UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO CELL BIOLOGY
reproduction of organisms.
DISCOVERY OF THE CELL
Cells
 Can be only observed with microscope
because of their small size.
 Spectacles microscope were first made
in Europe in the 13th century.
 First compound (double-lens) light
microscopes were constructed by the
end of 16th century.
Robert Hooke
 First to discover the cell by observing a
thin slice of cork under microscope.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
 First to examine a drop of pond water
under microscope and observed
animalcules (an old term for a
microscopic organisms that included
bacteria, protozoans, and very small
animals).
 First to describe various bacteria
obtained from soaked pepper and teeth
scrapings.
Matthias Schleiden
 In 1838, he concluded that plants were
made of cells and that plant embryos
arose from a single cell.
 In 1839, he published a comprehensive
report on the cellular basis of animal
life.
Tenets of Cell theory
Theodor Schwann’s proposed the first two
tenets of cell theory:
1. All organisms are composed of one or
more cells
2. The cell is the structural unit of life.
Rudolf Virchow
 In 1855, he proposed the third tenets of
cell theory.
3. Cells arise only by division from a pre-
existing cell.
 Derived from his famous aphorism
“omnis cellulae a cellula” (all cells arise
from pre-existing cells) established that
cell division is the phenomenon in the
TENETS OF CELL THEORY AND MODERN
VERSION OF CELL THEORY
TENETS OF CELL MODERN VERSION
THEORY OF CELL THEORY
All organisms are The properties of a
composed of one or given organism
more cells depend on those of
its individual cell
The cell is the Cells are
structural unit of life morphological and
physiological unit of
all living organisms
The smallest unit of
life is the cell
Cells arise only by Cells originate only
division from a pre- from other cells and
existing cell. continuity is
maintained through
genetic material.
UNIVERSAL FEATURES OF THE CELL
Cells vary enormously in appearance and
function
 Wide variety of shapes and sizes
 Enormously diverse in their chemical
requirements and function
o Photosynthesis – cells that
contains green chlorophyll
o Spiral thickenings – give
strength to water-conducting
vessels
o Highly branched cells of human
neuron – conduct electric
potentials
Universal features of the Cell
1. Cell structure is highly complex and
organized structurally
 It is highly complex because it is
composed of several parts
 It is structurally-organized
because it maintains systematic
process of cellular machinery –
meaning it has less tolerance
 for errors and more control
exerted to the nature and
interactions of the parts.
2. Cell stores their hereditary information
in the form of DNA
 Basis of phenotypic features is
the DNA
3. Cell has the potential to reproduce
 Cell cycle (G1 Phase to
Cytokinesis)
4. Cell acquires and utilizes energy
 Acquires and utilizes energy
based on its metabolic
pathways.
5. Cell engages in metabolism
 Since cells requires energy, they
engage in metabolic processes,
starting with
monosaccharides or fatty acids,
or other molecules that can
enter the metabolic pathway to
generate energy.
 Energy generation happens in
mitochondria for animals and
microorganisms while
chloroplasts for plants.
6. Cell engages in mechanical activities
 Phagocytosis of bacteria within
the cell
 Presence of flagella and cilia on
microorganisms for movement.
7. Cell senses and responds to changes in
environment
 Cells are covered with
receptors found on their
plasma membrane or cell walls
 These receptors are highly
specific that can detect:
Hormones, growth factors,
extracellular materials, and
substances on the surfaces of
other cells.
8. Cell is capable of self-regulation
 Cells are usually called robust
machineries because they are
protected from dangerous
fluctuations in composition and
behavior through activation of
specific feedback mechanism to
return the cell to the
appropriate state.
 Feedback mechanism happens
when there is a signal coming
from the plasma membrane
towards the nucleus.
 Nucleus will produce RNA and
protein that is used for
regulation. In the process of
transcription, regulation takes
place. *Post-transcriptional
modification*
 Regulation also happens in golgi
apparatus *Post-translational
modification*
–
HYPOTHESES ON ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
LIFE
Where did the first cells come from?
 Researchers believe that appearance of
cells involved four phases of evolution:
1. Initial generation of key organic
molecules of life by non-biological
process
o Conversion of inorganic
molecules (CO2, CH4, NH3, H2,
H2S, HCN, Water Vapor) to
organic molecules depending
on the environment.
o Stanley Miller (1953) – provided
the first evidence that organic
molecules could be formed
from inorganic components.
2. Transition of prebiotic chemistry to
replicating systems
o RNA world hypothesis -
production of single-stranded
RNA followed by double-
 stranded RNA and the self-
replicating RNA (precursors of
life):
1. Formation of self-replicating RNA
2. Mechanism for protein synthesis by
an RNA
3. Assembly of lipid membrane to
enclose self-replicating RNA and
protein
3. Mechanisms evolved for
interconverting energy from chemical
sources and sunlight into forms that can
be utilized to drive biochemical
reactions
o Metabolism-first theory: self-
sustaining networks of ordered
chemical reactions, and not
replication was the initial form
that led to “life” – there is a
reverse reaction of metabolism
that is why there are
production of key molecules to
produce by a macromolecules.
4. Evolution of mechanism that allowed
cells to adjust their biochemistry to
different, and often changing
environments.
o Production of protein, the first
bacteria etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS
 Distinguished by size & type of
organelles present.
Prokaryotes (pro– means “before” –karyon
means “nucleus”)
 Consist of a single closed compartment
surrounded by a plasma membrane
 Lacks nucleus but has nucleoid
 Relatively simple internal organization
 Bacteria and Archaea
Eukaryotes (eu– means “true”, –karyon means
“nucleus”)
 Contain defined membrane-bound
nucleus
 Extensive internal membranes
 Defined nucleus
 Plants, animals, fungi, algae, and
protozoa
Common features of both cell types
1. Genetic information encoded in DNA
using identical genetic code
2. Similar mechanisms for transcription
and transcription and translation of
genetic information, including similar
ribosomes but different initiation site.
3. Shared metabolic pathways such as
glycolysis – because of mitochondria
4. Similar apparatus for conservation of
chemical energy as ATP (located in the
plasma membrane of prokaryotes and
mitochondrial membrane of
eukaryotes)
5. Similar mechanisms of photosynthesis
(between cyanobacteria and green
plants)
6. Plasma membrane of similar
construction – same lipid composition
7. Similar mechanism for synthesizing and
inserting membrane proteins towards
the plasma membrane
8. Proteasome of similar construction
Prokaryotic Cells
Types of Prokaryotic Cells:
 1. Archaeabacteria (ancient/old bacteria)  Lacks a boundary
 Lives in extremely inhospitable membrane to separate it
environments from the cytoplasm
 Extremophiles: methanogens  A bacterial chromosome is a single
(methane-formers), halophiles (salt- circular molecule of naked DNA –
lovers), acidophiles (acid-lovers), anchored to plasma membrane
thermophiles (extreme heat-lovers)  Presence of plasmid – a small
2. Eubacteria extrachromosomal circular DNA
 Includes mycoplasma (smallest known that has an antibiotic resistance
cells) and cyanobacteria (most complex sequence.
known prokaryotes)
FLAGELLUM AND PILI
Structure of Prokaryotic Cells Flagellum propels the cell in its surrounding;
Two definite membranes in a bacterial cell: used for movement of bacteria
 Cell wall and plasma membrane  Made up of a single fibril attached to
Interior of the cell consists of cytoplasm and the cell through its hook and basal body
nucleoid region Pili are sexual appendages used for bacterial
 Ribosomes are present in the cytoplasm conjugation. They are used by cells to sticks to
 Water, various RNAs, proteins the surface of other cells.
(including enzymes) and small
molecules also filled the cytoplasm. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
 Flagella – hair-like projections are Types of eukaryotic cells:
present (attached with the plasma 1. Protists – unicellular; most complex
membrane) eukaryotic cells: the whole system acts
as one
Membranes in Bacterial Cell 2. Multicellular organisms (higher
 Cell wall – outer layer membrane, rigid organisms) – have different cell types
and serves as mechanical support. It is for different functions; exhibit
made up of polysaccharides, lipids and differentiation
protein molecules.
 Porin – act as channels that allow
diffusion of solutes
 Plasma membrane – the inner
membrane; a lipoprotein structure
which serves as a molecular barrier.
Some enzymes involved in respiratory
chain and photosystems maybe
present.
 Periplasmatic space – sandwich
between the cell and plasma
membrane

NUCLEOID REGION
 The genetic material lies in the
nucleoid Structure of Eukaryotic Cells
 A poorly demarcated region  More complex
of the cell  Presence of nucleus
 o Possess a number of separate 9. Cell division using microtubule-
with chromosomes containing mitotic spindle that
 Filled with diverse structures separates chromosomes.
o Membrane-bound organelles  Happens inside nucleus
o Cytoplasmic membranes
10. Presence of two copies of genes per
o Other structures that lack
cell, one from each parent
surrounding membranes
 Happens during cellular division
11. Presence of three different RNA
synthesizing enzymes
12. Sexual reproduction requiring meiosis
and fertilization

STRUCTURES IN EUKARYOTES
Main Subcomponents Main function
Components
Cell Membrane Cell wall Protection
Cell coat Cell interaction
Plasma Permeability,
membrane endocytosis &
exocytosis
Nucleus Chromatin & Genetic
Comparison of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes Chromosomes information
FEATURES ONLY FOUND TO EUKARYOTES Nucleolus system
1. Division of cell into nucleus and Nucleoplasm
cytoplasm, separated by a nuclear Cytoplasm Soluble Glycolysis
envelope containing complex pore matrix, cytosol, enzymes Cell shape and
Cytoskeleton Microfilaments motility
structure. Microtubules Protein
2. Complex chromosomes composed of Ribosomes synthesis
DNA and associated proteins that are Endomembrane Nuclear Nuclear
System envelope permeability
capable of compacting into mitotic Rough and Synthesis and
structures. smooth ER transport of
Golgi complex materials
3. Complex membranous cytoplasmic
Secretion
organelles Membrane Mitochondria Cell respiration
4. Specialized cytoplasmic organelles for Organelles Chloroplasts Photosynthesis
Lysosomes Digestion
aerobic respiration and photosynthesis
Peroxisomes Peroxidation
 Mitochondria Microtubular Centrioles and Cell division
organelles spindle Cell motility
5. Complex cytoskeletal system and Basal bodies,
associated motor proteins cilia and flagella
6. Complex flagella and cilia
7. Ability to ingest fluid and particulate
material by enclosure within plasma
membrane vesicles.
8. Cellulose-containing cell wall
 Found in plant cells