixture in the
cylinder. Therefore this is known as a spark ignition engine.
PRINCIPLES OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE
1. Intake: also known as induction or suction. This stroke of the piston begins at top dead
center (T.D.C.) and ends at bottom dead center (B.D.C.). In this stroke the intake valve
must be in the open position while the piston pulls an air-fuel mixture into the cylinder
by producing vacuum pressure into the cylinder through its downward motion.
2. Compression: This stroke begins at B.D.C, or just at the end of the suction stroke, and
ends at T.D.C. In this stroke the piston compresses the air-fuel mixture in preparation
for ignition during the power stroke. Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed
during this stage.
33
3. Power (Combustion): also known as ignition .This is the start of the second revolution
of the four stroke cycle. At this point the crankshaft has completed a full 360 degree
revolution. While the piston is at T.D.C. (the end of the compression stroke) the
compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark plug (in a gasoline engine) or by heat
generated by high compression (diesel engines), forcefully returning the piston to
B.D.C. This stroke produces mechanical work from the engine to turn the crankshaft.
4. Exhaust: also known as outlet. During the exhaust stroke, the piston once again returns
from B.D.C. to T.D.C. while the exhaust valve is open. This action expels the spent air-
fuel mixture through the exhaust valve.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the four cycles of a spark ignition engine.
SUMMARY
A four-stroke cycle engine is an internal combustion engine that utilizes four distinct piston
strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust) to complete one operating cycle.
SELF EVALUTION
Discuss what would happen if the spark plug does not ignite.
34
LESSON FOUR: PRINCIPLES OF A TWO STROKE ENGINE
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to discuss the operation of a two stroke engine
VOCABULARY
1. Fuel Injector: It sprays the fuel into combustion chamber at the end of compression
stroke. It is fitted on cylinder head.
NOTES
In a two stroke cycle engine, the induction and compression stroke occur at the same time
during the upward movement of the piston (this is the first stroke of the 2 stroke engine).
Ignition and exhaust take place during the downward movement of the piston (this is the
second stroke).
Two stoke engines have no inlet and outlet valves but ports or openings on the wall of the
cylinder which allows two strokes to happen at once as the piston passes the respective pots.
TWO STROKE ENGINE
PRINCIPLES OF A TWO STROKE ENGINE
1. Induction and Compression Stroke

i. A partial vacuum is aerated in the crankcase as the piston proceeds to move up.
ii. Induction of fuel into air mixture as the piston passes the inlet port.
iii. The piston moves further up compressing the fuel and air mixture.
iv. The deflector on the top of the piston keeps the fuel and air mixture toward the side of
the spark plug. The induction and compression stroke has taken place.
2. Power and Exhaust stroke
i. The piston is at the top of the compression stroke and is about to move downwards
ii. Fuel and air mixture is ignited by the spark plug producing a power stroke sending the
piston downwards, as the piston deflector deflects the burnt gasses towards the direction
of the exhaust port.
iii. The exhaust gasses escape through the exhaust pipe as the piston passes the exhaust
port. The power and exhaust stroke has taken place.
iv. The next cycle resumes.
35
Differentiate the two stroke (cycle) engine from the four stroke (cycle) engine.
2 STROKE 4 STROKE
Have 3 ports Have 2 valves
Piston is a deflector type Has a cylindrical type piston
Power is produced at every 2nd stroke of Power is produced in every 4 stroke or
movement of the piston movement of the piston
2 strokes occur in one cycle to produce 4 strokes occur in one cycle to produce
power. power.
2 stroke oil from the crank case mixes The crank case is air tight and oil in this
with the fuel and keeps the engine section lubricates the engine moving
moving parts lubricated. parts but does not mix with the fuel.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the principle of the two stoke engine.
2. State two differences between a two stroke engine and a four stroke engine.
SUMMARY
There are similarities between the operation of the two stroke and the four stroke engine. The
major difference is the two stroke engine need only two stroke to produce power and complete
the cycle whereas the four stroke engine need four stroke to complete one cycle.
36
LESSON 5: PRINCIPLES OF A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will be able to discuss the operation of a compression
ignition engine
NOTES
Compression ignition is also commonly referred to as diesel engine, largely because it is a
staple of a diesel ignition. Gasoline requires the spark ignition in order to start, but diesel can be
started through this alternative means of ignition. Instead of the fuel and air mixture entering the
cylinder, in this type of engine only air is taken into the cylinder during the induction stroke.
There is no spark plug in this type of engine but it has fuel injectors instead.
In a compression ignition engine, the air is compressed and becomes hot to a temperature of
650OC which ignite the diesel as it is sprayed into the cylinder in fine mist by the injectors.
PRINCIPLES OF A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

Induction stroke
Piston moves from the T.D.C to B.D.C
The inlet valve opens as the exhaust valve remains closed.
Only air enters the cylinder.
Compression stroke
The piston moves up from the B.D.C to the T.D.C, compressing the air to 650oC
Both the inlet and exhaust valves are closed.
Power Stroke
The compressed air ignites as a spray of diesel is sprayed in through the fuel injectors.
Power is produced thus pushing the piston down to B.D.C
Both the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed.
Exhaust Stroke
The piston moves up from B.D.C to T.D.C
The inlet valve is closed
The exhaust valves open and the burnt gasses is forced out through the exhaust opening.
37
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SPARK IGNITION AND COMPRESSION
IGNITION (DIESEL) ENGINE
SPARK IGNITION COMPRESSION IGNITION

Uses petrol Uses diesel
Has spark plugs Has fuel injectors
The engine is usually smaller and lighter Has heavy built engine system
Uses medium pressure in the cylinder Engine build to withstand high pressure in
the cylinder
Ignition system requires electrical spark Ignition systems requires very hot air of up
to 650oC.
Fuel and air is mixed inside the cylinder Fuel and air is never mixed during
induction
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain one reason why spark ignition engines are small and light.
2. State an advantage of a spark ignition engine.
3. Discuss the operation of a compression ignition engine.
SUMMARY
Spark ignition engine uses spark plug to produce power whereas a compression ignition engine
uses the fuel injector.
SELF EVALUTION
Explain what would happen if the air in the combustion chamber is less than 6500C
LESSON 6: MAINTENANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student will be able to discuss the maintenance of the internal
combustion engine.
VOCABULARY
1. Maintenance: Is the regular care machines need to work well, safe and long.
NOTES.
Farm machines or implement require regular maintenance so that it lasts long. Farm implements
are expensive so protecting it from its enemies is important to avoid breaking down or wearing
out too quickly.
38
There are 3 main enemies you must protect machines from:
i. Wear – grease and oil are used to protect moving parts from wear by lubricating them
as the parts move.
ii. Dirt – filters are used to catch and hold dirt before it gets inside and damages parts.
iii. Heat – the cooling system protects the machine from overheating. The water must be
checked regularly to see that it does not run out or the engine will overheat and damage.
The fan and other cooling components must be functioning well.
1. Wear
The parts in a machine rub and turn against each other until they get hot and begin to wear.
Lubricants and bearings help protect engines from friction and wear.
i. Lubricants – protect machine parts from friction. Friction is reduced therefore wear is
reduced.
ii. Bearings - also protect machines from wear and allows smooth running of the machine.
Must be lubricated with grease or oil in order that they work well.
2. Dirt
Regular cleaning and maintenance such as changing the oil filter, air filter, etc, will prevent
wear. Dirt and grit can easily make their way into the machine which will scratch and wear
moving parts. Machines have filters to catch and hold dust and dirt so it can’t get inside and
cause damage.
Types of Filters: - there are filters for oil, fuel and air.
a) Oil filter
An oil filter is a filter designed to remove contaminants from engine oil,

transmission oil, lubricating oil, or hydraulic oil.
Oil is pumped through the oil filter where dirt is caught in a filter screen so it
cannot go further inside and damage the machine.
b) Fuel filter
A fuel filter is a filter in the fuel line that screens out dirt and dust particles
from the fuel, normally made into cartridges containing a filter paper. They are
found in most internal combustion engines.
Collects dirt before it can get into the fuel system and cause blockage and
damage to the engine.
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c) Air filter
Engines pull in lots of air. The air is pulled in through an air filter which catches and holds dust
and trash so it cannot get into the engine and damage it.
a) Air is mixed with fuel during combustion and is also required to cool the engine in air cooled
engines.
3. Heat
Is the third main enemy. Heat from burning fuel and friction can heat an engine to a point
where metals crack or even melt.
There are two kinds of cooling systems for engines.
Water cooled engines – cools itself by pumping a liquid (usually water) through designs in the
engines system called the water jackets. As the coolant (water) flows throughout the water
jackets in the engine, it carries away heat.
Air cooled engine – cools itself by blowing air over fins or hot surface with a fan and. The blast
of air carries away heat.
TRACTOR SYSTEM THAT REQUIRES MAINTENANCE
Each of these need regular maintenance: -
1. fuel system
2. air intake and exhaust system
3. electrical system
4. cooling system
5. engine oil system
6. hydraulic system
7. grease points
8. power train system
1. FUEL SYSTEM
If dirt and water gets into the fuel, they will reduce power and damage the fuel system.
i. Fuel storage tank- to store fuel

ii. Tubing- to carry fuel to the engine
iii.Fittings- connecting all the parts
iv. Filters- to remove dirt so that it cannot get into
the engine
v. Carburetor- to mix fuel and air
vi. Fuel injectors- to spray fine mist of fuel into the
engine cylinder for combustion
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Regular maintenance is needed to:
• Ensure clean fuel is used
• Keep the fuel filter clean.
• Change the filter according to the manual recommendation
• Prevent leaks which waste fuel and may cause fire.
2. AIR INTAKE AND EXHAUST SYSTEM
i. Muffler (silencer) – to reduce the loud noise

(combustion explosion) of the engine in the exhaust
system.
ii. The intake system – carries air and fuel into the
engine.
iii. The exhaust system – carries exhaust gases (CO and
CO2) out of the system.
Regular maintenance needed is:
• Clean or replace dry element air filters when they

get dirty.
• Empty dirty oil, bath air cleaners and pour new oil in it before securing it back.
• Tighten fittings on the exhaust so that leaks don’t develop and engine becomes noisy.
• Replace the muffler when damaged so that ear damaging noise is avoided.
3. COOLING SYSTEM
A water cooled cooling system has 6 main parts.
i. Water jacket – to channel water around the hot engine

and remove heat to the flowing water in the jackets.
ii. Hoses – to connect the radiator and water jacket
iii. Radiator cap – to hold in pressure and to prevent
overflow of coolant.
iv. Radiator – to get rid of the heat carried out of the engine
in the water
v. Water pump – to move water through the system
vi. Thermostat – to maintain even coolant temperature in the
engine. It comes on when the engine reaches certain
temperature and off when it is cool enough.
If the cooling system gets clogged, starts leaking or the fan slows down, the engine will
overheat and damage itself.
• Wash bugs and chaff off the outside of the radiator.

• Keep the system filled to the correct level with clean coolant.
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• Repair leaks in the radiator, water jacket and hose.
4. ELECRICAL SYSTEM
The electrical system has four main parts:
i. An alternator generator to make electricity. and

ii. Wire switches to carry electricity to lights, spark plugs,
starter motor, etc.
iii. A battery- to store electricity
iv. Fuses or circuit brakes to protect the electrical system
Electricity cannot be made if the belt from the fan pulley to

the alternator or generator is loose. Electricity cannot be
send where it is wanted if the wires or connections are
broken or loose. And, electricity cannot be stored if the
battery needs water, is cracked, corroded, or worn
• Keep correct belt tension

• Keep wires clean
• Repair or replace worn or broken wires
• Keep battery water up to the correct level with clean distilled water
• Replace burned out light bulbs
5. ENGINE OIL SYSTEM
The engine oil systems job is to reduce friction, help cool the
engine, create a seal between the piston rings and cylinder
walls.
i. A crank case or oil sump – stores oil.

ii. Filters – traps and hold dirt.
• Regular maintenance needed is:
• Keep the right amount of oil in the system.
• Use the recommended kind of oil only.
• Change the oil filter at the recommended time.
• Keep fittings tight so that there is no leakage.
6. GREASE POINTS
Several places on machines must be greased. Parts in the steering system and wheel bearings
rub on one another, get hot and wear out unless they are lubricated with a grease cote.
Parts of a machine that needs greasing are:
i. Front wheel bearings.
ii. Rear wheel bearings
iii. Steering gear
iv. Universal joints
v. Three point hitchers.
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7. POWER TRAIN SYSTEM
The power train system carries power from the engine to the wheels. The engine, in addition to
providing pulling power, also drives a number of power take-off (PTO) shafts that can be used
to operate accessory machinery.
CLUTCH – it assists in engaging or disengaging power flow limits. For example, changing the
gears for more power or speed.
TRANSMISSION – to change ground speeds and go forward or in a reverse mode.
DIFFERNTIAL – to send power to final drive
FINAL DRIVE – to send power to each wheel
Maintenance required:
• Lubricating oil must be change on time
• Filters must be replaced when oil is changed so that they can effectively filter rust, dirt and
water
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Research on the maintenance of the hydraulic system and present to the class.
2. Explain one importance of monitoring the farm
SUMMARY
Maintenance is very important in handling and using farm machines or implements so that they
do not wear out or break easily. In order for work to be carried out on the farm, machines or
implements need to be regularly maintained.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the consequences of dirt mixing with fuel or oil inside the engine.
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SUB STRAND AS 13.2.1 FINANCIAL CAPITAL
AS 13.2.1.1 Determine the importance of selecting correct management tools
to analyse farm performance.
LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will discuss the importance of monitoring in a farm.
VOCABULARY
1. Goal: the object of a person’s ambition or effort, an aim or desired result
2. Short term goal: goals that can be achieved in a short period of time (1-2 years)
3. Long term goal: goals that can be achieved in a long period of time (more than 4
years)
NOTES
Agricultural enterprises can be operated by farmers or families. The farmer’s goal can be
classified as short, medium and long term depending on the availability, amount and type of
the resources that the farmer has in possesion. The short term goal of a a commercial
farmer is to minimise production cost and maximise profit and long term goal is to buy a
combine harvestor . The short term goal for a subsitence farmer to provide food for the
family. The success of a farm will depend on careful planning, careful management, careful
record keeping and monitoring of physical and financial progress. The monitoring process
will gauge the progress of the farm and assist the farmer in decision making on the
operational activities on the farm.
• The farmer uses farm management tools to plan and assess farm performance and
these tools are:
• profit and loss account
• balance sheet
• depreciation calculations
• inventories
• labour records
• farm business plan
The farm management tool does not only serve as an assessment tool on the progress of the
farm but indicates to the farmer on the weaknessess on the farm and areas of improvement,
use for comparison with other enterprises and assits the farmer in desion making.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
3. List two types of tools used by farmer’s to assess the progress of the farm
4. Differentiate between short and long term goal
5. Explain one importance of monitoring the farm
SUMMARY
The farmer uses different management tool to assess the performance of the farm.
SELF EVALUATION
List the processes that the farmer goes through in running the farm business.
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LESSON 2 PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the importance of a profit and loss account
in a farm.
VOCABULARY
1. Revenue: is the income that a business has from its normal business activities,
usually from the sales of goods and services to customers e.g. sale of vegetables,
milk, eggs etc.
2. Expenses: is an outflow of money to another person or group to pay for an item or
service, or for a category of cost e.g. cost of fertilizers, seeds, day old chicks etc. .
3. Net income/profit: is an entity’s (farm, farmers’) income minus cost of goods sold.
NOTES
A profit and loss statement (P& L) is a financial statement that measure revenues and
expenses over an accounting period or shows income and expenses for a period of time
usually one year.
The P&L statement is commonly referred to as income statement. It measures the value of
the farm produce and the cost of production for the time period covered.
The function of the P& L statement is to total all sources of revenue and subtract all
expenses related to the revenue. It shows a company’s financial progress during the time
period being examined.
Some examples of revenue and expenses on the farm are:

REVENUE EXPENSES
SALES COST
1 Milk Day old chicks
2 Eggs Seeds
3 Seedlings Fertilizers
4 Tomatoes Feed
5 Cucumber Labour cost
The data items that must be provided to construct a P& L statement are:
• Net sales
• Cost of producing goods sold
• Selling and administrative expenses
• Other income and other expense
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EXAMPLE OF A PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT
FARM PROFIT AND LOSS STATEMENT 2016

NORTH SLOPE FARM
INCOME $
Sales of items bought for resale 33,465
Cost of items bought for resale 23,000
Products and services 59,750
Total income
70,215
Expenses $
Wages
Admin., Cert.s/Fees, Ins. & Tax 18,760
Fertilizer/Lime 4,060
Fuel 1689
Repairs/ Maintenance 1,100
Seed 2,677
Special Projects 1,950
Supplies 6,984
Total Expenses 67,751
Profit 2,464
Why Prepare a Profit and Loss Statement?

1. Answers the question, “Am I making any money”. It is a valuable tool to monitor
operations. It advises farmers on timely and important information regarding
revenues and expenses if adjustments might be necessary to recover losses or
decrease expenses.
2. Allows outsiders to evaluate the farmer on the management skills of using farm
resources.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Prepare a basic farm account of the enterprises carried out in school and calculate the
profit/loss statement of the enterprise.
SUMMARY
A Profit and Loss (P&L) statement summarises a farm’s sales and expenses during a
specified period of time, showing a farm’s financial progress.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss what the farmer would do if the farm is operating at a loss.
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LESSON 3 BALANCE SHEETS
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will:
1. define Balance Sheet
2. explain the importance of preparing a Balance Sheet
VOCABULARY
1. Assets: include anything that is owned by the farmer that has monetary value
2. Liabilities: what farmers owe to others
3. Equity: Owners equity is a residual amount after liabilities are subtracted from assets
NOTES
The most basic farm financial statement is the balance sheet. It is a statement of financial
position at a specific point in time or a financial snapshot of the business. It is a great tool
for tracking changes in wealth from one year to the next.
Generally the balance sheet equation is total assets equals liabilities plus owner’s equity.
The assets were financed either by borrowing money (liability) or using the owner’s money
(owner’s equity). Balance sheets are usually presented with assets in one section and
liabilities and net worth in the other section with the two sections balancing.
ASSETS = LIABILITIES + OWNER EQUITY
The components of the balance sheet are:
i. Assets
ii. Liabilities
iii. Equity/Net worth
Assets can be classified into two types:
1. Current Assets: include items that will be consumed within a year e.g. cash on
hand, marketable securities, fertilizer, chemicals, crops and livestock for sale etc.
2. Non-current assets: include items which support production activities and are
considered to have a life greater than one year e.g. machinery, equipment and
breeding livestock etc.
3. Liabilities are also classified into two types:
4. Current liabilities: include all debts and obligations and are due within the next 12
months e.g. money owed to suppliers, operational loans, interest of loan, rent, leases
etc.
5. Non-current liabilities: include all obligations that are due and payable beyond one
year. The most common non-current liabilities are term loans used to finance
machinery, equipment, breeding livestock, or real estate.
Importance of balance sheet
• The balance sheet provides investors with an overview of the farm’s financial
condition.
• An investor can quickly determine how much cash a farm has which is particularly
important for funding operations and working capital.
• It shows what the farm owns in terms of its assets and what it owes.
• It discloses the farm’s hard assets such as machinery and management’s assessment
of the useful life of its assets based on the rate of depreciation.
• Informs an investor about the company’s assets and liabilities at a specific point in
time.
• It discloses what a farm owes. For example, a farm with higher levels of long term
debt is at greater financial risk verses one with little or no debt.
• It shows the farm’s net worth after taking its assets less its liabilities.
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• The farmer’s equity portion discloses how much money investors put into the farm
business.
EXAMPLE OF A BALANCE SHEET

ASSETS $ LIABILITIES $
Land 400ha at 800 000 Loan for land purchase 400 000
$2000/ha
House 150 000 Loan for machinery 175 000
Vehicles Unpaid bills
Tractor 75 000 Fertilizer 4000
Truck 50 000 Fuel 3000
Machines 70 000 Insurance 800
Car 25 000 Machine repairs 900
Sheds 30 000
Irrigation plant 50 000
Dalo 1000 t at $4 4000
Fertilizer 10 t at 2500
$250/t
Diesel fuel 2000 L at 1500
75c/L
Money in bank 8000
Total assets 1,266, 000 Total liabilities 583 700
Equity 700 300
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List the three components of the balance sheet.
2. Explain one importance of preparing a balance
3. Differentiate between current asset and non –current in terms of its value.
SUMMARY
The balance sheet is a statement of financial position at a specific point in time or a financial
snapshot of the business. It is a financial tool for assessing the performance of a farm.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss one advantage of a balance sheet.
LESSON 4 DEPRECIATION
LESSON OUTCOME
1. define depreciation
2. state the causes of depreciation
3. discuss the three methods of calculating depreciation
4. calculate depreciation using straight line method
VOCABULARY
1. Salvage value: value of an asset or property at the end of its economical or useful
life.
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NOTES
Depreciation is the decline in the value of assets e.g. farm implements (esp. machinery) due
to wear and tear. The term is applicable to physical capital including machines, buildings,
equipment, furniture, fixtures, vehicles and tools. These long – term or fixed assets have a
limited useful life, i.e. they will provide service for only a few years.
Major causes of depreciation

1. Wear and tear
Refers to a decline in the efficiency of an asset due to its constant use. When an
asset losses its efficiency, its value goes down and depreciation arises.
2. Time
The value of assets may decrease due to the passage of time even if it is not in use.
3. Obsolescence
Changes in technology are external factors which are responsible for throwing out
assets even if those are in good condition. For example seed drill have become
obsolete with the introduction of combined seed and fertilizer drill; the farmers have
discarded the seed drill although they are in good condition.
TWO METHODS FOR CALCULATING DEPRECIATION

1. STRAIGHT LINE METHOD
For example, a farmer bought a tractor for $10,000.00 and determined that it would worth
only $500 at the end of its lifespan. Calculate depreciable cost of the tractor.
If the depreciable value of the asset is $9500 and you expect it to last 5 years, then the
depreciation is calculated as shown below:
Step 1: Enter the asset's purchase price

$10,000
Step 2: Subtract the salvage value from the purchase price to find the depreciable cost.
$10, 000.00 - $500
$9500.00
Step 3: Divide the depreciable cost by the asset's lifespan to get the depreciation.
Annual Depreciation = Depreciation Value/ No .of Years
$9500/5
$1900
$1900 is the amount of depreciation for the asset that you'll enter in your accounting books
every year.
2. Reducing or Diminishing Balance Method
Reducing Balance Method charges depreciation at a higher rate in the earlier years of an
asset. The amount of depreciation reduces as the life of the asset progresses. Depreciation
under reducing balance method may be calculated as follows:
Depreciation per annum = (Net Book Value - Residual Value) x Rate%
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Where:
• Net Book Value is the asset's net value at the start of an accounting period. It is
calculated by deducting the accumulated (total) depreciation from the cost of the
fixed asset.
• Residual Value is the estimated scrap value at the end of the useful life of the asset.
As the residual value is expected to be recovered at the end of an asset's useful life,
there does no need to charge the portion of cost equal the residual value.
• Rate of depreciation is defined according to the estimated pattern of an asset's use
over its life term.
• In this example, assume that the farmer purchased factory equipment for
$100,000.00. The
farmer expected it to last five years, and that it has a salvage value of $20,000.00
Example:
An asset has a useful life of 3 years.
Cost of the asset is $2,000.
Residual Value is $500.
Rate of depreciation is 50%.
Depreciation expense for the three years will be as follows:
NBV R.V Rate Depreciation Accumulated Depreciation

Year1: (2000 - 500) x 50% = 750 750
Year2: (1250 - 500) x 50% = 375 1125
Year3: (875 - 500) x 50% = 375* 1500
Under reducing balance method, depreciation for the last year of the asset's
useful life is the difference between net book value at the start of the period and
the estimated residual value. This is to ensure that depreciation is charged in full.
Depreciation expense under reducing balance method progressively declines

over the asset's useful life.
Reducing Balance Method is appropriate where an asset has a higher utility in

the earlier years of its life. Harvesting implement for instance has better
functionality in its early years. Harvesting implement also becomes obsolete in a
span of few years due to technological developments. Using reducing balance
method to depreciate harvesting equipment would ensure that higher
depreciation is charged in the earlier years of its operation.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
A farmer purchased a tractor for $10,000 with a lifespan of 10 years and salvage value of
$100. Calculate the depreciation value using straight line method.
SUMMARY
Depreciation is a reduction in the value of an asset over time, due to wear and tear. Things
such as tractors, trailers, etc. all depreciate over time. Depreciation is also a way to make an
income tax deduction to recover the cost of qualifying assets.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the importance of calculating depreciation in a farm.
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LESSON 5 INVENTORIES
LESSON OUTCOME
1. define inventory
2. identify different types of inventory
3. discuss the importance of keeping inventory on the farm
VOCABULARY
1. Accrual: accumulate or receive (payments or benefits) over time
NOTES
A smoothly functioning inventory system is one of the cornerstones of a successful farm
operation. Stock taking inventory is never much fun but it is just as important as any other
farm task conducted on the farm. An inventory is usually a book which contains complete
listing of merchandise or stock on hand, work in progress, raw materials, and finished goods
on hand, etc., made each year by a farm or business concern. Stock taking is conducted at
intervals, usually once a year and the inventory is updated.
Inventory is important because it helps the farmer plan and stay within the budget. Thus
farmers should see keeping accurate inventory records as a major management tool that has
multiple benefits.
Types of farm inventory

Some of the inventories a farmer would keep are:
i. Livestock
ii. Fertiliser
iii. Stored stock feed
iv. Seed
v. machinery
Sample of Inventory template

Example of a fertiliser inventory (50kg bags)
Purcahses (plus) Use (minus)
Date Super Molybdenum Nitram Sulphate Super Molybdenum Nitram Sulphate Total
super of super of
ammonia ammonia
15 Mar 20 5 10 10 45
20 Mar 4 1 1 39
2 June 2 2 35
14 July 2 2 31
Subtotal 20 5 10 10 4 5 5 31
On 16 5 5 5 31
hand
30 Aug 16 15
1 Nov 10 25
3 Nov 8 4 4 9
Subtotal 26 5 5 5 24 4 4 9
On 2 5 1 1 9
hand
Proper inventory records can raise farm profits in the following ways:
• The farmer will have the information to add to the farm’s cash record to prepare an
accrual income statement and a year-end balance sheet.
• The farmer will have the information needed for income tax filing and planning.
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• The farmer will know what is to be sold to able to time the marketing in line with
accounts payable and other credit payments.
• It will be easier for credit applications because all the information is available with
the farmer.
STUDENT ACTIVTY
1. List the types of inventory kept in the agriculture science department.
2. Identify the time the agriculture science department update the inventory
3. Explain one reason why the agriculture department chooses the time identified in
question number 2 to update the invenory of the department.
SUMMARY
Without accurate information, including an accurate year-beginnign and year end inventory,
the farmer will not have all the informaion he or she needs to make the important decisioins
that may have to be made.
SELF EVALUATION
1. Discuss the farmer’s situation if the farm does not have an inventory record.
LESSON 6 LABOUR RECORDS
LESSON OUTCOME
1. identify the type of labourers
2. identify the type of labour records on the farm
3. discuss the importance of keeping labour records on the farm
INTRODUCTION
Labourers are classified as one of the resource needed by the farmer for production.
Labourers are very important as they carry out operations on the farm. Without labourers
there will be no production. Labourers employed on the farm can be family, casual or hired
and permanent. They play very important role. Labourers need to be skillful in the type of
work they do. Therefore it also very important to keep labour records as it would asssist the
farmer in evaluating their performance in terms of work done and the output.
Labour records keeps information regarding the labourers bio-data, their skills, family
background, health status, attitude and any other information that the farmer needs to have
knowledge of.
Types of Labours
1. Family labour: this involves members of the family that occupy themselves
with activities that needs to be carried out on the farm. E.g. mother,
daughter, son, son in law.
2. Hired labour: they are hired based on any work to be done on the farm.
3. Permanent labour: they are employed on the farm as full time workers.
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Common Labour Records
There are many types of labour records which may vary among the type of farming
enterprise.
TYPE OF LABOUR COMMON EXAMPLES
RECORDS
Record of commencement of Job application form, written employment contract, notice
employment/promotion/transfer of confirmation of probation, notice of
promotion/transfer, etc.
Wage record Pay slip, wage receipt, notice of wage adjustment, bank
passbook, bank monthly statement, cash deposit record,
etc.
End of year payment Documentation on calculation of end of year payment,
end year payment record
Attendance, absence and leave Attendance and working hours record(e.g. clock card,
record duty roster, sign-in/sign-out record), overtie work record
(including dates, duration of overtime work, etc),
holiday/leave record, etc.)
Record on occupational Monthly contribution record, membership certificate,
retirement scheme and annual benefit statement, etc.
mandatory provident fund
schemes
Proof of entitlement to sickness Medical certificate, sick leave record, medical report, etc.
allowance/maternity protection
Record on termination of Dismissal letter.
employment
Others Staff handbook, recommendatio letter, notie on change of
employment conditions, name card, staff identity card,
entry pass, reference letter etc.
Sample form for Record on wage and total number of hours worked
Name of employee: _____________________
Wage period Total number Amount paid Payment Date Details of
of hours Calculation
worked
Sample Form for Paid Sickness Days Record

Date Days Category 1
Year Month Day accumulated Total Sickness days Balance
in each accumulation taken
month
Date No. of
days
Source: http://www/labour.gov.hk/eng/public/wcp/KeepRecord.pdf
53
Importance of keeping labour records
• Full and clear labour records can assist the farmer to:
• calculate wages
• have a good grasp of their employment terms, rights and benefits,
• verify the amount of employment rights and benefits calculated by labourers as well
as the leaves taken,
• keep track of employment history and skills acquired, hence facilitate labourers’
future job serach, continuing eduction and skills recognition,
• reduce labour disputes resulting from ambiguous employment terms and incomplete
employment records,
• manage the payments to the Fiji National Provident Fund and
• provide evidence to support their employment claims where necessary.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Define the term labour.
2. Describe one role of labourers on the farm.
3. Differentiate between hired labour and permanent labour.
SUMMARY
Labour is one of the most important inputs in agricultural production.
Farm labour includes all hired, and unpaid labour used in agricultural production. Without
labourers there will be no production.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the importance of having skilled labourers on the farm.
LESSON 7 CASH FLOW ACCOUNT

LESSON OUTCOME
1. define cash flow plan
2. describe the steps involved in the development of the cash flow plan
3. discuss the importance of cash flow in developing a business plan
INTRODUCTION
The importance of strong cash flow is appropriately stated in the common expression “cash
is king”.The basis of this is that having cash places the farmer in a more stable position with
better buying power. Having a cash flow plan will help a farmer predict when they will
need to raise capital or borrow money. Cash flow plans are strategic documents companies
make in order to forecast their cash inflows and outflows over several periods.
STEPS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF A CASH FLOW PLAN

CASH FLOWS – Farmer X’S VEGETABLE FARM
Follow the steps to develop a Cash Flow Plan for Farmer X’s Vegetables Farming Business.
54
Step 1: Know the Start-up Capital
Familiarize with Farmer X’s Starting Capital
No. Description of Item Quantity Unit Cost Total Costs

FIXED ASSETS
Total Fixed Assets Nil
OPERATING
COSTS
Labour 2 40.00 80.00
Seedlings 15 (2 months) 2.00 30.00
Manure 3pkts(3 months) 17.00 51.00
Insecticide 2 pkts(6 months) 12.00 24.00
Total Operating 185.00
Costs
TOTAL 185.00
Step 2: Determine the sources of Capital

Farmer X started his business with $300.00 from his saving as beginning Cash.
Step 3 : Estimate the Sales for each month
Step 4: Estimate the time expected to make the sales

Below are Farmer X’s Sales Estimate and the expected time of harvest;
• Cabbage: 100x1.00 = 100.00 ;from the 2nd month for 4 months
• Bean: 100 x 1.00 = 100.00; from the 3rd month for 6 months
• Cucumber: 50 x1.00 = 50.00; from the 4th month for 4 months
• Capsicum; 50 x 1.00 = 50.00 from the 5th month for 7 months
Step 5: Calculate expenses per each month/ how much the business will need
55
Step 6: Transfer information to Cash Flow Plan.
Farmer X’S FARMING BUSINESS CASH FLOW PLAN
MONTHS TOTAL
CASH IN 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Beginning CASH 300 115 110 175 269 449 544 553 608 618 668 863 300
Cabbage 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 800
Bean 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 800
Cucumber 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 400
Capsicum 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 350
TOTAL CASH IN 300 215 310 425 569 649 744 703 708 818 968 1213 2650
CASH OUT
Labour 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 80 960
SEEDLING 30 30 15 30 20 125
Manure 51 51 32 25 159
Insecticide 24 24 48
Transport 25 25 25 25 25 25 15 10 25 25 25 250
Total Cash Out (B) 185 105 135 156 120 105 191 95 90 150 105 105 1542
CASH BAL (A-B) 115 110 175 269 449 544 553 608 618 668 863 1108 1108
• Notes on Farmer X’s Farming Business Cash Flow Scenario:

• Farmer X contributed $300 from the savings towards setting up a small farm, even
though the estimated start – up capital was only $185.The difference of $115 was
put aside to meet unforeseen costs as shown in the 1st month of cash balance in the
flow plan. It is carried forward to the 2nd month.
• It is smart to put aside extra dollars for unforeseen expenses while waiting to make
the first harvest.
• In adding up the total column of CASH IN for the 1st month, the $300 which Farmer
X invested is taken up. Farmer X does not need any Fixed Assets as he used the
available farming tools.
• Cash from vegetables sales in the month which is harvested as estimated by Farmer
X in the Sales Estimates above.
• Some of the initial costs are not being accounted for by Farmer X. After the 1st year
in business, Farmer X realizes that the license and business registration should be
paid. This is the 1st thing that Farmer X would do in the 2nd year .( this happens
many times, but rules and regulation of business be followed)
• Farmer X will also buy some farming tools in the 2nd year of operation.
• Remember that Farmer X only started with $300 and at the end of year 1 the cash
projection stands at $1108, this is after all the deduction.
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Importance of a cash flow plan
• It safeguards the farmer from protection against loan defaults or foreclosure.
• Cash flow indicates an ongoing ability to generate and use cash.
• Facilitates to prepare sound financial policies.
• Helps to evaluate the current cash position.
• Projected cash flow statements helps to know the future cash position of a concern
so as to enable a farm to plan and coordinate its financial operations properly.
• It helps in taking loan from banks and other financial institutions. The repayment
capacity of the farm can be understood by going through the cash flow statements.
• Helps the management in taking short-term financial decision.
• The statements explain the cause of poor cash position in spite of substantial profits
in a farm by throwing light in various applications of cash made by the farm.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List the four steps of preparing a cash flow plan
2. Explain the phrase ‘startup capital’
3. Explain one importance of preparing a cash flow plan
SUMMARY
The cash flow is an important tool for preparing the business plan.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the relationship between a cash flow plan and a business plan.
LESSON 8 BUSINESS PLAN

LESSON OUTCOME
1. define the term business plan
2. describe the steps involved in the development of the business plan
3. discuss the importance of developing a business plan
INTRODUCTION
A business plan us a decision making tool that takes the form of a formal document.
Business planning is a process, not an end product. A farm business plan is a work in
progress which farm owners or operators will want to revisit regularly.A good business plan
is a must for a new farmer. It provides a clear strategy and objectives, and helps everyone
involved in the operation to stay productive and focused. A good business plan involves
research on the external and internal businessenvironment, including competitors, supp;iers
and consumers.
What is a Business Plan?
• A document which spells out the goals and objective of a business and clearly
outlines how and when they will be achieved
• A structured guideline to achieve a business goal
• A road map to owning and operating a business
• A proposal that describes a business opportunity for financing agencies or investors
• A detailed action programme outlining every conceivable aspect of the proposed
business venture.
Why Write a Business Plan?
• A business plan is written to assist in:
• Keeping the farmer focused on the goals and strategies
• Obtaining financing from outside sources
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• Guiding the opening the managing of a business
• Communicating clearly with interested parties
• Showing the farmer that the business has chances of success
• Showing the farmer that he has the ability to manage the business
• Showing there is a good market for the product or services
• Comparing how the actual business performance differs from the forecasted
performance
When is a Business Plan Written?
• When thinking of going into business
• Before starting the business
• When updating the business is required
• When new information is obtained
• When new experiences are gained
Who writes’ the business plan?
• Business owner/manager
• An advisor/support agent
How is a Business Plan Written?
• By identifying all the questions that might be asked relating to the business
• By determining what further information needs to be gathered to answer all the
questions
• By obtaining all the necessary information
• By comparing various alternatives
• By making a decision on each question
What is done with a Business Plan?

• The owner refers to it often to see whether actions and plans are consistent
• Take to the bank when discussing funding
What does a business plan look like?
• It is typed and put in a nice folder
• The appearance of the business plan is expected to be good
• The length of the business plan will depend on the nature of the business
What is contained in a Business Plan?
• Customers
• Competitors
• Suppliers
• Financiers
• Employees
• Products
• Locations
• Equipment
The Structure of a Business Plan
Personal Background
Business experience
Business structure and description
The market competition
Production or selling process for products or services
Financial Status
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Lay out of a Business Plan
Cover page
Table of contents
Executive summary
Information about the owner or promoter of the business
Description of the business idea and market
Marketing plan
Legal form
Start –up capital and resources
Organisation and staff
Business operation and costs
Financial plan
Appendices
Components of a business plan
BUSINESS PLAN
Name of Business:
Name of Owner(s)
Date:
Prepared by
Registered Address:
Telephone Address:
Mobile Number:
Email Address:
1. BUSINESS IDEA:
MY BUSINESS IDEA:
Type of business Retailing

Wholesaling
Agriculture, forestry or fishing
Manufacturing
Service providing
Combination of…….
My products or services will be
My customers will be: (specific details)

Names of people in my Business Work/Educational Background
Skills ,experience and knowledge I have of this type of business:
I have chosen this business idea because:
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2. LEGAL FORM OF BUSINESS
SOLE TRADER
PARTNERSHIP
COMPANY
COOPERATIVE
3. STAFF
Name Position Roles and Monthly Wages
responsibility
4. IMPORTANT FACTORS OF SUCCESS IN YOUR LINE OF BUSINESS:
5. RISKS INVOLVED AND HOW THE RISKS WILL BE MINIMIZED:
6. FUTURE PLAN OF YOUR BUSINESS:
7. MARKETING PLAN
PRODUCT- What is your product/service? What will make customers buy from you and not from others
who sell the same products/service?
PRICE- At what price(s) will you sell your product so that you can earn more? How does you price(s)
compare with your competitors? (Is your price higher, lower, or the same?) Why?
Will you give discounts? How much?
Will you sell on credit? To whom? Why? How will you collect? Will you charge interest?
PLACE- Where do you plan to sell your product/service? How do you plan to distribute
it?(Retail/Wholesale, Direct/Indirect?) Why?
8. PRODUCT AND PRICE TABLE

Products or services My Unit Selling Price Competitors Selling Price
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9. SALES PROJECTION-MONTHLY
Products Number to sell Unit Selling Price Total Selling Price
(Monthly) (Units/Price x Number to sell
10. SALES AND COSTS PLAN

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SALES
From
Product:
From
Product:
TOTAL
SALES
COSTS
Direct
material
Cost
Direct
Labour
Costs
Indirect
Costs
TOTAL
COSTS
PROFIT
1. START UP CAPITAL OR PROJECT COST PLAN

No No. Unit Cost Total Cost Loan or External Source
Required
A FIXED ASSETS
1
2
3
TOTAL FIXED
ASSETS
B Operational Expenses
1
2
TOTAL
OPERATIONAL
EXPENSES
TOTAL START UP
COST
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List two components of the business plan
2. Explain the need for a farmer to prepare a business plan
3. Differentiate between a retailer and a wholesaler
SUMMARY
Planning is one the most important part of running a business, no matter wheather it is a
large multinational corporation trying to plan an expansion or a small business launching an
exciting new product.
SELF EVALUATION
Select an agricultural enterprise and prepare a business plan for the school.
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AS 13.3.1 SOIL SCIENCE
AS 13.3.2 HORTICULTURE
INTRODUCTION
This strand will facilitate the exploration of the chemical properties of the soil,
appropriate plant breeding methods, sustainable modern farming methods and
new initiatives and trends in crop production.
Students will be introduced to concepts relating to chemical properties of the soil
and how they are assessed and related to soil use, husbandry practices and soil
enhancement.
They will also study methods of plant breeding, sustainable planting methods and
potential crops suited for the locality.
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SUB STRAND AS 13.3.1 SOILS
AS 13.3.1.1 Demonstrate the assessment methods in determining the chemical properties
of the soil.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student should be able to identify the chemical properties of the soil.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
Soil is a mixture of minerals, organic matter, gases, liquids and countless organisms that together support
the soil. The soil is a chemical entity which contains chemical substances. There are ions and
compounds, salts, acids, bases, minerals, rock fragments and soil colloids which are very active
chemically. There are also very fine soil particles, including humus, fine silicate clays, oxides and
hydroxides of iron and aluminium.
Chemical properties of soils can be described as soil:
a. nutrients
b. water
c. air
d. pH
e. cation exchange capacity
f. buffer capacity
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List two chemical properties of the soil
SUMMARY
Soil chemistry is the study of the chemical characteristics of soil. Soil contain minerals, water, and air
which play very important roles for plant growth.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss why soil scientist study soil chemistry
LESSON 2 SOIL NUTRIENT

LESSON OUTCOME
1. At the end of this lesson student should be able to:
2. differentiate between a minor and a major nutrient
3. explain the function of the different micro and macro nutrients in soil
4. explain the difference between a mobile and an immobile nutrient.
VOCABULARY
1. Nutrient: substance that provides nourishment essential for growth and life
2. Macro nutrient - are required by plants in relatively large amounts and include nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
3. Micro nutrient – are required in very small amounts and function largely in plant enzyme
systems and include boron, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum, chlorine and cobalt
4. Mobile nutrient - the nutrient can move from one place to another inside the soil and plant where
it is needed or can be translocated eg. nitrogen
5. Immobile nutrient - These are nutrients that cannot move from one place to another inside the
soil and plant or can not be traslocated eg.calcium
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Notes
Plant growth and development depend on nutrients derived from the soil or air, or supplemented through
fertilizer. There are at least eighteen elements known to essential nutrients for plants. The three nutrients
derived from the atmosphere are carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and the other remaining nutrients are
derived from the soil. There are two types of nutrients needed by the plants, major and minor nutrients.
The macro - nutrients are needed by plants in relatively large amounts namely nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulphur. The micro nutrients are needed by plants
in smaller amounts, but they are just as important to plant development and profitable crop production as
the major nutrients. The micro nutrients work “behind the scene” as activators of many plant functions.
Plant growth may be retarded because these nutrients are lacking in the soil.
Nutrient mobility varies among the essential elements, and represents an important consideration when
planning fertilizer applications. Nutrients also have variable degrees of mobility in the plant, which
influences where deficiency symptoms appear.
Mobile nutrient
Mobile nutrient are nutrients that can move from one place to another inside the soil and plant where it is
needed or can be translocated e.g. nitorgen. Nitrogen is very mobile in the soil, and will leach
easily. Excessive or improper application of nitrogen increases the risk of water contamination.
Immobile nutrient
Immobile nutrient are nutrients that cannot move from one place to another inside the soil and plant or
can not be traslocated e.g.phosphorus.
Phosphorus (P) is relatively immobile in the soil, and is thus less likely to runoff. At the same time, it is
also less available to plants, as it cannot "migrate" easily through the soil profile. Thus, P is often banded
close to seeds to make sure it can be reached by starting roots.
For nutrients like nitrogen and potassium, which are mobile in the plant, deficiency symptoms will appear
in older leaves. As new leaves develop, they will take the nutrients from the old leaves and use them to
grow. The old leaves are then left without enough nutrients, and display the symptoms. The opposite is
true of immobile nutrients like calcium; the new leaves will have symptoms first because they cannot take
nutrients from the old leaves, and there is not enough in the soil for their needs.
Macro-nutrient and function

Nutrient Function
Nitrogen (N) N is biologically combined with C, H, O, and S to create amino acids, which are
the building blocks of proteins. Amino acids are used in forming protoplasm, the
site for cell division and thus for plant growth and development.
Since all plant enzymes are made of proteins, N is needed for all of the enzymatic
reactions in a plant.
N is a major part of the chlorophyll molecule and is therefore necessary for
photosynthesis.
N is a necessary component of several vitamins.
N improves the quality and quantity of dry matter in leafy vegetables and protein
in grain crops.
Phosphorus (P) In photosynthesis and respiration, P plays a major role in energy storage and
transfer as ADP and ATP (adenosine di- and triphosphate) and DPN and TPN (di-
and triphosphopyridine nucleotide).
P is part of the RNA and DNA structures, which are the major components of
genetic information.
Seeds have the highest concentration of P in a mature plant, and P is required in
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large quantities in young cells, such as shoots and root tips, where metabolism is
high and cell division is rapid.
P aids in root development, flower initiation, and seed and fruit development.
P has been shown to reduce disease incidence in some plants and has been found to
improve the quality of certain crops
Potassium (K) Unlike N and P, K does not form any vital organic compounds in the plant.
However, the presence of K is vital for plant growth because K is known to be an
enzyme activator that promotes metabolism.
K assists in regulating the plant’s use of water by controlling the opening and
closing of leaf stomates, where water is released to cool the plant.
In photosynthesis, K has the role of maintaining the balance of electrical charges at
the site of ATP production.
K promotes the translocation of photosythates (sugars) for plant growth or storage
in fruits or roots.
Through its role assisting ATP production, K is involved in protein synthesis.
K has been shown to improve disease resistance in plants, improve the size of
grains and seeds, and improve the quality of fruits and vegetables.
Calcium (Ca) Ca has a major role in the formation of the cell wall membrane and its plasticity,
affecting normal cell division by maintaining cell integrity and membrane
permeability.
Ca is an activator of several enzyme systems in protein synthesis and carbohydrate
transfer.
Ca combines with anions including organic acids, sulphates, and phosphates. It
acts as a detoxifying agent by neutralizing organic acids in plants.
Ca is essential for seed production in peanuts.
Ca indirectly assists in improving crop yields by reducing soil acidity when soils
are limed.
Magnesium The predominant role of Mg is as a major constituent of the chlorophyll molecule,
(Mg) and it is therefore actively involved in photosynthesis.
Mg is a co-factor in several enzymatic reactions that activate the phosphorylation
processes.
Mg is required to stabilize ribosome particles and also helps stabilize the structure
of nucleic acids.
Mg assists the movement of sugars within a plant.
Sulphur (S) S is essential in forming plant proteins because it is a constituent of certain amino
acids.
It is actively involved in metabolism of the B vitamins biotin and thiamine and co-
enzyme A.
S aids in seed production, chlorophyll formation, nodule formation in legumes,
and stabilizing protein structure.
Source: https://www.puricare.co.za/
66
Micro-nutrient and function
Nutrient Function
Iron (Fe) Fe is essential in the enzyme system in plant metabolism (photosynthesis and
respiration).
Fe is essential in the synthesis and maintenance of chlorophyll in plants.
Fe has been strongly associated with protein metabolism.
Manganese (Mn) Mn primarily functions as part of the plant enzyme system, activating several
metabolic functions.
Mn is involved in photosynthesis.
Copper (Cu) Cu is essential in several plant enzyme systems involved in photosynthesis.
Cu is part of the chloroplast protein
Cu may have a role in the synthesis and/or stability of chlorophyll and other
plant pigments.
Zinc (Zn) Zn has a role in Ribose Nucleic Acid (RNA) and protein synthesis.
Boron (B) B is necessary for RNA formation and in cellular activities.
B has been shown to promote root growth.
B is essential for pollen germination and growth of the pollen tube.
B has been associated with seed and cell wall formation, and sugar transport
Molybdenum (Mo) Mo is a necessary for normal assimilation of N.
Mo is required by some soil microorganisms for nitrogen fixation in soils.
Source: https://www.puricare.co.za/
Nutrient Forms and Mobility in Soil
Nutrient Mobility in Plant Mobility in Soil

Nitrogen Mobile Mobile as NO3-, immobile as NH4+
Phosphorus Somewhat mobile Immobile
Potassium Very mobile Somewhat mobile
Calcium Immobile Somewhat mobile
Magnesium Somewhat mobile Immobile
Sulfur Mobile Mobile
Boron Immobile Very mobile
Copper Immobile Immobile
Iron Immobile Immobile
Manganese Immobile Mobile
Zinc Immobile Immobile
Molybdenum Immobile Somewhat mobile
Chlorine Mobile Mobile
Cobalt Immobile Somewhat mobile
Nickel Mobile Somewhat mobile
Source: https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soilfertility
67
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Differentiate between macro nutrient and micro nutrient.
2. Explain the term mobile nutrient and give an example.
3 Explain how plants obtain their nutrient when grown in a hydroponic system.
SUMMARY
Plants require 18 essential nutrients to grow and survive, classified by their importance into
macronutrients (C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S) and micronutrients (B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Mo, Cl, Co and Ni).
Nutrients may be mobile or immobile in the plant and in the soil, which influences redistribution of
nutrients and display of deficiency symptoms, and the fertilization of crops. Nutrient demands change
throughout the life of the plant, in general increasing during vegetative growth but decreasing during
reproductive development.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss why farmers are advised not to apply fertilizing materials before heavy rain.
LESSON 3 NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of the lesson the student will identify the deficiency symptoms of macro and micro nutrients.
VOCABULARY
1. Nutrient deficiency – shortage of nutrient in a plant
2. Chlorosis – fading of chlorophyll in plants
3. Necrosis - death of plant tissues
Notes
The eighteen elements needed for plant nutrition each perform specific functions in the plant, are needed
in different amounts. Nutrient requirements generally increase with the growth of plants.
Malnutrition may occur if nutrients are deficient or in excess. Deficiencies or excess of nutrients can
damage plants by slowing or inhibiting growth and reducing yield. For optimal crop yield, producers need
to recognise the symptoms of nutrient deficiency, the lack of plant available nutrients or nutrient toxicity,
excess nutrient uptake. Crops are affected by immediate factors such as weather conditions or injury,
excess fertilizer, pesticide drift or insect infestations which may appear to be nutrient deficiencies.
Deficiency of Macronutrients
Macro-nutrient Deficiency
Leaves are small and light green; lower leaves lighter than upper ones;
Nitrogen (N)
not much leaf drop; weak stalks.
Dark-green foliage; lower leaves sometimes yellow between veins;
Phosphorus (P)
purplish color on leaves or petioles.
Lower leaves may be mottled; dead areas near tips and margins of
Potassium (K)
leaves; yellowing at leaf margins continuing toward centre.
Tip of the shoot dies; tips of young leaves die; tips of leaves are
Calcium (Ca)
hooked-shaped.
Lower leaves are yellow between veins (veins remain green); leaf
Magnesium (Mg) margins may curl up or down or leaves may pucker; leaves die in later
stages.
Tip of the shoot stays alive; light green upper leaves; leaf veins lighter
Sulfur (S)
than surrounding areas.
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Source: www.eldorachemical.com/fertilizer
Source: http//www:masterman535.hubpages.com
Source: http//www:charlottecountyweather.c
69
Deficiency of Micronutrients
Micro-nutrient Deficiency
Iron (Fe) Tip of the shoot stays alive; new upper leaves turn yellow between
veins (large veins remain green); edges and tips of leaves may die.
Zinc (Zn) Poor leaf development. Chlorite mottle in less severe cases.
Copper (Cu) Death of young leaves, chlorosis, failure of fertilization and fruit set.
Manganese (Mn) Tip of the shoot stays alive; new upper leaves have dead spots over
surface; leaf may appear netted because of small veins remaining
green.
Molybdenum (Mo) Cupping of leaves, long and slender leaves and interveinal chlorosis
Boron (B) Tip of the shoot dies; stems and petioles are brittle.
Source: www.eldorachemical.com/fertilizer
Source: youtube.com
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. What is nutrient deficiency?
2. Explain one cause of nutrient deficiency can be determined in a soil.
SUMMARY
Plants require 18 essential nutrients to grow. The shortage of any nutrients will show the signs of
starvation for that particular nutrient in a plant while it is growing in the field.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss how the farmer would differentiate between nutrient deficiency and effects of drought on plant
growth.
70
LESSON 4 SOIL NUTRIENT EVALUATION
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student should be able to
1. identify the different methods of soil nutrient evaluation
2. describe the different methods of soil nutrient evaluation
3. discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods.
VOCABULARY
1. Nutrient balance is the precondition for all good soil management practices. To avoid wastage
of dollars spent on fertilizer, it is vital that land users or farm managers should have a clear idea
on how to maintain balanced nutrient statues of the soil.
2. Soil fertility - the nutrient status of the soil with respect to its ability to supply essential
elements for plant growth without a toxic concentration of any element.
3. Soil productivity - it is the soils capacity to produce a certain yield of crops other plants with
optimum management.
4. Shifting cultivation - is a rotation of fields between relatively short or longer periods of
cropping and followed by fallowing.
5. Fallowing - when the cultivated land is left without any crop for short periods of time to regain
soil fertility.
NOTES
Soil fertility evaluation is the process by which nutrient problems are diagnosed and fertilizer
recommendation is made. Several approaches are presently in use in the tropics as well as in the rest of
the world. The most widespread are based on:
1. observation of deficiency symptoms;
2. soil testing
3. plant analysis
4. biological techniques such as missing element techniques, simple field trials and frequently a
combination of these.
It is important that soil sustainability be evaluated with respect to their management requirements.
Evaluation of soil fertility is the process by which nutritional problems are diagnosed and fertilizer
recommendations are made. Commonly used soil fertility evaluation procedures are observing deficiency
symptoms (visual diagnosis), soil testing, and plant analysis and biological techniques.
Billions of dollars are spent annually on fertilisers in developed countries and to some extent in
developing countries. It is important to have a proper understanding of the nutrient status of the soil and
things that can be done to maintain nutrient balance.
METHODS OF IDENTIFYING SOIL NUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES
1. OBSERVING PLANT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS (Visual/ Field observation)

Detecting plant nutrient deficiencies by simply observing (using our eyes) together with our knowledge of
common nutrient deficiency symptoms.
For example, mobile nutrients in the plant such as N, P, K and Mg show deficiency symptoms in older
leaves.
Immobile elements such as S, Ca and micronutrients (except Cl) first show symptoms in young leaves.
Advantages:
1. Cheap and quick
2. Do not require equipment or a laboratory.
71
Disadvantages:
1. By the time plant deficiency symptoms become obvious it may be too late in the season to apply
fertilizer.
2. Care must be exercised, because different deficiencies can produce similar symptoms.
3. Symptoms may be mixed with pest and disease conditions.
4. Deficiencies may vary from species to species.
5. Before symptoms appear yield loss may already have occurred.
6. Nutrient shortages in the soil may be caused by abnormal weather conditions (e.g. drought)
2. SOIL TESTING (involves soil sampling or lab tests)

A soil test is a chemical method of estimating the nutrient content (supplying power) of a soil. It measures
a part of the total nutrient supply (available nutrient) in the soil. These values have to be calibrated against
nutrient rate experiments in the field and in the greenhouse.
One of the weakest steps in making good fertilizer recommendations by using soil tests is the obtaining of
a soil sample. Generally a small soil sample is used to characterise 10,000 to 30,000 tons of soil.
In developed countries much progress has been made in soil testing in measuring the available nutrients in
soils. However, the big problem is interpreting the results in terms of fertilizer needed. The degree of
accuracy depends on several factors including knowledge of the soil, the yield level expected, level of
management and the weather. The following are some advantages and disadvantages of this technique.
SOIL SAMPLING
WHAT IS SOIL SAMPLING?
A soil sample is few kg of soil collected in such a way that one could obtain information about many
thousands or millions of kg of soil (representative of a large area/mass of soil)
It is done to evaluate soil nutrient content of a particular area to increase agricultural production.
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL SAMPLING
• to find out if any nutrient are deficient in a particular soil
• to decide which fertilizers are to be applied
• to maintain soil fertility over time
• to check the suitability of the soil for a particular crop.
• to avoid wastages of fertilizers by not using the wrong ones and too much of it.
• to classify soils in different groups and orders
WHEN SAMPLING SHOULD BE DONE?

• once every after 3 years of continuous cropping
• 3 months after applying fertilizer
• 6 weeks before planting a crop
• sampling should be done on a sunny day
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HOW TO DO SAMPLING?
WHICH AREA?
1. The area to be tested is divided into sampling units which has similar:
• soil color, texture and structure
• land use pattern
• fertility history
• land form
2. Avoid small areas like gateway or areas with very good or poor growth
3. Each area should not be larger than a hectare
EQUIPMENTS USED FOR SOIL SAMPLING

• a screw or tube augur
• small spade
• hand trowel
DEPTH OF SAMPLING
• For normal crops 15 cm
• Fruit trees 15+ cm
• Cultivated crops 20 cm
• Pasture 7.5 cm
TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLING

Subsoil sample -samples are usually taken from 0-15 cm depth of soils from a particular point in the
field.
Composite sample -when collecting a soil sample one should collect approximately 20 equal portions of
soil from various parts of the sampling area to make up one composite sample for the laboratory test.
METHODS OF SAMPLING
1. For uniform areas or flat land samples are taken from evenly spaced intervals along 2 diagonals
across the field
2. For complex areas (slope land) use a zig – zag patter or a random pattern
Source: http//www: unido.org
73
WHAT IS DONE AFTER SOIL SAMPLES ARE TAKEN?
1. Take the soil samples, place it in a bucket or plastic bag and mix it thoroughly before labeling each
sample with
• Name of the farmer

• Address of the farmer
• Name of the area, village or field #.
• Date of sampling
• Depth of sampling
• Sample number
• Field history
• Crops to be grown
2. After labeling each sample it is sent to an Agricultural Research Station in the chemistry laboratory to be
analysed by soil chemists. (Do not delay in bringing the samples to the lab. If wet soil is left around for 3-
4 days, chemical changes will begin to take place in the sample which will modify the characteristics)
3. The fertility record together with the recommendations for which fertilizer to be applied at what rate to
improve soil fertility is sent to the farmer through the locality agricultural extension officer.
Advantages:
1. Nutrient deficiencies can be identified before planting a crop.
2. Soil testing needs only a small sample.
Disadvantages:
1. Problems in obtaining a sample.
2. A calibration curve, indicating the soil test value and the percent relative yield has to be developed for
each soil.
3. Soil test values do not tell us how much fertilizer needs to be applied.
4. Sometimes it is difficult to choose a correct soil sample. (This is a real problem for available P).
5. There is no commonly accepted soil test which exists for making nitrogen fertilizer recommendations
6. Soil test for micro-nutrients is of little value unless pH levels are taken into consideration.
7. Services of a testing laboratory are required. In areas with a high pH response, a starter is recommended
for better performance.
8. Many factors affect crop response to a nutrient, climate, tillage and crop.
3. PLANT TISSUE TESTING
Plant analysis is based on the assumption that the amount of a given element in a plant is an indication of
the supply of that particular nutrient and as such is directly related to the quantity in the soil.
Two general types of plant analysis have been used:

i. Tests for fresh tissues in the field.
ii. The other is the total analysis performed in the laboratory with precise analytical techniques.
Advantages
i. Nutrient concentration varies with the age of the crop.
ii. Nutrient concentration varies from species to species.
iii. Nutrient concentration varies due to weather conditions.
iv. If other interactions are minimal, this is a good technique to determine the soil nutrient supply.
74
Disadvantages:
i. Since a shortage of an element will limit growth, other nutrients may accumulate in the cell sap and
show high tests irrespective of the soil nutrient supply.
ii. It may be too late in the season for some crops when the deficiency is identified.
iii. It is essential to test that part of the plant, which will give the best indication of the nutritional status.
4. BIOLOGICAL TESTING
In this technique plant growth performance, based on the fertilizer application is utilised to measure the
fertility status of soils.
5. FIELD TESTS
The field plot method is one of the oldest and best known of the biological tests. The series of treatments
selected depends on the particular question the experimenter wishes to have answered. The treatments are
then randomly assigned to an area of land, known as a replication which are used to obtain more reliable
results and to account for variations in soil and management.
These experiments are helpful in the formation of general recommendations. When large numbers of tests
are conducted on soils that are well characterized, recommendations based on such studies can be
extrapolated to other soils with similar characteristics.
6. LABORATORY AND GREENHOUSE TESTS
These are similar to field tests but are more rapid. These tests still involve higher plants and utilise small
quantities of soil and have met with wide acceptance in developed and developing countries.
7. MICRO – ORGANISMS:
Microorganisms are also used in biological tests. This is based on the principle that the nutrient
requirement of microorganisms is similar to those of crop plants although the required amount differ.
They also depend on the same nutrient resource. The microorganism’s population are counted using
electron microscopes.
Example: Azotobacter species: Used for determining lime, phosphorus and potassium content in the soil.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List two methods of identifying soil nutrient deficiency
2. Describe one of the method listed in question 1
3. Differentiate between plant analysis and biological testing
SUMMARY
In defining soil fertility, we indicate that a soil is fertile once it can supply all macro and micronutrients in
adequate amounts and suitable proportions. This in fact illustrates the importance of nutrient balance both
in soil and in plants. Until and unless these conditions are fulfilled, the soil cannot be productive.
SELF EVALUATION
During a practical class the students observed that the cucumber in the school vegetable garden was not
performing as to expectation. Discuss the method that you as a student would undertake to evaluate on the
performance of the cucumber in the school garden.
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LESSON 5 SOIL WATER
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student should be able to:
1. identify the different forms of soil water
2. describe the different forms of soil water
3. explain the importance of soil water
VOCABULARY
1. Water holding capacity: it is the ability of the soil to hold water according to its seating
capacity.
2. Gravitational water: the form of water, which reaches at the soil water table due to the
gravitational force after the rainfall.
3. Adhesion water: a thin film of water is tightly held by the soil particles and is not available to
plants.
4. Cohesion water: water exists between soil particles in small capillary pores and is available to
plants.
5. Available water: is that portion of the water holding capacity that can be absorbed by a plant.
6. Micro pores: are smaller spaces between soil peds or aggregates
7. Macro pores: are larger spaces between soil peds or aggregates
8. Saturation: When all the available pore space is full of water
NOTES
Water is mainly obtained through rain. Some of the water goes into the reservoirs. This is called run off or
run away water whereas the rest of the water infiltrates inside the soil.
Water holding capacity designates the ability of a soil to hold water. It is useful information for irrigation
scheduling, crop selection, groundwater contamination considerations, estimating runoff and determining
when plants will become stressed. Water holding capacity varies by soil texture. The coarse textured soils
such as sand hold less water when compared to fine textured soils like clay have high water holding
capacity.
Forms of soil water

1. ADHESION WATER (hygroscopic water)
• It is strongly attracted to the soil particle and very immobile
• Unavailable to plants
• It is the percentage moisture left in the soil after all plants have wilted and died.
2. COHESION WATER (capillary water)

• It is the most important water for plant growth thus this water can be removed by the plant roots
• Available
• This water is held in the soil against the force of gravity
• The movement that causes water to move upwards in the soil pores is known as capillary action.
3. GRAVITATIONAL WATER
• Gravitational water is found in the macro pores. It moves rapidly out of well-drained soil and is
not considered to be available to plants.
• It can cause upland plants to wilt and die because gravitational water occupies air space, which is
necessary to supply oxygen to the roots.
• Drains out of the soil in 2-3 days
4. CAPILLARY WATER
• Water in the micro pores, the soil solution.
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• Most, but not all, of this water is available for plant growth
• Capillary water is held in the soil against the pull of gravity
Forms of Soil Water
Source: http//www:slideshare.net
IMPORTANCE OF SOIL WATER

• Large amounts of water must be supplied to satisfy the requirements of growing plants because
water is continually lost by evaporation from the leaf surface in photosynthesis. Thus water must
be available when the plants need it, and most of it come from the soil.
• Water is the solvent that together with the dissolved nutrients makes the soil solution from which
plants absorb essential elements.
• Soil moisture helps control two other important factors essential for normal plant growth i.e. soil
air, and soil temperature.
• The control of the disposition of water as it strikes the soil determines to a large extend to the
incidence of soil erosion – that devastating menace that lifts soil particles from the soil surface
and carries them into streams, lakes and the ocean.
• Water provides cells with turgidity to hold plants straight.
• Helps in the formation of a good soil structure
• Weathering of rocks require water for chemical reaction
• Soil organisms need water for their survival
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List three forms of soil water.
2. Describe the three forms of water in question 1.
3. Differentiate between micro pore and macro pore in relation to water and air retention.
SUMMARY
Water moves through the soil by both gravity and capillarity. Both forces contribute to downward
movement, but only capillary carries water upward or laterally. Water moves from locations in soil of
higher potential to locations of lower potential. The downward movement is most rapid in coarse soils
while lateral movement is most extensive in fine soils. Moreover, the fine textured soils have the highest
water holding capacity but medium textured soils retain the greatest available water.
SELF EVALUATION
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Discuss the relationship between soil textures, structure in relation to the amount of water the soil can
retain.
LESSON 6 SOIL MOISTURE POTENTIAL

LESSON OUTCOME:
1. discuss soil moisture potential and characteristics of soil
2. describe the relationship of soil texture and the available water in the soil
VOCABULARY
1. Soil moisture potential: amount of water available to plants
2. Moisture characteristic: relationship between water content and available water
3. Soil water: this is the amount of water present in the soil and available to plants.
4. Field capacity: is the amount of water remaining in the soil twenty-four to fourty-eight hours
after saturation by irrigation or rainfall.
5. Osmotic effects: is the measure of the work that is required to pull water molecules away from
hydrated ions.
6. Wilting point: the condition when plants lose water faster than it can be absorbed and
temporarily wilts but plants can recover when the conditions improve.
7. Permanent wilting point – condition of the soil becomes too dry for the plant to access any
water and the plants will not recover even if the conditions improve.
NOTES
Water is moved from a soil system by the action of gravity, by evaporation and transpiration by plants
and living organisms. Forces retaining water in the soil are in two categories – physical forces of cohesion
and adhesion, which arise because of particle shape and arrangement; and chemical forces arising from
the osmotic effects of bore water, fertilizer and water table.
The amount of water available to plants is termed the soil moisture potential. The more negative this
value becomes, the more work a plant must do to remove water from the soil pores.
Within the soil the relationship between water content and available water (moisture potential) is termed
the moisture characteristic.
SOIL MOISTURE POTENTIAL AND CHARACTERISTIC

Soil Moisture Classification
In terms of soil-water management, the classification of soil water potential is based on the availability of
water to plants in the soil environment. Terms used to describe this include;
• Saturation (Gravitational water),
• Field capacity(F.C)
• Permanent wilting point (P.W.P), and
• Available water capacity
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Source: http://www.terragis.bees.unsw.edu.au/terraGIS_soil/sp_watersoil_moisture_classification.html
Saturation
At this point soil is said to be at its maximum retentive capacity. That is, all soil pores are filled with
water. Saturation usually occurs for short periods of time, either during heavy rainfall events or when soil
is being irrigated. Soil remains at saturation so long as water is infiltrating, otherwise water in large pores
will drain freely under the forces of gravity. After two days of free drainage the soil is said to be at Field
Capacity.
Field Capacity (F.C.)
Field capacity (F.C.) approximates the amount of water that is held in soil after it has been fully wetted
and all gravitational water has been drained away. In practice, field capacity is reached about one to two
days after heavy rainfall or irrigation ceases.
In practical terms, field capacity will be reached much faster in a coarser textured soil (e.g. Loamy Sand)
than in a fine-textured soil profile (e.g. Heavy Clay).
In addition, there is sufficient air-filled pore space to allow for the aeration of most aerobic microbial
activity and plant growth. Water in excess of field capacity drains to quickly for plant use and reduces
aeration. From a tillage point of view, soil turns to mud above field capacity and is unworkable.
For practical purposes this means clay rich or organic (loamy) soil can hold much more water than sandy
soil.
As soil water is being used by plants and begins to dry, plants will wilt during the day to conserve water
and regain turgor at night when water is not being lost through leaves. Roots in essence catch up with
plant demands. However, plants will remain wilted when roots cannot generate water potentials low
enough to remove water bound tightly through adhesive forces around soil. Soil is said to be at Permanent
Wilting Point.
Permanent Wilting Point (P.W.P.)
Permanent wilting point (PWP) is defined as the minimum soil moisture at which a plant wilts and can no
longer recover its turgidity. In the field, soil at Permanent Wilting Point (P.W.P.) will appear dusty and
dry.
However, water is still present in micro-pores and in very thin films around soil particles. The soil water,
however, is held tightly by the forces of adhesion (i.e. about 10 molecules thick) and is generally
unavailable for use by plant roots and microbes.
Although clay rich soil can hold much more water than sandy soil, it is also capable of retaining water
more strongly as well.
Available Water Content (A.W.C.)
The amount of water held between F.C. and P.W.P. is termed the “Available Water Content” (A.W.C.),
and it is a measure of the amount of water in the soil that is “potentially” available to plant
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Measuring Water Content of Soil: (Weight Basis)
Water content = moist weight – dry weight
dry weight
To measure water content of a soil sample by weight, the sample is weighed and the weight is recorded.
The sample is oven-dried and the dry weight is noted thus the difference between the two weights is the
weight of water in the soil.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Describe soil saturation
2. Explain how the texture of the soil affects the amount of water available for plant growth
3. Differentiate between field capacity and permanent wilting point
SUMMARY
The amount of water available for plant growth will depend on the texture of the soil which is the size of
the macro pore and micro pore of the soil.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss one reason why sandy soil cannot retain more water compared to clay soil.
LESSON 7 SOIL AIR
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. explain the relationship between soil air and soil water
2. discuss the importance of soil air in the growth of plants
VOCABULARY
1. Soil air: is the amount of air present in the soil pore spaces.
2. Pore space: the space between soil particles, usually containing air or water.
3. Diffusion: movement of gases from high concentration to low concentration in soil
NOTES
Soil aeration influences the availability of many nutrients. Particularly, soil air is needed by many of the
microorganisms that release plant nutrients in the soil. An appropriate balance between soil air and soil
water must be maintained since soil air is displaced by soil water. Air can fill soil pores as water drains or
is removed from a soil pore by evaporation or root absorption. The network of pores within the soil
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aerates, or ventilates, the soil. This aeration network becomes blocked when water enters soil pores. Not
only are both soil air and soil water very dynamic parts of soil, but both are often inversely related:
Inverse Relationship between Soil Air and Soil Water in soil:

• An increase in soil water content often causes a reduction in soil aeration.
• Likewise, reducing soil water content may mean an increase in soil aeration.
• Since plant roots require water and oxygen (from the air in pore spaces), maintaining the balance
between root and aeration and soil water availability is a critical aspect of managing crop plants.
Soil air is very different than the above-ground atmosphere. A significant difference is between the levels
of carbon dioxide. Since the soil contains high amounts of carbon dioxide, oxygen levels may become
limited. Since plants must have oxygen to live, it is important to allow proper aeration in the soil.
The oxygen level in the soil falls below 10 per cent and as a result there is a decrease in the activity of
living organisms. All soil organisms need oxygen for respiration. The plant root growth decreases at
levels of oxygen concentration less than 10 per cent, although plants can tolerate levels of carbon dioxide
concentration greater than 10 per cent in the immediate root environment. Therefore, the general trend for
carbon dioxide concentrations to increase with soil depth, while oxygen levels decline.
Gases move in soil by diffusion and the process is influenced by:
• soil texture
• soil structure
• soil water content
• the degree of soil compaction
Importance of Soil Air:
• It is essential for respiration in plants.
• Soil organisms also require air for respiration.
• Excess air can kill anaerobic soil organisms thereby reducing such organisms.
• It is an essential constituent of photosynthesis.
• It helps in the germination of seeds.
• It also determines the relative proportion of water in the soil.
• It is about 25% of the total volume of the soil.
• It helps in the absorption of plant nutrients.
• Essential for root development.
• Needed in the nitrogen and carbon cycles.
• Oxygen is necessary for growth and development.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Describe how soil air influences life in the soil.
2. State the importance of soil air to plant growth and development.
SUMMARY
Soil air is the integral part of life for soil organisms and plant roots to carry out the process of respiration
and other activities in the soil.
SELF EVALUATION
How does the composition of soil air differ from that of the atmosphere?
LESSON 8 SOIL pH
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define soil pH
2. describe the sources of soil acidity and soil alkalinity
3. describe the effects of soil acidity and alkalinity on plant growth
4. explain ways of managing soil acidity and alkalinity
5. explain the relationship between soil pH and nutrient availability
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VOCABULARY
1. Soil pH: is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a solution.
2. Soil Acidity: is the hydrogen (H+) ion concentration in the soil where the pH is < 7.
3. Soil Alkalinity: is the hydroxyl (OH‾) ion concentration in the soil where the pH is> 7 4.
Actinomycetes: a group of gram-positive bacteria that have a superficial
resemblance of fungi
NOTES
Soil pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity. The hydrogen ion, (H+), in the soil or
simply the acidity of a soil. The soil pH significantly influences chemical properties as well as biological
properties of soil. The soil pH significantly affects the availability of most of the chemical elements of
importance to plants and microbes.
There is a general relationship between pH and the levels of base-forming cations; they do contribute
towards a reduction in acidity and an increase in alkalinity. The movement of salts into and out of the soil
zone as soil moisture moves up and down the profile will influence pH.
The availability of nitrogen, sulphur and molybdenum are restricted at low pH values, whereas that of
phosphorus is best at intermediate pH levels. The ideal pH for growing most crops is between 6.5 – 7
whereas the best pH for the microbes in the soil is between 6 – 8.
Most general-purpose bacteria and actinomycetes function at intermediate pH values. Fungi tend to
predominate in acid soils, whereas at intermediate and higher pH they meet stiff competition from
actinomycetes and bacteria.
82
Source:
Sources of Soil Acidity
• Respiration by plant roots and other soil organisms produces carbon dioxide that reacts with water in
soil to form weak carbonic acid (H2CO3). This is a weak acid which contributes H+ to the soil solution
thus increasing soil acidity.
• Acidity is produced when organic matter is mineralized, nitrogen and sulphur are oxidized to nitric
acid (HNO₃) and sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄), respectively adding more H+ ions to soil solution making the
soil more acidic.
• Natural or normal precipitation reacts with carbon dioxide of atmosphere to give a weak carbonic
acid. The results of these conditions add acidity continuously to soils.
• Degree of leaching – cations replaced by H+ ions and aluminum ions.
• Type of parent material (high in Al and S increases soil acidity)
• Nutrient uptake – A continuous removable of minor and major nutrients from soil makes soil acidic
such as the H, Al, S, ions increases in concentration.
• Addition of Sulphur & Ammonium fertilizers in excess increases soil acidity.
E.g. ammonium sulphate.
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Sources of Soil Alkalinity:
• Parent materials have a wide-ranging mineralogical composition and pH, and young soils inherit
these properties from the parent material. Throughout the world there are parent materials and
soils that contain several percent or more of calcium carbonate as they are calcareous. When
calcareous soil is treated with dilute HCl, carbon dioxide is produced, and the soil is said to
effervesce.
• The hydrolysis of calcium carbonate produces OH- which contributes to alkalinity
o in soils. This is shown in the equation below:
CaCO3 + H20 Ca2+ + HCO3- + O-
Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble, and this reaction can produce a soil pH as high as 8.3,
assuming equilibrium with atmospheric carbon dioxide. In calcareous soils, carbonate hydrolysis controls
soil pH. When a soil contains Na2CO3, the pH may be as high as 10 or more, which is caused by the
greater solubility of Na2CO3 and greater production of OH- by Hydrolysis in a similar manner. Sodium
affected soils with 15 per cent or more of the Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) saturated with Na+ are
called sodic and are also highly alkaline.
Mineral weathering – some rocks and minerals weather to produce an acidic effect. The weathering of
many primary minerals, however contributes to alkalinity. This is the result of the consumption of H+ and
the production of OH-. For example, the hydrolysis of anorthite (calcium feldspar), produces a
moderately strong base. This is shown in the equation below:
3CaAl2Si2O8 + 6H20 2HAl4SiO10 (OH)2 + 3 Ca (OH)2
(anorthite) (aluminosilicate)
Calcium and magnesium are alkaline earth metals or cations and potassium and sodium and alkali metals.
These cations are called basic cations because soils tend to be alkaline (basic) or neutral when the CEC is
entirely cations (Ca, Mg, K and Mn) results in their replacement by Al3+ and H+ ions are called the acidic
cations.
Effects of Soil Acidity and Soil Alkalinity on Plant Growth:
a) Soil Acidity
• Some plants simply do not grow well at a low pH.
• The activities of many of the following organisms are reduced:
o -nitrogen fixing bacteria that convert ammonium to nitrates
o -organisms that break down organic matter.
• Low levels of Ca & Mg are present in soil.
• Elements such as aluminium and manganese become so soluble and they are toxic to plant
growth.
• Phosphorus and molybdenum may become insoluble and unavailable.
• Various agricultural chemicals, especially certain herbicides (weed control chemicals) and
nematicides are not effective.
b) Soil Alkalinity
• Due to excessive accumulation of salts, concentration of soil solution becomes high. This
decreases absorption of nutrients by plants and causes plasmolysis of cell cytoplasm in the plants
which may be fatal sometimes. All these effects are responsible for stunted growth of plants.
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• If sodium is absorbed by the plants in excess, it shows toxic effects. Chloride salt of alkaline
elements causes the death of trees. BaCO3 and BaCl are toxic to all plants.
• Presence of excess salts in the soil retards the germination of seeds and growth of seedlings.
Plants die before bearing fruits.
• Alkaline salts in the soil also affect the plant growth by reducing the size of leaves in alkali soil,
plant roots remain superficial, bark of stem turns brown or black, green tissues are less developed.
Management of Soil Acidity and Soil Alkalinity:
a) Soil Acidity
• addition of liming materials like calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate
• addition of organic matter such as compost
• improving soil drainage
• use acidifying fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate
b) Soil Alkalinity
• addition of organic matter
• irrigating the field
• addition of gypsum or sulfuric acid to soil
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Describe the effects of low pH on plant growth.
2. Explain how a plant is affected by a high pH.
SUMMARY
Soil pH depends on the balance of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions in the soil solution. Excessive soil acidity
and alkalinity affects the growth of plants because certain nutrients become unavailable to the plants for
use.
SELF EVALUATION
Imagine the farmer is living on a coral island and wants to plant vegetables. Explain how the farmer will
improve the pH of the soil before planting.
LESSON 9 ION EXCHANGE

LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define ion exchange
2. describe cation and anion exchange capacity
3. describe how cations and anions are formed in a soil solution
4. explain how micelles are formed
5. list the sources of ions in the ion pool and how ions are lost from the ion pool
6. discuss the importance of cation exchange capacity in nutrient management
VOCABULARY
1. Cation exchange capacity: is the interchange between a cation in solution and another cation on
the surface of negatively charged particle material such as clay or organic colloids.
2. Ion exchange: involves cations and anions that are absorbed from the solution into negatively
and positively charged surfaces respectively.
3. Anion exchange capacity: the sum total of exchangeable anions that the soil can adsorb.
4. Adsorption: exchangeable with another ion in soil solution e.g. Ca²⁺ is adsorbed to So₄²‐ ions in
soil solution.
5. Absorption: minerals or ions are taken up by roots from soil solution for their use.
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6. Mineralization: the conversion of an element from an organic form to an inorganic state as a
result of microorganism activity.
NOTES
Ion exchange involves cations and anions that are absorbed from the solution into negatively and
positively charged surfaces respectively. Such ions are readily replaced or exchanged by other ions in the
soil solution of similar charge, and thus are described by the term ion exchange. Of the two exchange
processes cation exchange is of greater abundance in soils than anion exchange.
Sources of ions to the ion pool
Weathering of minerals and decomposition of organic matter supply ions to the ion pool of the solution.
Ions are lost from the pool by plant uptake and leaching. Some ions precipitate and some ions form
secondary minerals. Ions are absorbed from cations and anion exchange sites.
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soils is defined as the sum of positive charges of the adsorbed
charges that a soil can adsorb at a specific pH.
Processes of Cation exchange capacity
Each adsorbed K+ contributes to one positive charge and each adsorbed Ca 2+ contributes two positive
charges to the CEC of soil. It is a very important soil property influencing soil structure stability, nutrient
availability, soil pH and the soil’s reaction to fertilizers and other ameliorants. These cations are held by
the negatively charged clay and organic matter particles in the soil through electrostatic forces (negative
soil particles attract the positive cations). The cations on the CEC of the soil particles are easily
exchangeable with other cations and as a result, they are available to plants. Thus, the CEC of a soil
represents the total amount of exchangeable cations that the soil can adsorb. The cations used by plants in
the largest amounts are calcium, magnesium, and potassium. In most soils within humid regions and
sodium is not present in sufficient quantities to occupy a significant amount of the CEC. However, in dry
climates, sodium can occupy an important portion of the CEC
Clay double layer:
Source: http://www.nptel.ac.in
The cation exchange reactions in soils occur mainly near the surface of clay and humus particles called
micelles. Each micelle may have thousands of negative charges that are
neutralized by the absorbed or exchangeable cations.
For illustration purpose assume that “X” represents a negatively charged exchange that has adsorbed a
sodium ion (Na+), producing NaX. When placed in a solution containing KCl, the following cation
exchange reaction occurs.
K+ Cl- + NaX = Na+ Cl- + KX
In the reaction K+ in the solution replaced or exchanged for adsorbed (exchangeable)
86
At resulting in putting the adsorbed Na+ in solution and leaving K+ adsorbed as KX. Cations are adsorbed
and exchanged on a chemically equivalent basis, that is one K+ replaces one Na-, and two K+ are required
to replace or exchange for one Ca2+.
The negatively charged micelle surfaces form a boundary along which negative charge is localised. The
cations concentrate near this boundary and neutralize the negative charge on the micelle. The
exchangeable cations are hydrated and drag along the hydration water molecules as they move and
oscillate around negatively charged sites.
In the diagram above, the concentration of cations is greatest near the surface of the micelle surface (clay
surface) where the negative charges are the greatest. The charge strength decreases rapidly with
increasing distance away from the micelle.
Conversely the negatively charged surface repels anions. This results in a decreasing concentration of
cations and an increasing concentration of anions with distance away from the micelle surface. At some
distance from the micelle surface, the concentration of cations and anion is equal. An equilibrium tends to
be established between the number of cations adsorbed and the number of cations in the solution. The
number of cations in the solution is much smaller than the number adsorbed unless the consent of soluble
salts is high.
Roots absorb cations from the soil solution and upset the equilibrium. The uptake of a cation is
accompanied by the excretion of H+ from the roots and this restores the charge equilibrium in both the
plant and soil.
IMPORTANCE OF CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY IN SOIL NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

• It indicates the nutrient holding capacity of a soil.
• It determines how often and how much lime must be applied.
• Cation exchange capacity determines how crop nutrients other than lime can be applied.
• On high cation exchange capacity soils anhydrous ammonia is the cheapest form of nitrogen fertilizer.
• On low CEC soils it may leach through the soils after heavy rain or escape in the atmosphere.
IMPLICATIONS OF CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
• The higher the CEC the more clay or organic matter present in the soil. This usually means that high CEC
(clay) soils have a greater water holding capacity than low CEC (sandy) soils.
• Low CEC soils are more likely to develop potassium and magnesium (and other cation) deficiencies,
while high CEC soils are less susceptible to leaching losses of these cations. So, for sandy soils, a large
one-time addition of cations e.g. potassium can lead to large leaching losses (soil isn’t able to hold on to
the excess K). More frequent additions of smaller amounts are better.
• The lower the CEC, the faster the soil pH will decrease with time. So, sandy soils need to be limed more
often than clay soils.
• The higher the CEC, the larger the quantity of lime that must be added to increase the soil pH; sandy soils
need less lime than clay soils to increase the pH to desired levels.
ANION EXCHANGE
It is the adsorption of negatively charged anions onto anion exchange sites which arise from protonation
of the OH‾ ions on the edges of silicate clays. The positive charges associated with hydrous oxides of
iron and aluminium makes possible the adsorption of anions.
The anion exchange capacity is inversely related to soil pH. Nitrate (NO₃‾) is very weakly adsorbed in the
soils and as a consequence it remains in the soil solution where it is susceptible to leaching and removal
from the soil.
87
Anion exchange reactions with phosphate may result in strong adsorption as to render the phosphate
unavailable to plants. Uptake of anions by roots is accompanied by the excretion of OH‾ ions.
SOURCES OF IONS IN SOIL SOLUTION AND HOW IONS ARE LOST FROM ION POOL
Plant uptake
Mineral Precipitation and secondary

weathering Ion Mineral formation
Organic Dissolution
Matter Pool
Decomposition Anion exchange reaction
Cation exchange reaction

In Source
Leaching
Soil
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. With the help of an illustration explain how cation exchange reaction occurs in soil.
2. Explain why cation exchange capacity is important in soil management.
3. List three ways in which ions are lost and gained in soil solution.
SUMMARY
Ion exchange involves cations and anions that are absorbed from the solution into negatively and
positively charged surfaces respectively. Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the amount of negative
charge in soil that is available to bind positively charged ions (cations). Essential plant nutrients, K+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, and NH4 + and detrimental elements, Na+ , H+ , and Al+3 are cations. Cation exchange capacity
cushions fluctuations in nutrient availability and soil pH.
SELF EVALUATION
Explain why negatively charged surfaces repel anion.
88
LESSON 10 SOIL BUFFER CAPACITY
LESSON OUTCOME:

1. explain the term soil buffer capacity
2. discuss the importance of soil buffering in stabilizing the pH of the soil
VOCABULARY
Soil buffer capacity: this is the ability of the soil to resist changes particularly in relation to chemical
reaction or soil pH.
NOTES
The buffer capacity is the ability of ions associated with the solid phase to buffer changes in ion
concentration in the solution phase. In simple terms this is the ability of the soil to resist changes
particularly in relation to chemical reaction. Humic acids and clay minerals have good buffer qualities.
In acid soils, buffering refers to the ability of Al, H and hydroxyl-aluminium to maintain a certain
concentration of H+ in a solution.
The amount of H+ in the soil solution of a soil with a pH of 6.0, for example; is extremely small compared
with the non-dissociated H+ absorbed and the amount of aluminium that can hydrolyze to produce H+.
Neutralization of the active or solution H+ results in rapid replacement of H+ from relatively large amount
of H+ associated with the solid phase.
Thus, the soil exhibits great resistance to undergo a pH change.
For example; if soil A needs more liming than soil B to increase its pH it is said to have a higher
buffering capacity.
Generally, soils with high organic matter and clay have higher buffering capacity than soil low in organic
matter and clay.
Buffer Mechanisms Verses Soil pH
Source: http://www.slideshare.net
89
Importance of Buffering Capacity in soil:
Buffering capacity is important because it helps to stabilize the pH. Changes in pH can affect plants in a
variety of ways, especially by diminishing the fraction of nutrients in soil that are available to the plants
and increasing uptake of undesirable minerals like aluminium. Other importance of soil buffering capacity
is:
• It can be used in making agricultural lime recommendations for acid soils.
• It can potentially be used in making Sulphur recommendations for decreasing the pH for some
soils.
• It is a valuable soil property for estimating pH changes from some nitrogen reactions in soils such
as urea hydrolysis, nitrification, or soil retention of ammonia.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain the meaning of soil buffering capacity in soil nutrient management
2. Describe one importance of soil buffering capacity in soils.
SUMMARY
A buffer is used to resist pH change in soil. The soil buffering capacity is the ability of a substance to
resistance pH change when and acid / alkaline material is added. Some plants need to be used in acidic
soils whereas many plants are not able to grow due to lack of nutrients. Thus, the buffering capacity
increases with the amount of clay and organic matter content as more lime is required to increase pH than
sandy soils with low amounts of organic matter.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the importance of stabilizing soil pH.
LESSON 11 SOIL HUSBANDRY TECHNIQUES AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

OF THE SOIL
LESSON OUTCOME:

1. identify husbandry techniques that enhances the chemical properties of the soil for better plant
growth and production.
2. discuss how husbandry techniques enhances the chemical properties of the soil for better plant
growth and production
VOCABULARY
1. Tillage: is the breaking of soil into pieces either physically or mechanically.
2. Mulching: is the covering of the soil surface to retain moisture.
3. Hilling: piling up of soil around the base of the plant
NOTES
The farmer practices enormous husbandry techniques on the farm from the time of land preparation until
the time produce are ready to be harvested. These are part and partial of daily operations that takes place
in the farm. These husbandry techniques are tilling, hilling, planting, mulching, irrigation, drainage and
fertilizer application.
For some reason husbandry techniques assist in the chemical properties of the soil positively and also
negatively.
TILLAGE
Tillage affects aeration, water infiltration and thus the rate of organic matter decomposition. With
minimum tillage, the soil contains more organic matter with high fertility and CEC whereas conventional
tillage will lower the rate of CEC and the amount of organic matter in soil. Tillage also affects soil
chemical properties due to differences in residue placement in the soil and removal of nutrients in
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different crops as a result of variations in crop yields. Tillage produces the decomposition of organic
matter and the release of nutrients, and mixes nutrients throughout topsoil. Excessive tillage reduces
organic matter and the nutrient-holding capacity of your soil. Moreover, tillage influences the movement
of air in the soil which later is used up by plant roots to carry out respiration and the availability of many
nutrients in soil. It also decreases the rate of water infiltration as it gets slower due to greater surface
runoff. The application of the nitrogenous fertilizer in no till soils makes the soil acidic thus the pH of the
soil is higher than in tilled soil. Therefore, in no till soils with high organic matter or clay will have high
CEC which is directly related to pH and thus it will have a greater buffering capacity to increase the soil’s
ability to resist changes in pH.
HILLING
Hilling is piling of soil up around the base of a plant. It allows more soil exposure to the warming rays of
the sun and to the air. This allows for earlier planting season. Secondly, the excess moisture can drain off
away from seeds and plants. Cold and heavy rains that rot seeds and drown roots of your seedlings can be
minimized, or avoided, by hilling a raised bed.
Hilled soil is less compacted, making air pockets and nutrients more accessible to plants. The looser soil
allows plants to be more readily spread through the hill, and grow a larger, healthier root system. In drier
areas, hilling may not be desired, as much needed water can drain away and hence frequent watering is
required with hilled crops.
Hilling practice affect the chemical property of soil. It removes excess soil water and increases the
temperature of the soil near the root zone. This allows the fertilizer or nutrients to be mixed with the soil,
which will cover the plant for ideal absorption into the root zone.
PLANTING
Plants take up nutrients in soluble ionic form. In cation exchange, the cations for example H+ from the
root hairs replace nutrient cations from the exchange complex.
The pH of the soil determines which type of crops to grow. Majority of the crops are grown in the pH
range of 6.5 – 7. In many soils, respiration by plant roots produces carbon dioxide that reacts with water
in the soil to form weak carbonic acid (H2CO3-). This is a weak acid, which contributes the H+ ions into
the soil solution thus increasing the soil acidity. Moreover, the nutrient uptake by plant roots of minor and
major nutrients from soil makes soil acidic as the H, Al, S, ions increases in concentration.
Plants use up water to carry out important process like nutrient absorption. All nutrients are dissolved in
soil water which is absorbed by plant roots.
Soil air is filled up in the pore space and is used up by the plant roots to carry out respiration. Since plant
roots require water and oxygen (from the air in pore spaces), maintaining the balance between root and
aeration and soil water availability is a critical aspect of managing crop plants.
MULCHING
Mulching helps to increase the infiltration of water, maintain the water-holding capacity and prevent
leaching of nutrients in the soil. Moreover, by mulching moderate soil temperature provides an insulating
barrier between the soil and the air by maintaining the temperature of the soil.
Mulching can have a negative effect on the chemical properties of soil. On wet soils, deep mulch can lead
to excess moisture in the root zone, which can stress the plant and cause root rot. Some mulches,
especially those containing fresh grass clippings, can affect soil pH and may eventually lead to nutrient
deficiencies or toxic build-ups. Thick blankets of fine mulch can become matted and may reduce the
penetration of water and air into the soil thus affecting the chemical properties of soil. The organic mulch
provides the organic matter in the soil which results in the activity of cation exchange capacity. Therefore,
the presence of organic mulch will increase the organic matter content and the cation exchange capacity
in soil.
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DRAINAGE AND IRRIGATION
Some land requires irrigation or drainage before it is possible to use it for any agricultural production;
other land profits from either practice to increase production. Irrigation and drainage improvements are
not necessarily mutually exclusive. Often both may be required together to assure sustained, high-level
production of crops. Irrigation provides the water to the soil for plants to extract water and nutrients.
However, excessive irrigation can be detrimental for the plants as too much water in the root zone can
stress the plants and have unavailability of air for the roots of plants to respire. Moreover, irrigation also
affects the increase in soil pH and the fertility of soils resulting in the leaching of nutrients which lowers
the organic matter thus the cation exchange capacity activity decreases in the soil.
Drainage is the removal of excess water from the land as it prevents water logging conditions in the soil
and reduces leaching, maintains cation exchange capacity of soils and lowers soil pH
FERTILIZER APPLICATION
The addition of fertilizing materials provides nutrients which are available to plants through root
absorption of ions from soil solution. These fertilizing materials must be dissolved in soil water to be used
up by plants.
Depending on the type of fertilizing material, it has the effect on the chemical properties of soil. The
different fertilizing materials vary in their impact on soil pH. The following generalizations may be used
as a guide:
• Ammonium (NH4 ) or ammonium forming fertilizers (urea) will cause a decrease in soil pH over
+
time.
• Nitrate (NO3-) sources carrying a basic cation should be less acid-forming then NNH4 fertilizers.
+
• The presence of Ca, Mg, K, and Na in the fertilizer will slightly increase or cause no change in
soil pH.
• Elemental sulphur, ammonium sulphate, and compounds such as iron or aluminium sulphates can
reduce the soil pH
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain how the following husbandry techniques is related to the chemical properties of the soil.
SUMMARY
Tillage, hilling, mulching, fertilizer application, irrigation and mulching do assist in enhancing chemical
properties of the soil for proper plant growth.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify another husbandry technique practised in the school garden and explain how it is related to the
chemical properties of the soil.
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SUB STRAND AS 13.3.2 HORTICULTURE
AS 13.3.2.1 Demonstrate the skills of plant breeding and discuss its
importance in plants.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student will discuss the history of plant breeding and importance of
plant breeding.
VOCABULARY
1. Plant breeding: is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to
produce desired characteristics.
NOTES
To respond to the increasing need to feed the world's population as well as an ever greater
demand for a balanced and healthy diet there is a continuing need to produce improved new
cultivars or varieties of plants, particularly crop plants.
For several thousand years, farmers have been altering the genetic makeup of the crops they
grow. Human selection for features such as faster growth, larger seeds or sweeter fruits has
dramatically changed domesticated plant species compared to their wild relatives.
Remarkably, many of our modern crops were developed by people who lacked an
understanding of the scientific basis of plant breeding.
Plant breeding was a popular activity. Gregor Mendel, the father of genetics, was a plant
breeder. Mendel explained how dominant and recessive alleles could produce the traits we
see and could be passed to offspring was the first major insight into the science behind the
art. The paper was largely ignored until 1900, when three scientists working on breeding
problems rediscovered it and publicized Mendel's findings.
Major advances in plant breeding followed the revelation of Mendel's discovery. Breeders
brought their new understanding of genetics to the traditional techniques of self-pollinating
and cross-pollinating plants.
Corn breeders, particularly, tried numerous strategies to capitalize on the insights into
heredity. Corn plants that had traditionally been allowed to cross-pollinate freely were
artificially self-pollinated for generations and crossed to other self-pollinated lines in an
effort to achieve a favourable combination of alleles. The corn we eat today is the result of
decades of this strategy of self-pollination followed by cross-pollination to produce vigorous
hybrid plants.
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Importance of Plant Breeding
1. Food Security
- developing varieties with higher productivity and better yield stability.
2. Social Benefits
- developing more profitable varieties for poverty alleviation.
3. Economic benefits
- developing drought resistant varieties that help reduce production costs, improving
viability in marginal agribusinesses.
- more profitable agribusiness results in more revenue and higher gross domestic
product.
4. Environmental benefits
- developing varieties less dependent on pesticides or more efficient in water and
nutrient use.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Define plant breeding.
2. Describe the history of plant breeding.
3. Explain the purpose of introducing plant breeding in agriculture.
SUMMARY
Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the traits of plants in order to produce
desired characteristics. Plant breeding can be accomplished through many different
techniques ranging from simply selecting plants with desirable characteristics for
propagation, to methods that make use of knowledge of genetics and chromosomes, to more
complex molecular techniques.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss Gregor Mendel’s experiment and findings.
LESSON 2 TYPES OF PLANT BREEDING
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student will be able to:
1. identify the different types of plant breeding
2. explain the advantages and disadvantages of each type of plant breeding.
VOCABULARY
1. Inbreeding: is defined as the production of offspring via the mating between close
relatives.
2. Line breeding: mating of selected members of successive generations among
themselves in an effort to maintain or fix desirable characteristics.
3. Out breeding: is the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a
breeding line.
4. Crossbreeding: the pollinating or breeding of plants that belong to different
species, races, breeds, varieties to produce a hybrid.
5. Ephemeral: lasting for a short period
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NOTES
Plant breeding involves combining parental plants to obtain the next generation with the
best characteristics. Breeders improve plants by selecting those with the greatest potential
based on performance data, pedigree, and more refined genetic information. Plants are
improved for food, feed, fibre, fuel, shelter, landscaping, eco-systems services and a variety
of other human activities.
The crosses between breeding stocks are generally done manually. The breeder has to first
remove the male organs of the flower to make sure the plant cannot fertilize itself (this
process is called emasculation). This removes the source of pollen grains and prepares the
female parent of the cross. The plant breeder will then deposit, usually with the help of a
brush, pollen from the selected male parent into the female part of the emasculated flower.
Crosses are then often bagged to prevent other pollen grains reaching the flower and
contaminating the cross. If the cross is successful, the fruit develops and seeds are formed.
Crossing in Plant
B. Pollinating cowpea flower
A. Cowpea flower
C. Cowpea flower with developing pod
95
Source: http://www.b4fa.org
Inbreeding, line breeding, outbreeding and crossbreeding are used on different crops to
improve the genetic and physical makeup of the plant.
Inbreeding is the production of offspring via the mating between close relatives. It brings in
homozygosity and a major evolutionary advantage of inbreeding is enabling reproduction to
occur when there are relatively few (or even one) individuals present in a population or at
times when pollinators are rare, e.g., in ephemeral habitats. This process of repeated self-
pollinations is known as inbreeding. For example; the picture given below shows inbreeding
in corn results in loss of vigor.
Source: http://www.as.wvu.edu
Line breeding is the mating of selected members of successive generations among

themselves in an effort to maintain or fix desirable characteristics. It is a form of inbreeding
where it reduces the genetic diversity of a population and causes problems related to a too-
small gene pool that may include an increased prevalence of genetic disorders and
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inbreeding depression.
Source: http://www.b4fa.org
Outbreeding is the practice of introducing unrelated genetic material into a breeding

line. Outbreeding populations usually show more variation than inbreeding ones and have a
greater potential for adapting to environmental changes. Outbreeding increases the number
of heterozygous individuals, so disadvantageous recessive characteristics tend to be masked
by dominant alleles.
Crossbreeding is the pollinating or breeding of plants that belong to different species, races,
breeds, varieties to produce a hybrid. This produces superior characteristics known as
hybrid vigor or heterosis. Plants are crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety or
line into a new genetic background.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Types of Plant Breeding

Type of Plant Breeding Advantages Disadvantages
Inbreeding • increased uniformity • lower fertility

(homozygosity) • lower “vigor”
• increased pre-potency (ability • birth defects
to pass on traits to offspring) • smaller size
• “fixing” of desired traits and • fewer offspring
breed type • slower growth
• higher offspring mortality
• shorter lifespan
• increase in genetic diseases
• reduced “genetic potential”
(ability to improve a trait)
Linebreeding • increases a particular trait in a • reduces genetic diversity

population • small gene pool
• less likely to cause problems in
the first generation
Outbreeding • it produces hybrids with • pure lines are created in
desirable characters like high outbreeding
yielding, resistance to diseases • hybrid plant is not always
etc. fertile
• can destroy well adapted
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genotype because
genotypes may not be viable
Crossbreeding • Hybrid vigor or heterosis is • Seed formation always

maintained depend on availability of
• Chances of acquiring broad pollinator
genetic base are always there. • Lots of variability leads to
• Process of evolution continues. heterozygosity and
inconsistency in phenotypes.
• Mixing of inferior genes
takes place if pollinators are
not controlled.
Crossbred ‘Kiuva’ variety of sugarcane Crossbred Dalo Variety – Samoa Hybrid
Source: SRIF, Factsheet, Number 3. Source: http://www.agriulture.gov.fj.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List the four types of plant breeding.
2. Describe each method of plant breeding.
3. Differentiate between outbreeding and inbreeding.
4. Explain the term heterosis.
SUMMARY
The four types of breeding are inbreeding, outbreeding, line breeding and cross breeding.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify four commercial crops that are crossbred in Fiji.
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AS 13.3.2.2 Explore innovative sustainable modern farming
methods practiced in urban suburbs.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student will describe appropriate sustainable farming methods and
how it benefits the community socially, economically and environmentally.
NOTES
Sustainable farming is farming ecologically by promoting methods and practices that

are economically viable, environmentally sound and protect public health. It does not
only concentrate on the economic aspect of farming, but also on the use of non-renewable
factors in the process thoughtfully and effectively. This contributes to the growth of
nutritious and healthy food as well as brings up the standard of living of the farmer.
Our environment, and subsequently our ecology have become an area of concern for us over
the last few decades. This has increasingly led us to contemplate, innovate and employ
alternate methods or smaller initiatives to save our ecology. One such initiative is
sustainable farming..
Sustainable farming helps the farmers innovate and employ recycling methods, this apart
from the conventional perks of farming. A very good example of recycling in sustainable
farming would be the crop waste or animal manure. The same can be transformed into
fertilizers that can help enrich the soil. Another method that can be employed is crop
rotation. This helps the soil maintain its nutrients and keeps the soil rich and potent.
Collection of rainwater via channeling and then its utilization for irrigation is also a good
example of sustainable farming practices.
Benefits of Sustainable Farming

1. Environment Preservation
2. Economic Profitability
3. Most efficient use of non-renewable resources
4. Protection of Public Health
5. Social and Economic Equity
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Define sustainable farming.
2. State two examples of sustainable farming practiced in Fiji.
3. Explain one benefit of sustainable farming in relation to protecting the environment.
SUMMARY
There is a lot of social, economic and environment challenges happening in our country
nationally and also globally. Sustainable farming or sustainable agriculture is the solution to
these challenges.
SELF EVALUATION
From your observation identify one social challenge facing Fiji and the solution to the
challenge.
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LESSON 2 URBAN AGRICULTURE
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define urban agriculture

2. identify different types of urban agriculture
3. state the advantages and disadvantages of agriculture
VOCABULARY
1. Urban Agriculture: includes small to large areas within or around cities which
have vacant lots, community garden, balconies, rooftop farms, indoor farms and
greenhouses.
2. Anthropocentric: considering human beings as the most significant entity of the
universe.
3. Greenhouse gas emissions: is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits
radiation within the thermal infrared range.
Notes
Urban Agriculture can be defined as the growing, processing, and distribution of food and
other products through plant cultivation and seldom raising livestock in and around cities for
feeding local populations. Urban agriculture has increased in popularity due to concerns
about climate change and sustaining food security in urban areas. The effects of climate
change has induced crop reductions and affected optimal environmental growing conditions
through rising temperatures and changes in rainfall patterns. Although, agriculture
contributes to 30% of anthropocentric greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, presence of
vegetation in urban areas can lower temperatures and GHG emissions. Increasing urban
food deserts in many parts of the world has motivated the improvement of methods of urban
agriculture in order to complement urban food needs.
Examples of Urban Agriculture
• Community Gardens • Small Urban Farms

• Farmer’s Markets • Home Vegetable Gardens
• Hydroponic Gardening • School Gardens
• Roof Top Vegetable Gardening • Backyard Poultry
• Beekeeping • Community Supported Agriculture
• Fish Farming • Farm to School
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Source: Suva Grammar School Garden,2016 Source: FNU Open Day, 2016.
Advantages of Urban Agriculture
1. Contributes to food security, nutrition and livelihoods in a combination of ways

2. Provides for family self-consumption, thus contributing to healthy diet and allowing for
saving on food expenditures
3. Provides a source of income, through sale of surplus or specialized and intensified
commercial oriented production systems
4. Improves the supply of local markets with fresh and micronutrient rich foods at
competitive prices
5. Ensures a continuum of tree cover through landscape management and use of
agroforestry systems, hedgerows and woodlots
6. Creates community bonds and social interaction, and is valuable as a relaxing physical
activity in more developed areas.
Disadvantages of Urban Agriculture
1. The use of waste water for irrigation without careful treatment and monitoring can
result in the spread of diseases among the population.
2. Cultivation on contaminated land also represents a health hazard for the consumers.
3. The practice of cultivating along roadsides facilitates the distribution of products to
local markets, but it is also a risky practice since it exposes food to car pollution.
4. Agriculture and urbanization are considered to be incompatible activities,
competing for the access and use of limited land. In reality, in urban areas there is
important available space for agriculture use such as public and private vacant lots,
and areas not suited for built-up uses (steep slopes and flood plains).
5. Legal restrictions and economic impediments to accessing land and resources (such
as reasonably priced water) are among the most common problems confronted by
urban agriculture.
6. Lack of security of tenure also acts as a preventive for farming due to the
uncertainty in the use length of the land.
101
7. Urban agriculture has been criticized by those who believe that industrial farm
production can produce food at larger volumes more efficiently.
8. A major argument is whether urban farming alone - farming very intensively on
small land areas - could replace land extensive production in rural areas which
produce the bulk of our food products. Yet hunger persists in both urban and rural
areas (see more on food security), despite a subsidized industrial agriculture. The
degree to which urban agriculture can address these food needs systemically is
undetermined, though there are indications in some communities that it is an
important source of food.
9. Other opponents argue that localized food production and the introduction of
common resources and common lands into the urban areas would produce a tragedy
of the commons. Though, as referenced earlier, many urban farms and community
gardens are managed privately or through other civil society organizations.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Define urban agriculture
2. Explain one advantage and disadvantage of urban agriculture
3. Differentiate between urban agriculture and rural agriculture in terms of locality.
SUMMARY
Urban agriculture is as a productive and income generating farming system which should be
seen as an integral part of the urban system, providing food and jobs, contributing to the
urban ecology and competing for natural resources with other urban functions. It can also
contribute to urban sanitation by recycling of solid and liquid wastes. Effective participation
and capacity building of urban agriculture is essential to poverty alleviation and food
security in cities, as well as sustainable urban development
SELF EVALUATION
Find out if urban agriculture is practised in your locality. Identify the area where it is
practised.
LESSON 3 PERMACULTURE
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define permaculture
2. describe permaculture
3. state the advantages of permaculture
VOCABULARY
Permaculture: the development of agricultural ecosystems intended to be sustainable and

self-sufficient.
NOTES
Permaculture is an innovative framework for creating sustainable ways of living. It is a

practical method of developing ecologically harmonious, efficient and productive systems
that can be used by anyone, anywhere.
By thinking carefully about the way we use our resources - food, energy, shelter and other
material and non-material needs - it is possible to get much more out of life by using less.
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We can be more productive for less effort, reaping benefits for our environment and
ourselves, for now and for generations to come.
This is the essence of permaculture - the design of an ecologically sound way of living - in
our households, gardens, communities and businesses. It is created by cooperating with
nature and caring for the earth and its people.
Permaculture is not exclusive - its principles and practice can be used by anyone, anywhere:
• City flats, yards and window boxes
• Suburban and country houses/garden
• Allotments and smallholdings
• Community spaces
• Farms and estates
• Countryside and conservation areas
• Commercial and industrial premises
• Educational establishments
• Waste ground
Permaculture encourages us to be resourceful and self-reliant. It is not a dogma or a religion

but an ecological design system which helps us find solutions to the many problems facing
us - both locally and globally.
Permaculture outside home
Source: http://www.permaculture.com.uk
Permaculture integrates land, resources, people and the environment through mutually
beneficial synergies – imitating the no waste, closed loop systems seen in diverse natural
systems. Permaculture studies and applies holistic solutions that are applicable in rural and
urban contexts at any scale. It is a multidisciplinary toolbox including agriculture, water
harvesting and hydrology, energy, natural building, forestry, waste management, animal
systems, aquaculture, appropriate technology, economics and community development.
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Advantages of Permaculture
1. Reduced Cost
Using all the natural components of the ecosystem like composting the waste into useful
organic matter and manure, farmers save up a lot of money.
2. Less Waste
Waste products are recycled and manure back to the earth in the form of compost. There is
less waste because all the present resources are optimally utilised.
3. Chemical Resistance
Natural fertilizers and mulch are used for farming and gardening. This helps the farmer in
resisting the produce from being exposed to the harmful chemicals. The agricultural system
followed in permaculture, will let the natural ecosystem predators perform the functions of
the pesticides for you.
4. Less Pollution
The natural way of agricultural cultivation, pollution is reduced
5. Develops Community Values
Develop values like creating pollution, helping fellow beings, and using only how much is
needed.
6. Zoning
Zoning means arranging the produce depending on what ripens first and what needs more
attention. The ripe fruits and vegetables are harvested first and the latter ones, as and when
they ripen.
7. Self- reliance and diversity

Anyone can produce a diverse range of produce. It brings about the sense of self-reliance,
as one can grow whatever it needs and to be consumed. Also, if there is some surplus, then,
there are ways of preserving them and using them later.
8. Promotes Green Living
Permaculture uses natural fertilizers, natural pesticides, and freshwater reserves. It
undoubtedly promotes green living of the backyard style.
9. Helpful in Improving Environmental Conditions
Teaches different ways of attaining sufficient and sustainable agriculture in a way beneficial
for the environment
10. Can be applied in any functioning systems
Permaculture can be applied in different agricultural systems that are already functioning.
Permaculture can be practiced in areas where agriculture is traditionally practiced and is not
located in a commercially developed area, where most of the constituents of our ecological
systems have perished.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Design a permaculture model showing a sustainable agricultural ecosystem.
2. Research on the disadvantages of permaculture.
SUMMARY
The system and the concept followed in permaculture sounds very promising in maintaining
the ecological system well and also in bringing self-reliance to the farmers or those with
forest-gardens, by the means of implementing sustainable and productive farms and
gardens. It is basically about going back to the traditional method of farming, incorporating
the features of organic farming, agro-forestry, sustainable development, and applied
ecology. And, there really seems no other way of saving the earth from the calamities
created by.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss one way in which an agricultural student could assist the community in advocating
permaculture.
104
LESSON 4 ROOF GARDENING
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define roof gardening
2. state the advantages and disadvantages of roof gardening
VOCABULARY
Roof garden: is a garden on the roof of a building.
NOTES
Roof garden is the practice of cultivating food on the rooftop of buildings. Besides the
decorative benefit, roof plantings may provide food, temperature control, hydrological
benefits, architectural enhancement, habitats or corridors for wildlife, recreational
opportunities, and in large scale it may even have ecological benefits. They may be
designed to grow produce, provide play space, give shade and shelter, or simply be there as
a living, green area. In Fiji, rooftops examples are the balcony, terrace, house roof tops etc.
Examples of Roof Gardens:
Source: http://www.capecontours.co.nz Source: http://www.pinterest.com
Source: http://www.shop.greentopllc.com
Advantages of Rooftop Garden
1. Increase access to private outdoor green space-at home or at work-within the urban
environment
2. Support urban food production
3. Promote individual, community, and cultural diversity
4. Improve air quality and reduce CO2 emissions
5. Delay storm water runoff
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6. Increase habitat for birds
7. Insulate buildings
8. Increase the value of buildings for owners and tenants alike
9. Create job opportunities in the field of research, design, construction, Iandscaping
gardening, health, and food production
Disadvantages of Rooftop Garden
1. Needs regular maintenance

2. Establishment cost is high
3. Attracts pest, insects which can be harmful to human
4. Needs close monitoring in terms of drainage and irrigation
5. Suitable for only certain type of crops and vegetables.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List 2 suitable areas for establishing a roof garden.
2. State one purpose of roof gardening
3. Differentiate between a backyard garden and a roof garden in relation to the
selection in vegetables to be planted.
SUMMARY
A roof garden is well suited to roof spaces that incorporate recreation, entertaining, and
provide additional outdoor living space for the building's residents. It may include planters,
plants, dining and lounging furniture, outdoor structures such as pergolas and sheds, and
automated irrigation and lighting systems.
SELF EVALUATION
1. How does rooftop gardens reduce the temperature inside and outside houses
2. Identify the type of plants which can be grown on roof top gardens in Fiji.
LESSON 5 BIO INTENSITY GARDENING

LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define bio intensity gardening
2. state the advantages and disadvantages of bio intensity.
Bio Intensity Gardening: Bio intensive gardening is a prolific and sustainable method for
growing food organically with low-inputs and high-yields.
NOTES
Bio intensive gardening is an organic agricultural system that focuses on achieving
maximum yields from a minimum area of land, while simultaneously increasing
biodiversity and sustaining the fertility of the soil. The goal of the method is long term
sustainability on a closed system basis.
Bio intensive gardening requires soil preparation practices that creates growing beds with
more surface area to maximize the effect of nature’s life processes. Double-dug beds, with
soil loosened to a depth of 24 inches allow proper aeration of the soil, facilitates root
growth, and improves water retention. The health and vigor of the soil are maintained
through the use of compost. Close plant spacing is used to protect soil microorganisms,
reduce water loss, and maximize yields. Companion planting facilitates the optimal use of
nutrients, light and water, encourages beneficial insects and creates a vibrant mini-
ecosystem within the garden for example; crop rotation. A focus on the production
of calories for the farmer and carbon for the soil ensures that both the farmer and the soil
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will be adequately fed and that the farm will be sustainable. The use of open-pollinated
seeds helps to preserve genetic diversity and enables gardeners to develop their own
acclimatized cultivars. All of the components of this system must be used together for
optimum effect and to avoid depleting the soil.
Bio Intensive Gardens:
Source: http://www.peaksprosperity.com Source: http://www.gardenrevolution.net
Sustainability is a main goal and there is definite potential to achieve it. The idea is to get
most fertility from on-site through a lot of composting and cover crops. But while
composting is important, it also produces a lot of greenhouse gases, so perhaps shouldn't be
relied on indefinitely. The space used is minimal, which is where intensive gardening
methods shine.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Practice doing bio intensive gardening in school where intensive cropping is carried out to
maintain sustainability of the soil environment.
SUMMARY
Bio-intensive gardening is a biological or organic form of agriculture in which a small area
is intensively cultivated, using natural ingredients to rebuild and then maintain the soil’s
productivity.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of bio – intensive gardens and present to the
class.
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AS 13.3.2.3 Demonstrate skills in container organic vegetable
gardening by using available recycle materials.
LESSON 1 ORGANIC CONTAINER GARDENING
LESSON OUTCOME:
1. define organic gardening
2. identify the two methods of organic vegetable container gardening
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
Organic gardening is a gardening practice of growing and cultivating plants without using
any synthetic or chemical means of pest control, weeding, or fertilization; instead organic
gardeners use only natural methods to care for a garden. Organic gardening practices are
safe for the soil, environment and health. Organic container gardening is the practice of
applying organic gardening by using recycle materials such as:
i. 1 liter tetra pack juice and milk pack

ii. 2.5liter juice bottle
iii. 1.5 liter bottled water and 2 liter cooking oil
iv. 1 gallon liquid soap
v. 20 liter cooking oil and many more.
Container gardening is a cheap and practical method of growing vegetables at home using
recyclable containers and soil mixed with compost made from household wastes.
 This method requires little space, care, and attention and can be done by the whole
family.
 Moreover, container gardening can produce enough vegetables to meet the needs and
help generate income of most small families.
 This method requires little space, care, and attention and can be done by the whole
family.
 Moreover, container gardening can produce enough vegetables to meet the needs and
help generate income of most small families.
Growing organic vegetables in container garden is a green and simple technology that can
help reduce the impact of climate change on food security, especially of those people who
are living in the urban areas, rural communities, and outer islands of the South Pacific
countries and other territories.
TWO (2) METHODS OF GROWING ORGANIC VEGETABLES IN CONTAINER
GARDENING
1. Horizontal Container Growing Method
This is a method of growing plants or vegetables in containers in a horizontal position on
the ground. The horizontal container growing method can be applied in a small-spaces
gardening using different recycled containers in container gardening
108
Leafy vegetables grown in recycled small containers
Lettuce crops grown in 1-gallon oil container Lettuce crops grown in small recycled
containers
Lettuce planted in 2-liter juice Lettuce planted in 1-liter tetra-pack milk
2. Vertical Container Growing Method

This a method of growing container plants in an upward position as alternative to the
traditional horizontal garden bed to increase vegetable production, especially when there is
a limited space to grow vegetables at home.
A-Frame Bamboo Vertical System
Lettuce grown in bamboo container in
Lettuce grown in old PVC house gutter

A-Bamboo Frame System container in A-Bamboo Frame System
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Chinese cabbage grown in coconut shell Lettuce planted in plastic juice bottles
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List 4 recycle materials that can be used for growing vegetables in school.
2. State two advantages of organic vegetable container gardening.
3. Identify 3 suitable crops for container gardening
SUMMARY
Container gardening is economical and reduces pollution in the environment.
SELF EVALUATION
Can all vegetable crops be grown in a used 1-liter tetra-pack milk?
LESSON 2 SELECTING AND PREPARING CONTAINERS

LESSON OUTCOME:
1. list the ten steps in growing organic container vegetable gardening
2. describe the ten steps successfully
3. plan an organic container vegetable garden
4. select and prepare containers for growing organic vegetables successfully
VOCABULARY
1. Fabrication: the action or process of manufacturing or inventing something
NOTES
For a successful organic vegetable container garden, proper procedures and factors need to be
considered. Planning, selection, preparation, planting, managing and monitoring are the key
processes. There are ten steps in the growing of organic vegetables using containers.
Ten (10) steps in growing organic vegetables in containers:
1. plan the organic container vegetable garden
2. select the right containers for the vegetable crop to be grown
3. prepare containers for planting
4. prepare soil medium for container gardening
5. select vegetable crops to plant in your container garden
6. seeding and transplanting
7. control weeds, pests, and diseases
8. Nutrient management
9. Water management
10. Harvesting
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Step 1. Planning an organic container vegetable gardening
1. Begin by choosing a suitable location for the container garden.
2. It is important to identify a place in the backyard that will provide the vegetable
crops with sunlight and protection from extreme weather conditions.
3. The vegetable crops to be grown, quantity, the nutritional value and food security
in would provide for the household should be considered.
Step 2. Selecting the right containers for the plant

1. Large containers are selected so as to hold the plants and can accommodate the root
system of the plants.
The required size and number of containers to be use will depend on the available space in
the backyard and the crop selected.
Follow the types of vegetables and the recommended size of containers:
Leafy vegetables (lettuce, Chinese and English Small size containers

cabbage, radishes, green onions, parsley) and herbs
6-10 inches (15.2 – 25.4 cm)
Okra, eggplant, tomato including corn Larger containers
15-25 nches (38 – 64 cm)
2. Any type of used container can be used if it can be provided with good drainage
holes in the sides.
Plastic containers that are used for petroleum products and chemicals should be avoided..
Samples of recycled containers that can be used in container gardening

Small size containers
1l Tetra pack (Juices &milk), 2l ice cream & 1kg yoghurt,2.5l juice,1.5l bottled water,2l cooking oil
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Medium Size containers Large Size containers
1-gallon (vinegar & liquid detergent), & 20-liter Cooking oil
2-liter liquid dish washing soap
Step 3. Preparing containers for planting

The following hand tools garden trowel, kitchen knives, iron rod (5 mm diameter), scissors
are needed when preparing containers for planting.
Hand tools
Hand tools
1. Cut the upper large side of the rectangular shape containers or the upper part of the
cylindrical containers.
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Small & Medium Size containers Large Size containers
2. Provide adequate drainage holes at the sides of the containers.

a. Inadequate drainage is one of the major reasons for the failure of vegetable
container gardening.
b. The required height of the drainage holes from the bottom of the containers:
1. Small containers: 2.5 cm (1 in)
2. Big containers: 5 cm (2 in)
c. The scissors, pointed kitchen knife, or small diameter heated iron bar/rod
can be used to punch drainage holes.
d. The space from the bottom and height of drainage holes around the
containers will serve as water storage for plant use.
3. A small kitchen knife is use for cutting and making drainage holes 1 inch from
bottom of the small containers
1-liter tetra pack milk container 1.5 liter water bottle

Heated tip of iron rod to make drainage hole at the sides of the medium and large hard
plastic containers.
Heating the tip of iron rod by LPG stove or candle Drilling holes by the heated tip of
iron rod I inch from the bottom in
1-gallon hard plastic container
113
4. Steps in fabricating an A-frame bamboo system using bamboo or use old house gutter as
containers and A-frame timber system.
Measure and cut the bamboo materials Making the bamboo container
Fabrication of an A-frame bamboo system using bamboo as containers
Drilling drainage holes for bamboo container Filling bamboo container with the soil
medium
Fabricated A-frame bamboo and timber systems
A-frame timber system

A -frame bamboo system using old house
Gutter as containers.
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List one factor that should be considered when choosing a suitable location for a
container garden.
2. List two vegetable crops that can be planted in a 15-25cm container
3. Explain one importance of preparing drainage holes using the recommended height.
SUMMARY
To achieve a successful container garden it is important to take consideration of certain
factors such as a suitable location to place the container garden, the drainage, vegetable crop
to be planted and many more to mention.
SELF EVALUATION
Why should plastic containers that are used for petroleum products and chemicals not
recommended for container gardening?
LESSON 3 PREPARING SOIL MEDIUM

LESSON OUTCOME:
1. list the components of an ideal soil mixture
2. calculate the ideal soil mixture based on the soil type
3. prepare an ideal soil mixture for container gardening successfully
VOCABULARY
1. Soil mixture:
2. Alluvial soil:
NOTES
Container farming requires a specific soil mixture to be used.

• The soil media must be a soil mixture with sufficient nutrients, aeration and drainage.
• The ideal soil mixture should be dark brown in color or appears like chocolate cookie
crumbs.
The key to successful container gardening is the planting soil medium. The correct soil
medium ration will contribute to the better growth of vegetable crops. In order to prepare
the right soil medium ration the following should be adhered to:
1. a light weight potting soil must be used for your container soil.
2. soil dug from your garden will not work as it is often too heavy and will compact in the
container.
It is not recommended to use the ordinary soil from your backyard in container gardening
due to the following:
1. the ordinary garden soil does not have the sufficient soil properties and nutrients
necessary to promote healthy plant growth.
2. constant watering ordinary garden soil has the tendency to compact, squeeze out all the
air from the soil and cause waterlogging. This will result in stunted plant growth, wilting, or
death
115
A healthy growing medium for container garden should follow the ideal soil mixture ratio:
Soil Type Ideal Soil Mixture Ratio
Using Loam and Ideal soil mixture ratio is 1:1:1

Alluvial Soil
1 part Alluvial soil + 1 part composted manure/kitchen or agricultural
waste + 1 part saw dust/rice hulls/coconut coir dust/ sand
Using Clay Soil Ideal soil mixture ratio is 1:2:1
1 part clay soil + 2 parts composted manure/kitchen or agricultural wastes

+ 1 part saw dust/rice hulls/ coconut coir dust/ sand
Preparing soil medium for container gardening
The soil mixture ratio is prepared and mixed thoroughly
The container is filled with soil mixture medium up to 1 inch from top of the containers
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Soil medium ready for planting and transplanting
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. State the type of soil used for container gardening.
2. List the component of an ideal soil mixture ratio for clay soil.
3. Explain one reason why ordinary soil should not be used for container gardening.
4. Prepare an ideal soil mixture ration for a loam and alluvial soil.
SUMMARY
The growth and performance of a plant in container gardening will depend on the planting
soil medium. If the soil medium is poor, there will be a poor growth and productivity and if
the soil medium is ideal plant growth and performance will flourish and be productive.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss why alluvial soil requires 1 part of compost and clay soil requires 2 parts of
compost.
LESSON 4 SELECTIONS OF VEGETABLE CROPS AND CROP
HUSBANDRY PRACTICES
LESSON OUTCOME:

1. list vegetable varieties specifically developed for growing in small spaces
2. identify vegetable that can be grown in container garden
3. demonstrate raising seedlings in a seed bed and transplanting
4. demonstrate the transplanting process
VOCABULARY
NOTES
Vegetable can be grown anywhere as long as the environment is favorable for plant growth.
Any vegetable that will grow in a backyard garden will also grow well as a container-grown
plant. Those vegetable varieties with compact, bush, or dwarf growth habits can be
developed for growing in small spaces.
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The following are vegetables that can be grown in container garden
Fruit
Leafy Vegetables Root Crop Vegetables
Vegetables
Bele Cauliflower Carrots
Celery Capsicum Radish
Chinese Cabbage Chillies
Corriander Cowpea Root Crops
Curry Leaves Cucumber Dalo(taro)

Kumala (Sweet
English Cabbage Eggplant potato)
Lettuce French bean
Mint Long Bean

Corn
Parsely (Maize)
Spring Onion Okra
Tomato
Vegetable crop can be grown from seeds and seedlings. Seedlings can be raised in nurseries
and transplanted when it is ready or vegetable crop can be planted by the use of seeds.
Seedlings can be germinated in a range of different trays and containers – cutoff milk
cartons, disposable trays, or old baking pans can be used to grow seedlings.
The following are some tips when growing seedlings:
1. choose trays or containers that are at least 3 inches deep to allow roots to grow. The sowing
tray or container should also have small holes for drainage
2. fill plastic trays or any suitable containers with an organic soil starting mix and cover seeds
with ½ inch of soil
3. place germinating seeds in a warm area with sufficient sunlight
4. water the newly sown seeds, repeat daily and as often as necessary until the seedling
become ready for transplanting
5. transplant seedlings when they have formed 1 to 2 pairs of true leaves
6. lift the seedling carefully as not to damage young root system during transplanting
7. follow the required plant spacing when transplanting
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List two ways of growing vegetable crop
2. State one reason for covering the sowed seeds with ½ inch of soil in a plastic tray.
3. Demonstrate raising of seedlings and transplanting
118
SUMMARY
Vegetable crop grown in the backyard can also be grown in container. There are two
methods of growing vegetable crops. The two methods are direct planting and
transplanting. Some crops are planted directly whereas some needs to be raised in the
seed bed and transplanted. Transplanting is a delicate operation and needs to carry out
with proper care.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss why not all vegetable crops can be planted directly.
LESSON 5 NUTRIENT, PEST, WEEDS AND DISEASE MANAGEMENT

PRACTICES
LESSON OUTCOME:

1. identify the appropriate and suitable organic nutrient required by the selected
vegetable grown.
2. demonstrate the skill of application of the appropriate organic nutrient on the
selected vegetable grown
3. demonstrate the skill of selecting the appropriate method of controlling of pest,
weeds and diseases on the selected vegetable grown.
VOCABULARY
1. Top dress: an application of manure or fertilizer to the surface layer of soil or a lawn.
2. Pest- repelling plants: includes plants for their ability to repel insects, nematodes, and
other insects.
NOTES
It is important to maintain plant growth once it is planted directly or transplanted.
Generally, vegetable plants grown in containers have shorter and compact root system
which makes it difficult for plants to obtain nutrients from the soil.
Vegetables grown in containers can be attacked by the various types of insects and diseases
that are common to any vegetable garden.
For better plant growth, vegetable crops require essential nutrients, sunlight, and water and
plant obstructer’s such as enemies of crops to be controlled to avoid completion of nutrients,
sunlight, space and water.
Control weeds, pests, and diseases
The following operations are conducted to avoid infestation of pest, weeds and diseases:
1. plastic containers should be placed on a covered ground
2. plastic sheet to be used to cover the ground surface
3. weeds to be removed from the container by hand picking
4. Periodic inspection of plants is required for the presence of foliage- and fruit-
feeding insects as well as the occurrence of diseases.
5. Planting insect plant repellant such as lemon grass (Coboi) and marigold flowers
around the container garden will help drive the insects away from the vegetable
plants.
119
Planting insect plant repellant around the container garden will help drive the insects away
from the vegetable plants
Lemon grass (Coboi) Marigold flower Marigold flowers planted in

between rows of Chinese cabbage
Nutrient management
1. Supplying organic vegetable plants with the required nutrients is a important to
keep them healthy and productive.
2. Top dress or apply with well composted manure or materials every two weeks.
Sunlight management
Plants require ample sunlight for photosynthesis to take place. Access to sunlight is also
important in producing quality vegetables. Most vegetables grow and produce best when
grown in full sunlight. It is ensured for organic garden to receive 5 hours of sunlight each
day.
Water Management
Proper water management is one of the most crucial points for successful container
vegetable production since most varieties are very sensitive to any kind of water stress,
either to drought or to water logging.
1. Vegetables grown in containers require routine watering to keep the soil moist but
not waterlogged.
2. One watering per day is generally sufficient.
3. Waterlogged soil starves plant roots of oxygen while dry soil causes plants to drop
flowers and leaves.
4. Monitor drainage and soil moisture retention.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain one reason why organic vegetable container garden need to be supplies
with compost nutrient.
2. State an advantage of using pest repelling plants to control pest.
SUMMARY
Vegetable need essential nutrients, sunlight, water for proper growth. Weeds, pest and
diseases affect crop growth by competition for water, space, sunlight and food. Proper
management practices will boost plant performance and growth.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss one characteristic of pest-repelling plants and why they are used for controlling
pest, weeds and diseases.
120
SUB STRAND AS 13.3.2 HORTICULTURE
AS 13.3.2.4 Explore relevant research on the production of three
potential crops recommended for cultivation in the locality and
present findings.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student will discuss the history of plant breeding and importance of
plant breeding.
LESSON 1 HORTICULTURE
LESSON OUTCOME
1. explore the trends in the current crop production in Fiji.

2. list the potential crops in categories.
VOCABULARY
1. Trend- a general direction in which the production of any crop product is

developing or changing.
2. Potential Crop – a crop having or showing the capacity to become or develop into
a major prospect in the future.
Notes
The diagram given below shows the trends in crop production for 2015. Consideration has
been given to the top three potential crops according to different categories around Fiji.
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Selected Crop Data from 2013 – 2015 for Assorted Vegetables, Pawpaw and Yagona.
Source: Ministry of Agriculture, Crops Quarterly Reports 2013 – 2015.
Categories of Potential Crops in Fiji
Category Crops
Vegetables Wild ferns, Rourou, Eggplant, Bele
Shrubs Panadanus, Water Chestnut, Sago
Ornamentals Jasmine, Orchids, Gardenia, Carpet grass, Blue grass
Tree Crop Pawpaw, Mangoes, Heart of Palm, Mulberry
Weeds Seaweeds
Grasses Duruka, Navua sedge, Rice, Spices, Bamboo, Lemon grass
Fungi Mushroom
The table above shows the potential crops into different categories. Some of the most
potential crops for production in Fiji are the edible bamboo, paper mulberry and the
mushrooms. The increasing number of foreigners in Fiji has resulted in the demand for these
potential crops and has given the opportunity for local production and exports in the future
to other countries around the globe.
122
Examples of Potential Crops:
a) Paper Mulberry b) Edible Bamboo
Source: http://www.loupiote.com Source: http://www.bamboonursery.com
c)Heart of Palm
Source: Suva Market; 01st October, 2016.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List the potential crops into different categories in your locality.

2. Find out which are the most potential crops in your locality.
3. Do these crops have the demand and the potential market.
SUMMARY
The trend in potential crop production has created the demand for many crops in Fiji. Some
of the current potential crops in Fiji are; edible bamboo, paper mulberry and mushrooms
123
which has a high demand and ready market. The production of these crops need to develop
as the demand will increase in the future.
SELF EVALUATION
Choose a potential crop from your locality and briefly describe its future prospect as a
potential crop.
LESSON 2 Mulberry as a Potential Crop in Fiji
LESSON OUTCOME
1. discuss the origin, varieties and importance of mulberry production in Fiji.

2. elaborate on the cultivation practices of the mulberry crop.
3. discuss the harvesting, post-harvest treatment and use of the mulberry crop
products and by-products.
VOCABULARY
Paper Mulberry - a deciduous and dioecious shrub or tree usually growing 10 to 20 meters
tall and is used for making food, fiber and medicine.
Dioecious- male and female flowers are produced on separate trees.
Deciduous - "falling off at maturity" or "tending to fall off", and it is typically used in order
to refer to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally (most commonly during autumn)
and to the shedding of other plant structures such as petals after flowering or fruit when ripe.
Masi- a Fijian bark cloth made from paper mulberry tree.
Tapa – a decorative bark cloth similar to Masi, unlike the printed motifs of Masi the designs
on tapa are usually hand printed.
Coppiced- regularly cut at near ground level.
Notes
The paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent) is a species of flowering plant in
the family Moraceae. It is native to Asia and it is widely cultivated elsewhere and it grows
as an introduced species in parts of Europe, the United States, and Africa. Other common
names include paper mulberry, pulp mulberry and tapa cloth tree, which is common in the
South Pacific Island countries like Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and Tahiti.
The leaves are variable in shape (even on the same branch), unlobed egg-shaped
with broad end at base (ovate), cordate (heart-shaped) to deeply lobed, with lobed leaves
more frequent on fast-growing young plants. The leaves they are 7-20 cm long, with a rough
surface above, fuzzy-downy below and a finely serrated margin.
The male (staminate) flowers are produced in an oblong inflorescence, and the female
(pistillate) flowers in a globular inflorescence. The pistillate flower matures into a red to
orange fruit 3-4 cm diameter, which is an important food for wild animals in its native
range.
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Plant Origin:
Plants are native to East Asia (Taiwan and Japan)
(Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent)
Varieties:
Male clones (no known varieties in Fiji or other Pacific Island countries)
Distribution in Fiji:
The paper mulberry tree was brought to Fiji during the Polynesian migrations, and its bark
is widely used to make tapa cloth. The plants brought to Fiji and other Pacific countries
were all male clones; transported and planted as rootstock or stems.
System of Production:
Broussonetia papyrifera is insect- and wind-pollinated, and is dispersed by birds, bats and
mammals. But in Fiji, the tree does not produce seed since the trees are all male clones; thus
there are no seedlings. The means of propagation is vegetative, either from root or stem
cuttings.
Importance of Paper Mulberry:
The most significant part of the paper mulberry is its strong, fibrous bark used in making
native bark cloth commonly known as tapa cloth or tapa and paper.
Site Selection:
Mulberry plant grows well in open habitats such as forest and field edges, taking advantage
of disturbed sites. Floodplain forests and river terraces are prone to invasion. It is suitable
for light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, which prefers well-drained soil
and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The suitable pH is acidic, neutral and basic
(alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It prefers dry or
moist soil and can tolerate drought. Mulberry can also tolerate atmospheric pollution.
125
Clearing:
The land is cleared of any weeds, shrubs and stones for planting.
Soil Preparation:
In Fiji, moist volcanic soils are preferred. The soil texture should be light and medium
textured soils (sands, sandy loam, loams and sandy clay loams). Grows well in soils with
free drainage as well as seasonally and continually waterlogged soils.
Selecting Planting Material:
Root shoots(suckers), cut matted roots, stem cuttings or sections of second growth stems are
selected as the planting material.
Planting: (Direct seeding, transplanting or planting)
In Fiji, direct seeding is not possible since plants do not produce seeds because they are
male clones. Transplanting root shoots is the easiest method. These are best harvested when
30-45cm in height. It is best to cut from the mother plant using a sharp knife, and are then
left to harden in place for a month before they are transplanted into the field. When the
shoots are gathered care should be taken not to break the tap root. The plant will dry up if
this happens thus the prepared shoots are placed in holes 80cm apart in rows and 1.2-1.8m
apart.
Stem cuttings can also be directly planted in the ground at a spacing of 1m apart in rows and
1m apart.
Crop Care:
1. Selective weeding
Manual weeding is practised to protect the shoots. Weeding continues for
two to three times a year and cutting off any excess shoots leaving only four
to five on each tree.
2. Pest/Disease
Aphids are the major pest for the paper mulberry tree but in Fiji there is no
major pest for the crop.
Disease are bacterial blight (Pseudomonas syringe) and fungus
(Phytophthora boehimeriae) but the diseases are not present in Fiji for the
crop.
3. Irrigation
Crop requires continuous soil moisture for proper growth and development.
Mulberry plants can tolerate periodic water logging in soils.
4. Trees grow best in open sunny places and it does not grow well in heavy shade.
Signs of Maturity:
Mulberry plants at maturity show different signs. The female flowers mature into even more
bizarre red ball-shaped aggregate fruits whereas male trees produce long clusters of flowers.
The bark is pale grey and very shallowly ridged and on gnarled large trees, the bark is often
quite yellowish at the base.
126
Male Flower Female Flower
Grey Bark Yellowish Bark
Source: http://www.carolinanature.com
Harvesting:
Paper mulberry can be harvested for its bark 6-12 months after initial establishment and
giving the yield of 2400 -2800 kg/ha (440-520lb/ac) of bark. As the plants grow, the
lateral branches are plucked off to produce a clean, straight surface suitable for use in
making tapa cloth. The tree is widely coppiced for tapa and paper production, with the
young trees cut every 6 months. The yield increases until the sixth year and then begins to
decrease. If the tree is harvested for commercial purposes, the harvest cycle will be short
(six months). Quality paper mulberry must be young, from six months to one year.
However, three to four-year-old paper mulberry bark can be sold at a price that may be 30%
to 50% lower. The optimal stem diameter seems to be between 2 cm and 4 cm. Three to five
branches are harvested on each tree.
Paper Mulberry Tree
Source: http://www.thesurvivalgardener.com/
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Post - Harvest Treatment:
The bark is peeled from the cut stem to obtain a single long strip. The inner bark or bast is
then separated from the outer bark, and after being scraped and washed, the strips are
pounded to flatten them. The resulting sheets were felt together to form tapa, which could be
bleached out in the sun and printed with native dyes to produce the finished traditional tapa
cloth.
Preparing Tapa Masi Preparation

Source: http://www.delightfuldepartures.blogspot.com/ Source: http://www. incca-ap.org
Use of Harvested Yield:
The paper mulberry has the following uses:
1. Fruit – are edible but in the Pacific basin such as in Fiji no fruits is formed because
sterile clones are present.
2. Leaf vegetable- young leaves are steamed and eaten in Asia.
3. Medicinal – slimy sap used as laxative, infusion of crushed leaves used for treating
stomach and abdominal pain.
4. Animal Fodder- leaves fed to animals such as pigs and silk worms in China.
5. Fuelwood- stems are used for kindling after removing the bark cloth called tapa.
6. Fibre and Clothing – making paper and textiles. Traditionally, it is used to make
bark cloth tapa. Tapa is worn in traditional ceremonies in Fiji and other Pacific
Island countries.
7. Rope / Cordage / String
Bark fibre can be used to make rough cordage as can the roots.
Use of Crop Residues / By-Products:
1. Leaves are used as animal feed.

2. Leaves are used as mulch.
3. Stems can be used as firewood after taking out the bark.
Potential Use of Products and By-Products:
Products
The only commercial product of the paper mulberry is the tapa cloth. This is used as a
ceremonial clothing like in weddings. It can also be used as handicrafts to lay on the walls,
tables or on other furniture.
By-Products
The by-products of paper mulberry can be used as a leaf vegetable, animal feed, edible fruit,
medicine, mulch and firewood.
128
Marketing of the Product:
The strips of inner bark (raw – uncolored) tapa cloth and finished cloth are sold in the local
markets and handicraft shops around Fiji. The finished tapa cloth is the most common
product, and this is exported as a handicraft in many countries or sold online. Prices of the
product may range from F$40 to F$1000 or more depending on the size and art work.
Fijian Masi
Source: http://www.tapapacifica.com
Traditional ‘Masi’ Clothing
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1.Paper mulberry is one of the potential crop in Fiji. Discuss how this crop can build its
export market around the globe.
2. Discuss other production options that a farmer can undertake to develop the mulberry
industry.
SUMMARY
Paper mulberry is an important traditional plant in Fiji which produces ‘Masi’. It is one of
the potential crops to develop and expand locally and for the export market.
SELF EVALUATION
1. What are some of the initiatives that the agriculture ministry can undertake to encourage
the farmers to invest in a crop like mulberry.
2. Discuss the importance of paper mulberry as a potential crop in relation to Fiji’s

economy.
LESSON 3 Edible Bamboo as a Potential Crop in Fiji
LESSON OUTCOME
1. discuss the origin, varieties and importance of edible bamboo production.

2. elaborate on the cultivation practices of the edible bamboo crop.
129
3. discuss the harvesting, post-harvest treatment and use of the edible bamboo crop
products and by-products.
VOCABULARY
Bamboo shoots or bamboo sprouts are the edible shoots of new bamboo culms that come
out of the ground.
Monopodial - plant growth habits grow upward from a single point.
Amphipodial - a system of rhizome axes in which both sympodial and monopodial

branching occurs.
Sympodial – branching in which the growing point in an inflorescence or dies, growth

being continued by new lateral growing point.
Notes
The bamboos are from the subfamily (Bambusoideae)

of flowering perennial evergreen plants in the grass family Poaceae. Bamboos (Phyllostchys
edulis) are well known for their vigorous growth and variety of uses. They are a popular
landscape plant because they grow rapidly, are evergreens, and create a tropical or exotic
atmosphere. They are often marketed as alternative, fast-growing privacy screens. Edible
young bamboo shoots are used in cooking, while mature canes (or culms) are harvested for
timber uses that include fences, stakes, fishing poles, crafts, flooring, and furniture. Because
they are capable of removing high levels of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, bamboos
are being promoted for their environmental benefits. Some species are used for various soil
and wildlife conservation purposes; however, only native species are recommended for such
uses, since several of the introduced species have become locally invasive. Native cane has
received considerable interest in recent years for its use in habitat restoration. In addition,
bamboo foliage is reportedly nutritious forage for grazing cattle.
Bamboo shoots or bamboo sprouts are the edible shoots (new bamboo culms that come out
of the ground) of many bamboo species including Bambusa vulgaris and Phyllostachys
edulis. They are used in numerous Asian dishes and broths. They are sold in various
processed shapes, and are available in fresh, dried, and canned versions.
Raw bamboo shoots contain cyanogenic glycosides. These are natural toxins also contained
in cassava. The toxins must be destroyed by thorough cooking and for this reason fresh
bamboo shoots are often boiled before being used in other ways. The toxins are also
destroyed in the canning process of bamboo shoots.
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Health Benefits of Bamboo Shoot:
Source: http://www.organicfacts.
Origin of Bamboo:
While bamboo grows everywhere in the world except those places with extremely cold
climates, it is thought to have originated in China. It matures in three to five years
depending on the species. There are approximately 1500 species of bamboo in the world and
Fiji has about 20 different species. The three types of bamboo in the world are monopodial,
amphipodial and sympodial — the latter being found in Fiji.
Source: http://www.inbar.int/
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Types of Bamboos:
Source: https://www.bambooimport.com
History of Bamboo:
The existence of the bamboo plant in China's Zhejiang Province dates back more than 7,000
years, according to records of that period. The bamboo plant was indigenous to China from
prehistoric times. The plant has its natural beauty as an indoor and outdoor plant and
bamboo has a multitude of uses that has made it a worldwide favorite. In Fiji, as reported in
the Fiji Times on 29th of July, 2016; the Department of Forests has requested to import the
edible bamboo from China because of the rising number of Asians in the country as Fiji
looks at developing the bamboo industry.
Varieties of Bamboo:
There are 1575 known bamboo species worldwide. Out of the many 110 species are
recorded to have edible shoots. Some of the varieties are:
Phyllostachys decora Edible
Phyllostachys dulcis Delicious
Phyllostachys edulis Good
Phyllostachys edulis f. edulis Delicious
System of Production:
There are two ways of propagating bamboos:
• sexual
• asexual
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Bamboos seldom flower and even when they do only a few mature seeds are produced.
Hence raising plants from seed is only possible occasionally. Thus the most common and
practical method of raising plantlets is by asexual propagation. This involves the use of
offsets, culm (or branch) cuttings, stumps with rhizomes, and rhizomes themselves for direct
afforestation or for plantlet preparation in a nursery and then planting out. Culm or branch
cuttings are the most widely used method for sympodial bamboo and offsets are most
widely used for monopodial bamboos.
Importance of Edible Bamboo:
Bamboo is one kind of ideal vegetable for its being pollution free, low in fat, high in edible
fiber and rich in mineral elements. It is rich in vitamins, cellulose, amino acids and trace
elements and has the same nutritional value as an onion and is a good source of fiber.
Bamboo shoots can be hygienically processed and packaged for a good value-addition.
Bamboo shoot industry, using shoots from both natural forests and plantations, makes a
substantial contribution to the economy and development of rural communities. Bamboo
shoot processing sector has vast potential in generating income and employment for
economically and socially disadvantaged communities and also helps in industrial
development.
Source: http://www.guidelines for growing bamboo.com
Site Selection:
Edible bamboo does best in well drained, moist, fertile soil preferably loamy and sandy
loamy soils. It does not tolerate continuously swampy or waterlogged areas. The land
unsuitable for row crops, such as hillsides, are potential sites for bamboo production.
Clearing:
The planting site must be cleared of bush, grasses and other unwanted vegetation. Clean
cultivation may also be carried out especially where intercropping of bamboo with other
crops is to be done.
Soil Preparation:
After the ground clearing, planting spots are dug at a spacing suitable for the type of species
to be planted. The size of the planting holes will depend on the type of planting material as
well as on rainfall and climatic conditions of the planting site. Larger and deeper planting
holes are always better and allow for easier establishment of newly planted bamboos.
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Figure 2: Double and Triple node culm cutting
Selecting Planting Material:
Growing bamboo begins with obtaining the materials for planting. Such materials may come
in the form of seeds, wildings, offsets or cuttings that may be gathered from forests. Tissue-
cultured plantlets provide other forms of planting materials. Such planting materials can be
obtained and raised in the nursery.
When seeds or wildings are not available, bamboos can be propagated vegetatively. This
offers a better source of planting material. Offsets (rhizome with attached section of stem)
are commonly used but their extraction is laborious and time consuming, and it is difficult
to collect large quantities of planting materials. During extraction, damage may also occur
to the roots, buds and rhizomes of mother clumps. Offsets are bulky and also difficult to
transport. Only small annual planting programs may therefore be possible when using offset
materials.
Planting: (Vegetative Propagation)
a) Using Culm Cuttings
• Good cuttings are obtained from 2 to 3 years old culms of healthy clumps.
• Double node or triple node cuttings are then prepared from the cut culms. The
cuttings should be made leaving a space of 5-7 cm away from the nodes. A sharp
cutting knife is necessary. For bamboos with thin walls the use of a saw is
recommended to avoid splitting of the cut ends.
• The best culm cuttings are generally those that are obtained from the lower and
thicker part of the culm, which has the vigor to generate roots and shoots.
Successful rooting and shooting is generally harder to achieve with cuttings from
the upper and thinner part of the culm.
• It is essential that the cuttings have either buds on the culm nodes or buds on the
culm branches. All branches and leaves of the cutting should be cut off down to the
first or second branch node.
• The cuttings should then be buried 6 – 10 cm horizontally on a raised nursery bed
prepared with a light soil and sand mixture (Figure 6). For some species, there is a
higher rate of success when a section of the branch with a bud is left emerging
vertically from the ground. Buds at the nodes or branches should always be placed
on the sideways or facing upwards and never downwards. Under warm or hot
propagation conditions, buds facing downwards will normally not grow.
Successful rooting and shooting is generally harder to achieve with cuttings from
the upper and thinner part of the culm.
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b) Field Planting
• Seedlings should be transported at the onset of the rainy season to ensure good survival.
• Planting of container or potted transplants from the nursery should be done immediately at
the start of the rainy season.
• For offsets removed from the forest, planting must be done the same day with a maximum
delay of one night.
• When planting, the potting material (plastic or tin containers, polyethylene bags, etc.)
should be removed before placing the seedling in the planting hole.
• The rhizome portion of the offset should be placed 10-20 cm below the ground level and
covered with soil.
Figure 3: Planting holes for seedlings, offsets, and culm derived seedlings
After placing the plant (either seedling or offset) in the hole, cover with soil and always
lightly press the soil around the plant.
Crop Care:
a) Weeding
Weeding in the nursery is essential for the health and vigor of the young plants.
Competition from weeds should be minimized. Mowing, mulching and use of herbicides to
control weeds.
b) Shading
Whatever planting stock is used (seedlings, wildings, offsets, or cuttings) shade must
initially be provided to protect them from direct sunlight. The shade, mostly of thatch or any
other material could be removed during the onset of cool weather.
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c) Watering
Water is needed by young seedlings and cuttings in beds or polythene tubes. During cold
weather, watering may be done once per day. In the dry season, watering should be done
twice a day. As a rule, plants in the nursery should be watered regularly.
d)Treatments
After one month, it is recommended that sprouts from cuttings are treated with some
effective fungicide (e.g. Copper sulphate) to avoid fungal attack. If necessary, farmyard
manure may be applied to increase the vigor of the sprouts.
e) Fertilizing and Earthing Up
The results of soil chemical analysis show that bamboo plants will consume 500-700 g N,
100-150 g P and 200-250 g K from the soil per 100 kg of bamboo shoots produced.
Accordingly, the nutrient requirements of plantations yielding 15, 000 kg fresh shoots per
hectare per annum can be met by applying 75-105 kg N, 15-22.5 kg P and 30-37.5 kg K per
hectare each year. Chemical fertilizers are usually applied two to four times during the
shooting stage at intervals of one or two months. It is applied in 10-15 cm deep drills that
are prepared about 50-60 cm around the clump. Application in the drill is best done in
combination with soil loosening in the cooler months. When green manure is employed as
fertilizer, it can be applied at 75 tonnes per hectare, and can also serve as a protective layer
to reduce evaporative moisture loss.
The edible parts of newly germinated bamboo shoots are very tender and delicate with light
yellowish sheaths, but they turn tough with green sheaths after they emerge from the soil.
This procedure can be delayed, thus improving the quality of edible part, by earthing up the
base of the clump to a depth of 20-30 cm at the beginning of shooting. In order to stimulate
development of shoot buds, the soil cover should be removed to expose the bud to high
temperature and light.
Signs of Maturity:
• Edible shoots are harvested at the first indication that tips are emerging from
the soil. The bamboo shoots are light yellowish sheath at maturity.
• The culms must be at least 3-5 years old before harvesting for wood uses.
Harvesting:
For the edible shoots emerge from the soil as they are cut by hand below ground at the point
of rhizome attachment. Harvested shoots are washed, weighed and packed in crushed ice.
Shoots can also be frozen and sold during the off-season.
On the other hand, for stem harvesting the planted area should be ready for first harvesting
in about 6-8 years. Thereafter, cutting of mature stems can be done at intervals of four or
more years.
Post-Harvest Treatment:
The purpose of storage and preservation is to maintain the color, smell and taste of the
natural bamboo shoot, to reduce rotting and increase its selling price. After harvesting, a
bamboo shoot is still a living organism. The components of the shoots will change
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throughout storage and these changes are influenced by temperature, moisture,
microorganisms and the means of storage.
Maintaining moisture in the shoot is one of the vital factors for preserving the fresh
character of bamboo shoots. If significant moisture is lost the shoot will lose its fresh, plump
outward appearance and quality will deteriorate. At the same time, enzyme activity will
increase and hydrolysis of carbohydrates will occur. As a result, the shoots will start to rot.
The carbohydrates in bamboo are mainly glucose, fructose and sucrose and these are the
basis of respiration. Carbohydrates will be consumed gradually with increasing period of
storage. Therefore, it is necessary to decrease the respiration rate and the consumption of
carbohydrates during storage.
Under oxygen deficient conditions (when the oxygen content is less than 2%) anaerobic
respiration occurs. Alcohol, acetaldehyde, carbon monoxide and a little heat are released.
Due to the accompanying release of heat energy the temperature of the stored heap of
bamboo shoots will increase during storage and the shoots will rot very easily. Therefore,
when bamboo shoots are heaped up in a processing mill, they should be sheltered from
sunlight to prevent color and quality changes.
Suitable low temperatures can control moisture transpiration of bamboo shoots and damage
by microorganisms.
Mechanical damage can induce high respiration and invasion of microbes, and hence cause
rotting of bamboo shoots.
As the respiration rate is related to moisture, temperature, humidity, and the activity of
enzymes the main ways of keeping bamboo shoots fresh during the storage period are as
follows:
1. Store bamboo shoots in a cool and moist place in order to decrease respiration rate.
The temperature in storage should be maintained at about 5°C and the relative air
humidity at about 85%. The temperature must not be so cold such that the cells
freeze.
2. Add some salt to control enzyme action.
3. Place bamboo shoots in cans and kill bacteria by high temperature treatments.
4. Store bamboo shoots under oxygen insulation conditions to control the activity of
microorganisms.
1) Add chemical preservatives to preserve cooked shoots.
Uses of Harvested Yield:
• Edible Bamboo shoots are used as food.

• Stem used for fencing, farming, construction and scaffolding, handicraft,
furniture, pulp and paper and biomass for wood production.
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Use of Crop Residues/ By-Products:
• Leaves are used as feed for the livestock or as a mulch.

Potential Uses of Products and By-Products:
Products By-Products
Food Top leaves used as livestock feed
Fencing Leaves used as mulch
Construction and scaffolding
Handicraft
Furniture
Pulp / Paper
Biomass
Protect soil and water catchment areas
Used as ornamental plants
Marketing of the Product:
Edible bamboo has a ready market in Fiji. There are a rising number of Asians in the
country especially the Chinese nationals as there is a high demand for the product. Fiji will
also have the opportunity to export the edible processed bamboo to neighboring countries in
the Pacific and around the globe.
Edible Bamboo Shoots Ready for the Market
Source: http://www.dir.indiamart.com
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
1.Like other potential crops in Fiji. Discuss how edible bamboo can build its export market
around the globe.
2. Discuss other production options that a farmer can undertake to develop the edible
bamboo industry.
SUMMARY
Edible bamboo in Fiji is one of the potential crops due to the growing demand for the crop
by the Asian nationals in Fiji. It also has the potential for the export market overseas. Edible
bamboo farming provides food, creates a sustainable environment, employment and a
source of income for farmers.
SELF EVALUATION
1.What are some of the initiatives that the agriculture ministry can undertake to encourage
the farmers to invest in a crop like edible bamboo.
2. How will the crop benefit towards Fiji’s economy.
LESSON 4 Tall Spike Rush (Kuta as a Potential Crop in Fiji)
LESSON OUTCOME
1. discuss the origin, varieties and importance of Kuta production.

2. elaborate on the cultivation practices of the Kuta crop.
3. discuss the harvesting, post-harvest treatment and use of the Kuta crop products and
by-products.
VOCABULARY
Kuta (Taria) – is a plant where the stems are dried, flattened and woven to make fine mats,
infant cradles, blankets and traditional sash.
Notes
Eleocharis dulcis is the scientific name for Kuta and is also known as taria in Fijian.
Kuta is a plant (fresh water reed) of cultural and economic importance in the western South
Pacific. Harvested stems (reeds) are dried, flattened and woven into fine mats. These are
used as floor mats, infant cradles, blankets and ta’ovala, the traditional formal sash worn by
Tongans. E. dulcis is a perennial with horizontal submerged stems that root in mud.
The underground stems are somewhat swollen. Aerial stems reach up to 2 m in height. They
are hollow, but transversely septate at intervals. The fresh stems are blue-green to green and
are glossy. The flowers are small, cream in colour and are arranged in cylindrical terminal
spikes. The fruit is a small hard nut.
Origin / History
E. dulcis is a freshwater wetland species of the sedge family (Cyperaceae). It is widely

distributed in warm tropical regions, being indigenous from tropical West Africa, through
tropical Asia and Malaysia, to northern Australia. In the Pacific Islands its range extends
from Melanesia and Palau in the western Pacific to Tonga and Samoa in Polynesia. It is also
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cultivated in Hawaii. In Fiji, E. dulcis is regarded as native but because it is a species
utilised by man. It is one of three plant species in Fiji restricted to freshwater wetlands.
In Vanua Levu, places where Kuta is known to grow is in Votua, Naruwai, Nawailevu,
Nakawakawa, Kaciwaqa Estate (Nakabuta, Wainunu), Nakorovou & Namalata (mataqali
owned), Nasasaivua, Nabalebale, Dreketi and Valeni. Kuta has been used for a long time for
the production of fine quality mats. In many districts women from the villages harvest kuta
plants from shallow ponds in a nearby wetland.
Varieties (Species)
There are three species of Eleocharis in Fiji. Eleocharis dulcis (kuta or taria in Fijian),
E. ochrostachys (sasa or voca in Fijian) and E. geniculata (L.). The main differences
between the three species are that the flower heads are sub-globose in E. geniculata but
cylindrical in the other two species, and that transverse septa are present in the stems of E.
dulcis but absent in E. ochrostachys and E. geniculata.
System of Production
The spike shaped inflorescence at the tip of each shoot produces small, nut-like seeds that
germinate on damp ground. The seedlings then spread vegetatively by creeping rhizomes.
Importance of Kuta
The stems are harvested, dried, and woven into soft sleeping mats, decorative round mats or
traditional funeral waist mats (ta’ovala kuta) sold to Tongan people.
Site Selection
In Fiji, all the three species of Eleocharis occur in association with other wetland species in
swamps, marsh and wet areas, and in shallow lakes and ponds.
Clearing
Weed free freshwater pond is preferred for growing Kuta. The pond is cleared of all weeds
to allow the growth of nut-like seeds to germinate into seedlings and spread vegetatively by
creeping rhizomes.
Soil Preparation
E. ochrostachys also occurs in swamps in forests and is found from sea level to 400 m.
E. geniculata occurs in wet areas near the coasts, often in coral sand, or in forest or
grassland in rocky places, and is not a common species. E. dulcis usually grows in shallow
freshwater lakes and ponds of 1 m depth or less, and is found from sea level to 800 m but
does not occur in brackish water.
Selecting Planting Material
The Kuta planting material has to be weed free and fast growing. Usually Eleocharis dulcis
species is preferred for the production of Kuta as the other two species are not used for
weaving mats.
Planting
The nut-like seeds from the kuta plant to germinate into seedlings and spread vegetatively
by creeping rhizomes.
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Crop Care
Regular weeding in the pond or swamps is important for the growth of Kuta reeds. The
weeds like tarweed, primrose willow, guinea grass, para grass, water lily and sleeping grass
(sensitive grass) are the common weeds in the Kuta ponds or swamps.
The major pest of Kuta reeds are the grass carp fish as it can totally destroy the Kuta. To
protect the Kuta crop, native trees are usually planted around the swamp or ponds to protect
it from soil erosion and silting of the ponds.
Signs of Maturity
It forms clumps of densely packed, bright-green or yellow-green stems (culms) that

arise from woody underground stems (rhizomes). The stems emerge as much as 1.5
m above the water surface, and total stem length may be as much as 3 m. Leaves are
reduced to a single grey or brown papery sheath around the base of the stem, with an
oblique opening through which the stem emerges. Numerous small flowers are
produced in a single, compact, erect spike at the tip of the stems. Spikes are covered
with tightly packed, spirally arranged, overlapping fawn-green scales (glumes). Only
the stigmas, at first white then shrivelled brown, emerge from the scales.
Harvesting
Kuta reeds are harvested after 6 months of growth. It is possible to harvest kuta twice in a
year depending on the growth and regrowth of the reeds. Harvesting is generally done by
cutting the stems beneath the water to encourage new growth in the next year and prevent
damage to the plant. To harvest the reeds, special knives are used to cut bundles of kuta at
their base. Kuta is usually harvested around April.
Kuta Harvesting
Source: http://www.mg-peachcore.blogspot.com/
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Post-Harvest Treatment
After harvesting the kuta reeds, the reeds are tied in bundles and carried vertically to avoid
breakages. Kuta grows in lakes but after harvesting it cannot allow water to touch it again.
The Kuta reeds are wrapped for four days and four nights so not to allow any breeze to
touch them and after this it would be left to dry in the sun for 5 days to give the reeds their
golden brown colour before the fine ones were separated from the wide ones.
Kuta Bundles Sun Drying
Walking to Flatten Reeds Post Drying
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Use of Harvested Products
The reeds are used for floor mats, infant cradles, blankets and ta’ovala, the traditional
formal sash worn by Tongans.
Weaving Kuta Mats
Use of Crop Residues / By-Products
The finest reeds are selected for making mats whereas the non- finest reeds are spread on
the earthen floor or used as a straw mulch.
Marketing of the Product
Kuta products such mats, cradles, and other traditional formal attire are sold locally and
overseas. Kuta products have a high potential market as it is readily sold online for
purchasing which comes in various designs, patterns and sizes. The price may vary
according to the quality of the Kuta reeds and usually sold between FJ$150 - FJ$1500
depending on its size and other quality.
Kuta Products:
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1.Discuss how ‘Kuta’ production in Fiji can build its export market around the globe.
2. Discuss other production options that a farmer can undertake to develop the Kuta
industry.
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SUMMARY
Kuta is one of the potential crop for Fiji’s economy. Kuta crop needs to be established and
developed on a commercial scale to increase the supply of kuta products locally and
overseas. The expansion of the kuta industry will sustain production and lead as one of the
potential crops in Fiji.
SELF EVALUATION
1. How can the agriculture ministry encourage the growing of kuta crop in Fiji.
2. How will the crop benefit towards Fiji’s economy.
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AS 13.4.1 POTENTIAL LIVESTOCK
INTRODUCTION
This strand will facilitate the exploration of the production of any of the following
livestock: Mussels, Crabs and Prawns.
Students will be introduced to general concepts relating to raising livestock then will
investigate the history, importance, products and by-products of any two of the three
livestock mentioned.
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SUB STRAND AS 13.4.1 POTENTIAL LIVESTOCK
AS 13.4.1.1 Explore relevant research on the production of three potential livestock
recommended for raising in the locality and present findings.
LESSON 1 HISTORY OF AQUACULTURE IN FIJI

LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will be able to:
1. identify three potential livestock suited for the locality
2. discuss the history of aquaculture in Fiji
NOTES
History of Aquaculture Development in Fiji
-Fresh water aquaculture in 1954, Tilapia (mossambicus) was introduced into ponds in Nacocolevu
Agriculture research station to support diets for pigs. Escaped into the wild and inundated the adjacent river
systems and from there spread to other major river & water systems. Although it became an important
source of animal protein for those living beside those water systems, its early maturity and breeding habits
caused it to become a pest to other culture species latter.
-1971 Raviravi, Ba (Western Viti Levu), a newly reclaimed mangrove land of about 100 acres (38.7Ha) in
area was provided to try out aquaculture for the culturability of several brackish species including signaids,
milk fish, mullets and prawns/ shrimp. This was facilitated by FAO. It provided technical expertise and
funds. Tilapia mossambicuss that has inundated the surrounding water usually enter the pond when ponds
were filled. The fish was noted that it tolerated the new pond conditions or the pond environment.
-Carps : 1975 was introduced from India and kept in the ponds at Lami. It was introduced for the control of
water weeds that have infested the river systems in the main islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu.
Unfortunately, the fish cannot breed in captivity and the river systems in Fiji are too short for the fish to
successfully breed as it takes 18 - 24 hours for the eggs to hatch out.
-1976. The Naduruloulou Government Freshwater station was established and the carps and tilapia from
Lami were transferred there. The breeding stock was been built up and the fingerlings were released into
the major river.
-1984 - 1989 JICA assistance, the silver and big head carps were introduced in the period for more carp spp.
to use for fish farming. Over the project period several introductions were made from Japan and
accidentally introduced the garden snail that have become a pest in the ponds. The carp was successfully
spawned in this project period. Spawning of the carps at the Naduruloulou station has been a success since
then and been produced on demand. Most water bodies are cleared of weeds.
-Macrobrachium (Giant Malaysian) Freshwater Prawn: 1980 a batch was brought from Hawaii by an officer
with two other Fijians after their training. 1984/1989, JICA assisted Aquaculture Research & development
project based at Naduruloulou and one of the objectives was try and successfully spawn the giant Malaysian
prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii ). The success to spawn it at the station made it to be one of the
commodities used for freshwater aquaculture in the country
-Brackish water aquaculture Prawns - P. monodon - Occurs locally and the attempt to culture began with
trials at Raviravi with assistance of FAO (1973 - 1978). From 1982 attempt to commercially culture the spp
at the farm began with the first hatchery established.
-In 1982, the Raviravi farm was turned into a first commercial shrimp farm in Fiji The owners were Fiji
Government and Aquacop from France. After some difficulties to commercially produce PLs of P.
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monodon, P. stylirostris was introduced in 1984. In 1990, an Australian group took over and wanted only to
work with P. monodon.
-In 1991, the management at Raviravi assisted another farmer by establishing the second commercial farm
in his land in Navua on the Eastern side of Viti Levu (main island).1998. The Department of Fisheries
established a hatchery in Navua area as 4 commercial farms were established around there.
A need for Commercial Aquaculture

1. Develop aquaculture in rural areas as a long-term alternative to the limited inshore fisheries
resources
2. Promote sustainable aquaculture development as a means of creating food security income,
employment as well as increasing foreign exchange earnings
3. Research and development anticipating and meeting the needs of the aquaculture industry
and the market
4. Education and training to ensure personnel at all levels are appropriately skilled
5. Aquaculture to be conducted in an ecologically sustainable manner including controls on
the introduction and movement of aquatic organisms
6. To improve exports and aquaculture has been identified as one with great potential
7. To substitute imports of fish and fishery product.
8. For the establishment of new industries (will take care of itself)
9. For food security
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Get in to groups of same locality, list all the marine and aquatic livestock common to your area. Identify
any two and research their history.
SUMMARY
Aquaculture-also known as aqua farming, is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans,
mollusks and aquatic plants for food, income and other purposes. Some common cultured aquatic livestock
in Fiji are Carps, Mussels, Oysters, Crabs, Prawns, Lobsters, Shrimps and turtles.
SELF EVALUATION
Choose any two marine or aquatic livestock of high demand in your locality. Discuss how the chosen
livestock can help your community with income generation.
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LESSON 2 IMPORTANCES OF THE CHOSEN LIVESTOCK IN FIJI.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson the student will describe the importance of three chosen livestock in their locality.
VOCABULARY
NOTES
Potential livestock are those that can provide us with food, income, materials, ornaments and other
products of value.
Income
fishermen, boat Materials
builders,captains,divers shells.pearls etc
etc Importance of
potential
Livestock
studied.
Leisure
Food photography,viewing,diving,
prawns,mussels,crabs. aquarims etc
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Identify the importance of the two livestock you have chosen in the previous lessons.
2. In partners, make display and if possible sell some materials from your chosen livestock e.g. make shell
earrings, bracelets, necklace etc. if you leave closer to the sea.
SUMMARY
Many times we concentrate on land resources for survival. It is important to realize the diversity of
resources in our rivers and seas. These resources provide us with food, income, leisure activities and
valuable materials.
SELF EVALUATION Discuss how you can help your community benefit after realizing the importance
of your chosen livestock
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AS 13.4.1.2 Recognise the major systems and enterprises in which the chosen
livestock live.
LESSON 1 Environment in which Aquatic organisms live.
LESSON OUTCOME:
At the end of this lesson student should be able to identify the different environments in which aquatic
organisms live in.
NOTES
An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem in a body of water. Communities of organisms that are dependent
on each other and on their environment live in aquatic ecosystems. The two main types of aquatic
ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.
There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems

1. Lentic: slow Pools & ponds Ref :spc.int Lakes Ref : youtube.com
moving water
Fiji tilapiapond Salt lake, Savusavu,Fiji

2. Lotic: faster Streams travelonthe.blogspot.com Rivers Ref : pbase.com
moving water
Navua, Fiji Rewa river, Fiji

3. Wetlands: areas where the soil is
saturated or inundated for at least part of
the time.
Ref: Watergarderinternational.org panda.org
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Marine Ecosystems are divided into four categories
1. Ocean: Main body of salty water that is Ref : yournewswire.com
further divided into important oceans and
smaller seas. Major oceans include the Pacific
Ocean, Indian Ocean, Arctic Ocean, Atlantic
Ocean and Southern Ocean.
2. Intertidal zone: Area which remains Ref : bbc.co.uk
underwater at high tide and remains terrestrial
at low tide. Different types of habitats
including wetlands, rocky cliffs and sandy
beaches fall under intertidal zones.
3. Estuaries: Areas between river and ocean Ref : justpacific.com

environments that are prone to tides and
inflow of both freshwater and saline water.
Due to this inflow, estuaries have high levels
of nutrients. There are different names of
estuaries such as inlets, lagoons, harbors etc.
4. Coral Reefs : Often referred as the hootholidays.com.au

“rainforests of the sea", coral reefs are mounds
found in marine waters as a result of
accumulation of calcium carbonate deposited
by marine organisms like corals and shellfish.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Compare aquatic habitats under the following headings; type of water, ease of cultivation, security,
organism present, other characteristics you can identify.
2. Differentiate between fresh water and marine habitats.
3. Differentiate between the fresh water habitats and identify aquatic organisms living in these areas.
SUMMARY
Aquatic environment performs many environment functions such as nutrient recycling, water purification,
attenuate flood, recharge ground water and most of all provide food and habitat to the marine resources.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify the habitat of your chosen livestock from the previous lessons. Discuss ways in which you censure
a pollution free environment for your livestock. This will ensure good quality harvest.
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LESSON 2 Major System in which Aquatic organism lives.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson student should be able to compare the three major systems of raising Aquatic
organisms
NOTES
A number of aquaculture practices are used world-wide in three types of environment (freshwater, brackish
water, and marine) for a great variety of culture organisms. Freshwater aquaculture is carried out either in
fish ponds, fish pens, fish cages or, on a limited scale, in rice paddies. Brackish water aquaculture is done
mainly in fish ponds located in coastal areas. Marine culture employs either fish cages or substrates for
mollusks and seaweeds such as stakes, ropes, and rafts.
Parameter Extensive Semi-Intensive Intensive

Species Used Monoculture or Polyculture Monoculture Monoculture
Stocking Rate Moderate Higher than extensive culture Maximum
Very well engineered system with
May or may not be well laid- With provisions for effective water
pumps and aerators to control
out management
water quality and quantity
Engineering Design
Very big ponds Manageable-sized units (up to 2 ha each) Small ponds, usually 0.5-1 ha
and Layout
each
Ponds may or may not be fully Fully cleaned ponds Fully cleaned ponds
cleaned
Used to enhance natural Used regularly with lime Not used
Fertilizer
productivity
Pesticides Not used Used regularly for prohylaxis Used regularly for prophylaxis
None Regular feeding of high quality feeds Full feeding of high-quality feeds
Food and Feeding Depending on stocking density used,
Regimen formulated feeds may be used partially or
totally
Good quality Good quality Good quality
Culture species dominant but Confined to culture species Confined to culture species
Quality of Product
extraneous species may occur
Variable sizes Uniform sizes Uniform sizes
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List the three types of system used to raise aquatic organism.

2. State one advantage and disadvantage of one of the system listed in 1.
SUMMARY
Culture systems range from extensive to intensive depending on the stocking density of the culture
organisms, the level of inputs, and the degree of management.
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SELF EVALUATION
Identify the type of system, your chosen livestock lives in. Write ways in which you can improve the
system you have identified.
LESSON 3 Basic requirements for aquatic organisms
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson student should be able to discuss the basic requirements of the chosen livestock.
NOTES
To grow to their full potential, livestock needs to be provided with their basic requirements.
Pest free Water

space Light
Diseases free
space Basic Shade/Shelter
requirement of
aquatic
organisms
Pollution free
space Food
Adequate
Security temperature
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Divide in to groups, Discuss and list as many reasons as you can as to why your chosen Aquatic organisms
requires water, light, shade/shelter, food, adequate temperature, security, pollution, disease and pest free
space. Present to the class how the quality and yield of your chosen livestock could be affected if any of the
above requirements is not provided
SUMMARY
Provision of livestock basic requirements will allow healthy and quality harvest as they will grow to their
full potentials. This ensures that the owners will get good return on their investments.
SELF EVALUATION
Write a plan on how you can convey your message on this lesson to your community to ensure that the
aquatic organisms in your locality are given their basic requirements.
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SUBSTRAND AS13.4.1.3 CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS
AS 13.4.1.3 The students will investigate the challenges facing their chosen livestock and evaluate
suggested solutions to each challenge. They will also explore and explain methods used to grow and sustain
the chosen livestock.
LESSON 1 CHALLENGES AND SUGGESTED SOLUTION
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the students will discuss the challenges facing aquatic farming in Fiji and evaluate
suggested solutions to each challenge.
VOCABULARY
1. Acclimatization – to adjust or adapt to a new climate, place or situation

2. Predators- an animal that lives by killing and eating other animals
3. Climate change- a change in global or regional climate patterns, in particular a change apparent
from the mid to late 20th century onwards and attributed largely to the increased levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by the use of fossil fuels.
4. Eradication- to get rid of something completely or destroy something bad
NOTES
Livestock farming continues to face many challenges which could directly and indirectly affect the quality
and yield of livestock. Below are some of these challenges.
Challenges Descriptions Solutions

1.Climate change - Environmental concerns sustainable Practices
2. acclimatization - Lack of trained personnel/hatchery Encourage cross breeds to adopt to local
operators/nutritionists/farm manager conditions. Get well trained individuals
- some breeds cannot withstand local to carry out cross breeding.
climate
3. feed - High cost of imported feed and non- Use local feed ingredient to lower
availability of feeds production costs and increase efficiency.
4. Water - Limited freshwater (some areas) Have reliable water supply every time.
Clear water ways always.
5. Security - Aquaculture is not included in Fence area securely, Fisheries
fisheries statutes and regulations department to include aquaculture in to
- Lack of secure bankable property their rules and regulations. Government
rights in marine environment to ensure safety of farmers and their
- Land issues: tenure systems farm investment.
(mataqali/I qoliqoli)
-human stealing
6. Adverse weather - Floods/cyclones Proper site selection
7. Competition - Long distance to export markets Improve product quality to capture
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from imports - Lack of infrastructure and customer’s interest.
transportation is a problem (high costs)
8. Predators & Injuries/kills livestock /Other animals Secure fencing
pests feeding on livestock Security officers
Lowers productions
9. Disease Local diseases Minimise visitors
Testing and eradication of diseased
stock.
10. Financial - Lack of capital and credit facility Government financial institutions.eg
(subsidies) and farm inputs FDB
Government Subsidy
11. Habitat Cutting of mangroves/ pollution in Stakeholder education/ community
destruction rivers and lakes. awareness. Banning of destructive
fishing methods.
No size limits Continuous harvest of undersize aquatic Strict Size limit of harvested organisms
organisms
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List other challenges your chosen livestock are currently facing in your locality.
2. Decide on how these challenges could be effectively solved in your community.
3. Design either an open day or community visit awearness program in which your
group will advocate on this issue.
SUMMARY
Each day, farmers are faced with challenges. Their ability to solve these challenges makes them
good managers. When dealing with livestock, it is important to be attentive to every factor that
poses threat to production and solve them timely.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify challenges facing your chosen livestock and for each discuss its solutions
LESSON 2 AQUATIC FARMING STRUCTURES
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson student should be able to discuss the structures use for aquatic organism farming.
NOTES
Aquatic organisms must be well looked after if they have to be commercialized. To achieve this, they must
be farmed sustainably to ensure quality and continuous harvest. This organism may be farmed in open net
pens, cages or ponds.
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Farming Structures
How do they work? Advantages What are the issues?

What do they farm?
Open net pens * encloses fish in *water is kept fresh• Waste from the fish passes freely into the
and Cages offshore coastal areas by the current surrounding environment, polluting wild
(Needs calm or in freshwater *Extra feed can be habitats
seas) lakes. supplied . • Farmed fish can escape and compete with
*Salmon, tuna , shell * Waste is washed wild fish for natural resources.
fish away by the current • Escaped fish can interbreed with wild fish
of the same species, compromising the
hardiness of the wild population.
• Diseases and parasites can be spread to
wild fish living near or swimming past net
pens.
Suspended -farmers grow - very sustainable. Filter feeders can actually filter excess
Organisms shellfish on beaches - no need for nutrients out of the water, but farming
or suspend them in additional feed and shellfish in high densities in areas with little
water by ropes, nets, therefore don't impact current or tidal flow can lead to the
bags, plastic trays or wild fish stocks. accumulation of waste.
mesh bags. *oysters, Habitat damage and - some shellfish culture has been
mussels and clams impacts from effluent responsible for the introduction of exotic
are generally species that can sometimes out-compete
minimal. native species for natural resources.
Pond *Ponds enclose fish -Wastewater can be • The construction of shrimp ponds in
in a coastal or inland contained and treated. mangrove forests has destroyed more than
body of fresh or salt 3.7 million acres (1.5 million hectares) of
water. coastal habitat* important to fish, birds and
*Shrimp, catfish and humans. • The discharge of untreated
tilapia wastewater from the ponds can pollute the
surrounding environment and contaminate
groundwater.
These pictures may help you understand the various farming methods discussed above.
Bag/Rack Ref : Shellfish Culture Ref :
In bag-and-rack shellfish culture juveniles are Shellfish culture means that farmers grow shellfish
cultivated in bags on racks above the seabeds. on beaches or suspend them in water by ropes,
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plastic trays or mesh bags.
Submersible Net Pens Ref : Suspended Culture Ref :
Submersible net pens (or cages) are designed for use Shellfish culture can be very sustainable.
in offshore aquaculture and can be used for a variety
of fish species.
Pond
In Fiji, ponds are used to raise prawns, shrimps, tilapia and milk fish.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Get in to groups; with the help of your teacher, survey your locality or school and Select a site to
construct either a fish pond or prawn farm.
SUMMARY
Aquatic organisms are raised in structures which closely resembles their natural habitats. Farming them
will ensure continuous food supply and income. Proper site selection is needed for successful cultivation
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the structures commonly used by farmers to raise aquatic organisms in Fiji. Identify one that will
suit your chosen livestock
LESSON 3 Common Care and Management practices for aquatic cultivation.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson student should be able to discuss the care and management practices that must be
considered when raising aquatic livestock.
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NOTES
Common Care and management
Below are the main common care and management procedures used to raise aquatic organisms.
Control of Cut grass on the verges

Pests/Weeds/Predators regularly
Checking water CARE AND Monitor water

quality MANAGEMENT level
Feeding Record keeping
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Visit an aquatic farm near your school or community and observe the structure, preparation, care and
management of the organisms. Discuss ways in which you can improve the current standard
SUMMARY
Aquatic organism raised in structures needs more attention in comparison than those out in the field. With
proper management practices, aquatic organisms will reach their full growth potential, having higher
quality and return on investments.
SELF EVALUATION
Identify ways in which you can improve the environment and management of your chosen livestock.
Discuss in groups and present your suggestions in class.
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AS 13.4.1.1.1 At the end of this lesson student should be able to identify the classification, species
and the major groupings of Prawns in Fiji.
LESSON 1 Classification, species and prawn major identification grouping.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently classify the different species of prawns and
the major identification grouping.
NOTES
Prawns have very high demand in Fiji markets and commercializing its farming could solve the problem of
poverty (food and income), meet market demands and improve living standard. Knowing its classification
and species present will enable the farmer to meet its growth needs.
Livestock Prawns
phylum Arthropoda
class Malascostraca
order Decapoda
Species common to Fiji.
Penaeus Monodon Macrobrachium_rosenbergii
Ref : WorldWide Aquaculture.com

Ref: wcsfiji.org.fj
Red cave shrimp, Vatulele Island, Fiji. Spot prawn, Pandalus platycaros
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Ref: oceanlight.com
Ref : Ryanphotographic.com
Harvested prawns are sometimes divided into a number of groups:
• large or ‘bull’ males (including both BC and large OC);

• small males (SM) which are mostly not seen until the drain harvest takes place, unless they are
trapped by the seine;
• egg-bearing (berried) females;
• immature or spent females;
• soft shelled (newly moulted) prawns; and
• ‘terminal growth’ prawns.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Get in to groups, try to identify and differentiate the prawn species in this lesson. 2. List and discuss other
species you have seen and discuss their characteristics.
SUMMARY
Different markets defer in their demand for prawn, some according to species, and others according to the
growth stages, production stages or sex (Male/female) of the prawn.
SELF EVALUATION
Given a picture or live specimen of prawns, identify the species correctly.
LESSON 2 PRAWN CULTURE SYSTEMS.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the prawn culture systems.
VOCABULARY
1. Post Larvae Prawn: 15 – 20 days old prawns which are stocked in the nursey
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NOTES
Prawns could be successfully raised under different systems including intensive culture, extensive culture,
semi intensive culture, continuous system, batch system, combined and the modern culture according
to the size and preference of the farmer.
1: EXTENSIVE FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE
Extensive culture means rearing in ponds (but also in other impoundments such as reservoirs, irrigation
ponds and rice fields) which produce less than 500 kg/ha/yr of freshwater prawns. They are stocked, often
from wild sources, with PL or juveniles at 1-4/m2. There is no control of water quality; the growth or
mortality of the prawns is not normally monitored; supplemental feeding is not normally supplied; and
organic fertilization is rarely applied.
2: SEMI-INTENSIVE FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE
Semi-intensive systems involve stocking PL or juvenile freshwater prawns (usually from hatcheries) at 4-
20/m2 in ponds, and result in a range of productivity of more than 500 kg/ha/yr and less than that of
intensive. Fertilization is used and a balanced feed ration is supplied. Predators and competitors are
controlled and water quality, prawn health and growth rate are monitored. This form of culture is the most
common in tropical areas.
3: INTENSIVE FRESHWATER PRAWN CULTURE
Intensive culture refers to freshwater prawn farming in small earth or concrete ponds (up to 0.2 ha)
provided with high water exchange and continuous aeration, stocked at more than 20/m2 and achieving an
output of more than 5 000 kg/ha/yr. Construction and maintenance costs are high and a high degree of
management is required, which includes the use of a nutritionally complete feed, the elimination of
predators and competitors, and strict control over all aspects of water quality.
Systems of management in grow-out ponds for freshwater prawns
1: THE CONTINUOUS SYSTEM
This involves regular stocking of PL and the culling (selective harvesting) of market sized prawns. There is
no definable ‘cycle’ of operation and the ponds are therefore only drained occasionally. One of the
problems of this form of culture, which can only be practiced where there is year-round water availability
and its temperature remains at the optimum level, is that predators and competitors tend to become
established. Also, unless the culling process is extremely efficient, large dominant prawns remain and have
a negative impact on the post larvae which are introduced at subsequent stocking occasions. This results in
a lower average growth rate.
2: THE BATCH SYSTEM
At the other extreme to the continuous system is the batch system, which consists of stocking each pond
once, allowing the animals to grow until prawns achieve the average market size, and then totally draining
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and harvesting it. This reduces predator and competitor problems. However, although dominant prawns
cannot impact on newly-stocked PL (because there is only a single stocking), the problem known as
heterogeneous individual growth (HIG) remains. This term (HIG) refers to the fact that freshwater
prawn’s do not all grow at the same rate. Some grow much faster, tend to become dominant, and cause
stunted growth in other prawns.
3: THE COMBINED SYSTEM
This provides the advantages of reduced predator and competitor problems of the batch system with the
cull-harvesting employed in the continuous system, to reduce the problems of HIG. In the combined
system, ponds are stocked only once. Cull-harvesting starts when the first prawns reach market-size (the
exact size depends on the local, live sales, or export market requirements). This removes the fast-growing
prawns for sale, leaving the smaller ones to grow, with less HIG impact. Eventually, after several cull-
harvests, the ponds are drained and all remaining prawns harvested. The total cycle usually lasts about 9-12
months in tropical regions, depending on local conditions.
4: THE MODIFIED BATCH SYSTEM
This more complex management regime was developed in Puerto Rico (Alston and Sampaio 2000) and
involved three phases. After 60-90 days in a 1 000 m2 nursery pond stocked at 200 to 400PL/m2, 0.3-0.5 g
juveniles should be harvested and stocked at 20-30/m2 into empty (without any existing prawns present)
‘juvenile’ ponds. After another 2-3 months, begin seine harvesting of these juvenile ponds and should be
repeated every month after this. This type of harvest will remove prawns of 9 to 15g which should then be
stocked into’ ponds with existing populations of small prawns. The juvenile ponds will themselves either
converted to adult ponds, to allow remaining animals to grow to marketable size, or drained and refilled for
further use. According to (J. Glude, pers. comm. 1998), drain-harvesting into a catch basin, instead of
seining, would reduce labour costs and increased survival. Further advantages could be obtained if post
larvae are held longer in the nursery ponds and then graded into at least two size groups before stocking
into juvenile ponds.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the different system used to raise prawns, state their advantages and disadvantages.
SUMMARY
Continuous system involves regular stocking of PL and the culling (selective harvesting) of market sized
prawns, batch system consists of stocking each pond once, allowing the animals to grow until prawns
achieve the average market size, and then totally draining and harvesting it.
SELF EVALUATION
Differentiate between Intensive cultures, extensive culture, and semi intensive culture. Discuss the
differences between the continuous system, batch system, combined and the modern culture
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LESSON 3 POND STOCKING
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the process and consideration of prawn pond stocking.
NOTES
The stocking rate you need to use depends on the:
1. size of the animals you will eventually be selling (and thus on the demand of the local,
national, or international market that you are targeting),
2. length of the growing season (determined by water availability and temperature).
3. management system you are using. Older ponds tend to be more productive than new ones.
4. the lower stocking rates will tend to result in prawns of a larger average size. Higher
stocking rates tend to result in greater total productivity (mt/ha/crop) but smaller average
prawn size. The stocking rate you choose should therefore be adjusted according to your
previous experience in your farm or locality, and the size of marketable animals desired.
POND STOCKING
1. Stock ponds immediately after filling them with filtered water. This has no predators and
causes no photo synthetically -induced pH changes.
2. There may be a slight reduction in growth from the initial lack of natural food, but
increased survival will outweigh this factor.
3. Stocking the ponds quickly reduces the amount of competitors and predators, which have
less time to become established. Often post larvae (only about a week or two old after
metamorphosis) are used to stock grow-out ponds, where they will remain until harvesting.
4. Some farmers prefer to use PL reared in a simple (in contrast to a sophisticated) hatchery,
believing them to be hardier because the strongest have been naturally selected. Juveniles
are more tolerant of high pH and ammonia.
5. On arrival at the pond bank great care must be taken to acclimatize the PL to the
temperature of the pond water by floating the transport bags in the pond for 15 minutes
before emptying them into the water.
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6. Severe mortalities can be caused not only by thermal shock but also by sudden changes in pH.
Measure the pH of the pond water before stocking. If it is more than 0.5 pH units different from the
pH in the PL holding tank or the nursery ponds, acclimatize the PL to this pH level slowly (over a
one-day period) in the hatchery-nursery before transporting and stocking them at the grow-out site.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Explain some causes of mortalities in PL during the stocking process and discuss ways to overcome these
factors.
SUMMARY
1. Pond stocking is very important and there are factors to be considered. The lower stocking
rates will tend to result in prawns of a larger average size. Higher stocking rates tend to
result in greater total productivity (mt/ha/crop) but smaller average prawn size. The
stocking rate you choose should therefore be adjusted according to the previous experience
in the farm or locality, and the size of marketable animals desired.
SELF EVALUATION
Give one reason for floating the PL inside a transparent bag in the pond before slowly releasing them.
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LESSON 4 CARE AND MANAGEMENT
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the various care and management practices
carried out in prawn farming.
NOTES
Ponds need to be well-maintained during the farming period. You should take special care about the
prevention and treatment of pond bank erosion and the maintenance of water inlet and outlet structures,
particularly the filters (screens, socks).
As your farm operates, you will develop your own experience of growth rate and productivity during grow-
out. You can only achieve this by careful monitoring and record keeping. keep adequate written records of
such things as water quality, stocking rate and date, daily feeding quantities, dates on which water changes
are made (and how much), harvesting dates and quantities, etc. Only in this way can you build up a picture
of how each pond behaves under a certain management regime (and every pond is different) and accurately
apply your experience to future pond management in order to operate your farm profitably. This applies
equally to hatchery management
Pond Care and Maintenance
1. Pond surface area available to the prawns can be increased by placing rows of netting, suspended from
floaters and weighed down with sinkers, across the pond. Twigs, pipes, bricks, etc. are often used as prawn
habitats but they interfere with harvesting, and are not recommended.
2. Vegetation along the pond bank minimizes erosion. Below the water line, it also provides food and a
habitat for the prawns. The plants Elodea spp. and Hydrilla spp. make a good substrate for prawns. Care
must be taken not to allow the growth of these plants to become so excessive that it interferes with
harvesting.
3. Maintain the pond depth at an average of 0.9 m. Do not allow extensive shallow areas to develop which
can encourage rooted aquatic plants to grow extensively on the pond bottom and cause significant growth of
phytoplankton, thus reducing light penetration to the pond bottom.
4. It is necessary to maintain an adequate phytoplankton density, to provide cover and control the growth of
weeds in freshwater prawn ponds. This is done by encouraging the growth of phytoplankton. However, it is
often unnecessary to fertilize, because this is rapidly achieved by the feeding regime. However, ponds built
in a sandy-clay soil may require fertilization for this purpose. Where necessary, 25kg/ha/month of triple
superphosphate (Na3PO4) will keep the water green.
Reasons for not applying organic fertilizers
• vary in composition.
• have a low nitrogen and phosphorus content and therefore have to be applied in large quantities.
• create an oxygen demand in the pond water.
• leave organic residues on the pond bottom.
• provide detritus that becomes a starting point for the growth of filamentous algae.
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• may contain high concentrations of heavy metals.
• may be contaminated with antibiotics.
FEED TYPE
1. Freshwater prawns are omnivores and their nutritional requirements are not very demanding. Some
farmers utilize commercial feeds designed for marine shrimp in freshwater prawn nurseries or
during the first few weeks of the grow-out phase when prawns are stocked as PL. Marine shrimp
feeds have a much higher protein content than is needed for freshwater prawns.
2. Small production level of freshwater prawns (perhaps 200-300 kg/ha/year can be obtain by relying
on the natural productivity of the ponds. However, successful semi-intensive farming must involve
supplementary feeding.
3. Some farms claim to rely on fertilization, rather than feeding, at the beginning of the rearing period.
4. Some stimulate an initial algal bloom through the addition of an inorganic fertilizer (such as a
liquid 0-36-0 formulation, applied to provide about 9 kg/ha of phosphorus).
5. Others find that providing feed from the beginning of the rearing period improves performance and
is cost-effective.
WATCHING FOR SIGNS OF PROBLEMS
Continuous exchange of a small proportion of the water is the normal way of maintaining good
water quality. However, some farmers change water more suddenly every two weeks, and in much
larger proportions, because this tends to make the prawns moult. The more that moult (and are therefore
soft-shelled) at the same time, the less potential losses there may be due to cannibalism.
1. A scum of phytoplankton may cover the surface of the pond. This will cause low DO2 problems at
night and should be controlled by a reduction in feeding and by exchanging water. Low DO2 should be
suspected if prawns begin to crawl out of the ponds or congregate at the edges of the pond in daylight.
If this problem occurs, flush the pond. The need to do this in emergency situations illustrates the
importance of having sufficient water available.
2. Very high pH levels in freshwater prawn ponds can cause prawn mortalities, both because of the
direct effect of the pH itself and because of the greater solubility of waste ammonia at high pH. High
pH is often caused by dense phytoplankton blooms.
3. If you see sudden heavy mortalities, or observe small numbers of mortalities over a period of time,
you should carefully investigate the cause.
Prawns covered with algae or showing signs of not having moulted recently may indicate either that culture
conditions are poor or that the animals are not healthy. Poor farm management, resulting in poor water
quality and/or disease may be to blame. However, external factors may also be responsible. The most likely
source of external water pollution is from pesticides and herbicides. For example, pesticides used on
neighbouring banana farms and herbicides used for the elimination of water hyacinths in irrigation canals
have been blamed for prawn mortalities in the Caribbean and Thailand respectively. Thus the importance of
site selection and water source is obvious.
DEALING WITH PROBLEMS OF PREDATION
Predation is one of the greatest problems for any aquaculture enterprise, including freshwater prawn
farming. Predation is caused mainly by other aquatic species, birds, snakes and humans. Two of the greatest
sources of loss in freshwater prawn farming are human predation and operator error.
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Freshwater prawn farms are more prone to human predation than many fish farms because of the high value
of the product and because prawns are relatively easy to catch. You cannot eliminate any form of predation,
including human poaching. However, you must minimize it by good management such as having a :
Perimeter fences, dog, lighting and reliable watchmen help.
If your farm is big enough to financially support it, you may be able to achieve some protection from
human predation if you stock some PL into local public waters, thus generating a positive attitude towards
your farm.
If you own a small farm you may find it useful to form a cooperative with other farmers within the
community. The activities of such groups are normally protected by the local community.
You may also lose prawns through operator error and poor management. For example, water levels may be
allowed to become too low and therefore temperatures too high, or DO2 levels may be allowed to fall too
low. Both errors will cause animals to die. Not maintaining outlet structures properly allows prawns to
escape.
Normally, insects (mainly dragonfly nymphs), carnivorous fish and birds are the most serious predators
in freshwater prawn farming. M. rosenbergii post larvae themselves, if they are stocked before the insects
hatch, can control the dragonfly population.
You can prevent the entry of fish and some insects by passing the intake water through suitable screens or
gravel filters .
The most important thing is to stock the prawns very soon after each pond is filled, so that predators and
competitors have less chance to become established. The presence of many frogs and toads in a pond
usually indicates that predatory fish have been fairly efficiently excluded.
Birds are very difficult to repel or control. Netting or string can be stretched across the top of ponds as a
deterrent. You can use various bird-scaring devices.
If your farm is large you may find it useful to offer prawns at a discounted price to your laborers; this
discourages theft. However, the price must not be so far below normal market price that you end up
providing your laborers with an incentive to buy larger quantities than they need, so that they can resell
them!
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss 5 reasons why organic matter is not recommended in the pond.
2. Discuss any 5 practices you can carry out to prevent theft in your prawn farm.
SUMMARY
Benthic fauna are very important features in the ecosystem of freshwater prawn ponds, forming part of the
food chain for prawns. Fertilisation to encourage the development of benthic fauna is therefore
recommended. Animal manures is not encouraged can be substituted by other organic materials, such as
distillery by-products or other plant resides. Whether the feeds are pelleted mixtures or individual
ingredients (such as distillery or brewery by-products), they actually act as both feeds and fertilizers. At the
beginning their primary use may be as an organic fertilizer that enhances the availability of natural feeds in
the rearing ponds. Later, as the prawns grow, the feeds become more and more directly consumed by the
prawns. The application of feeds/fertilizers from the beginning of the rearing period not only increases the
availability of natural food but also decreases the transparency of the water, therefore reducing the growth
of weeds
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SELF EVALUATION
1. Discuss ways in which you can help caring for your chosen livestock in your locality.
2. Discuss the importance of record keeping.
LESSON 5 COPING WITH DISEASES AND OTHER PROBLEMS
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the diseases that could affect prawns and how
to control them.
NOTES
COPING WITH DISEASES AND OTHER PROBLEMS
1.Diseases Name: Muscle necrosis

Susceptible: All life stages of freshwater prawns
Symptoms: Affected prawns show a whitish colour in the striated muscle of the tail and
appendages. The necrotic areas may increase in size and become reddish, a colour
similar to cooked prawns, due to the decomposition of the muscle tissue.
Causes: 1. Secondary pathogens (bacteria and the fungus Fusarium) have been found to be
associated with muscle necrosis.
2. Poor management
3. When stocking rates and handling stress are high
4. Poor environmental conditions (low dissolved oxygen level; temperature

fluctuations; in the hatchery and salinity fluctuations).
Prevention Follow the good management practices to prevent the occurrence of this disease.
2. Parasites Parasites seem to be quite rare in cultured M. rosenbergii.

Causes Freshwater prawns have been found to be hosts for the.
Symptoms bop rid isopod Probopyrus attached themselves to the interior of the gill chamber,
usually resulting in a visible swelling.
Effect -This would normally only be a problem if it became common in a captive brood
stock, because it is reported to interfere with egg production.
-The only other problem that might occur if this parasite became common in grow-
out would be its effect on the appearance of prawns sold head-on.
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3.Fouling Parasites seem to be quite rare in cultured M. rosenbergii.
Susceptible The problem is particularly noticeable in large animals, especially blue-claw (BC)
males, which moult less often.
Causes -Zoothamnium, Epistylis, Vorticella, Leucothrix and many others.
- Infestation by filamentous algae has been observed to occur in grow-out ponds with
high transparency (above 40 cm).
Symptoms Although these organisms do not invade the tissues they make it difficult for the
prawns to move and to feed, particularly in the larval and postlarval phases. Extreme
infestation on the gills can impair their function, and may cause mortalities in
juvenile or adult prawns.
Effect - Heavy infestation over the exterior surface can also reduce the market value of
prawns.
Prevention -Moulting temporarily frees prawns from these fouling micro-organisms.
-encouraging lower water transparency through feed management.
-good management, especially the correct treatment of incoming water, the proper
cleaning of tank bottoms, and the treatment of Artemia cysts.
-In both hatcheries and ponds the avoidance of over-feeding and increased water
exchange help to minimize the fouling of animals.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Choose one disease and discuss its symptoms and prevention.
SUMMARY
Furthermore, diseases have been known to occur in freshwater prawn grow-out when the quality of the
water (either of the intake or within the pond itself) is poor. Prawns suffering from chronic muscle necrosis
do not survive.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the effect of diseases on farm production
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LESSON 7 Harvesting market-sized prawns
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the importance of proper harvesting methods.
NOTES
All harvesting operations should be carried out as early as possible in the morning when it is cooler, to
avoid having water levels too low when the sun is directly overhead. If you allow the water to become
shallow, temperatures can quickly rise to danger level and the prawns will be subjected to low dissolved
oxygen levels. This will cause much mortality before you can finish harvesting all the animals.
Taking measurement of a Macrobrachium rosenbergii broodstock male from behind the eye orbit to
the tip of the telson) . SOURCE: DEBORAH ISMAEL
Basically there are two methods of harvesting:
1.culling (sometimes called cull-harvesting) - is used to harvest market-sized animals from the pond at
intervals and removes the faster growing prawns. The rest of the prawns are caught when the ponds are
drained at the end of the grow-out cycle.
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Cull-harvesting freshwater prawns Sorting prawns while seine harvesting
SOURCE: MICHAEL NEW SOURCE: SPENCER MALECHA
In tropical ponds cull-harvesting usually starts 5-7 months after PL have been stocked, or sooner if juveniles
have been stocked. After cull-harvesting commences, you should totally seine each pond once per month or
partially seine it twice per month (i.e. seine half the pond twice per month or all of it once per month). Take
out the market-sized animals and sell them. Keep the smaller ones and soft-shelled animals in the pond for
further growth. After about 8-11 months, drain the pond and sell the rest.
Illustrations of cull harvesting methods.
Drawback of the method.
Cull-harvesting is not very efficient in removing harvest-sized prawns. It does not maximize the total
quantity of marketable prawns which could be achieved, partly because some marketable animals remain in
the pond longer than necessary and partly because the smaller prawns do not get the maximum chance to
grow faster than they would have if there were no dominant prawns left behind.
2. Draining (drain-harvesting).
Partially draw down the pond water level during the night before harvesting commences.
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STUDENT ACTIVITY
Get in to groups of same locality, list all the marine and aquatic livestock common to your area. Identify
any two and research their history.
SUMMARY
The time to harvest depends partly on growth rate and the size of animals you want to sell. This in turn,
depends on your market requirements. It also depends on the pond management technique chosen.
SELF EVALUATION
Differentiate between cull methods and drain method of harvesting.
LESSON 8 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the Post -Harvest management of Prawn.
NOTES
171
In general, the value of your harvested product will depend on its quality. Speed during and after
harvesting, getting the prawns on ice and out of the sun, and care in handling to prevent physical damage,
will all reap valuable reward.
POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT.
1. Good handling and processing really begin at the pond bank. You need to take special care
during harvesting to avoid the ‘mushiness’ which processed freshwater prawns have often
been accused of. This effect is not unavoidable; it is caused by poor harvesting and
processing.
2. Do not allow your prawns to become ‘stacked up’, either in a net or in a harvest basin; this
causes damage to the internal organs which results in poor quality prawns when sold.
3. If you are not going to sell your prawns live, you should immediately wash them in clean water, kill
them in a mixture of water and ice at 0°C, and then wash them in chlorinated water (5 ppm active
chlorine). This process, which preserves product quality, must be carried out near the pond, usually
on the pond bank. Transporting live prawns to processing facilities before this treatment is carried
out is not recommended because some prawns will die during transport and become ‘mushy’. No
subsequent treatment can improve the texture of such prawns.
HANDLING PRAWNS TO BE SOLD FRESH
If you intend to sell your prawns fresh (instead of selling them alive or frozen) you will need to keep them
very cool, after the pond-side pre-processing described earlier has been done. You should not allow your
prawns to die from asphyxia by leaving them out of water. Harvesting mud as well as prawns is a source of
microbial contamination. You should not place live prawns straight onto ice; this results in a slow decline in
body temperature, causes stress, and accelerates the deterioration process which occurs after death.
To kill a batch of 50 kg of prawns, for example, immerse them in 50 L of water and 80 kg of ice for 30
minutes. Finally, you should wash them in chlorinated water (5 ppm active chlorine). If supplies are locally
available, full-strength seawater which has been chlorinated has been found to reduce the incidence of
‘mushiness’.
After killing, remove your prawns from the cold water and immediately place them in isothermal boxes,
with alternate layers of ice and prawns, placing ice in the first and last layers. Make sure your ice has been
made from clean chlorinated water! You can then refrigerate your prawns at 0°C for short-term on-farm
storage for sale as fresh prawns, or for transport to market or processing facilities. You are recommended
not to keep prawns refrigerated at 0°C for more than 3 days; 5 days is the absolute maximum. Do not use
large blocks of ice for storage or transport on ice because they will damage the prawns; use flaked or
crushed ice.
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HANDLING PRAWNS TO BE SOLD FROZEN
If you are not going to sell your prawns within 5 days of harvest, which is considered to be their maximum
practical refrigerated shelf life, you need to freeze them immediately. These prawns need the same care and
attention as those sold fresh. Always remember that freezing does not improve the quality of the prawns; at
best it will preserve them in the quality they show at the time of freezing. Freezing at temperatures below -
10°C is essential; storage at -20°C or below is recommended; storage at -30°C is ideal.
To avoid physical damage to the muscle structure of the prawns, it is recommended that the freezing
temperature passes from -1°C to -5°C as rapidly as possible (not more than 2 hours). This decreases the
production of ‘drip’ (leak) at the moment of thawing, and keeps the prawns looking and tasting the same as
before freezing. If you freeze them more slowly it will cause large crystals to form in the water between the
cells of the animals and increase ‘drip’. Keeping prawns frozen on-farm is generally not good practice.
HANDLING FOR LIVE SALES
These prawns require careful, but different handling; the techniques are similar to those used to sell other
live aquatic products. You will need to change your holding and transport water regularly to eliminate
ammonia build-up. Keep the dissolved oxygen level above 5 ppm with aeration. Prawns to be transported
live should be washed in non-chlorinated clean water and then brought to the same temperature that can be
maintained during transport to prevent thermal shock through sudden transfer into water of a totally
different temperature. It is recommended that you keep the transport temperature at about 20-22°C. Use
small amounts of ice, if necessary, to keep this temperature constant. Transport techniques similar to those
used to transport prawn post larvae from hatcheries to distant grow-out facilities by road transport are
suitable
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Choose any two marine or aquatic livestock of high demand in your locality. Discuss how the chosen
livestock can help your community with income generation
LESSON 9 MARKETING
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the various marketing methods of prawns.
NOTES
The key to success is to adapt to the needs of the market in order to secure the highest income. Good quality
harvested prawns have a greenish or bluish tint with bright blue or orange chelipeds (claws).
Marketing your freshwater prawns alive
Marketing prawns alive will usually generate a better price for you but, of course, increases your costs.
Marketing them successfully in this way depends on your ability to keep them alive during transport and
display, and to present undamaged, healthy prawns in an attractive way.
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Good survival of adult freshwater prawns can be achieved during journeys of up to at least 24 hours at a
density of 600 g/L with good aeration, without any visible deterioration in their quality. It is best to
transport the prawns on shelves stacked vertically within the water column; this helps to avoid mortalities
caused by crowding, as well as maintaining better localised water quality. Cool transport (20-22°C)
minimizes water quality problems and reduces the activity of the prawns, thus lessening the likelihood that
there will be injuries due to combat. The use of hard water tends to stabilize the pH, thus reducing the
toxicity of any ammonia that builds up during transport.
Marketing your freshwater prawns fresh or frozen
Prawns can be sold fresh (chilled) if they are going to be consumed within 5 (preferably 3) days. Prawns
which are not expected to be sold within 3 days should immediately be frozen. Freezing should take place
when they are fresh, not after they have been on ice for several days. Frozen tails have a longer shelf life
than whole prawns. Whole frozen freshwater prawns will turn ‘mushy’ if they are frozen and held above -
20°C, or if they are thawed and refrozen. It is recommended that prawns to be stored for long periods be
held at -30 to -35°C. Tails which are frozen in ice blocks may be stored for over a year and still be very
satisfactory, although a maximum of six months is recommended.
Glazing or vacuum packing significantly prolongs the useful life of frozen prawns. While vacuum packing
requires elaborate processing facilities, not available to small farms, glazing is quite simple: a very thin
mixture of syrup and water prevents oxidation. If you are marketing frozen prawns, whether they are sold
whole or as tails, the ideal is to sell them within a three month period
Package your prawns attractively Ref : Local MH supermarket.
Marketing your freshwater prawns at your farm gate
You may want to sell your prawns on your farm or at your ‘farm gate’, or even along the roadside. Usually,
prawns sold in this way are marketed whole and fresh (chilled). This is a particularly sensible way to market
at least some of your harvest, especially if your farm is situated on a busy road or near a tourist site. You
can sell prawns at lower prices than people can buy them in shops or markets but at prices greater than you
would get if you sold them to a retailer.
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Advertize your prawns with roadside signs, such as flags, balloons and banners and make the prawns
available at times when the greatest number of people pass by your farm. Roadside sales are the most
profitable and are paid for mostly in cash. Tell people how to store and cook what they buy.
If you do decide to sell all or part of your prawns at the farm, or by taking your own stand at a local market,
it is very important that you should ensure that you do not damage the consumer image of your product.
The prawns must not only be obviously clean and attractive looking but also be chilled or frozen properly.
They should also be displayed in clean and hygienic conditions. Those selling the prawns must be clean and
properly dressed.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Design in groups prawn marketing posters for a farm gate sale, Present to the class a drama portraying the
advertised sale..
SUMMARY
Prawn for the market must strictly follow the post -harvest process to ensure product safety and prolonged
self-life. It should also be displayed in clean and hygienic conditions. Those selling the prawns must be
clean and properly dressed. This will allow customer attraction and loyalty.
SELF EVALUATION
Design a local marketing poster of your chosen livestock.
LESSON 10 USES OF PRAWNS AND ITS BY-PRODUCT.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss some uses of prawns and it’s by- products.
NOTES
There are many uses of prawn, for this lesson we will concentrate to its ability to provide income, food,
recreation and the by-products are used for many things including medicine.
SOME USES OF PRAWNS
Knorr Shrimp Seasoning Jumbo Prawn crackers Performer-tourist attraction
Jutafoods.com Ridley-aqua-fed.com
unileverfood Solutions.com
Prawn flavoured cheese Coocked prawn Pickle
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Groceries.morrison.com EurActiv.com dir.indiamart.com
USES OF BY-PRODUCT
1. The wastewater from ponds containing prawns being reared in monoculture or polyculture
with fish can be used for the irrigation of crops.
2. by-product of the shrimp industry –used as Shrimp meal used for livestock feed.
3. Uses of Prawn Shell Waste (Chitin/Chitosan)
1. -Biomedical: wound healing; cholesterol reduction; dental adhesive; drug release.

2. -Food: Clarifying agent for fruit juice and wine.
3. -Personal Care: Skin and hair products; cosmetics.
4. -Water Treatment: Removal of dyes and metal ions; removal of bacteria from
swimming pools.
-Coatings/Coverings: Coatings for biomedical intrusive devices; biodegradable packaging.
-Agriculture: Nematode control; seed coatings; fruit coatings; feed additive.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Discuss some other uses of prawn and its by-products which are not mentioned in this lesson.
Write a prawn cooking recipe and present to the rest of the class.
SUMMARY
Products are what you get from the livestock, by- products is how we make use of the waste materials of
production, both of them generate income for the farmer.
SELF EVALUATION
Think of how you can use the by-product of your chosen livestock and discuss with your friend in class.
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SUBSTRAND AS13.4.1.1 CRABS
AS 13.4.1.1.2 Explore and outline the classification, species and the major groupings of Crabs
in Fiji.
LESSON 1 Classification, species and Crab major identification grouping.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss classification, species and Crabs major identification
grouping.
NOTES
Like Prawns, crabs have very high demand in Fiji markets and commercializing its farming could solve the
problem of poverty (food and income), meet market demands and improve living standard. Knowing its
classification and species present will enable the farmer to meet its growth needs.
Livestock CRABS
Phylum Arthropoda
Class Malascostraca
Order Decapoda
Scylla Serata John garth ia lagos toma yellow crop
Ref: 21food.com Ref: en.wikipedia.org
Yellow Fiddler Crab at Beqa Island, Fiji A coconut crab (Birgus latro) Cikobia island, Fiji
Ref:blennywatcher.com Ref: bbc.com
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Mud Crab Species Common habitat
Scylla serrate Associated with mangrove forests inundated with full salinity oceanic
water for the greater part of the year. Can tolerate reduced salinity.
S. tranquebarica Associated with mangrove forests and coastlines inundated with
reduced salinity seawater for part of year.
S. paramamosain Associated with various habitats including shallow coral rubble;
shallow sub tidal flats and estuarine ponds; mangrove forests.
S. olivacea Associated with mangrove forests and coastlines inundated with
reduced salinity seawater during the wet season.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Get in to groups, try to identify and differentiate the CRAB species in this lesson.
2. List and discuss other species you have seen and discuss their characteristics
SUMMARY
Different markets defer in their demand for crabs, some according to species, and others according to the
growth stages, production stages or sex (Male/female) of the crabs
SELF EVALUATION
Given a picture or live specimen of crabs, identify the species correctly
LESSON 2 SITE SELECTION
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the site selection of various crab farming
VOCABULARY
1. Intermoult periods: when the exoskeleton becomes much harder through mineral and protein
deposition.
2. Marine detritus: organic material suspended in water and piling up on seabed floors, which is
referred to as marine snow
NOTES
Mud crab diet in the wild consists mainly of marine detritus, mollusks, crustaceans and fish, the importance
of which to their diet appears to vary with location.
As feeding rates are temperature dependent, lower feeding rates can be expected in the cooler months and
may in part explain longer intermoult periods observed during winter months in the more temperate extent
of mud crab distribution, where nutrient reserves may become limiting.
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Site Selection
1. HATCHERY
Site selection should be based on land availability, cost, existing infrastructure and proximity or logistical
connections to grow-out areas. The basic attributes required for a mud crab hatchery site include: an
unpolluted source of marine seawater and freshwater;
• ability to discharge treated hatchery wastewater streams;
• a site with land suitable for construction of hatchery buildings;
• access to reasonable transport arrangements for staff and products.
• The more oceanic the source of marine water, the better, as this reflects the offshore water
conditions under which mud crab eggs hatch naturally.
2. GROW-OUT PEN
Similar to that of Prawn
3. Mangrove pens
The best sites for construction of mud crab mangrove pens are in areas already known (either currently or
historically) for their good production of mud crabs from a wild fishery. This ensures there is no
fundamental reason why the area should not support mud crab aquaculture. Areas with relatively low tidal
ranges are preferred. From a practical perspective, if there is an extreme tidal range, pen construction would
need to be higher to contain crabs on high tides and mechanically stronger to withstand higher current
regimes. When choosing an appropriate area to construct a mangrove pen, low- to medium- density
mangroves are preferred to extremely dense mangroves. This is because denser stands of mangrove will be
more difficult to construct pens in. Mud crab farming and wild fishing can coexist.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the site selection of various crab rearing environment.

2. Identify the similarity of the various site selection.
SUMMARY
Site selection should be based on land availability, cost, existing infrastructure and proximity or logistical
connections to grow-out areas. Other factors to consider are transport (air, sea and road); availability of
staff; accommodation ;political stability; supplies; services available; power and water supply; proximity to
markets; potential for flooding or other natural disasters to affect operations
SELF EVALUATION
1. Recall your chosen livestock and list the proper site selection for rearing them.
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LESSON 3 NURSERY DESIGN OPTIONS
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the various crab nursery design option and their advantages
and disadvantages.
VOCABULARY
1. Megalopae: The final larval stage found in decapod crustaceans.

2. Crablets: baby crabs
3. hapa nets: A hapa is a cage like, rectangular or square net impoundment placed in a pond for
holding fish for various purposes. They are made of fine mesh netting material.
4. Zooplankton: Small floating or weakly swimming organisms that drift with water currents
NOTES
ENIVRONMENTAL PARAMETERS FOR NURSERY CULTURE
While juvenile mud crabs (crablets) can be grown successfully across a wide range of temperatures and
salinities, optimal conditions for their growth and survival appear to be at 30 oC, and salinities of 10–25
ppt, while salinities of 36 ppt and 48 ppt have been reported to have a detrimental effect on crablets growth.
NURSERY DESIGN OPTIONS
1. Tanks
Once megalopae have settled and metamorphosed into crablets, it is the surface area of tanks that is the
most important. The simple design of mud crab nursery tanks reflects their operational needs. Commonly,
nursery tanks are rectangular, with a flat base constructed from concrete or fiberglass, with a sloping floor
to a sump (simplifying drainage), and provision made for the supply of fresh, saltwater and aeration.
Issue
- In nursery tanks exposed to the elements, overheating of tank water can be an issue, especially in
summer months, which can lead to high mortalities of crablets.
- Rapid changes in salinity from heavy rain could also stress crablets and potentially lead to increased
mortality rates, if uncontrolled.
Solution
- To counter this, nursery tank systems are typically covered with an overhead awning or roof to
filter out direct sunlight and also prevent rain entering the tanks.
- Various materials can be placed or suspended in nursery tanks providing three-dimensional

shelter, which increases the surface area available for settled crabs. Materials that can be used
include bunches of netting, leaf fronds, straw, PVC off-cuts or artificial sea grass.
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2. Net cages (hapa nets)
Square or rectangular net cages (or Hapa nets) typically of 1–2 mm mesh opening, are set in earthen ponds,
the base of the net buried into the bottom of the pond. Ponds should be used or designed so that a water
depth of 80–120 cm of water can be maintained to support moderate water temperature fluctuations and
steady plankton populations. Zooplankton populations should be established in the ponds to provide feed
for the megalopae once they are stocked.
3. Earthen ponds
Ponds may be stocked with Gracilaria, netting, straw or other shelters to provide habitat for crablets. In
China, mud is considered the best surface for megalopae to settle on to become crablets. As for net cage
nursery culture of megalopae, mixed zooplankton population developed within the pond is the primary food
source for the megalopae. Nursery ponds should be surrounded, typically around their banks, by a short
fence (height 20–40 cm) constructed of relatively fine mesh (1–2 cm) netting or similar to ensure crablets
cannot move away from the ponds should water conditions in them deteriorate for any reason. The fence is
made more effective if the top of the net is covered with plastic sheeting, which crablets cannot climb over.
FEED
Advanced Artemia (5 days old) at 20–25 per millilitre and formulated shrimp larval feeds are provided to
the megalopa stage mud crab larvae, prior to settlement. Once settled, formulated feeds (at present,
formulated prawn starter diets as few crab-specific diets have been developed), or diets of trash fish, and/or
molluscs can be used to feed crablets. On-grown Artemia, up to adult size, can also be fed throughout the
megalops and early crablet stages. Diets of 45–55 percent crude protein and 9–15 percent lipid appear to
support optimal growth in crablets .
HARVEST OF CRABLETS
Crablets are typically harvested from nursery systems after a 3–4-week period and moved to grow-out
systems having grown to over 1 cm and to weights up to 0.3 g, at the C3–C4 stage. In net cages, lift nets
with feed on them can be used to attract and harvest crablets. For the final harvest from a net cage, one end
of the cage can be lifted and crablets scooped from the other.
To minimize the risk of death in transit, any soft-shell, recently moulted crablets should not be transported
until their shell has hardened.
TRANSPORTATION OF CRABLETS
Crablets older than C2 can be transported with or without water. Cooling crablets before transport is
recommended to prevent both moulting and lower oxygen consumption during transport. Crablets can also
be transported in water using the same method as used for post-larval shrimp or juvenile fish. Out of water,
crablets can be transported in containers on moist sand or damp cloth, in containers that are lined and
covered to minimize evaporation and resulting desiccation, while ventilated to ensure they can respire
adequately. It is recommended that transport of crablets out of water should not exceed 30 hours.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. List and discuss the differences between earthen nursery, tank and Net cage.
2. Discuss how you can prevent problems under the tank system.
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SUMMARY
To maximize the survival of megalopae during transport to nursery operations a stocking density of 50–100
per litre has been found to be optimal for transport times of up to 12 hours. While juvenile mud crabs
(crablets) can be grown successfully across a wide range of temperatures and salinities, optimal conditions
for their growth and survival appear to be at 30 oC, and salinities of 10–25 ppt, while salinities of 36 ppt
and 48 ppt have been reported to have a detrimental effect on crablets growth.
SELF EVALUATION
1. Discuss how you can keep the crablets in good condition while transporting them for
stocking.
LESSON 4 Grow-out operations
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the history of any two potential livestock in
their locality.
NOTES
Preparation for stocking
Prior to stocking, after the previous harvest, ponds should be dried out for several weeks and any repairs
undertaken. This assists in ensuring any unwanted species are removed from the pond that may be
competitors for feed fed to crabs or predate on crablets. Turning over the soil in the bottom of the pond, or
tilling, can assist in preparing the pond for the next crop. This helps in the breakdown of organic residues
and release of nutrients. Tilling can be combined with the addition of lime to pond floors. Liming can be
used to improve the pH of pond sediments, accelerate decomposition of organic matter and improve
fertilizer response
Grow-out operations
PONDS
1. Stocking for monoculture
mud crabs are stocked at relatively low densities (0.5–1.5 crabs/m2) with survival rates as high as 67
percent. It has been demonstrated that semi-intensive operation of ponds are more profitable than extensive
systems and that stocking size, as well as feed used have a significant effect on the final bodyweight of mud
crabs. Survival rates of mud crabs in ponds vary considerably, no doubt reflecting husbandry practices,
water quality parameters and the quality of stock, with reports ranging to highs of over 70 percent.
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2. Stocking for mono sex monoculture
It has been reported that male crabs attain a significantly higher final weight than female crabs. As crabs
can usually be sexually differentiated by the time they are at the C4–C6 stage by examination of the shape
of their abdominal segments ,ponds can be stocked for monosex culture from advanced crablets.
Advantages
• can simplify post-harvest processing and may minimize aggressive behaviour between
crabs associated with sexually maturity.
• that survival of monosex mud crabs was significantly higher than among mixed sex crabs.
3. Stocking for polyculture
Mud crabs can be polycultured successfully with species including milkfish, grass shrimp, Litopenaeus
vannamei, tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon), Gracilaria spp. and other marine species.
Stocking operations
To assess the quality of a batch of crablets one should examine the following criteria:
• Visual health – pick a subsample of crablets and examine for fouling, unusual
• coloration, damage to legs or claws. Size variation – while crablets in any batch may be at different
moult stages, size
• variation should be minimal. Extreme variation in size indicates batches may have been combined.
Too large a variation in size increases the likelihood of losses to cannibalism.
• Activity – if crablets have been transported to farm at temperatures less than optimal, they may be
sluggish. After equilibrating to ambient temperature, they should be actively walking or swimming.
Grow-out operations
1. On arrival, crablets (or representative samples of each batch) should be counted to ensure the order
has been fulfilled. Crablets can be transported to a growout facility with or without water. If packed in
water they may be cooled to 22–24 oC to prevent moulting on the way to the farm and to lower oxygen
consumption.
2. At the farm, crablets should be put in basins (or similar containers) with a small amount of water
from the pond for which they are intended to acclimatize. Once acclimatized to the temperature of
the water and its salinity, they can be released into the pond. For larger ponds, distributing them from
several different points around the pond to assist in distributing them evenly around the pond is
recommended.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Differentiate between Monoculture mono sex monoculture polyculture Stocking.

2. Discuss how the growing out and stocking operation s are carried out
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SUMMARY
Preferably, all stock should arrive at a farm with health checks already completed. Even with a clean bill of
health, the quality of crablets (and juvenile stages of other species being stocked for polyculture) must be
assessed for quality prior to stocking.
SELF EVALUATION
1. Discuss with a friend in class the reasons for carrying out the stocking and growing out
operations.
LESSON 5 MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the management practices carried out in crab
farming.
NOTES
As in any farming venture, monitoring various parameters related to the crop will, over time, develop into a
knowledge management system that can assist the farmer in decision-making and operating a more
profitable enterprise.
Monitoring Process
It would be useful if farmers can keep basic records for each mud crab pen including:
• date crabs stocked;

• number of crablets stocked;
• average size of crablets stocked;
• supplementary feeds provided per day, including details of the type of feed used
• the weight provided per feed; an estimate of feed used per day by comparing the
percentage of feed left on
• feeding trays at the end of a feeding period; average size of crabs (every fortnight);
• any signs of disease;
• number and mass of crabs harvested.
Uses of these records
• farming mortality rate

• number of crabs harvested/number of crablets stocked.
• FCR = the ratio of gain in wet body weight of the crab to the weight of feed provided.
• growth rate
Pond operations
The oxygen concentration of brackish water or saltwater in ponds should be kept above 3 ppm or preferably
at 5 ppm. As mud crabs are currently farmed at densities that can be considered semiintensive, maintaining
reasonable levels of oxygen is usually not an issue. However, it is worth having access to paddle wheels or
184
aerators for ponds to counter events that can occur suddenly, lowering oxygen levels, such as algal crashes
within the water column.
Feeds
Mud crabs can be successfully raised on a variety of diets including low-value/trash fish ,slaughter wastes,
fish wastes ,horse mussels, brown mussels, brackish water snails, shrimp heads, golden snails (Pomacea
canaliculata), telescope snails (Telescopium telescopium), small bivalves (Potamorcorbula spp.), animal
hides, entrails, kitchen leftovers and formulated shrimp feeds.
It has been shown that S. serrata gain weight faster and moult more frequently on diets containing higher
protein (up to 55 percent of diet) and lipid (up to 15 percent of diet) levels. The same study demonstrated
formulated feeds can produce feed conversion rations (FCR) of 1.2 to 2.1:1 for juvenile crabs. Related work
also demonstrated that by increasing the protein content of mud crab feeds from 25 to 45 percent there was
also a progressive increase in the protein content of crabs.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the importance of monitoring farm activities.

2. Name 3 important information you can calculate from data collected in the farm.
SUMMARY
Proper monitoring of collected information can help the farmers to better adopted practices that will allow
good yield and more profit.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss how incorrect data can result in poor management. State some ways in which you feel correct data
could be maintained.
LESSON 6 DISEASES
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the diseases that could affect crabs and how to
NOTES
Disease in crabs can cause a major loss in the business if not taken care off. Most of the diseases can be
prevented or at least controlled by strict and proper management practices.
185
Diseases Symptoms Prevention
Virus
Mud crab reovirus Causes high mortalities, very pathogenic, PRC test
(MCRV) developed A significant opportunity
Mud crab muscle necrosis White muscle, muscle necrosis to reduce the incidence of
virus disease on a farm is
Bacteria through ;
Red sternum syndrome Red legs, joints and discoloured haemolymph
*strict control of sourcing
Chitinoclastic bacteria Bacteria led to damage of shells of mud crab
broodstock and crablets.
broodstock over a 3-month period
Parasitic barnacles
*Avoid broodstock from
Sacculina granifera Makes mud crabs unfit for human consumption
areas known to have
octolasmis spp., o. cor Infested crab gills, stalked barnacles can have problems with parasites or
debilitating effect, impacts on respiratory gas disease.
exchange
Parasitic
“Milky disease”, “bitter Acute disease in mud crabs. hematodinium is one of
crab disease” (BCD), the pathogens of “milky disease”, which is similar to
“pink crab disease” (PCD), BCD and PCD. “Yellow disease” presents as white
“yellow water disease” - muscle and milky liquid in mud crab. The parasite is
hematodinium in the haemolymph and tissues.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Choose one disease and discuss its symptoms and prevention.
SUMMARY
Furthermore, diseases have been known to occur in crab grow-out when the quality of the water (either of
the intake or within the pond itself) is poor. Most diseases can be controlled or prevented by proper
management process.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the effect of diseases on CRAB farm farming.
LESSON 7 HARVESTING.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the various harvesting methods of crabs.
NOTES
Crab Harvest is done after 3-8 months or once the crab reaches 400 g to 500 g size. The size at harvest will
depend on both the species being cultured and the needs of the markets that any particular farm is servicing.
186
Male crabs of S. serrata grow to 700 to 800 gm at the maximum .The export size of the crab is 500 g and
above for males and 250 g and above for females.
Mud crab fattening
is most suitable method for small-scale aquaculture because:
• Turnover is fast, hence, the period between investment and returns is short.
• Fattened crabs can be stocked at higher densities (15 crabs/sq m) compared to grow-out
systems (1 crab/sq m) as no molting occurs and therefore losses due to cannibalism are
dramatically reduced.
• Short production time reduces the risk of losing crabs to disease, thus, rendering a higher
survival rate for fattening (>90%) compared to grow-out systems (40%).
Most markets will take a variety of sizes but offer premium prices for particular types of mud crab.
Premium prices can be obtained in most Asian mud crab markets for females carrying internal eggs, and for
very large males with large claws. As premium prices can be obtained for female “egg-crabs”, females may
be monitored and are only harvested when mature ovaries (red-orange) can be viewed through the carapace
Harvest techniques
Preliminary grading at harvest should be undertaken as quickly as possible and unsuitable mud crabs
returned to the pond to complete grow-out. Once some of the crabs in a pond are identified as large enough
to harvest, harvesting of crabs can commence.
1. Crab pots of various designs can be used to harvest crabs. These are baited with food attractive
to crabs. It is found that the largest crabs in a pond tend to enter traps first. As this is the case,
ponds can be partially or selectively harvested on a regular basis, progressively removing the
larger crabs from the pond. To complete the harvest, either trapping is continued until no more
crabs are trapped, or the pond is drain harvested, with crabs collected from the pond’s drain
or the lowest part of the pond.
2. Harvesting is done with different kinds of trap like the bamboo cage, lift net, scissors net,
fish corrals and gill nets.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Get in to groups and discuss how crabs are harvested in your community.
2. Differentiate the two harvesting methods in this lesson.
SUMMARY
While mud crabs are reasonably tolerant to a wide range of environmental, it is recommended that
unnecessary stress be avoided during harvest. Avoid harvest activities during high temperatures.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss how your chosen livestock could be harvested.
187
LESSON 8 POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss confidently the various post -harvest management process
carried out in crabs.
NOTES
Once harvested from an aquaculture facility, mud crabs must be examined, cleaned and stored for
transportation to a processing facility, unless this is situated on-farm.
POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT
On harvest, farmers should tie the claws of mud crab crabs with string or vine to ensure that they cannot
damage one another or people involved in further processing, distributing and selling the product .
To ensure that mud crabs intended for the live crab market are not “empty”, “water” or “thin”, crabs should
be tested and If found to be “empty”, crabs should either be returned to the aquaculture facility or sent to a
specific crab fattening facility should such be available.
If crabs are to be transported to a temporary storage facility or processing shed, once taken from the water
they are typically stored in a fish crate or container and covered with dampened material (e.g. hessian sack)
to reduce desiccation and protect against flies.
Some preliminary sorting (by size, sex or missing limbs) may be undertaken depending on arrangements
with the facility that will be doing the final processing and packaging.
If mud crabs are to be held for some time before going to a processing facility, the containers holding the
crabs should be kept in the shade and kept moist to avoid dehydration and heat stress. A spray system can
be used to keep crabs moist, temperatures moderate and humidity high.
SIGNIFICANT STRESSORS OF MUD CRABS
• movement (handling, grading and transportation);

• exposure to breeze (resulting in enhanced dehydration);
• temperature, either too high, too low or sudden change;
• time, from harvest to processing, and from processing to market;
• respiratory metabolic stress, as they cannot obtain sufficient oxygen;
• starvation;
• accumulation of ammonia
The most useful biochemical indicators of stress in mud crabs have been identified as glucose and
lactic acid within their haemolymph, and ammonia excretion (rather than ammonia in the
haemolymph) when examined together.
188
HOW TO MINIMIZE STRESS IN MUD CRAB SUPPLY CHAINS
Various techniques can be used to minimize stress throughout the supply chain:
• Maintain crabs in a draught-free environment.

• Hold and transport crabs at as constant a temperature as possible, within the preferred range of 25–
30 oC.
• Maintain crabs under a spray system to retain moisture and temperature.
• Dip or purge crabs in aerated water for 2 hours per day enabling them to excrete ammonia (3 hours
following extended emersion).
• Utilize a recovery tank to hold mud crabs under optimal conditions for a period of time to regain
condition prior to continuing along the supply chain.
• Cover or wrap mud crabs in damp-hessian-lined container to reduce moisture loss,
• Avoid draughts and maintain temperature.
• Handle gently.
RECEIVING MUD CRABS INTO A PROCESSING FACILITY
The processing area should be clean, tidy and organized ready to commence processing without delay. Once
containers of crabs have been moved into the processing area, doors should be closed to maintain
temperature and exclude flies or vermin. As crabs are then processed, details of the receipt will be
transferred to the grading, sorting or processing form, to ensure the traceability of product through the
facility.
PROCESSING
Before grading commences, the cool-room or processing shed needs to be properly organized, with the
appropriate items organized, which include crates (for different grades and rejects), packing tables, rubbish
bins, weighing scales, pallets and forms.
The facility should be setup according to the documented quality control system. On arrival in a processing
facility, crabs are usually rinsed to clean them prior to assessment by processing staff.
THE GRADES
Grades A, B, … Top-quality, vigorous crabs with both claws intact and strong leg and antennae movement
are the premium grade of hard-shell crabs for the live market. Often, this grade is further sorted by sex and
size (e.g. small, medium and large). These grades would then be packed into separate boxes, if the market
demands them to assist in marketing and also important if different prices are given to the different grades.
In addition, larger female grades may be further assessed to see if they are carrying ripe ovaries and can be
classified as “egg crabs”, another premium product. The status of a female crab’s ovaries can be seen by
holding it up to a strong light, the eggs being visible through the carapace.
One claw- While a top-quality crab, from a health perspective, a one-clawed crab is not seen as a
premium product in some markets, and will usually receive a lower price. As such, it is usually separately
graded and packed.
189
Slow - A mud crab is deemed to be “slow” if its legs do not move when it is handled, or its legs
brushed and will not walk if placed on a surface. Included in the same grade are crabs that show “bubbles”
from around the mouthparts. Such crabs are likely to die in transit.
HANDLING
Handling mud crabs is a critical stage in the supply chain. All employees involved need to be adequately
trained in basic hygiene and food handling with regard to their personal responsibilities (e.g. washing,
protective clothing, diseases). Procedures must be developed to minimize the risk of mud crabs being
contaminated. These include ensuring that the product is:
• handled on surfaces that are clean and sanitized;

• protected from contamination;
• not exposed to disease (from staff);
• only handled by staff following rigorous and effective washing.
• detailed, site-specific procedures should be documented and regularly checked by
supervisory staff.
PACKING
For local, domestic markets, mud crabs can be packed in plastic crates or containers of various descriptions.
However, for export markets involving airfreight, wax-lined cardboard boxes, with ventilation holes at each
end of the box are commonly used .
Crabs should be packed so that claws are not facing the outer edge of the box, with head and claws tilted
towards the top of the box. This minimizes the risk of mud crabs becoming partially untied during transit
and pushing their claws through box walls, potentially damaging freight handlers. Each box should be
clearly identified as to the grade of crab, the packer’s number (to ensure the accountability of the packer),
receiver’s number (for traceability), date and total net weight of mud crabs packed. Prior to shipment, boxes
should be stacked neatly on pallets or similar.
TRANSPORTATION
The best processing of mud crabs can be ruined by poor procedures and practices during the transportation
process to market. The more steps there are in the transportation process, the more difficult it is to manage.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Get in to groups and discuss the importance of carrying out the different stages of post
harvest management.
2. Discuss the reason for crab fattening before marketing
3. Discuss how stress could affect crab quality.
SUMMARY
To get good quality crab for the market, it is important to keep them under suitable environment.
Cleanliness and proper hygiene together with proper harvesting, post- harvest management and marketing
could result in profit.
190
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss post -harvest management practices that could be carried out with your chosen livestock.
LESSON 9 USES OF CRABS AND ITS BY – PRODUCT.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the uses of crabs and its by- products.
NOTES
USES OF CRABS
Linkstofood.com www.jospices.com
Snowcrablove.com iFood.tv 123RF.com
Cooked Crab
Kidrated.com 2wired2tired.com pinterest.com
191
Tourist attraction
USES OF CRAB BY PRODUCTS
1. Crab meal for livestock/ shrimp

2. shells for decorations
3. use as fish bait
4. Horseshoe crab blood can detect and trap bacterial toxins
5. Its blood is harvested for a test to ensure medical products are not contaminated
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Name some other uses of Crabs and its by- product that are not mentioned in this lesson.
SUMMARY
The end product of rearing crab is its uses, if they are damaged somehow along the process, less or no
income would be obtained.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss in groups a recipe for cooking crab.
192
AS 13.4.1.1.3 Explore and outline the classification, species and the major groupings of river
mussels in Fiji.
LESSON 1 Classification, species and river mussel major identification grouping.
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss Classification, species and river mussel major
identification grouping.
NOTES
Like prawns and crabs, river mussels have very high demand in Fiji markets and commercializing its
farming could solve the problem of poverty (food and income), meet market demands and improve living
standard. Knowing its classification and species present will enable the farmer to meet its growth needs.
Livestock
Ref : en.wikipedia.org
phylum Mollusca
class Bivalvia
order Unionoida
Batissa violacea California floater (Anodonta californiensis)
Ref : ffwrfromfiji.wordpress.com
Ref : www.xerces.org
(Corbicula fluminea) green mussel (P. viridis)
Ref : Aquafind.com
Ref :Eattheweeds.com
193
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Get in to groups, try to identify and differentiate the Batissa violacea species in this lesson. 2. List and
discuss other species you have seen and discuss their characteristics.
SUMMARY
The freshwater clam (Batissa violacea, Corbiculidae) (Lamarck, 1818), is a non-marine edible mollusk
indigenous of Cagayan River, the largest river in the Philippines, reported to also occur across the western
Pacific including Malaysia, Indonesia, Northwestern Australia, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea.The freshwater
clam Batissa violacea, known locally as Kai, is found in all major river systems in Fiji.
LESSON 2 HABITAT AND FEEDING METHOD
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the habitat and feeding method of mussels in major rivers
in Fiji.
NOTES
B. violacea ( Kai) has become a source of income to most families in Fiji. It is also a source of food and is
mostly used in the traditional food preparation for chiefs in some parts of the Central group.
Habitat.
The clam can be found in sandy or muddy beds of freshwater and brackishwater , rivers and mangrove
swamps and the bivalves increases its number when other water quality parameters are at optimum
condition
This indigenous freshwater clam B. violacea is ecologically important and has socio-economic and cultural
values just like other mollusks.
Feeding
Like other bivalve (e.g Mercenaria mercenaria, Lutraria philippinarum), the clam burrows under the sand
and extend its long siphon to the surface for feeding.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss how river mussels feed in water.
2. Discuss the history of B. violacea in Fiji.
SUMMARY
River mussels have now been wide spread in all major rivers in Fiji. Their hardy characteristic enables them
to survive and spread quickly in large numbers. Health concern could be raised if river pollution
continuous.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss the types of river mussels you find in your community, compare it with the appearance of B.
violacea
194
LESSON 3 Harvesting and Marketing
LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss the harvesting methods of river mussels.
NOTES
1. There are varying methods that the women use to dive for Kai and they mentioned the use of bamboo or
a raft made from bamboo’s to assist them in the collection
2. Collection of B. violacea is being done during sunny days in which water is calm, clear and the water
level is low ( low tied)
3. The time of collection is early in the morning from either 6:00- 7:00 A.M up to 12:00-17:00 P.M.
Harvesting Method
The basic equipment often used to collect Kai include a (i) bamboo raft; (ii) an underwater mask or
swimming goggles, (iii) a sack or cloth material to collect the Kai in and (iv) a neck basket.
Common method used in Fiji is the use of 2-4 bamboo poles which are secured together firmly with an
anchor line fastened to one end of the poles to avoid drifting. The anchor is fashioned out of metal or other
heavy objects to allow for the small raft to remain stationary once a site with many Kai is located. Other
fishers use a larger bamboo raft which would require up to 8 or 9 bamboo poles .Once the raft is stationary,
the fisher would then use a basket or material slung over the neck to allow for easy collection). Once the
fisher is out of breath or the basket is full, they would proceed to placing the catch into a sack or bigger
basket that would either be hanging on the raft or sitting on the raft.
Causes of low catch
• Natural occurrence such as typhoon, continuous raining, weather variability and flooding. The
presence of these natural occurrences limits the collectors to gather the clam in the river otherwise
their life will be at risk.
• Also, the collectors believe that the rapid water velocity during flooding could drag the clams to
sand-point bar part of the river up to the sea resulting to mortality of clams.
• Another reason for the low abundance observed was due to the higher number of gatherers today as
compared before.
Recommendations
1. control the operation of dredging in the river to maintain the supply of the clam in the province
2. regulate the size of clams harvested this will allow the small clams to grow up to a marketable size which
is highly valued.
3. proportion of mature individuals be left in the river to allow natural breeding to take place.
Marketting
Once the Kai is brought home in the collection sacks, it is divided into piles through the use of 2L ice cream
containers. A container full would constitute a pile of Kai valued at FJD5 at the local markets.
195
Due to the reduction in the number of villagers diving for Kai, the fishers stated that there is an abundance of
Kai in the river beds now. The price of one 50 Kg sack filled with Kai is normally $50 and the price can
increase to $70 per sack when there aren’t a lot of Kai in the market.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
1. Discuss the causes of low catch and recommend ways of overcoming it.
2. Discuss the best time to harvest Kai (B. violacea) and give a reason.
SUMMARY
Production of Kai are seasonal, during the cooler months the mussels do not have a good quality as they
become light and flat in comparison to the warmer months when they are full and have softer flesh.
SELF EVALUATION
Discuss in groups the difference in the content in river mussel during the two main season in Fiji.
LESSON 4 USES OF RIVER MUSSELS AND THEIR BY-PRODUCT.

LESSON OUTCOME
At the end of this lesson the student will discuss uses of river mussels and their uses.
NOTES
Uses of Kai - B. violacea

Food source Food source
Ref:tropicsuntravel.com
Traditional food Presentation Income generation
Ref : AllPosters.com pinterest.com
196
Uses of By Products
1. shells are usually used to open and straighten voivoi leaves used for mat weaving
2. Used shells are usually neatly arranges outside homes of consumers to help hold
the soil in place.
3. It is also used to indicate to the home owners the presence of a visitor coming toward
their home.
4. shells are also used for decoration purposes.
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Discuss in groups other uses of river mussels and it’s by- products which are not mentioned in this lesson.
SUMMARY
River mussel’s shells are used for decoration in homes, gardens and are used by Fiji women to straighten
panda nous leaves before weaving. Apart from this they are the source of income and food to most families
along major rivers in the Island.
SELF EVALUATION
In your groups design post -harvest ways to increase the self-live of river mussels .
197
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Mactridae) and its fishery in the Philippines. Rev. Biol. Trop. 2012; 60(4):1807-18.
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business/#ixzz4T4YMP0jL
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem
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www.agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/dairy/managing-effluent/pond-site-selection
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The Ministry of Education owns the copyright of this text book, Agricultural Science for Year 13, which

is on the Year 13 Agricultural Science Syllabus, 2018.

Copyright ©28th January, 2018

Welcome to Agriculture for Year 13.

It has been written and compiled by:

STRAND SUB-STRAND PAGE

CONCEPTS  AS 13.1.1.1 Import and Export Legislation

MANAGEMENT  AS 13.2.1 Internal combustion engine

LESSON 1 IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS

Current statistics that shows our international trade

Top 10 Exports Destinations of Crop & Livestock Commodities

The figure shows the

Fiji imported crops &

CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME

LESSON 1 CURRENT ISSUE THAT IMPACT IMPORT AND EXPORT OF AGRICULTURAL

Some of the threats in International marketing are the increasing:

4. Guidance and Regulation

• Strategy on Food and Nutrition Security in relation to Climate change

• Economic Development – economic earning, high value crop development

• Biological and Organic production – effective and sustainable techniques.

• Trade Facilitation and Market Access

3. Food and Nutrition Security

5. Biological and Organic production

CONTENT LEARNING OUTCOME

LESSON 1 Green Economy and Sustainable Development Goals

PILLARS OF BENEFITS SUSTAINABLE

2 ENVIRONMENTAL Increased productivity and efficiency of natural Clean water and

LESSON 1: Green Job

Types of Green jobs.

SECTOR GREEN JOBS

Agriculture and Landscape Architects

Clean Transportation Rail-Track Laying and Maintenance Equipment Operators.

Renewable Energy Computer Software Engineers.

Green Policy and Public Relations Specialists.

Green Funding Personal Financial Advisors.

LESSON 1: CAREERS RELATED TO THIS SYLLABUS

Careers Essential information Education Requirements. Career Pathways/Duration

Program Length about 3-4

• Mechanical Mechanical engineers Mechanical engineers work in

Ensure good animal

Organize and conduct

LESSON 1 ESSENTIAL PART AND FUNCTIONS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ESSENTIAL PARTS OF AN INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE.

PARTS FUNCTION PICTURES

Cylinder head The top end of cylinder is closed by

Piston A piston is fitted to each cylinder as

Piston rings Piston should be light and sufficient

Crankshaft The crankshaft of an internal

Crankcase The main body of the engine

Valves To control the inlet and

Gudgeon pin These are hardened steel

LESSON TWO: TWO TYPES OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

LESSON THREE: PRINCIPLES OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

PRINCIPLES OF A SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

TWO STROKE ENGINE

PRINCIPLES OF A TWO STROKE ENGINE

1. Induction and Compression Stroke

PRINCIPLES OF A COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

SPARK IGNITION COMPRESSION IGNITION

LESSON 6: MAINTENANCE OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

An oil filter is a filter designed to remove contaminants from engine oil,

TRACTOR SYSTEM THAT REQUIRES MAINTENANCE

Each of these need regular maintenance: -