TOPIC ONE

 OBJECTIVES:

After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Describe different methods of acquiring knowledge.
Explaining the meaning of the term, research.
Identify different types of research.
Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research paradigms.
State six characteristics of qualitative research.
Define the following terms: variable, problem, and hypothesis.
Write research problem, research questions and null hypotheses that relate to
a given research problem.
8. Identify the main components of a research proposal.
9. Develop a research proposal.

Introduction
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This unit deals with the question, why conduct educational research? This is
followed by a description of different types of research, paradigms of social
research and basic elements of research. Finally, the unit deals briefly with each
major stage in the research process: the problem, research design, measurements
design, data collection, and report writing. Key concepts in social research are
discussed.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Methods of acquiring knowledge can be grouped into two main types: non-
scientific and scientific ways of knowing.

Non- Scientific (Everyday Ways of Knowing)

Non - scientific methods are based on faith, accepting things at phase value. When
people rely on knowledge that they have not questioned or tested, they are using
non - scientific methods way of knowing. There are four ways of non - scientific
methods knowing. These are briefly described below.

Authority

This method depends on established belief. It involves believing something

because people have faith in the person who said it. If a noted person says that
something in his/her area of specialization is true, it is so. This method allows
people to hide their superficiality of their knowledge; it is subjective and other
weaknesses in their arguments.

e Method of Tenacity (or Custom)

People often cling to their beliefs in the face of clearly conflicting facts. They even
go to the extent of inferring “new” knowledge from beliefs that may be false.
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Many people tend to believe things simply because most people in their society
assume them to be true.

Method of Intuition

This method is based on reason. Proponents of this method argue that human
beings have the ability to reason and reach truth, and that a priori propositions
agree with reason and not necessarily with experience.

The Mystical Methods

In this method, the correctness of the knowledge is assumed to reside the

supernatural source. In this case, knowledge producers are an authority due their
ability to transmit the truth or knowledge imparted to them by supernatural forces.

The Scientific Method

The word science is derived from the Latin noun, Scientia (meaning knowledge)
and the verb, soire (meaning “to know). The scientific method of acquiring
knowledge, also known as scientific research is systematic investigation of a
question, phenomenon, and/or problem following some principle.

Properties Scientific research Methods.

 Research is empirical since the aim is to know reality

 It is methodological; it depends on a planned, systematic and logical process
of investigation

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  It is replicable and transmittable; this means anyoe placed in the same
situation can observe the same event and reasoning.
 It is public
 It is cumulative and self- correcting.
 It is cyclic. This means that it starts logically with a problem and ends with a
tentative empirical generalization.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. What are the differences between everyday methods of knowing and

the scientific methods?

2. Find out the advantages of every methods of knowing

The Purpose of Social Science Research

 The generation, advancement and development of knowledge on the
social science process and also the administrative styles and mode of
operation of social enterprise.
 It enables researchers and policy makers to solve social problems.

Contribution of Research to Knowledge

 Description
Many studies involve the description of natural or man-made
phenomenon; in their form, change over time, relation to other
phenomena etc. Descriptive studies have greatly increased our

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 knowledge about what happens in the social sector. E.g. the spread of
HIV/Aids among the married couples.
 Prediction
This is the ability to predict or anticipate a phenomenon that will
occur at a certain time from information available at an earlier time.
 Control/Improvement of the Social Phenomena
This is concerned with intervention programmes i.e.

Characteristics of Social Science Research

 Research attempts to solve an educational or social problem.

 Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or

using existing data for a new purpose.

 Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

 Research demands accurate observable and description.

 Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous

analysis.

 Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principals, or

theories that will help in undertaking predictions and control.

 Research requires expertise – familiarity with the field; competence in

methodology; technical skills in collection and analyzing data.

 Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and

takes great pains to validate the procedures employed.

 Research is a deliberate and unhurried activity, which is directional but often

refines the problem or questions as the study progresses.
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Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the
problem.

DEFINITION OF BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH

 Population: this refers to the entire group of individuals, events or

objects having common observable characteristics,

e.g. all the diabetes patients in Thika district., all teenagers who are addicted to
drugs in Nairobi west district.

A researcher first defines the population to which he/she wants to generalize the
results.

For some studies the number of a given population may be large or scattered
a wide geographical area, thus a lot of time, money and personnel may be
required to locate all the members in order to select a representative sample.
Hence researchers draw the sample from an “accessible population”.

E.g. All diabetic patients attending clinics in Thika district

All teenagers going through rehabilitation from drug addiction in Thika

District

 Sample; this a smaller group obtained from the accessible population. Each
member or case in the sample is referred to as the subject or respondent or
interviewee.

E.g. One hundred diabetic patients from Thika District

One hundred teenagers recovering from drug addiction in rehabilitation

centre’s in Thika District.
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 Sampling; this is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a
study in such a way that the individuals selected represent the large group
from which they were selected.
The main purpose for sampling is to secure a representative group which
will enable the researcher to gain information about a population.

 Variable; this is a measurable characteristic which assumes different values

among the subject or respondents.
Variables are attributes that are expressed quantitatively e.g. age is
expressed in years, height in meters, occupation as a farmer, teacher, nurse,
doctor etc, gender in male or female.
There are different classification of variables e.g. dependent, independent,
intervening, confounding and antecedent variables.

 Data; this is all the information a researcher gathers for his/her study.
There are two types of data recognized by researchers
a) Primary data; this is the information e researcher obtains from the field
i.e. from the respondents.
b) Secondary data; this is the information a researcher obtains from articles,
books etc
Data may also be classified as qualitative (words, phrases) and
quantitative (numerical).
 Parameters; these like variables are characteristics that are measurable
and can assume different values in the population.
The difference between a parameter and a variable is that a parameter refers
to a population characteristic while a variable is related to a characteristic of
the sample drawn from the population.

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 Statistics; this is the science of organizing, describing and analyzing
quantitative data. Statistics is also defined as the indices which are derived
data through statistical procedures, e.g. mean, median, standard deviation,
correlation coefficients etc.
 Descriptive statistics; these are indices that describe a given sample. E.g.
of descriptive statistics are measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode), measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance),
distributions (percentages, frequencies) and relationships (correlations).
 Objectives; this any kind of desired end or condition. Thus objectives in
research studies is refer to specific aspects of the phenomenon under study
that the researcher desires to bring out at the end of the research study. E.g. a
researcher may want to carry out a study on the factors that contribute to
malnutrition of children in Kenya.

The objectives of such a study would be;

a) Explore how knowledgeable the parents are about nutrition in
children.
b) Identify the measures taken by parents to curb malnutrition in their
families.
c) Establish the socio-economic status of the parents of malnourished
children.
d) Identify the common causes of malnutrition in Kenya.
 Problem Statement; this is a specific statement that clearly conveys the
purpose of the research study. It focuses on the phenomenon that the
researcher desires to describe, predict, control or explain.

E.g. the purpose of this study is to establish the reasons as to why teenagers
get easily addicted to narcotics
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 The purpose of this study is to compare the effects of teaching methods in
physics, lecturing and the practical approach.
 Hypothesis; it is a tentative answer to a research problem. In qualitative
research a hypothesis is expressed in terms of relationship between two
variables.

 Summary

In this unit we have identified and explained the different methods of acquiring
knowledge. These include: daily experiences, authority, tenacity, intuition,
supernatural revelation, and the scientific method. Certain fundamental

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Give four reasons why every psychologist should conduct research

8marks

 Briefly describe six types of research that psychologist are likely to

conduct 12marks

FURTHER READING

9
 Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education.
London: Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC TWO

 OBJECTIVES:
After reading this unit you should be able to:

State and explain the characteristics of qualitative research

Discuss, using appropriate examples, the key methods of generating qualitative

data

State and explain critical steps in designing qualitative research

State and explain the characteristics and applications of historical research

Explain the concept and process of experimental research.

APPROACHES
Explain the purposeOF
andRESEARCH
application of correlation research

1. The Qualitative Research Paradigm

 Qualitative research is the systematic collection, analysis and

interpretation of data in order to provide descriptions and accounts of
social events and objects of research in their natural setting. E.g. case
studies and ethnography.

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There are three methods of collecting qualitative date

 Direct observation; the required behavior is observed in a

particular setting.

 In-depth open ended interviews; this include direct quotation

from people about experiences and knowledge and background
information of the respondents.

 Documents analysis; this involves going through quotations or

entire passages from records, correspondence, official reports.

Advantages of qualitative methods

 They permit the research to study selected issues, cases or

events in depth and detail.

 Researchers using qualitative methods strive to understand

programs and situations as a whole.

 Researchers using qualitative methods have direct personal

contacts with the people in the program in their own
environment. This enables them to understand the realities of
daily program life.

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 Main Features of Qualitative Research Methods

 It provides descriptions and accounts of the processes of social

interaction in “natural settings”. Qualitative researchers are
more interested in describing processes than outcomes.

 It aims at generating theories and hypotheses from data that

emerge. It does not aim at testing pre-conceived hypotheses. It
begins with scientific observations and builds up towards
general patterns.

 It uses observational techniques and interview methods on small

samples of target groups to gain in-depth understanding of a
program, project.

 Qualitative researchers use purposive sampling.

 The data produced is not easily quantifiable for statistical

analysis.

 Data id analyzed inductively.

2. The Quantitative Research Paradigm

Quantitative researches methods are usually used when a researcher wants to

obtain a large body of data of perform statistical analysis in order to produce
results that can be generalized to a target population. In this paradigm the
data collection tools include questionnaires and achievement tests.
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 Random sampling id done to ensure that the sample is representative.

The research designs used in the paradigm are experimental, causal-

comparative and correlation research.

 Main Features of Quantitative Research Methods

 Quantitative research yields data that is quantifiable. It normally

wants to know the frequencies of occurrence of an event and
percentages of people involved, e.g. how many students
dropped out of primary school due to pregnancies, percentage
of teenager who have been rehabilitated from drug addiction
etc

 Qualitative research methods require large samples of

individuals.

 Data is analyzed deductively.

 It is concerned with theory testing or verification.

ACTIVITY 1:

1. Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative research

approaches.

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TYPES OF RESEARCH

1. Classification by Purpose.

Basic Research

 This also called “Pure” or “Fundamental “research. It is

interested in deriving/increase of knowledge. It results in fuller
understanding of the subject matter under study and the
generalization of theories. In basic research the primary aim of
the investigator is not to produce data for practical use but to
enhance the understanding of the subject matter.

Applied Research

 Applied research is conducted for the purpose of applying or

testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems.
It provides data to support theory, guide theory revision, or
suggest the development of new theory. The main aim of the
researcher is to generate knowledge which of immediate practical
use

Action Research

 Action research is conducted with the primary intention of

solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a local
setting. E.g. a researcher could investigate ways of overcoming
water shortage in a certain geographical area.

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Action research is not concerned with whether the results are
generalized to any other setting since its major goal is seek a solution
to a given problem.

It’s very useful because it provides answers to problems that cannot

wait for theoretical solutions.

Evaluation Research

Gay (1981) defines evaluation research as the systematic process of

collecting and analyzing data in order to make decisions. Evaluation
research is therefore a process of determining whether the intended
results were realized.

Purpose of Evaluation Research

 Utility; an evaluation has utility if it is informative,

timely and useful ti the affected persons.

 Feasibility; an evaluation design is feasible if it is

appropriate to the setting in which the study will be
conducted. An evaluation design is also feasible if it is
cost effective, that is if the study is worth the cost.

 Propriety; an evaluation has propriety if the rights of the

persons affected by the evaluation are protected.

 Accuracy; this refers to the extent to which the evaluation

study produces valid, reliable and comprehensive
information about the phenomenon being evaluated.

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 Types of Evaluation Research

a) Needs Assessment

A need can be defined as discrepancy between an existing set of

conditions and a desired set of conditions. This type of evaluation
research is important because the results of the needs assessment study
provide the foundation for developing new programmes and for making
changes in the existing ones.

b) Formative Evaluation

The main purpose of formative evaluation is to collect data about projects

while they are being developed. The results can be used by the project
developers to modify the project if need be or to stop the project
altogether.

c) Summative Evaluation

This type of evaluation occurs after the programme has been fully
implemented/developed. It is conducted to evaluate how worthwhile the
final programme has been, especially as compared to other similar
programmes.

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 ACTIVITY 2:
1. When is formative and summative evaluation research carried out?

2. Classification by Method.

 Descriptive Research

This is the systematic collection and analysis of data in order to

answer questions or test hypotheses concerning the current status of a
project or activity.

In descriptive research, data is collected by means of questionnaires,

interviews, content analysis and observations.

The main purpose of descriptive research is to determine and report

things the way they are. It attempts to describe such things as possible
behavior, attitudes, values and characteristics.

The steps followed in descriptive research are;

 Formulation of the objectives of the study,

 Designing the methods of data collection

 Selecting the sample,

 Collecting data

 Analyzing the data.

 Causal-comparative

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This kind of research attempts to identify the relationships between
variables. It determines the reason or cause for the current status of the
phenomenon under study.

It is often used in place of the experimental design because many

cause-and –effect relationships that we wish to study do not permit
experimental manipulation.

E.g. a researcher may observe that boys are more prone to drug
addiction than girls and set out to identify the major factors which
have led to this difference.

Steps in Causal-Comparative research

 Define the research question

 Select a group that possesses the characteristics which the

researcher wants to study

 Select a comparison group which does not display the

characteristics under study, in order to permit comparison
but which is similar to the study group in other aspects

 Data are collected for both the experimental and the

control group

 Analyze the data collected for both groups

The advantages of Causal-Comparative

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 a) It allows a comparison of groups without having to
manipulate the independent variables

b) It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of

experimental investigation.

Disadvantages of Causal- Comparative

a) Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not

know whether a particular variable is cause or result of the
behavior being studied.

b) There may be a third variable which could be affecting the

established relationship in the causal-comparative study
but which may not be established in the study.

ACTIVITY 3
1. Explain the causal-comparative research design

Correlation Methods

These methods describe in quantitative terms the degree to which

variables are related. It involves collection of data in order to
determine to what degree a relationship exists between two
quantifiable variables.

The degree of relationship is expressed in terms of a correlation

coefficient (r).
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 Steps in Correlation Research

 Problem statement

 Selection of subjects

 Data collection

 Data analysis

Advantages of correlation studies

 This method permits one to analyze inter-relationship

among a large number of variables in a single study.

 It also allows one to analyze how several variables either

singly or in combination might affect a particular
phenomenon being studies

 The method provides information concerning the degree

of relationship between the variables being studied.

Disadvantages of Correlation studies

 Correlation between two variables does not necessarily

imply causation although researchers often tend to
interpret such relationship to mean causation.

 A correlation coefficient is an index and therefore any

two variables will always have a relationship even when
common sense dictates that such variables are not related.

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 E.g. a correlation can be computed between weight and
level of education even though this relationship is
meaningless.

 The correlation coefficient, it is very sensitive to the size

of the sample. If the data collected from two subjects only
the value of the correlation coefficient will be exactly
equal to 1.0. As sample size increases, the correlation
drops and then stabilizes when the sample size is big
enough. Therefore small samples in correlation studies
yield erroneous results.

ACTIVITY 4:
1. Briefly describe correlation design

 Survey Research

A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population to

determine the current status of that population with respect to one or
more variables. Survey research is therefore a self-report study which
requires the collection of quantifiable information from the sample.

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 Information collected through surveys may be used for various
purposes e.g. market researchers use survey to evaluate products
acceptance and use.

Purpose of Survey Research

 It seeks to obtain information that describes existing

phenomenon by asking the individuals about their
perceptions, attitudes, behavior or values.

 It can be used for explaining or exploring the existing

status of two or more variables, at a given point in time.

 It is the best method for social scientists who are

interested in collecting data for the purpose of describing
a population which is too large to observe directly.

 It is an excellent way of measuring the characteristic of a

large population.

Steps Involved in Survey

 Problem statement

 Defining objectives

 Selecting a sample

 Preparing instruments

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  Data collection

 Data analysis

Limitations of Survey

 It is dependent on the cooperation of the respondents. If

data collection procedures are erroneous, the responses
given may be inaccurate and hence the whole study is
flawed.

 Information unknown to the respondents cannot be

tapped in a survey e.g. salary earned by wife/husband.

 Asking for information which is secret and personal

encourages incorrect answers

ACTIVITY 5

1. Discuss the purpose of survey design under the following:

 Purpose of Survey Research

 Steps Involved

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  Historical Research

Historical research is the systematic collection end evaluation of data

about past events so as to identify causes and effects of those events in
order to understand and explain present events.

Historical research studies do not gather data by administering

instruments to individuals because it seeks data that is already
available.

The researcher determines if the data adequately explores the events in

which he/she is interested in.

Sources of Historical or Documentary Research

Primary Sources; these comprise firsthand knowledge e.g. eyewitness

reports and original documents.

Secondary Sources; these comprise second hand information e.g.

description of an event by persons other than the eyewitnesses

Examples of Historical Sources

 Expressive documents which include personal letters, life

histories(diaries and autobiographies)

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  Official records which may include legal records, legal
instruments such as contracts, wills, court decisions etc.

 Creative productions such as works of art, literature,

photographs, costumes and museum pieces

Purpose of Historical Research

It aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past

occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future
events.

There are many social issues and problems which are better understood or
studied in the light of past experiences, e.g.

 Histories of specific individuals

 Histories of educational institutions

 Histories of political systems

 Histories of important events in the country such as wars,

natural calamities etc

Steps involved in historical research

 Identifying and delineating the problem

 Developing hypotheses or objectives that one is interested

in testing

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  Collect and classify resource materials, determining facts
by internal and external criticism

 Organizing facts into results

 Interpreting data in terms of stated hypotheses or theory

 Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized

form

Evaluating Historical Data

1. External Criticism

This involves establishing the authenticity of the sources of

data. This is necessary because there are some fraudulent
documents that may be given by some people with ill motives.

External criticism is basically for establishing the historical

truth of the documents.

2. Internal Criticism

This involves the establishment if the validity of the content of

the source, regardless of its authorship or genuineness.

This is difficult because there are usually omissions, addition,

errors etc especially in old documents, or in documents that
have been translated from one language into another.

ACTIVITY 6
Differentiate between primary and secondary sources of
information in historical research.

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  Observational Research

In this type of research the current status of things is determined not

by asking but by observation. E.g. instead of asking in-patients how
they are being handled in a hospital one could actually observe the
nurses and doctors and get more objective information

Conducting Observational Research

 Selection and definition of the problem

 Sample selection

 Definition of observational variables

 Recording observational information

 Data analysis and interpretation

Types of observational Research

a) Non-participant observation

In this type the observer is not directly involved in the situation to be

observed. The observe is “on the outside looking in” and does not
interact or affect the objects of the observation.

b) Naturalistic observation.

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 Since certain kinds of behavior can only be observed as they occur
naturally, the researcher does not control or manipulate the subjects or
the environment in any way. The purpose of naturalistic observation is to
record and study behavior as it naturally occurs.

c) Participant observation

Here the observer actually becomes a part of, or a participant in the

situation. The subjects may not know about the participant observer. The
justification of this methods is that the view from inside is somewhat
different from the view from the outside looking, thus it gives more valid
results.

This method has its own shortcomings

 There is the question about the ethics involved in observing people

without their knowledge and recording conversations with
concealed recording devices.

 There is also the problem of the impact of the observer’s

participation on the situation and subjects.

ACTIVITY 7:

1. Discuss three types of observation research

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d) Ethnography

This method involves very intensive data collection. The data collected
on many variables are collected over an extended period of time in a
natural setting. The rationale behind using ethnography is the belief that
behavior is greatly influence by the environment in which it occurs.

The main characteristic of ethnography is that the observer uses

continuous observation trying to record everything that occurs in the
setting being studied. Lengthy hand written notes are usually made.

Advantages

 It provides a very complete picture of the environment being

studied

 Since observational studies extend over several months, they give

a longitudinal perspective not possible with many other types of
research

 The hypotheses or theories developed are grounded solidly in

observational data gathered in a naturalistic setting.

Disadvantages

 Requires a very alert and sophisticated observer who can write

clearly and rapidly.

 In order to have valid results the observers must be trained in

observational techniques.

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  It is very costly because a lot of time is needed to understand the
environment being studied.

 Observational records are usually very long and very difficult to

quantify and interpret.

 The results can seriously be distorted by the observer’s bias or

preconceived ideas.

 A lot of information is left out because it is impossible to observe

and write everything that occurs in the observational session.

 There can be role conflict and emotional involvement as the

observer becomes an active participant in the environment which
can reduce the validity of the data being collected.

e) Cases Studies

A case study is an in-depth investigation of in an individual, group,

institution or phenomenon. Most case studies are based on the premise
that a case can be located that is typical of many other cases. The case
understudy is viewed as an example of a class of events or a group of
individuals.

The primary purpose of case study is to determine factors and

relationships among factors that have resulted in the behavior under
study. The investigation therefore takes a detailed examination of a single
group or phenomenon.

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f) Content analysis

Definition

Content analysis is the systematic qualitative description of the

composition of the objects or materials of the study. In other words,
content analysis involves observation and detailed description of objects,
items, or things that comprise the sample.

Purpose

The main purpose of content analysis is to study existing documents such

as books, magazines, photographs etc., in order to determine factors that
explain a specific phenomenon. The following methods are involved in
carrying out content analysis

1. Decide on the unit of analysis. These are individual units about which
descriptive and explanatory statements are to be made.

2. Sample the content to be analyzed, e.g paragraphs, chapters in a book,

book phrases, or even sentences.

3. Coding – This involves logical grouping of the data. This enables the
researcher to apply quantitative or qualitative methods of data
analysis.

4. Data analysis.

5. Compiling results and interpretations.

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Advantages of content analysis

1. Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money. This

is because data collection is not as tedious as in most other studies.

2. Errors which arise during the study are easier to detect and correct

3. The method has no effect on what is being studied – compare this

with human objects.

Disadvantages

1. It is limited to recorded communication

2. since the information is already recorded. It is difficult to ascertain

the validity of the data

 Summary

In this second unit of our module, we have identified and explained the
characteristics and uses of both qualitative and quantitative research. We
have also explained, by use of appropriate examples, the different types
of research such as Basic research, applied research. action research and
Evaluation. Lastly, we looked at the classification of research by method;
such include Descriptive, Causal-comparative, Correlation, Survey,
Historical, Observation, Ethnography, and Case study.

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 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Using appropriate examples give the distinction between

a) Basic and applied research

b) quantitative and qualitative research

 Explain the concept and application of any five (5) types of

research

FURTHER READING

Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education.

London: Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC THREE

Stages in the Research Process

Research is a process which consists of inter-related activities. The following are
the main stages in the research process. The research process is cyclic. It starts
logically with problem selection and formulation. This stage includes the
33
formulation of hypothesis. The process ends in a tentative empirical generalization.
In qualitative research the generalizations are made as data is being collected

 OBJECTIVES:

1. Selection and definition of the research problem

 Selecting the topic for research and identification of the research
problem.
 Reviewing related literature
 Formulating the research problem.

 Formulating specific research question, objectives and hypothesis

 Defining concepts

2. Selection of the research design and methodology

a) Choice of research design
b) Description of the sample and sampling procedures
3. Measurement design
a) Identification of data collection procedures
b) Construction of research instruments

4. Data collection
Collection of data using a variety of research instrument
5. Data analysis
a) Data organization
b) Data processing
c) Quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
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 6. Generalization
a) Interpretation of data
b) Conclusion and recommendations
c) Production of the research report
The process is diagrammatically presented in figure 1 below.
Figure1: The Main Stages of the Research Process.

Problem

Research Design
Generalization

Measurement Design
Data Analysis

Data Collection

Each stage of the research process is described briefly below.

Defining the problem

Before conducting any research, you should decide on the major problem area that
interest you. Normally this will be your field of specialty. Examples of such areas
are:
 Diabetic patients
 The challenges of bringing up a physically/mentally challenged child
35
  Challenges children from dysfunctional homes

Next, you should select a specific topic for research. This should be done after
thorough review of literature on the general area. After identifying the topic,
narrow it down to a specific research problem.

The following are some sources of research problems:

 Direct observation of the needs of the society.
 Knowledge and experience of counselors and psychologist
 Related literature – including dissertation abstracts, journals,
psychology index and research reports on the topic.

The following are some examples of specific topics:

 An assessment of integrated methods of teaching in primary schools
in Kisumu District
 Factors that make parents keep physically and mentally challenged
children away from the public.

The final activity in this stage is definition of the research problem. A problem is a
difficulty to which a solution or answer is being sought in the study. The first step
in defining a research problem is to ask yourself the question, “What do I want to
find out?”
Some characteristics of a good research problem are:
 It should be one which can be investigated thorough the collection and
analysis of data.
 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
 It generates a number of more specific research questions.

36
  It relates to an academic discipline such as psychology, education,
science etc.
 It has a basis in the research literature.
 It should have potential significance. It should be important to you
and other people as well, i.e. it should be one whose solution will
contribute to improvement of the society.
 It should be one that you can carry out within the available timeframe
and budget.
 Sufficient data should be available or can be obtained to address it.
 It must be one that you can adequately investigate given your research
skills, available time and other resources.

Stating Research Questions, Objectives and Hypotheses

After stating the research problem, you should break down the general problem
into a set of concrete research questions, Objectives and hypotheses that will be
investigated separately.
For example, the problem, “What the attitudes of parents are of
physically/mentally challenged children?” includes consideration of such factors as
sex of parents, their socioeconomic background and location of their homes. These
considerations generate one research question as shown below.

Research Question 1: Is there any difference in attitudes of parents towards

physically/mentally challenged children when categorized by;
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
37
  Location of school (rural/urban)
Objectives of the study
This study was designed to investigate the attitudes of parents towards
physically/mentally challenged children when categorized by
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
 Location of school (rural/urban)

To guide the study, the following objectives have been selected:

 To determine the attitudes of parents towards physically/mentally
challenged children
 To determine whether there are any relationships between of the
parents and those of the society.
 To make recommendations for the improvement of the relationship
between physically/mentally challenged children and the
parents/society.
Formulation and Statement of hypotheses

Following the statement of the research problem and research questions, the null
hypotheses are stated. A well defined hypothesis should have the following
characteristics:
 It must be testable with available techniques.
 It should be possible to reject by collecting and analyzing data.
 It should conjecture upon a relationship between two or more
variables
 It should be stated clearly and ambiguously.

38
 Since it is extremely difficult to unequivocal support for hypothesis, the
researcher instead attempts to test and disapprove its negation. The negative
version of no significant difference between means scores of two or more
groups is called null hypothesis and is symbolized by H O. The null
hypothesis is usually an expression of no significant relationship between
the variables. It suggest that the observed differences have occurred due to
chance variation and thus are not real differences. The other hypothesis is
the alternative or research hypothesis symbolized by H1.It states that a
difference or relationship exists between the variables.
The following are examples of null hypothesis:
H O: There is no significant difference between the attitudes of parents
towards physically/mentally challenged children when they are categorized
by
 Sex
 Socioeconomic background
 Location of school (rural/urban)
H O: there is no significant difference between the attitudes of women of
different social settings towards abuse in marriages.
Conceptual framework / theoretical framework
In this section, you should provide a theoretical explanation of the research design
used and describe the concepts, variable and theories underlying you study and
relationship among various variables. This section is naturally followed by a
definition of the terms used.
Example
Title: effective of family life education programme on students’ knowledge and
attitudes towards responsible parenthood.
Conceptual Framework

39
 The independent variables in this study age, gender, marital status, place of
residence (urban /rural). Knowledge of quality of life issues and attitude towards
responsible parenthood will be the dependent variables.

Students Gender

Student’s Age
Student’
Student’ Marital AttitudesTowards Students’
Status Responsible Knowledge of
Parenthood Quality of Life
issues
Students place of
birth
Determining the Research Design
Students’ Extent of
Attendance in Class

Research design refers to the procedure used by the researcher to select the sample,
administer the instruments and analyze the data. Your choice of research design is
influenced by the questions you intend to answer.

Measurement Design
The fourth stage of the research process involves the construction of research
instruments. Research instruments are the tools you will use to collect the data
necessary to answer your research questions and to test your hypothesis.
Collecting the Data
During this stage data is collected using a variety of methods including visits to
Education institutions, mailing questionnaires to respondents and content analysis
of Curriculum documents.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

40
Once data have been collected, they should be analyzed and interpreted. Specify
the techniques you will use to analyze data and the interpretative operations you
will perform on analyzed data.

Generalization
During this stage you should draw and state conclusion on the basis of the findings
of the study. The conclusion you make should be stated in terms of the original
research questions and hypothesis. Generalizations are statements of the
relationship between two or more concepts or variables. The following statements
are generalizations:
 The parents and the society need to be educated and sensitized on how to
handle the physically/mentally challenged in homes and society.
 If parents and society treat the physically/mentally challenged like normal
people and not like outcasts then it encourages them to live normal lives

RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Research Proposal Development
A research proposal is a plan that indicates the strategy the researcher intends to
use in search of answers to the main research question/ problem and specific
research questions.

The Purposes of the Research proposal

1. It compels the researcher to state all his/ her ideas in written form so that
they can be evaluated and improved upon by the researcher and others.
2. It can be easily submitted to several lectures for their comments and
suggestions.
3. It can be used as a guide for conducting the research project

Format of a Research proposal

41
The actual format of the research proposal, as well as its contents, can vary from
study to study. However, a research proposal should consist of the following
components in the order in which they are listed here.

1.0. Introduction.
1.1. Background of the problem
1.2. Statement of the problem
1.3. Research questions and hypothesis
1.4. Significance of the study
1.5. Delimitations and limitations of the study
1.6. Conceptual / theoretical framework
1.7. Operational definitions of terms

2.0 Review of Related Literature

3.0. Research Design and Methodology

3.1. Research design
3.2. Sampling and sampling procedures
3.3. Description of research instruments
3.4. Data collection procedures
3.5. Data analysis procedure
3.6. Work plan
3.7. Budget

Reference

Appendices

Each of these sections is discussed briefly below

Introduction

Background of the problem

42
The purpose of this section is to place the research in context. The section should
be as brief as possible. You should indicate that you are aware of related studies on
the topic and the extent to which those studies do not address the problem of your
study. The section includes a brief review of previous research in the field and a
statement of the questions which previous research studies leave unanswered.

Statement of the problem

A statement of the problem states clearly what you want to study. The question you
should ask yourself is what exactly do I want to investigate? The first part of the
statement of the problem points out a knowledge gap; the second part shows the
problem.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The statement of the problem is followed by specific research questions and
hypothesis. However, not all research studies require a formulation of hypothesis.

Significance/ Justification of the Study

In this section you should state the objectives and practical significance of your
study. Will it contribute to the general understanding of this field? How will the
results of the study lead to improvement of the projects and programmes in your
area of specialization? Discussed in this section is the reason why it is worth
knowing what the study hopes to find out.

Delimitation of the study

A single cannot cover all aspects of interest. It can be delimited to certain types of
people e.g. women, children with a certain kind of psychological issue,
geographical area, etc. These should be stated and justified. This section describes
the limits or scope of the study. The reasons why the researcher is not extending
beyond the determined scope are explained.

Limitations of the study

Limitations refer to constrains that the researcher has no control over. Some
limitations are: lack of adequate time and funds and inability of some respondents
to express themselves fluently in the language used for the interview.
43
Conceptual Framework / Theoretical Framework
In this section, you should describe the main independent and dependent variable
in the study and the relationship among them.

Definition of Terms
All the variables that will be manipulated must be defined. In addition, terms
which may convey different meanings different people should be defined.

Review of Related Literature

Literature review should show what others have said about the topic.
Review of pertinent literature serves four main purposes:
1. It enables you to determine studies that have already been done, thus
avoiding duplication.
2. It makes it possible for you to identify research strategies and instruments
which have been found effective in investigating your problem. This will
help you to profit from the experiences of other researchers and to avoid
their mistakes
3. It facilitates interpretation of the finding of your study
4. It enables you to identify gaps in knowledge as well as weakness in previous
studies. These weakness help to select and define your research problem.

The following are some sources of literature

1. Relevant textbooks
2. Relevant professional journals e.g. Journal of (Education, medicine,
psychology etc)
3. Dissertation abstracts
4. Student’ undergraduate and postgraduate dissertations
5. Psychological abstracts
6. Currents index to journals of psychology
7. Dissertation abstracts international
8. Encyclopedia of psychological research
9. Review of psychology research
44
 10.Reference list in textbook and articles

? Why is it important for researchers to review literature?

Researcher Design and Methodology

This chapter describes in some details the strategy you will use to conduct the
research. Includes the following:

Researcher Design
The research approach you have selected and why you have selected it. Some
examples of research design are experimental design, survey design and
naturalistic design.

Target Population
A population is any group of institution, people or object that has at least one
characteristic in common. Examples of a population are women in marginalized
areas, challenges of single parenthood, psychological challenges of the children in
the IDP, the challenges of having a physically challenged child. The target
population should be explicitly and equivocally defined, otherwise statement about
the target population after the analysis of data will not be trustworthy.

Description of the samples

This section indicates the individual or groups of individual that will participate in
the study and how these individual will be selected.

Description of Research Instruments

What instruments will you use to collect data? Explain how you will develop the
instruments.

Data Collection Procedures

Indicate how you will collect data for your study. Will you post questionnaire to
the subjects or undertake field research?

Data analysis

45
Indicate the statistical you will use to analyze data. These might be a simple as
frequencies and as complex as two-way analysis of variance. You should ensure
that the statistical procedure you choose are appropriate to the research questions
being asked and the hypothesis you intend to test.

Schedule
Provide a schedule for the various stages of your study.

Budget
Estimate how much the research will cost and provide a budget indicating the
amount or money you will spend on each item.

 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the six main stages in the research process. The first
among those stages is the identification, selection and definition of the research
problem. This stage includes the background, statement of the problem, research
questions, objectives, hypothesis and the theoretical/conceptual frameworks.
Literature review helps in identifying the knowledge gaps that the research desires
to fill in regard to the research problem. The second stage is the selection of the
research design and methodology including sampling procedures. Third is
measurement design which entails identification of data collection procedures and
construction of research instruments. Fourth is data collection while fifth is data
analysis which includes data organization and processing. The last stage in the
research process is generalization which entails interpretation of data, conclusion,
recommendations, and production of the data report.

46
SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS
 Briefly explain four criteria for a good scientific hypothesis
 8marks
 Briefly explain the six stages in the research process 12marks
 Make a sequential list of the topics usually covered in a research
proposal. 20marks
 Define the following terms:
a) Variable
b) Research Problem
c) Hypothesis
 Describe the main stages of the research process
 Five problems from the research literature are given below. Study
them carefully and construct one or two hypothesis based on them.
a) Do teachers’ comments cause improvement in student
discipline?
b) How does organizational climate affect behavioral
development?
How does the socio-economic stat

47
 FURTHER READING
Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education.
London: Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC FOUR

 OBJECTIVES:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss the process of selecting a research design

 Discuss the major designs

48
 Differentiate between probability and non-probability sampling

 Explain the different of probability and non-probability sampling methods

 Give reasons why sampling is done.

Research Design

The important decision made by a researcher is the selection of a research design.

this includes the consideration whether the definition of variables, the level of
measurement and their relationship to one another.

Research design is the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived so as

to obtain answers to research questions and to control variance. It refers to all the
procedures selected by a researcher for studying particular sets of hypotheses or
questions. A research design sets up the frame for study and is the blueprint of the
researcher.

Types of Research Design

There are several types of research designs. These include experimental designs,
quasi-experimental designs, survey designs, correlation, case study, and
naturalistic designs.

1. Experimental Designs

These designs are used to study cause and effect relationships. The true
experimental design is considered the most useful design to demonstrate
programme impact if there is random selection of participating units and random
assignments of treatment and control conditions.
49
The programme is implemented and post-test administered to the group which
received the treatment as well as the control group. Sometimes a pre-test is
administered before the treatment. Finally, differences between the group that
received the treatment and the one that did not are compared to determine the
impact of the programme.

Note:

a. In an experimental design, the experimental group receives the

treatment and the control group receives either no treatment or an
alternative treatment.

b. Experimental design is the cornerstone of psychological research and

is the only design where cause and effect can equivocally be determined.

ACTIVITY 9:

 Distinguish between experimental and quasi-experimental designs

 Choose a topic in your area of interest, describe the research design you will
use in this study

2. Survey Designs

50
Survey is used to gather systematically factual information by interviewing or
administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals. It is the most frequently
used method of collecting information about peoples attitudes, opinions, habits or
any of the variety of social issues.
They are an efficient method of collecting descriptive data regarding:
 The characteristics of the population;
 Current practices, conditions or needs;
 Preliminary information for generating research questions.

When using a survey design, you should follow the following procedures:
 Identity the population of interest
 Clarify the objectives of the study
 Develop a questionnaire and field test it
 Select a relevant sample
 Administer the questionnaire to members of the sample by mail or in
person
 Tabulate the results in a descriptive fashion (i.e. reporting means,
frequencies percentages).

3. Correlation Designs

Correlation designs enable the researcher to asses the degree of relationship

that exists between two variables (Orodho, 2003). Subjects are not
randomly assigned to the experimental or the control group: rather they
have already been exposed or not been exposed independent variable.

E.g. a researcher might be interested in finding out the correlation students

K.C.P.E mathematics scores and K.C.S.E mathematics or physics scores. If
a positive correlation is established, one could suggest that K.C.P.E grades

51
 are better indicators of students’ future performance in mathematics or
physics.

The use of correlation research designs enables social science researchers to

map out relationship between two or more social science variables.

4. Case Study Design

According to Paton (1990), a case study seeks to describe a unit in

details, in context and holistically. A case study is an in-depth
investigation of in an individual, group, institution or phenomenon. Most
case studies are based on the premise that a case can be located that is
typical of many other cases. The case understudy is viewed as an
example of a class of events or a group of individuals.

5. Evaluation Design

Gay (1981) defines evaluation research as the systematic process of

collecting and analyzing data in order to make decisions. Evaluation
research is therefore a process of determining whether the intended results
were realized.

Evaluation research takes two aspects, depending on the stage of the project
at which it is introduced.

The first one is the formative evaluation whose main purpose is to collect
data about projects while they are being developed. The results can be used
by the project developers to modify the project if need be or to stop the
project altogether.
52
 The second one is summative evaluation which occurs after the programme
has been fully implemented/developed. It is conducted to evaluate how
worthwhile the final programme has been, especially as compared to other
similar programmes.

6. Naturalistic Design

The naturalistic design grew out of the need to study phenomena as they naturally
occur in the field. The goal of a naturalistic study is to understand the phenomena
being observed. A major feature of this design has been the use of the human
instrument (the observer) to collect, filter and organize incoming data. The design
differs from others because it evolves during the course of the study.

The following guidelines might help researchers when conducting a naturalistic

study:
i. Establish the focus of the study
ii. Determine the site(s) of data collection
iii. Plan successive phases of the study
iv. Establish the trustworthiness of the data

ACTIVITY 10:
 State the main stages you should follow when using the survey design.
 Discuss the naturalistic design

Population, Sample and Sampling Methods

53
Population

Population refers to all people who posses the characteristics of interest. For
example, to find out whether arts graduate teachers are most likely to become head
teachers than science graduate teachers, the population is all graduate teachers of
arts and science.

Sample

Sample is sub-group of a population. Since it is not always possible to collect data

from all members of a population, researchers often collect data from a sample and
then generalize the findings to the whole target population.

Sampling

Sampling is a techniques or process of choosing a sub-group from a population to

participate in the study. In research, sampling is conducted to permit detailed study
of part, rather than the whole, of a population. Researchers normally use the
information derived from the sample to develop useful generalization about the
population.

Sample size

The optimum sample size is directly related to the type of research you are
undertaking. For different types of research, “rule of thumb” can be used to
determine the appropriate sample size.

Rules of Thumb
54
Quantitative Research Rules of Thumb

Borg and gall (1989) recommend the following sample sizes fro different kinds of
research;

Types of Research Recommended Sample Size

 Correlation  About 30 observations
 Multiple regression  At least 15 observations per
 Survey research variable
 100 observations for each major
 Casual-comparative, sub-group; 20 to 50 for minor
experimental, or quasi- sub-groups
experimental  About 15 observations per person

55
Qualitative Research Rules of the Thumb

Types of Research Recommended Sample Size

 Ethnography  Approximately 30 to 50
 Case studies interviews
 Phenomenology  Can be only 1 case or multiple
 Grounded theory case

 Participate inquiry  Approximately 6 participants

 Approximately 30 to 50
interviews
 Small “working team”; whole
 Clinical research communities for meeting; sample

 Focus groups for surveys (see quantitative rules

of thumb)
 Can focus in-depth on 1 client
 7 to 10 people per group, 4 groups
for each major audience.

56
Representativeness of Samples

The sample must be as representative as possible of the population from which it is

drawn. A sample is often described as representative if certain known percentage
frequency distributions of elements’ characteristics within it are similar to the
corresponding distribution within the whole population. The following are some
variables associated with studies (sex/gender, age, socio-economic status) and
schools (type of schools, school location, school size, etc.)

Methods of Selecting a Sample

There are two main ways to sample:

1. Non- probability sampling
2. Probability sampling

1. Non-Probability Sampling

This method involves choosing items from the population without using a random
sampling technique. Elements in the target population have an unknown chance of
being selected into the sample. A non-probability sample is based on subjective
judgement and is biased in the sensethat some members of the target population
have more chances of being selected than others. There are three main types of
non-probability sampling: quota, judgement and convenience.

a) Quota Sampling

57
Quota sampling derives its name from the practices of assigning quotas or
proportions of kinds of people to interview. In this technique, sample members are
drawn from various target population strata e.g. untrained teachers, graduate
teachers, P1 teachers, etc.

b) Purposive/Judgement Sampling

The second type of non-probability sampling used by educationists is judgement or

purposive sampling. In this procedure, the choice of sampling units depends on the
subjective judgement of the researcher. But the researcher should ensure that the
sample he/she selects is representative of the population.

c) Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling consists of selecting units that are convenient to the

researcher. In most cases, the schools selected are those which are easy to reach
and are willing o take part in the study.

ACTIVITY 11

 What is the main weakness of non-probability sampling methods?

2. Probability sampling

58
Probability sampling is a method of drawing a portion of a population so that each
member of the target population has a known and non-zero chance of being
selected into the sample. There are many ways in which a probability sample may
be drawn from a population. Some of these ways are described below.

a) Simple Random Sample

A simple random sample is obtained when each member of the target population is
assigned a consecutive number and then selected randomly according to the
assigned number. To use this method, it is necessary to have a complete list of the
target population.

b) Systematic Random Sampling

This technique consists of selecting every nth sampling unit from a list of all
members of the population. Suppose the researcher wants to select a sample of 50
students from a list of 500 students. To use this method, she first divides the
population by the number needed for the sample (500/50 = 10). She then selects a
number smaller than 10. Then, starting with the number (e.g. 6), she selects every
tenth name from the list of students.

c) The Multi-Stage Random Sample

Another procedure is multi-stage random sampling. A typical example of multi-

stage sampling would be:

 Randomly select a given number of province/districts from the list of

all provinces/districts.
 Randomly select from within each chosen province/district, schools
from the list of all schools of the defined type.

59
  Randomly select from within each chosen school, individuals from the
list of all individuals of the defined type.

d) Stratified Sample

Stratification ensures that different groups of the population are represented in the
sample. The population is divided into strata such as boys and girls, schools, rural
and urban schools etc, from which random samples are drawn. In this procedure,
the target population is first stratified into a number of categories. Thus the strata
may be based upon grades, e.g. 200 grade 5 pupils, 100 grade 6 pupils and 50
grade 7 pupils. For each of these grades, pupils are selected at random. The number
selected from each grade should be proportional to the number of pupils in each
grade.

e) Cluster Sampling

This is sampling in which groups, not individuals, are randomly selected. For
example, instead of randomly selecting Form III pupils, you could randomly select
Form III classrooms and use all the students in each classroom.

60
  SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the concept of research design. We have

particularly explained the process of selecting a research design. We also identified
and discussed the major types of research designs such as Experimental, Survey,
Correlatio, Evaluation, Naturalistic, and Case study designs. Other key concepts in
research such as population, sample, sample size, and sampling methods were
discussed in details. Different types of sampling, including: random, systematic
random, multi-stage random, purposive, stratified, and cluster, were explained.

SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Give the reasons for sampling 6 marks

 List two basic ways of sampling 2 marks
 Briefly describe judgment sampling 6 marks
 Explain two situations when it is advisable to use cluster sampling

61
 FURTHER READING

Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education.

London: Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

 OBJECTIVES:
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

Identify different methods of collecting data

TOPIC FIVE
Explain characteristics of good data collection instruments
State the advantages and limitations of different types of questions
Explain the steps one should follow in designing different instruments
62
Develop questions for different instruments
Administer different data collection instruments.
Data Collection

Introduction

After you have designed your study, and in particular chosen the sample, the next
step is to design research instruments and then collect information for the sample.
This unit describes the instruments and methods for collecting data from the
sample.

Content

Data Collection Instruments

There are six widely used data collection instruments in quantitative and
qualitative research.
They are:
63
 Questionnaire
 Interview schedule
 Observation schedule
 Focus group discussion guidelines
 Content analysis guide
 Tests

Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a carefully designed instrument (written, typed or printed)
for collecting data directly from people. A typical questionnaire consists of
questions and statements. Two types of questions are normally asked:
closed-ended and open-ended questions. Closed-ended questions are
structured in such a way that the respondent is provided with a list of
responses from which to select an appropriate answer. The main advantages
of close-ended questions are:
a) They are easy to process
b) They can be transferred directly into a computer format

Interviews
“An interview is a conservation in which one person, the interviewer
seeks response for a particular purpose from another person, the
interviewee”

64
The interview is one of the most used techniques of obtaining information. It
is a way of obtaining data about a person by asking him rather than by
watching him behave. A personal interview helps the evaluator to measure
what a person knows (knowledge) and what he likes and dislikes (values and
preferences). The information obtained can be transformed into a number of
quantitative data by using attitude scaling or rating – scaling techniques.

Advantage of Interview Guide.

 It is flexible and adaptable to individual situations
 It allows a glimpse of respondent’s gestures, tone of voice, etc and
thus reveals his/her feelings.
 It permits the investigator to pursue leads and to ask for
elaboration of points that the respondent has not made clear.
 It permits the establishment of rapport between the investigator
and the respondent. This stimulates the respondent to give more
complete and valid answers.
 It makes it possible fro information to be obtained from illiterate
respondents or respondents who are reluctant to put things in
writing.
 It promotes a higher percentage rate of return.
 It permits the interviewer to help the respondent clarify his/her
thinking on a given point.
 It enables the instigator to pursue leads in order to gain insights
into the problem.
Weaknesses
 It is costly in terms of time and personnel
 The interviewer is likely to influence the responses he/she receives

65
  Interviewing requires skilled personnel.

Qualitative and Quantitative Use

Qualitative: A curriculum specialist conducts interviews with teachers to find out
the strengths and weaknesses of a reformed curriculum.

Quantitative: An education media specialist asks teachers how many radio lessons
they listen to.

Note that a questionnaire can be used as an interview guide.

ACTIVITY 12:

 Distinguish between an interview and a mailed questionnaire

 What are the advantages of the interview over the mailed questionnaire?

Types of Questions in a Questionnaire/Interview Guide

A typical questionnaire has four kinds of questions:

 Demographic questions
 Opinion and attitude questions
 Self-perception questions

66
  Information questions

Demographic Questions

These are questions which seek background information about the respondent, for
example, sex, age, level of education, marital status, occupation, religious
affiliation, place of residence, etc.

Example: How old are you?

What is your occupation?

Opinion and attitude questions

These types of questions solicit information about respondent’s attitudes, beliefs,

feelings and misconceptions relating to an area of inquiry.

Example: Which of the following subjects do you like most?

Information questions

These questions seek to find out the respondent’s knowledge of an area of concern
to the evaluator.

Examples: a. When was the secondary school at which you teach established?
b. How many children dropped out of school last year at your school?

Self-Perception Questions

There are questions that try to determine the respondent’s evaluation of his/her
behaviour in relations to others and also his evaluation of others.

67
Examples: a. how often do you use teaching aids?
b. Are teachers in your district conversant with authentic assessment
methods?

Response Formats

Unstructured Format

In an open-ended, free or unstructured response format, the respondent has

complete freedom to answer as he or she chooses. One disadvantage of open-ended
responses is that they are difficult to code or score and some information may be
lost during coding. They also take extra time to complete and code.

Example: Qualitative open-ended question: What do you like best about your
jobs?
Quantitative open-ended question: What is your highest level of
education?

The most common open-ended items are qualitative. Qualitative open-ended

questions ask for a non numerical response while quantitative open-ended
questions ask for numerical responses.

Semi Structured Format

These are filled in response items. The response is open-ended but only a short
answer is expected. They are easier to code than unrestricted free response items.

Structured Response Format

These questions give the respondent choice from which to select an answer. There
are four categories of structured response items: checklist, inventory type, ranking
type and scaling or rating type.
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 SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

 Briefly describe four kinds of questions in a questionnaire/interview guide.

 Give two examples of an open-ended question

Checklist: A checklist presents a number of options from which the respondent is

expected to check or tick the most relevant response or all suitable response.

Example: The following are some of the reasons students are given for studying
education. Tick any one of them, which you think represents the most
important reason why you are studying education?
i) The course is easy [ ]
ii) Teachers are marketable [ ]
iii) Teachers are very well paid [ ]
iv) It was difficult to get admission to another course [ ]
v) My parents wanted me to become a teacher [ ]

69
Inventory: Inventories are used when respondents are required.

Example: some statements below are true, others are untrue. Decide whether
each one is true or untrue and write true or untrue on the right-hand
side of each statement as appropriate.
1. School is enjoyable ________________
2. I think going to school is a waste of time ________________
3. It is important for you to do well at school
________________

Ranking: This format requires the respondent to arrange a number of statements

or ideas in order of a given criterion.

Example: Rank from 1 to 5 your subject preferences (1 being highest, 9 being

loest)
Maths [ ]
English [ ]
Kiswahili [ ]
History and government [ ]
Geography [ ]
Biology [ ]
Physics [ ]
70
 Chemistry [ ]
Religious education [ ]
Scaling or Rating: A number of statements are made and the respondent is asked
to indicate the extent to which he/she agrees with each. Likert-type attitude scales
and sematic differentials are good examples of questionnaires based on scaling.

Example: Likert Type

Read the statements below and indicate the extent to which you think they are true
from your experience by putting a tick in an appropriate box.

Statement Very Tru No Untru Very far

True e Opinio e from the
n truth
1. Mathematics is meant
for those who want to
join science related
professions
2. In adult life one will
certainly need
mathematics

Construction of Questionnaires and Interview Schedules

The following procedure is followed.

1. Define the objective of the study
2. Identify the funds available for the project
3. Define the population and identify the sampling method
71
 4. Ascertain the type of questions that will best meet the objectives
5. Decide which type of results are required
6. Develop the questionnaire and cover letter
7. Determine the type of analysis to be performed on each question in the
questionnaire
8. Pilot test the questionnaire, revise it if necessary and pilot test it again.

Guidelines for Developing Questionnaires Items

1. Eliminate double questions
Are you an effective and efficient worker?
2. Do not use leading or biased questions. Avoid biasing the question.
Don’t you agree that the 8-4-4 system of education should be abolished?
Are you shocked by the many subjects our children are learning?
3. Do not use presuming questions
How do you like teaching in a remote part of the country?
4. Avoid or rephrase sensitive or threatening questions.
How old are you?
How much do you weigh?
5. Each question should deal with a single concept and be worded as clearly as
possible.
Do you spend a lot of time on making lesson plans?

Format
1. Title
Write the title of the study followed by the title of the questionnaire.
72
Example: Evaluation of the effectiveness of School Broadcasting in Kenya
Questionnaire for Teachers.
2. Purpose
State the purpose of the study.

3. Instructions
Give brief general instructions, including instructions for returning the
instrument. Do not give instructions for completing individual sections. This
should appear at the beginning of each section.

4. Cover letter
Seek permission from the respondent for participation in the study. Informed
consent may be included in the cover letter in the questionnaire.
5. Organize the questionnaire in sections according to the type of questions
asked. Normally, section 1 consists of demographic questions.

Questionnaire Format
a) A questionnaire should have a suitable title.
b) Instructions should be clear and unambiguous.
c) The questionnaire should be attractive and brief and as easy to respond to as
possible.

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 d) Arrange the questionnaire in content sub-sections, e.g. background data,
objectives, implementation of the curriculum, etc.
e) No item should be included which does not directly relate to the objectives
of the study.
f) Divide the questionnaire into meaningful components
g) The first section is personal data. The major consideration is variables that
influence what you are investigating. The question you should ask is, what
are the major variables that are likely to influence people’s responses?
h) Include brief, clear instructions printed in bold type.
i) The questionnaire should start with simple factual questions, so that the
person completing it gets off to a good start.
j) Avoid negative items
k) Avoid biased items and terms.
l) Do not use one item to select multiple answers
m) Open-ended general questions should be at the end to allow expression of
points which the respondent thinks important.
n) Questionnaire may include attitude scales, rating and check lists provided
they are brief and straightforward.

Pre –testing the questionnaire

The provisional draft of the questionnaire should be pre-test on a pilot group
similar to the sample to whom the questionnaire will be given. The pilot run will
provide a check on the feasibility of the proposed procedure for coding data and
identify flaws and ambiguities. It also yields suggestions for improvement.

The following are some of the issues clarified during the pilot study:
1. Whether there are flaws and ambiguities

74
 2. The feasibility of the proposed procedure for coding responses
3. Weather or not the prospective respondents are available and accessible
4. Weather the intended respondents posses the information being sought and
are willing to participate in the study
5. Weather the intended respondents will understand the questions
6. weather the procedures for administering the questionnaire are appropriate

Pre-test subjects should encouraged to make comments and suggestions concerning

specific items, instructions, and recording procedures.

Revising Questionnaires

a) Give experts to discuss the questionnaire

b) Send some questionnaire to experts to review

c) Construct a questionnaire of the following questionnaire

Focus on specific aspects of questionnaire

Item working Relevance Remarks

a) Satisfactory unsatisfactory Relevant Irrelevant _________
b) _________ ___________ ________ ________ ___________
a) General Comments

Administer the questionnaire and find out how it works. This you can see from:
 People’s willingness to respond
 Queries
 Level of understanding or misunderstanding of the items
 Reactions to specific items

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b) Interview respondents and non- respondents

Administering Questionnaires
There are four main methods of administering questionnaires to respondents. These
methods are briefly described below.

Captive groups
A captive group has been defined as “an assembly of people that the researcher has
enough control over to allow for completion of questionnaires” (Kelly, 1999). In
addition, a captive group may be obtained by administering the questionnaire to
students in each class. This method has a very high response rate.

In-person Interview

In this method, the interviewer reads the questionnaire verbatim and records the
answers either mechanically or in writing.

Phone Administration

Questionnaires may also be administered by phone to those who own telephones.

The phone interview should not last more than five (5) minutes. Thus, no more
than six questions should be asked.

Mail Administration

This is an expensive way to cover a large geographical area. However, this method
has a low response rate.
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Procedure for interviewing

1. Introduce yourself to the respondent(s), avoiding titles unless it is necessary.

Tell him/her who you are and where you work.
2. Explain the purpose of the study and how it will contribute to improvement
of educational practices in the country. Assure the respondent that the
information he provides will be treated confidentially.
3. Be friendly and make the respondent feel comfortable and relaxed in your
presence.
4. Ask your questions; probe the respondent to obtain more data.
5. Avoid making negative comments and criticisms.
6. Avoid negative facial expressions like frowning.
7. Avoid interrupting the flow of information when the respondent is talking.
8. Interview the respondent in a place with minimum disruptions from the
environment.
9. Ask your question simply and in a friendly manner.
10.Listen carefully to the answers.
11.Never hint – either by specific comment or non-verbal clues – to suggest a
particular response.
12.Incase you realize the respondent is not giving you correct information,
cross examine him. If sensitive questions are to be asked, remind the
respondent that answers will be held in strict confidence.
13.Write down the answers. Interact with the respondent as an equal.
14.At the end of the interview, thank the respondent.

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 SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS

1. Briefly describe the steps that must be taken to carry out

a questionnaire survey. 14 marks
2. Briefly explain four advantages the interview has over
the mailed questionnaire. 6 marks

Observation Techniques
One way of obtaining about progress and outcomes of a program or project is to
directly observe selected aspects of its development and implication as they occur.

Participant – Observation

In this method, the data gather becomes a participant in the study, observes and
records information. Since he is a member of the group, the other members tend to
act naturally. This way, the data gather is able to obtain information that he could
not have obtained were to use an interview schedule, a questionnaire or other
methods.

Advantages
 It provides reliable information.

Disadvantages
 It is expensive and time consuming.
 It could be subject to bias.

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Examples of Qualitative and Quantitative Use
Qualitative: Teachers are asked to record their observation for one-week regarding
their prescriptions of how the school is run by the head teacher.
Qualitative: A teacher is told to record the time when different school activities
start and end.

Direct observation

Direct observation is an excellent method of obtaining information about

classroom interaction and the quality and quantity of physical facilities and
resources. For example, if an evaluator wants to find out whether or not teachers
are using recommended teaching methods, he/she should visit their classroom and
observe their lessons. Observation is normally carried out by several trained
observers who look for specific behaviors and characteristics in order to
understand teacher – pupil interaction.

Disadvantages

 It is more expensive than questionnaires and tests.

 It is time consuming.
 Coverage is limited by practical considerations, such as schools
schedules and availability of trained personnel.
 Frequent observer unreliability.
 Some people do not want to be observed.

Examples of Qualitative and Quantitative use

Qualitative: An inspector of schools regularly visits schools to evaluate how well

teachers are using active learning.
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Quantitative: A researcher is carrying out a study to find out the number of times
pupils are asked complex questions during a lesson.

Situations that may be served by observation data

 Measuring classroom process variables such as pupil participation in

various activities.
 Measuring attainment of programme objectives e.g. using tools properly,
performing experiments, etc.
 Measuring programme implementation e.g. the extent to which teachers
carry out programme instructions.
 Identifying difficulties in programme use.
 Identifying changes introduced by teachers.
 Identifying unintended outcomes.
 As support for data from other sources

SELF-EVALUATION QUESTIONS
 Distinguish between participant observation and
 direct observation. 2 marks
 Briefly describe three situations that may be served by
 observation data. 8 marks
 Briefly explain five disadvantages of direct observation. 10
marks

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 Choose a topic and a goal for questionnaire. Develop a four-item questionnaire
with one item of each of the following types:
a) Open ended
b) Multiple choice
c) Likert
d) Ranking (10 marks)
 Explain why direct observation would be the most appropriate method of investigating
the change in behavior in indisciplined teenagers. (10 marks)

Reliability
Reliability of an instrument is the consistency in producing a reliable result. It
focuses on the degree to which empirical indicators are consistent across two or
more attempts to measure a theoretical concept.

1. Test-retest Method
This is a technique of assessing the reliability of a research instrument. It involves
the administration of thsube same instrument twice to the same subjects. there is
usually a two weeks lapse between the first and the second administration.
81
The test-rest method involves the following steps:

1. Select an appropriate group of subjects

2. Administer the test to the subjects
3. Keeping all initial conditions constant, administer the same test to the same
subjects. One can wait one to four weeks before administering the test a
second time.
4. Correlate the stores from both testing period.

Reliability and validity in research

Reliability
Reliability is a measure of the degree to which a research instrument yields
consistent results or data after repeated trials. Reliability in research is influenced
by random error. As random error increases, reliability decreases. Random error is
the deviation from a true measurement due to factors that have not effectively been
addressed by the researcher. Errors may arise from inaccurate coding, ambiguous
instructions to the subject, interviewers fatigue, interviewee’s fatigue, interviewer
biased etc.
Random error will always exist regardless of the procedures used in a study.
Let us assume that the researcher want to determine the effectiveness of different
diets in controlling weight.
Subjects are randomly selected and assigned to three groups. The groups feed on
three different diets and each subject’s weight is taken regularly. If the researcher
uses a weighing scale sometimes overestimates the subject’s weight while at one
time, your scale underestimates their weights, and the data from the study will not
be reliable. Random error, from the faulty scale, is operation her to make the data
not reliable. Another example of how random error can lead unreliable data would
82
be in measuring a patient’s blood pressure. A patient with high blood pressure will
be shown to have consistently high blood pressure readings if the measuring
instrument is reliable.
However repeated readings would not be the same: they would be distributed
around the true blood pressure level of the patient. This deviation above and below
the true blood pressure level would be due to factors such as joy, anger , anxiety
etc. the smaller the deviation the more reliable the data. It is important to realize
that research instruments yield data that have two components, the true value or
score of error components,
The error component of the data reflects the limitations of the instruments. Strictly
speaking, there are three types’ random errors that arise at the time of data
collection.
These are:-
Error due to the inaccuracy of the instrument: error due to the inaccuracy scoring
by the research and not explained error.
These three types of errors combine to produce inconsistencies in the
measurements, which ultimately affect the reliability of the data collected.
The research process attempts to minimize random error and hence increase the
reliability of the data collected. In research study, a reliability coefficient can be
computed to indicate how reliable data are. A coefficient of 0.80 or more implies
that there is high degree of reliability of the data.
The test-retest technique
The test-retest method of assessing reliability of data involves administering the
same instrument twice to the same group of subjects. There is usually a time lapse
between the first test and the second test. The test-rest method involves the
following steps:
5. Select an appropriate group of subjects
83
 6. Administer the test to the subjects
7. Keeping all initial conditions constant, administer the same test to the same
subjects. One can wait one to four weeks before administering the test a
second time.
8. Correlate the stores from both testing period.
The correlation coefficient obtained is referred to as “the coefficient of reliability
or stability,” if the coefficient is high, the instrument is said to yield data that have
high test-retest reliability”

The disadvantages of this of assessing reliability of data are that subjects may be
sensitized by the first testing or they may tend to remember their responses during
the second testing. If that happens, the coefficient may be artificially high.
The other difficulty with this method is establishing a reasonable period between
the two testing sessions. If the period between the tests is too long, say one year,
subjects may have changed or other extraneous factors may interfere with the
variable being measured. The computed coefficient of stability in such cases may
be artificially low or high.

The equivalent form technique

The problems inherent in the test –retest technique are to a certain extent taken
care of by the equivalent –form technique of estimating reliability. This approach
uses two equivalent instruments. Specific items in each form are different but they
are designed to measure the same concept. They are the same in number, structure
and level of difficulty. An analogy would be using one scale to measure the weight
of a subject today and after one week, using a different scale to measure the weight
of the same subject. The following steps are involved in the equivalent form
method.
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 1. Sample different items from the domain of indicators that measure the
variables.
2. Divide the items thus sampled into two groups or forms
3. Administer one form to a group of subject randomly selected.
4. After a period of time the other form of the instrument is administered to the
same subject, keeping all other conditions constant.
5. Correlate the scores obtained from the two forms of the instruments.
If the correlation coefficient is high, the instrument is said to yield data that have
high equivalent form reliability.
In fact this method estimates the stability of data as well as the equivalent of the
items in the two forms.
The major problems in this technique are the construction of two tests m, which
measures the same concept.
This is difficult and expensive in terms of time and resources. However, the
equivalent form method is commonly used in establishing the reliability f
standardized test data such as intelligence tests, achievement test, TEOFL, GRE
etc.

Split half technique

The split –half technique of accessing the reliability requires only one testing
session. In this approach, an instrument is designed in such a way that there are
two parts. Subject’s scores from one part are correlated with scores from the
second part.
The major advantage of this approach is that it eliminates chance error due to
referring test conditions as in the test-retest or the equivalent –form techniques.
The following are the steps involved in the split –half technique.
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 1. Sample items from the domain of indicators that measure the variables.
2. Administer the total test to an appropriate group.
3. At random, divide the scored items into two groups. Alternatively, on can
group all the old numbered items together and all the even numbered
items together.
4. Compute each subjects total score from the two groups of items.
5. Correlate the scores from the two groups of items for all the subjects.
Data with a high split-half reliability will have a high correlation coefficient. Since
we are correlating half of the tests scores with the other half, the coefficient so
computed does not reflect reliability of the whole instrument.
A correction factor is therefore applied on the computed coefficient. The adjusted
coefficient represents the reliability of the whole test. This correction is done using
the spear man- brown prophecy formula. It should be noted that there are many
ways of dividing the item into two parts, each method used in splitting the
instruments in two parts will result in different correlation coefficient. Hence
different reliability estimates will be obtained for the same test or instrument.
Increasing the number of items in the instrument increases the chances of obtaining
a consistent estimate of the reliability of the data.

The internal consistency techniques

The internal consistency of the data is determined from scores obtained from a
single test administered by the researcher to a sample of subjects. In this approach,
a’ score obtained in one item is correlated with scores obtained from other items in
the instrument. conbach’s coefficient Alpha is then computed to determine how
items correlate among themselves. Conbrach’s Alpha is a general from the
Kunder-Richardson (K-R) 20 formula.

86
The use of the (K-R) 20 formula is assessing internal consistency of an instrument
is based on the split-half reliabilities of data from all time required to compute a
reliability coefficient in other methods. Its application also results in a more
conservative estimate of reliability; the estimated coefficient of reliability of data is
always lower. To avoid erroneous conclusion, it is always better to underestimate
reliability of data than to overestimate it.
The K-R 20 formula is as follows;
KR20 = (K) (S2-£s2)
_____________
(S2) (K-1)

Where:
KR 20 = reliability coefficient of internal consistency
K = Number of items used to measure the concept
S2 = variance of all scores
s2 variance of individual items
a high coefficient implies that items correlate highly among themselves i.e. there
is consistency among the items in measuring the concept of interest. This is
sometimes referred to as homogeneity of data. There is perhaps a slight overlap
here with validity of data, which is discussed next,

Validity
Validity is the accuracy and meaningfulness of inferences, which are based on the
research results. In other words, validity is the degree to which results obtained
from the analysis of the data actually represent the phenomenon under study.
Validity, therefore, has to do with how accurately the data obtained in the study
represents the variables of the study.
87
if such data is true reflection of the variable s, then inferences based on such data
will be accurate and meaningful, for example , accurate inference could be made
about people’s driving experience if data regarding the number of accident each
driver has caused over a period of ten years are obtained. However, we cannot use
such data to make inferences about the drivers’ ability to operate other machinery
such as lathe machines. It should be noted that validity is a matter of degree: no
data can have perfect validity.
Validity is largely determined by the presence or absence of systematic error in
data.
Systematic error, also referred to as non random error, has a consistent boosting
effect on the measuring instrument. For example, if a researcher uses a faulty scale
to measuring instrument. For example, if a researcher uses a faulty scale to
measure the weight of rats, the scale may overestimate the weights of the rats by a
few grams, such as error is non- random: the obtained readings are either always
above or always below the true scores i.e. Always in one direction.

Factors affecting internal validity

An internal validity is one where the outcomes of importance are a result of the
variables manipulated by the researcher.
a) Proactive History
This is all the differences the subjects bring with them in the
investigation. This is controlled by random selection of subjects and
random assignment to groups.
b) Retroactive History.
Certain events may occur during the time the study is conducted that may
influence the behavior of the subjects involved. Rectroactive history is of
concern to researchers conducting long-term investigations.
88
c) Maturation
Development differences in subjects during the course of research study
can affect internal validity. The use of control group is the best way to
deal with the influences of maturation.
d) Testing
Testing plays an important role in many research studies. A pre-test is
often used to measure performance level before some special training. A
post-test follows training to determine if it had any effects.
For a study to be internally valid, the researcher must find ways to ensure
the training and not pre-test was responsible for the difference in
performance following training.
e) Investigators Bias
Experimentor or investigator bias is an issue of great concern in research
today. The expectations of even the most conscientious experimentor
may
unintentionally influence the results of the study. One way of controlling
such a bias is through double blind control procedure where neither the
individual collecting the data nor the subject participating in the study ia
aware of the hypotheses or expected outcomes.
f) Attrition
Subjects from certain groups in a research study. Subjects may be lost for
a variety of reasons. If the loss is particularly great for a certain group,
the internal validity may be reduced.

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  SUMMARY

In this unit, we have discussed the whole question of data collection. Six
major and widely used instruments of data collection were identified and
discussed at length. These are: questionnaire, interview schedule,
observation schedule, focus group discussion guidelins, content anslysis
guide, and tests. We went on to explain the characteristics, use and
advantages of these data collection instruments. For instance, we noted
that there are different kinds of questions in a questionnaires such as
demographic, opinion, attitude, self-perception, and information
questions. Questionnaires can also be structured, semi-structured or
unstructured. We also distinguished between participatory and non-
participatory observation and explained the advantages and
disadvantages of each. The manner of administering different data
collection instruments was explained and the unit ended with an
explanation of the significance of reliability and validity on research.

90
 SELF EVALUATION QUESTIONS
 What is the importance of editing research instruments?
 Explain the reasons for piloting a questionnaire.
 Giving appropriate examples discuss steps followed in constructing
the following instruments:
i. Questionnaire
ii. Checklist
iii. Interview Guide
iv. Discuss the methods of establish reliability of measurement,
outlining the weakness and strengths of each method.
v. Using appropriate examples, discuss the factors that affect
internal validity.

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 FURTHER READING

Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London:

Routledge Falmer.

INTERNET

TOPIC SIX

 OBJECTIVES:
 Written Report
The final stage in the research process is the preparation of research report
 Writing a report

 An overview
A research report is a question-answering or problem-solving document. A
research report informs the reader of the problem the researcher initially set out to
investigate, the method of investigation used and the researcher’s findings. The
report should present data fully and adequately, it should include accurate
interpretation of the analyses of such data and should relate findings back to the
objectives, hypotheses or research questions. A research report must therefore be
formal, precise and economical. The report must also be consistent, with an orderly
flow of ideas from the beginning of the document to the end. In addition, various
sections of the document, such as main headings and sub-headings, must he well

92
co-coordinated, often in a linear progression. For guidance, it is important that a
writer consults the relevant report writing manuals, for example, the American
Psychological Association Manual, donors’ formats and institutional formats.
A well-written research report comprises a number of distinct sections or
components. Table 11 gives a checklist of the various components that a researcher
should include in a research report. Each section is then briefly described.

Title
The title of the research report should be short and simple yet informative. The title
serves two main functions: (1) It gives the reader some initial information about
the area of research the report has covered and it is therefore a pointer to the
content of the report. The title should also give an indication of the major variables
of the research, the target population and if possible the geographical location of
the research. (2) It is used for indexing once the document becomes official. Other
researchers interested in reading your research report may use the title to search for
the report in a library or documentation centre. A misleading title may therefore
make it difficult for other researchers or persons interested in reading your report
to locate it easily, however good the study may be.

Table 11: Checklist of the major components of a research report

Comments
1 Title Must be included
2 Dedication Optional
3 Abstract Advisable to included
4 Table of contents Must be included
5 List of tables Must be included
6 List of figures Includes maps, diagrams and
photographs
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7 List of abbreviations and acronyms Must be included
8 Executive summary Advisable to include
9 Introduction Must be included
10 Literature review Must be included but some reports
integrate it with introduction.
11 Methodology Must be included
12 Results and discussion Must be included
13 Summary, conclusions and Must be included
recommendations
14 References Must be included
15 Acknowledgements Could come before the table of
contents
16 Appendices May include tables, instruments use
din collecting data, letters of consent,
copy of the research permit, etc.

Dedication
Some authors of research reports dedicate their work to a person or per sons whom
they deem special in their lives. Such persons may be a spouse, children, parents or
very dear friends. Dedications are especially common in masters thesis or doctoral
dissertations. A dedication is basically a statement such as “to my children: Juma,
Fatuma and Odhiambo”. Sometimes, the author may give a reason for the
dedication, for example. “to Osike, for her years of friendship.”

Abstract
An abstract contains the meat of the research report. It is therefore a reflection of
the salient findings of the research study. An abstract should be placed at the front
of the report preferably after the dedication, but on a separate page. A good
abstract presents the reader with the purpose of the study, the population studied,

94
the major results and conclusion of the study. An abstract should not be more than
half a page long. For an example of an abstract, see Appendix I.

Table of contents

A table of contents is like a map that guides the readers in locating various sections
of the research report. A table of contents contains the chapter headings, main
headings and subheadings and the corresponding page of’ each in the body of the
document. A table of contents helps the reader to locate the desired sections
quickly and easily.
List of tables

A researcher uses tables to summarize information in a logical format or sequence.

For example, a researcher may wish to summarize the educational levels of various
age cohorts in a frequency table. The information in a table needs not be
quantitative qualitative information can also be summarized in a table.
A list of tables follows the same format as the table of contents. The number and
title of each table appearing in the body of the report s listed together with the
corresponding page number. The list of tables section helps a reader to trace a
particular table faster.
List of figures

A figure is any pictorial representation used to clarify specific points in a

discussion. Examples of figures commonly used in research reports are graphs,
charts, diagrams and photographs. The researcher should include a list of all
figures that appear in the body of the report. This list should clearly give the
number and title of the figure and the page number on ‘which the figure is located
95
in the report.

List of abbreviations and acronyms

In some research reports, abbreviations and acronyms are used, especially when a
word or a group of words is repeated several times in the document. An
abbreviation is a short form of a word. An example is Dr. for “Doctor” or hrs. for
“hours”. An acronym is a contraction formed by taking the first letter of several
words. Examples of acronyms are FAQ for “Food and Agriculture Organization”
or GOK for “Government of Kenya”.

The researcher should give a list of all abbreviations and acronyms used in a report
and explain in full what each abbreviation or acronym stands for. Abbreviations
and acronyms are not appropriate in formal writing and should be used only when
necessary. It is always advisable to write the word or words in full. The following
are pointers on the use of abbreviations.

•When using acronyms, write in full the first time that the phrase is used.
Thereafter, use the acronym.
 Do not abbreviate military, religious and political titles.
 Abbreviate units of measurement only when they are used often in a report.
 For example “km” for kilometres or “yrs.” for years.
 Use only those abbreviations that your audience will understand.
 Do not abbreviate days of the week or months.

96
  Abbreviate time designations only when they are used with actual time, for
example, 4.30 p.m.

Executive summary
An executive summary is a short version or summary or the research report. The
summary provides readers with a concise and accurate picture of the entire
document. The executive summary is an economical way of communicating one’s
research report. It saves time and energy for readers who do not have time to read
the entire report. In this regard, the executive summary must provide the salient
points from all the major components of the research report.
A good executive summary begins with a clear and brief statement of time
problem. Details from the body of the report are then presented in brief and the
summary ends with conclusions and recommendations. The use of bullets and
bolded subheadings helps to make the summary reader-friendly. Researchers
should avoid use of technical terms in the executive summary. Therefore in
meaning, as well as in style, an executive summary should stand alone as a self-
contained and easy-to-understand message. Readers should only have to read the
entire report for a closer view but definitely not to make sense out of one’s
summary.
Introduction
The introduction to a research report has several components that include the
background of the study, the problem statement, objectives, hypotheses or research
questions and limitations of the study. The major role of the introduction section is
to outline the gap or gaps that exist in the area of study and present the rationale of
the study. This leads to the statement of the problem. The researcher should quote
existing studies and theories to support the problem statement. Since there is a

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section in the research report that deals with previous studies, literature cited in this
part of the document should he limited to the most relevant and current.

Literature review
Review of related literature is very important because it provides the needed
support to the researcher’s rationale for undertaking research in a certain area. A
literature review is a researcher’s critique of findings from other studies done in
related areas. The critique should include an assessment of the methodologies used
in these studies, theoretical or conceptual frameworks and the relationships or
differences between the researcher’s study and the studies reviewed.
The most critical aspect of reviewing the literature on the subject is the clear and
systematic analysis of existing studies that a researcher must engage in to identify
the missing gaps in a specific area of study and hence justify the need for another
study. This exercise also assists the researcher in making a strong case for the
study’s objectives, research questions or hypotheses. Literature review should be
relevant to the topic. How broad the review ought to be depends on the degree to
which a specific area has been studied. All the studies referred to in the literature
review section must be well referenced.
Methodology
The methodology section gives details regarding the procedures used in conducting
the study. Pertinent issues discussed in this section include the population, sample
and sampling techniques, the research design, a description of instruments or tools
used to collect data, the measurement of variables and the techniques to be used in
analyzing data. If hypotheses are to he tested, the researcher must state the level of
significance to be used in such tests.

The most important point to bear in mind when writing the methods’ section of
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your report is that the details given regarding the procedures used in conducting the
study should be precise enough to enable other researchers to replicate your study.

Results and discussion

The main purpose of the results and discussion section is to present the results of
the data analysis in a systematic way. If the study is empirical in nature, the
researcher uses statistics to summarize the results and to make generalizations on
the population. The use of computers and statistical packages has made data
analysis, easier and faster.

The basic principle in presenting results is to give all the evidence relevant to the
research objectives and questions, if any. In quantitative research, the researcher is
sometimes expected to test hypotheses. In such cases, the researcher should
address all the hypotheses posed in the introduction chapter and give the results of
such tests, stating whether each hypothesis is supported by the data or not. It
should be borne in mind that a statistical test is done on the null hypothesis and the
research hypothesis is supported by the data only when the null hypothesis is
rejected at the significance level initially stated by the researcher in the
methodology section.
When writing the results and discussion section of the report, it is advisable to start
with a short introduction that describes the general procedures followed in
analyzing the data. It is also important to state the objectives or the hypotheses of
the study. The following are pointers on writing the results and discussion section
of a research report:

• Present the descriptive results of your analysis first. Descriptive statistics

describe your sample in summary form, which may include frequencies and
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 percentages, means, medians, modes, standard deviations, correlations etc.
These statistics should he presented in tables to make the document user-
friendly.
• The researcher should then present the results of the hypotheses tests, if any.
Hypotheses tests should inform the reader whether findings can be generalized
to the target population.
• It may not be possible to present every result of the analyses. The researcher
therefore selects the most important findings for reporting. In any case, analyses
should be guided by the study’s objectives or hypotheses as stated in the
introduction chapter.
• Not every result or table generated in the course of the analyses is presented in
the report. Again, objectives and hypotheses of the study should guide the
researcher in selecting the most important tables to include and discuss in the
report. All tables included in the report should be numbered systematically and
given appropriate titles. Tables should be appealing, informative and easy to
read. Discussion based on the information contained in a table should be placed
either immediately before or immediately after the table.
• Graphs, charts and other visual presentations of the data should be included in
the results and discussion section of the report if they add value to the content.
Sometimes, tables and other graphic representations of the data arc placed in the
appendices. This is often the case in journal papers.
• It is extremely important for the researcher to point out whether findings are
supported by other studies discussed in the literature review section. When
findings contradict other studies, it is also important for the researcher to point
this out giving possible reasons for such an outcome. For example,
contradictions may be due to differences in methodologies, Populations studied
or sample sizes between the researcher’s study and previous studies.
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 The findings of the study should also be tied to the theoretical framework, if
such a framework is identified and explained in the introduction or literature
review sections. This however, cannot be done in a theoretical studies.
The discussion section of the report therefore conveys the meaning of findings
to the reader and provides an important linkage to other sections or components
of the report such as objectives, hypotheses, research questions or theoretical
frameworks and existing literature.

 Summary, Conclusion and recommendations

In this section of the report, the researcher has the opportunity to summarize the
study undertaken, to conclude and make recommendations based on the study
findings. The summary reminds and informs the reader about the purpose of the
study, the process used to collect and analyze data and the major findings of the
study. A summary must reflect as accurately as possible the body of one’s report.
As Lannon2 puts it, the conclusion “culminates” your research report. The
conclusion is of utmost importance to your readers because it answers the
questions that sparked the collection and analysis of the data in the first place. In
concluding your report, it is important to discuss the practical application and
implications of your findings in the real world. Although you are supposed to have

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interpreted evidence at every step of your analysis, your conclusions pull the
strands together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action, where
appropriate.
Such implications are usually targeted to stakeholders. For example, a study on
primary school drop-outs should discuss the implications of the study to education
policy makers (e.g., is there a need to change policies?), teachers (e.g. is there a
need to change teaching methods or the curriculum?) and students (e.g., is there ii
need to provide students with counseling services and interventions to boost their
morale?).
Your summary and Conclusions should lead logically to your recommendations.
Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the study, its objectives,
the evidence presented by the data and the interpretations given. Recomrnendations
should be practical and achievable.
For example. It is not practical to recommend that all students in public
universities be provided with computers to make them computer literate because
such a recommendation would require a lot of money, which is simply unavailable.

Common recommendations that researchers often make include:

 Areas of further research, emphasizing the questions in the study that remain
unanswered and therefore ought to be explored further.
 Methodological issues that could be addressed and refined to improve future
research in that area of study.
 Actions that should be taken to address the problem based on the research
findings. Solving specific problems could involve designing and implementing
an intervention or project. For example, a counseling programme could be

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 initiated in secondary schools to reduce dropout rate and frequent student
strikes or riots in Kenya
References
In writing a research report, a researcher relies heavily on published or unpublished
documents that bear some relationship to the researcher’s area of study. The
researcher should give credit to authors of any work or materials quoted from or
referred to by listing them.
There are several formats or styles of referencing documents used in a research
report. The American Psychological Association Manual is a good example of a
referencing style.
Acknowledgements
The research process takes a lot of time, money and energy. During the study, a
researcher may require help from other individuals such as professional colleagues,
respondents, research assistants, etc. The researcher may also seek materials or
information relating to the stated area of research front institutions or originations.
It is therefore only a matter of courtesy for the researcher to acknowledge the help
received from various individuals, institutions or organizations. Because it ma he
impossible to name all the people that contribute in one way or another to the
research, it is important to mention only a few individuals by name to keep the
acknowledgement section as short as possible.
Appendices
The appendix Section of the report contains information that the researcher does
not deem necessary to include in the body of the report. Most of the time, such
information makes the report unnecessarily long without adding much value to the
content of the document However, the reader may use such information as
reference material to clarify some statements appearing in the body of the report.

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Instruments used in collecting data, statistical tables from data analyses
correspondence related to the study such as letters of respondents’ consent to
participate in the study and letters of approval to conduct research arc examples of
the type of information that may be included in appendices It is advisable to
include a copy of the research permit and the terms of reference, if any.

Further Readings

Cohen, L. Marion, L. and Morrison, k. (2000). Research Methods in Education.

London: Routledge Falmer.

Gay L.R., (1996). Educational Research Competence for Analysis and

Application. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Kertinger, F.N. & Howard, B.L. (2000). Foundations of Behavioural Research.

New York Harcourt College Publishers.

Mason, E.J. and Bramble W., (1997). Research in Educational. Dubuque:

Brown & Benchmark. Meredith, D.G., W.R.B. and Gall, J.P., (1996).
Educational Research. While Plains, N.Y: Longmans.

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Mertens, D.M., (1998). Research Methods in Education and Psychology.
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.

Ogula, P.A. (1998). A Handbook of Educational Research Nairobi: New

Kermit.

Orodho, A. J (2003) statistics made user friendly for Education and Social
Science Research. Masola Publishers

Wamahiu, S. P; Karagu, A. K. and Mwiria, K. (1996). Qualitative Resaerch in

Education. issues Education Research in Africa. Nairobi. East Africa Publishers

SAMPLE CONTINOUS TASKS (CATS)

SAMPLE CAT PAPER

Mt Kenya University

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME

105
 UNIT CODE: CCU 213

TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS

SAMPLE CAT 1 (30mks)

 Give four reasons for sampling 4 mks

 List two basic ways of sampling 2 mks
 Briefly describe judgment sampling 4 mks
 Explain two situations when it is advisable to use cluster sampling 2 mks

 Briefly explain four criteria for a good scientific hypothesis 8 mks

.
 Briefly explain the five stages in the research process 10
mks

SAMPLE PAST PAPER

Mt Kenya University

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

END OF SEMESTER UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION

DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME

UNIT CODE: CCU 213

TITLE: RESEARCH METHODS

106
 Time: 2 Hours

Answer Question one and any other two questions.

1
i) a) Briefly explain the following;
ii) Variable 2marks
iii) Data 2marks
iv) Objectives
2marks
v) Problem 2marks

b) Name the two approaches of research design and give two features of each approach. 8marks

c) List down three purpose of a research proposal. 3marks

d) Briefly explain the following;

i) Qualitative research paradigm. 3marks

ii) Case study 2marks

iii) Experimental design.

2marks

e) Differentiate between;

i) Reliability and validity. 4marks

ii) External and Internal validity. 4marks

2. Describe the process of qualitative research. 20marks

3. Describe how a survey design could be used in a study of your choice. 20marks

4. “Literature review is very important in research”, substantiate this statement. 20marks

5. You have been sponsored to undertake research on HIV/AIDS patients at all district hospitals
in Kenya.

a) Discuss five (5) logical issues you would consider. 10marks

b) Discuss five (5) ethical considerations you would bear in mind. 10marks
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