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The scope is the most important element to understand about any project. All planning and
allocation of resources are anchored to this understanding.

In project management, the term g
 has two distinct uses: Project Scope and Product
Scope.

 

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 "The work that needs to be accomplished to deliver a product, service, or
result with the specified features and functions."



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 "The features and functions that characterize a product, service, or result."

Notice that Project Scope is more 

 (the hows,) while Product Scope is more
oriented toward 

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g (the whats.)

If requirements are not completely defined and described and if there is no effective change
control in a project, scope or requirement creep may ensue.

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is important for effective project management. Projects are
expected to meet strict deadlines with resource restraints, and an unvetted and unapproved
change in the scope can affect the success of the project. Scope creep sometimes causes cost
overrun.

c
 is a term which refers to the incremental expansion of the scope of a project,
which may include and introduce more requirements that may not have been a part of the
initial planning of the project, while nevertheless failing to adjust schedule and budget. There
are two distinct ways to separate g
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. The type of scope
creep management is always dependent upon on the people who create the changes.

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occurs when decisions that are made with reference to a
project are designed to solve or meet the requirements and needs of the business. Business
scope creep changes may be a result of poor requirements definition early in development, or
the failure to include the users of the project until the later stage of the systems development
life cycle.

c  
c is one of the major Scope communication documents. The Project
Scope Management Plan documents how the project scope will be defined, managed,
controlled, verified and communicated to the project team and stakeholders/customers. It also
includes all work required to complete the project. The documents are used to control what is
in and out of the scope of the project by the use of a Change Management system. Items
deemed out of scope go directly through the change control process and are not automatically
added to the project work items. The Project Scope Management plan is included in as one of
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the sections in the overall Project Management plan. It can be very detailed and formal or
loosely framed and informal depending on the communication needs of the project.

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The knowledge area of Scope Management is all about making sure that the project includes
only the work required to complete the project successfully. To be effective at scope
management, you must learn to control what is and what is not in the scope of the project.
Included in this article are five best practices for successful scope management.

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Every project has (or should have) a set of deliverables, an assigned budget, and an expected
closure time. There are agreed upon requirements and tasks to complete prior to the closure of
project. These constitute the scope of the project. Any amount of variation in the scope of
project can affect the schedule, budget and in turn the success of project.

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Controlling the changes to the project is only half the battle in the war to deliver projects that
meet the needs of the client and are on time and on budget. You need to manage and control
the scope of your project. In this article, I explore some tricks of the trade that will start you
off on the right path and help to keep you there. Combine these tips and tr icks with a tight
change management process and your project will deliver what the client needs.

 
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In PMI's (Project Management Institute's) Project Management Body of Knowledge or

PMBOK, which is the bible of project management, there are 9 knowledge areas discussed;
Integration, Scope, Time, Cost, Quality, Human Resources, Communications, Risk and
Procurement. Anyone who has studied for their PMP certification knows these well, ad
nauseam even, and knows that the PMBOK discusses these with equal weight. Indeed, PMI
loves all of her knowledge area "children" equally, but out in the real world there is one that I
believe deserves your extra undivided attention and that is scope.
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Scope creep is a significant risk in software development projects. We discuss why this is so,
and how to avoid or at least mitigate the risk. New software is usually developed as a result of
a customer identifying a need. The next step is to specify how the software will meet that
need; specifically, what functionality will be developed.

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Ok, you're about to kick-off a project you're managing. The scope and budget are set, the team
knows what they're delivering, and everyone is ready to begin. You're confident that hours
have been allocated appropriately, but you also know how easy it is for scope to slip away
from you - you need to keep a good handle on this project to ensure the team doesn't squander
their hours and push the project over budget. In this article, I'll review some solid tactics you
can employ to progressively manage your project budget and maintain total visibility from
beginning to end.

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The Project Management Institute Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK)

defines product scope as the features and functions that are to be included in a product or
service. It defines project scope as the work that must be done to deliver a product with the
specified features and functions. Project scope management is defined as the processes
required to ensure that the project includes all the work required, and only the work required,
to complete the project successfully.

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Have you ever had a project that took longer than was expected, cost more, or ended up
totally different than the original plan? You're not alone. Most projects sway from the initial
idea, but they shouldn't and don't have to. By keeping the proper scope of your project, you
will be able to finish on time, on budget, and with fewer headaches.


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Scope creep is one of the most common reasons projects run over budget and deliver late.
Although changes to scope during a project are often done with the best of intentions, scope
creep is considered a negative occurrence to be avoided.

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When the scope, or extent, of a project is improperly or insufficiently defined, confusion,

delays, and/or cost overruns - scope creep - typically result. Preventing scope creep and
managing scope creep is, therefore, built into successful project management.
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Cost accounting has long been used to help managers understand the costs of running a
business. Modern cost accounting originated during the industrial revolution, when the
complexities of running a large scale business led to the development of systems for recording
and tracking costs to help business owners and managers make decisions.

In the early industrial age, most of the costs incurred by a business were what modern
accountants call "variable costs" because they varied directly with the amount of production.
Money was spent on labor, raw materials, power to run a factory, etc. in direct proportion to
production. Managers could simply total the variable costs for a product and use this as a
rough guide for decision-making processes.

Some costs tend to remain the same even during busy periods, unlike variable costs, which
rise and fall with volume of work. Over time, the importance of these "fixed costs" has
become more important to managers. Examples of fixed costs include the depreciation of
plant and equipment, and the cost of departments such as maintenance, tooling, production
control, purchasing, quality control, storage and handling, plant supervision and engineering.
In the early twentieth century, these costs were of little importance to most businesses.
However, in the twenty-first century, these costs are often more important than the variable
cost of a product, and allocating them to a broad range of products can lead to bad decision
making. Managers must understand fixed costs in order to make decisions about products and
pricing.

For example: A company produced railway coaches and had only one product. To make each
coach, the company needed to purchase $60 of raw materials and components, and pay 6
laborers $40 each. Therefore, total variable cost for each coach was $300. Knowing that
making a coach required spending $300, managers knew they couldn't sell below that price
without losing money on each coach. Any price above $300 became a contribution to the
fixed costs of the company. If the fixed costs were, say, $1000 per month for rent, insurance
and owner's salary, the company could therefore sell 5 coaches per month for a total of $3000
(priced at $600 each), or 10 coaches for a total of $4500 (priced at $450 each), and make a
profit of $500 in both cases.

Cost management
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Cost management is the process by which companies control and plan the costs of doing
business. Individual projects should have customized cost management plans, and companies
as a whole also integrate cost management into their overall business model. There is no
single accepted definition for this term, because it has such broad applications and possible
strategies. When properly implemented, cost management will translate into reduced costs of
production for products and services, as well as increased value being delivered to the
customer.

For a company's management to be effective overall, cost management must be an integral

feature of it. It is easiest to understand this concept if it is explained in the context of a single
project. For instance, before a project is started, the anticipated costs should be identified and
measured. These expenses should then be approved before any purchasing occurs. During the
process of completing a project, all incurred costs should be noted and kept in a record of
some kind, to help ensure that the costs are controlled and kept in line with initial
expectations, to the extent that this is possible.

Taking this approach to cost management will help a company determine whether they
accurately estimated expenses at first, and will help them more closely predict expenses in the
future. Any overspending can also be monitored in this way, and either eliminated in future
projects or specifically approved if the expense was necessary. Cost management cannot be
used in isolation; projects must be organized and tailored with this strategy in mind.

Starting a project with cost management in mind will help to avoid certain pitfalls that may be
present otherwise. If the objectives of the project are not clearly defined at first, or are
changed during the course of the project, cost over-runs will be more likely. If costs are not
fully researched before the project, they may be underestimated, thereby inflating the
expectation of the project's success unrealistically. Construction projects are subject to their
own particular challenges; these can include constraints in the form of laws and regulations
that must be planned around.

If the project is completely and clearly defined, this will facilitate effective management of
the costs it will incur. Effective cost management strategies will help a team deliver a finished
project within the allocated budget, while also making it as valuable as possible to the
company. There is always the possibility of unexpected costs, but preparation in the form of
cost management will likely make them much easier to deal with when they occur.

In management accounting,
g

c


 establishes budget and actual cost of operations,
processes, departments or product and the analysis of variances, profitability or social use of
funds. Managers use cost accounting to support decision-making to cut a company's costs and
improve profitability. As a form of management accounting, cost accounting need not to
follow standards such as GAAP, because its primary use is for internal managers, rather than
outside users, and what to compute is instead decided pragmatically.

Costs are measured in units of nominal currency by convention. Cost accounting can be
viewed as translating the supply chain (the series of events in the production process that, in
concert, result in a product) into financial values.
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In business, Issue Management refers to the discipline and process of managing business
issues and usually implies using technology to electronically automate the process. In Project
Management, the purpose of Issue Management is to ensure that any concerns recognized
during a project are addressed in a timely manner and do not go unresolved until they become
major problems.[1] Electronic issue management has gathered steam as a business and
technology movement in recent years[©
] as mid-sized and large businesses have realized
the advantage of implementing systems to manage, document, and track work.

Issues management is a seductive concept. For those who are talented and tenacious enough
to make their careers in public relations, the idea of ³managing´ contentious issues--taming
them, bringing them to heel and making them do our bidding--is illusory, but utterly
compelling. For those who have battled for the legitimacy of public relations as a
management function, the credibility and senior management access issues management can
deliver is something that communication professionals may find only in the midst of crises. A
2007 survey of CEOs revealed their expectation that communications chiefs be equipped to
³see around corners´ and anticipate how different audiences will react to different events,
messages and channels (The Authentic Enterprise, 2007, p. 44).

Issues management is all about facilitating communication leadership in organizations. In

fact, the USC Annenberg 2007 GAP V survey of senior public relations practitioners revealed
that those with direct budgetary responsibility for issues management (42 percent) were more
likely to report higher levels of C-suite support, effective working relationships with other
departments, larger budgets, and more access to resources for research, evaluation and
strategic implementation. So emphatic was the relationship between issues management and
key indicators of effective practice, the authors added
  
 
 





 to the list of 13 best practices for public relations.

Issues management is an   

 management process that helps organizations
detect and respond appropriately to emerging trends or changes in the socio-political
environment. These trends or changes may then crystallize into an ³issue,´ which is a
situation that evokes the attention and concern of influential organizational publics and
stakeholders. At its best, issues management is stewardship for building, maintaining and
repairing relationships with stakeholders and stakeseekers (Heath, 2002).

Organizations engage in issues management if decision-makers are actively looking for,

anticipating, and responding to shifting stakeholder expectations and perceptions likely to
have important consequences for the organization. Such responses may be operational and
immediately visible, such as McDonald¶s anticipatory move from plastic to paper packaging
in 1990. Other common strategic responses are direct, behind-the-scenes negotiations with
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lawmakers and bureaucrats, and proactive campaigns using paid and earned media to
influence how issues are framed. Pro-life (e.g. National Right to Life) and pro-choice
organizations (e.g. Planned Parenthood) are well-established institutions that have long
contended the same issue using many similar strategies and tactics, but with opposing and
openly antagonistic positions.

Issues should precipitate action when a collective, informed assessment demonstrates that the
organization is likely to be affected. For example, in 2007, changes to local laws made the
retrofitting of car sunroofs illegal in Beijing and left a national manufacturer of sunroofs
scrambling to negotiate with other local and regional governments to protect their profitable
business. Introduced in advance of the 2008 Olympics, the laws were the outcome of lobbying
by various stakeholders, including health and safety agencies, and car manufacturers. The
emerging trend was increased attention being paid to health and safety concerns in that city--
including air quality, motor vehicle safety and traffic reduction. The sunroof manufacturer
was caught in the crossfire of stakeholder interests, unable to respond effectively. The
outcome was substantive and negative.

In contrast, the America West Arena in Phoenix, Arizona, provided an example of effective
issues management in action when it worked with disabilities advocacy groups to ensure a
new arena would not merely comply with the specifications of the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA), but rather, would meet a higher standard set collaboratively (Matera
& Artique, 2000). Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE or ³mad cow disease") had been
on the issues management radar of the National Cattlemen¶s Beef Association (NCBA) for
years when, in 2003, the first case of BSE on American soil was identified in Washington
State. By anticipating the event and mapping out a goal-driven response in advance, the
NCBA was able to respond rapidly. Helped by the fact that only one infected animal imported
from Canada had been identified, the following strategic response effectively contained
consumer concerns about American beef. The response was multi-layered, including direct
consultation with regulators, consumer advocacy groups and other key stakeholders, as well
as intensive national and international news media outreach. Evaluation measures, such as
media coverage achieved, were positive. More significantly, beef demand rose by almost 8
percent in 2004 and consumer confidence in American beef increased from 88 percent just
prior to the BSE event in 2003 to 93 percent in 2005; consumer spending on beef also
increased an estimated $8 billion between 2003 and 2004 (National Cattlemen¶s Beef
Association, 2005).

So, who should practice issues management? Chase (1984) argued that issues management is
a natural fit for public relations and its various disciplines including public affairs,
communications and government relations. Heath and Cousino (1990) argued that public
relations practitioners understand and can play important roles in increasingly complex
environments, including promoting the bottom line interests of the organization and building
relationships. Issue communication is an important strategic component of issues
management, but good decisions about communication strategies and tactics are more likely
to be made by practitioners who understand the full scope of issues management, have an
extensive knowledge of the organization and its environment, and are skilled collaborators
equipped to negotiate within and across organizational boundaries.

A 2002 survey by the Foundation for Public Affairs revealed that 44 percent of all companies
with an internally recognized public affairs function have staff members working on issues
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management full-time. The same survey showed that within companies regularly using non-
dedicated members to manage issues, 71 percent obtain these individuals from other corporate
staff functions like human resources or finance (Mahon, Heugens & Lamertz, 2004).
Furthermore, Regester and Larkin (2005) contend that public relations practitioners ³are well
placed to help manage issues effectively, but often lack the necessary access to strategic
planning functions or an appropriate networking environment which encourages informal as
well as formal contact and reporting,´ (p. 44). Clearly, issues management is a process that
demands cross-functional teams and effective collaboration.

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Issues will arise throughout a project and beyond. There is a temptation to try to avoid trouble
by discouraging people from raising their concerns. Of course, the opposite is the best policy.
Any potential problem should be surfaced as early as possible and dealt with efficiently.

Anyone concerned with the project may spot potential problems. The participants should be
encouraged and rewarded for bringing these to the attention of the project leadership. Once an
issue is raised, the Project Manager should ensure that it is proactively pursued and dealt with
to the satisfaction of all concerned parties. It should be easy for the participants to submit their
concerns. It is a good idea to stimulate the submission of issues, possibly by requesting input
as part of the participants' regular progress reporting. One way this might be done is by
including an "issues" section on the project timesheet.

A distinction is sometimes made between different types of issue, for example:

c software errors or "bugs" in the developed technical solution,

c more general problems that concern the project team,
c issues that represent a requested change to the system, and
c problems or "bugs" that need to be reported to an external supplier.

In some projects, different processes will be defined. Alternatively, a single mechanism would
present a less confusing interface for the participants, but would need to support variations in
how the issue is dealt with.
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There certainly are some different considerations with issues reported to external suppliers.
Very often that supplier will have its own specific procedures, tracking system, reference
numbers, liaison points etc. It is good practice to channel external links through a single point
of contact - either a member of the Project Office, a specialist within the project team, or a
designated person in the wider organisation.

Note that the project team will also need to set up a permanent operational mechanism for the
resolution of problems reported by users during the live running of the system. It may be
based on the approach used during the project, or it may be that the organisation has a good
standard procedure in place.

There are also some specific stages in a project that might warrant their own issue
management process and system, for example:

c evaluating loosely defined solutions options as part of the conceptual design thought
process,
c evaluating and selecting external service suppliers and systems components, and
c testing the solution components.

Although these are more part of the project work than part of the project management, it may
be appropriate to use some of the same techniques and tools but without the degree of
administration and control that should be found in the project's main issue management
process.

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is the systematic planning, implementing, monitoring, and
revision of all the channels of communication within an organization, and between
organizations; it also includes the organization and dissemination of new communication
directives connected with an organization, network, or communications technology. Aspects
of communications management include developing corporate communication strategies,
designing internal and external communications directives, and managing the flow of
information, including online communication. New technology forces constant innovation on
the part of communications managers.

As a manager, one must take a contingency approach to communicating with their employees
and communicate on a personal level. It¶s the manager¶s responsibility to determine if their
employee¶s personality falls under the following: Reactors, Workaholics, Persisters,
Dreamers, Rebels, or Promoters.

A communication plan like the project plan is a necessary part of a project. It's been said that
communication is the lifeblood of projects.

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Research among project managers globally identifies top communication skills for leading
teams. Leading people - the experiential side of project management - is as important as task-
based skills according to project managers in Europe, the Middle East, India, America and
Australasia. In recent research they said that communication is a critical skill for project
success, both for keeping team members up-to-date and for winning the support of key
stakeholders. But which skills make all the difference? Here are the top five respondents say
have made all the difference to their careers.

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"Since I didn't hear otherwise, I ASSUMED all was going well." The Importance of
Communication in Project Management. Second on Rick Klemm's list of things most
commonly overheard on a failing software project, this remark is characteristic of Project
Managers who are not in frequent and efficient communication with their staff.

 
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Good communication is vital to the success of your project. This article explores the methods
used by successful project managers to tailor their communications to suit their audiences. It
offers advice and tips on how to implement the best practices taught by the PMBOK and
many PMP Exam Preparation courses.
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As a Project Manager, communication will occur in many forms, with many individuals,
including project stakeholders, your internal team, management within your organisation,
vendors, and more. Communication may happen verbally or through e-mail, as well as
through charters and project plans, addenda and status reports. These long lists are a small
indication of the significance of communication to a Project Manager.

 
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The world is getting smaller. Well, it isn't physically getting smaller but that is one way of
saying that global communications have become so fast paced that the world is really one
community in a lot of ways. With the advent of the Internet, email, instant messaging and
VOIP, it is entirely possible to have your project team members around the globe.

 
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Communication, Communication, Communication! In our world of project management

today, it has become increasingly more important to turn our efforts toward more effective
means of communication, especially since many of us are faced with more and more virtual
teams operating around the globe. Start your projects on the right foot, with a "Capital C" and
begin the communication process early and often!

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Communication is more than just talking. Communication is also listening. When it comes to
project management, communication takes up 90% of a project manager's time. That's right,
90% of your time.

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As the director of the project management discipline for a leading Interactive Agency, I
interview quite a few people. A standard question I ask during a typical first interview is
"What do you feel is the secret to project management, in other words, what separates good
project managers from great project managers?" It is a pretty open-ended question and there is
no right answer, but it is a great question to gain greater insight into the depth of the
candidate. The most common answer I get is "communication, making sure everyone knows
what is going on." While this is not incorrect, I think there is a much deeper and truth-seeking
answer beyond this stock response.

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Communication is so important to project success that it has been referred to as the lifeblood
of a project by more than one practitioner. Jack Vinson talks about the importance of
communication across project interfaces - interfaces being boundaries between different
groups within an extended project team. He views interfaces as constraints that limit project
success. On reflection, I realised that many project communication issues I've encountered
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have, in fact, occurred at interfaces. In this post I explore the notion of an interface as an
obstacle to project communication.

 
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The communication plan like the project plan is a necessary part of the project. However,
when thinking of the project manager's role in communication planning look beyond the
written word and the outline prepared in the early phases of a project, otherwise you are
setting yourself up for project losses.

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Quality management can be considered to have four main components: quality
planning, quality control, quality assurance and quality improvement. [1] Quality
management is focused not only on product/ service quality, but also the means
to achieve it. Quality management therefore uses quality assurance and control
of processes as well as products to achieve more consistent quality.

As customers become more sophisticated, better informed and their expectations

grow, the only way your business can survive and prosper is by offering a
commitment to quality.

A Quality Management System (QMS) such as ISO 9001 provides a

management framework that gives you the necessary controls to address risks
and monitor and measure performance in your business. It can also help you to
enhance your image and reputation and en able you to look for improvements
through internal and external communications.

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Quality management is a recent phenomenon. Advanced civilizations that supported the arts
and crafts allowed clients to choose goods meeting higher quality standards than normal
goods. In societies where art responsibilities of a master craftsman (and similarly for artists)
was to lead their studio, train and supervise the on, the importance of craftsmen was
diminished as mass production and repetitive work practices were instituted. The aim was to
produce large numbers of the same goods. The first proponent in the US for this approach was
Eli Whitney who proposed (interchangeable) parts manufacture for muskets, hence producing
the identical components and creating a musket assembly line. The next step forward was
promoted by several people including Frederick Winslow Taylor a mechanical engineer who
sought to improve industrial efficiency. He is sometimes called "the father of scientific
management." He was one of the intellectual leaders of the Efficiency Movement and part of
his approach laid a further foundation for quality management, including aspects like
standardization and adopting improved practices. Henry Ford also was important in bringing
process and quality management practices into operation in his assembly lines. In Germany,
Karl Friedrich Benz, often called the inventor of the motor car, was pursuing similar assembly
and production practices, although real mass production was properly initiated in Volkswagen
after World War II. From this period onwards, North American companies focused
predominantly upon production against lower cost with increased efficiency.

Walter A. Shewhart made a major step in the evolution towards quality management by
creating a method for quality control for production, using statistical methods, first proposed
in 1924. This became the foundation for his ongoing work on statistical quality control. W.
Edwards Deming later applied statistical process control methods in the United States during
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World War II, thereby successfully improving quality in the manufacture of munitions and
other strategically important products.

Quality leadership from a national perspective has changed over the past five to six decades.
After the second world war, Japan decided to make quality improvement a national
imperative as part of rebuilding their economy, and sought the help of Shewhart, Deming and
Juran, amongst others. W. Edwards Deming championed Shewhart's ideas in Japan from 1950
onwards. He is probably best known for his management philosophy establishing quality,
productivity, and competitive position. He has formulated 14 points of attention for managers,
which are a high level abstraction of many of his deep insights. They should be interpreted by
learning and understanding the deeper insights and include:

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In the 1950s and 1960s, Japanese goods were synonymous with cheapness and low quality,
but over time their quality initiatives began to be successful, with Japan achieving very high
levels of quality in products from the 1970s onward. For example, Japanese cars regularly top
the J.D. Power customer satisfaction ratings. In the 1980s Deming was asked by Ford Motor
Company to start a quality initiative after they realized that they were falling behind Japanese
manufacturers. A number of highly successful quality initiatives have been invented by the
Japanese (see for example on this page: Taguchi, QFD, Toyota Production System. Many of
the methods not only provide techniques but also have associated quality culture (i.e. people
factors). These methods are now adopted by the same western countries that decades earlier
derided Japanese methods.

Customers recognize that quality is an important attribute in products and services. Suppliers
recognize that quality can be an important differentiator between their own offerings and
those of competitors (quality differentiation is also called the quality gap). In the past two
decades this quality gap has been greatly reduced between competitive products and services.
This is partly due to the contracting (also called outsourcing) of manufacture to countries like
India and China, as well internationalization of trade and competition. These countries
amongst many others have raised their own standards of quality in order to meet International
standards and customer demands. The ISO 9000 series of standards are probably the best
known International standards for quality management.

There are a huge number of books available on quality management. In recent times some
themes have become more significant including quality culture, the importance of knowledge
management, and the role of leadership in promoting and achieving high quality. Disciplines
like systems thinking are bringing more holistic approaches to quality so that people, process
and products are considered together rather than independent factors in quality management.

The influence of quality thinking has spread to non-traditional applications outside of walls of
manufacturing, extending into service sectors and into areas such as sales, marketing and
customer service

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