LESSON 2.

IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS

People do research to find solutions, even tentative ones, to problems, in order to improve or enhance ways of doing
things, to disprove or provide a new hypothesis, or simply to find answers to questions or solutions to problems in daily life.
Research findings can affect people’s lives, ways of doing things, laws, rules and regulations, as well as policies, among others.
Widely, quantitative research is often used because of its emphasis on proof rather than discovery. In recent times, research
studies are gaining an unprecedented focus and attention. Then, only the faculty in higher education has so much interest and
conduct researchers, but now even the teachers in the basic education are engrossed in researches and devote time and effort
in conducting researches to improve educational practices that may lead to more quality learning of the students. Many teachers
do action researches because there is a serious need to identify the problems of the deteriorating quality of education. By doing
so, they can address systematically and make educational decisions regarding the problems met. Innovative teaching strategies
are product of research. In the natural and social sciences, quantitative research is the systematic, empirical investigation of
observable phenomena via statistical, mathematical or computational techniques. The objective of quantitative research is to
develop and employ mathematical models, theories and/or hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement
is central to quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between empirical observation and
mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Health Sciences (Medical Technology, Dentistry, Nursing, Medicine, etc.)
use quantitative research designs like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, true-experiment, case study, among
others.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & ACCOUNTING, BUSINESS and MANAGEMENT (ABM)
Researches can help design a new product or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure the development of
product is highly targeted towards demand. Businessmen can also utilize research results to guarantee sufficient distribution of
their products and decide where they need to increase their product distribution. Conducting researches can also help a
business determine whether now is the proper time to open another branch or whether it needs to apply for a new loan. It may
also help a small business decide if a procedure or strategy should be change to meet the requirements of the customer base.
Research is important for any organization to remain in the market. The primary function of research in ABM is to correctly
determine its customers and their preferences, establish the enterprise in the most feasible location, deliver quality goods and
services, analyze what the competitors are doing and find ways on how to continuously satisfy the growing and varied needs of
the clients.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and ANTHROPOLOGY
Anthropology is a research method of combining qualitative and quantitative research data. It is concerned with
exploring connections simultaneously, amidst cultural differences, alternatives and identity. In the contemporary academic,
socio-cultural and political climate these concepts have immense symbolic overtones. Quantitative research is use in
Anthropology in many aspects. Like, true experiments may use in studying people provided that you follow certain steps
(Bernard, 2004). This is to look into the Effects of an intervention in ethnic behavior of a group. In here, you need at least two
groups, called the treatment group and the control group. On group gets the intervention and the other group don’t. Next,
individuals may be randomly assigned, either to the intervention group or to the control group to ensure that the groups are
equivalent. Then, the groups are measured on one or more dependent variables; this is called the pre-test. After which, the
intervention is introduced. Lastly, the dependent variables are measured again. This is the post test. True in experiments with
people in laboratory are also common. Laboratory experiments often produce results that beg to be tested in the natural world
by Anthropologists. Aaron and Mills (1959, as cited by Bernard, 2004) demonstrated in a lab experiment that people who go
through severe initiation to a group tend to be more positive toward the group than are people who go through a mild initiation.
They reasoned that people who go through tough initiation rites put a lot of personal investments into getting into the group.
Later, if people see evidence that the group is not what they thought it would be, they are reluctant to admit the fact because of
the investments. In Field, Janet Schofield and her colleagues did a 3 year ethnographic study in middle school. During the first
year, they noticed that African-American and while children seemed to react differently to “mildly aggressive acts’ – things like
bumping in the hallway, poking one another in the classroom, asking for food, or using another student’s pencil without
permission. There appeared to be no event of racial conflict in the school, but during interviews while students were more likely
to report being intimidated by their African-American peers than vice versa (Sagar & Schofield, 1980, as cited by Bernard, 2004)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and COMMUNICATION
Researchers are often interested in how an understanding of a particular communication phenomenon might
generalize to a larger population. For example, researchers can advance questions like “What Effect do punitive behavioral
control statements have on a classroom? What communicative behaviors are associated with different stages in romantic
relationships? What communicative behaviors are used to respond to co-workers displaying emotional stress? (Allen, Titsworth,
Hunt, 2009)
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and SPORTS MEDICINE
Quantitative research is used to analyze how sports may be used as an alternative way of medicating an illness. An
example is the research done by University of Eastern Finland which investigated the relationship between mushrooming of fast
food chains and obesity, as well as the intervention needed to prevent children’s obesity from reaching serious proportions. The
research focused on the children’s physical activity and physical inactivity and the concomitant impact on the children’s amount
of adipose tissue (fat mass) and the endurance fitness. The study is used to analyze certain the effect of physical activity in
weight control.

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and MEDICAL EDUCATION

Quantitative research in medical education tends to be predominantly observational research based on surveys or
correlational studies. The designs test interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning process, or assessment with an
experimental group. Either a comparison or controlled group learners may allow researchers to overcome validity concerns and
infer potential cause-effect generalizations. Researchers are using to cope with the emerging trends in recent times.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH and BEHAVIORAL SCIENCES
Relationship Questions in today’s quantitative trend tend to explore how one behavior exhibited by people is related to
other types of behavior. Examples are verbally aggressive behaviors related to physical aggression – that is, when a person has
a level of verbally aggressive behavior, does he or she tend to be physically aggressive? Are certain supervisor communication
skills related to the emotional experiences of employees? Questions of difference explore how patterns of behavior or
perceptions might differ from one group or type of a person to another: Do people with disabilities experience emotional labor
differently from those without disabilities? Do women perceive talkativeness (or lack of it) differently form men? Do
communication styles differ from one culture to the next? (Alle, Titsworth, Hunt, 2009). When quantitative researchers explore
questions of differences or questions of relationships, they do so in an attempt to uncover certain patterns of behavior. If the
researcher discovers that a certain relationship exists in sample that she or he has drawn form the population, she/he is then in
a position to draw generalizations about patterns expected of human behavior.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
Quasi Experiments are most often used in evaluating social problems. Suppose a researcher has invented a
technique for improving reading comprehension among third graders. She/he selects two third grade classes in a school district.
One of them gets the intervention and the other doesn’t. Students are measured before and after the intervention to see
whether their reading scores improve. This design contains many of the elements of true experiment, but the participants are
not assigned randomly to the treatment and control groups.
Mertens (2005) says that the dominant paradigms that guided early psychological research were positivism and its
successor, post positivism. Positivism is based on rationalistic, empiricist philosophy that originated with Aristotle, Francis
Bacon, John Locke, August Comte, and Immanuel Kant. the underlying assumptions of positivism include the belief that the
social world can be studied in the same way as the natural world, that there is a method for studying the social world that is
value-free, and that explanations of a causal nature can be provided.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH & SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, and MATHEMATICS
Medical practitioners, for example, conduct researches to obtain significant information about diseases trends and risk
factors, results of various health interventions, patterns of care and health care cost and use. The different approaches to
research provide complementary insights. Researchers help in determining the effectiveness and even side effect of drugs and
therapies in different populations and various institutions. It is also necessary in evaluating experiences in clinical practice in
order to develop mechanisms for best practices and to ensure high quality patient care. Researchers in these fields ultimately
aim for man’s longevity. As for engineers, architects, and other builders, research helps in providing designs which are
creatively beautiful and at the same time give more convenience and efficiency as they utilize modern technology to adapt to the
ever changing society. New materials and procedures may be developed so as to further strengthen the structural materials
than can withstand various calamities and disasters.

LESSON 3. KINDS OF VARIABLES AND THEIR USES

THE VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
The term ‘variable’ has been mentioned several times so that it is necessary to define it here. In research, a variable refers to a
“characteristics that has two or more mutually exclusive values or properties” (Sevilla and Other, 1988). Sex, for instance, has
two properties which are maleness and femaleness. The ages of different persons have different values; so with their size,
height, weight and income. The phenomenon of variety is what makes life interesting; it is one of the motivating factors of the
research undertaking. The root word of the word variable is “vary” or simply “can change”. These variables are among the
fundamental concepts of research, alongside with measurement, validity, reliability, cause and effect; and theory. Bernard
(1994) defines a variable as something that can take more than one value, and values can be words or numbers. A variable
specifically refers to characteristics, or attribute of an individual or an organization that can be measured or observed and that
varies among the people or organization being studied (Creswell, 2002).
TYPES OF VARIABLES (ALLEN, TITSWORTH, HUNT, 2009)
1. CONTINUOUS VARIABLES – A variable that can take infinite number on the value that can occur within the
population. Its values can be divided into fractions. Examples of this type of variable include age, height, and
temperature. Continuous variables can be further categorized as:

a. INTERVAL VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. It is a measurement
where the difference between two values does have meaning. Examples of interval data include temperature, a person’s net
worth (how much money you have when you subtract your debt from your assets), etc. In temperature, this may illustrate as the
difference between a temperature of 60 degrees and 50 degrees is the same as difference between 30 degrees and 20
degrees. The interval between values makes sense and can be interpreted.
b. RATIO VARIABLES – It have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is absolute
zero. It possesses the properties of interval variable and has a clear definition of zero, indication that there is none of that
variable. Examples of which are height, weight, and distance. Most scores stemming from response to survey items are ratio-
level values because they typically cannot go below zero. Temperature measured in degrees Celsius and degrees Fahrenheit is
not a ratio variable because 0 under these temperatures scales does not mean no temperature at all.
2. DISCRETE VARIABLES – This is also known as categorical or classificatory variable. This is any variable that has limited
number of distinct values and which cannot be divided into fractions like sex, blood group, and number of children in family.
Discrete variable may also categorized into:
a. NOMINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. It is a variable with no
quantitative value. It has two or more categories but does not imply ordering of cases. Common examples of this variable
include eye color, business type, religion, biological sex, political affiliation, basketball fan affiliation, etc. A sub-type of nominal
scale with only two categories just like sex is known as dichotomous.
b. ORDINAL VARIABLE – It represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. This variable has two
or more categories which can be ranked. Examples of ordinal variable include education level, income brackets, etc. An
illustration of this is, if you asked people if they liked listening to music while studying and they could answer either “NOT VERY
MUCH”, “MUCH”, “VERY MUCH” then you have an ordinal variable. While you can rank them, we cannot place a value to them.
In this type, distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For example, you used educational attainment as a variable
on survey, you might code elementary school graduates = 1, high graduates = 2, college undergraduate = 3, and college
graduate = 4. In this measure, higher number means greater education. Even though we can rank these from lowest to highest,
the spacing between the values may not be the same across the levels of the variables. The distance between 3 and 4 is not
the same with the distance between 1 and 2.
KINDS OF VARIABLES
1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES – Those that probably cause, influence, or affect outcomes. They are invariably called
treatment, manipulated, antecedent or predictor variables. This is the cause variable or the one responsible for the conditions
that act on something else to bring about changes.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school
students. STUDY HABITS is the independent variable because it influenced the outcome or the performance of the students.
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of
the influence of the independent variable. That is why it is also called outcome variable.
EXAMPLE: A study is on the relationship of study habits and academic performance of UTNHS senior high school
students. ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE is the dependent variable because it is depending on the study habits of the students; if
the students change their study habit the academic performance also change.
3. INTERVENING OR MEDLING VARIABLES – Variables that “stand between” the independent and dependent
variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
EXAMPLE: Consider the given below. Even if farm production is good, if the attitude towards payment is negative,
loan repayment would be low, whereas, if the attitude towards repayment is positive or favorable, loan repayment would be
high.
4. CONTROL VARIABLES – A special types of independent variables that are measured in the study because they
potentially influence the dependent variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g. analysis of covariance) to control
these variables. They may be demographic or personal variables that need to be “controlled” so that the true influence of the
independent variable on the dependent variable can be determined.
5. CONFOUNDING VARIABLES – Variables that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their
influence cannot be directly detected in a study. Researchers comment on the influence of confounding variables after the study
has been completed, because these variables may have operated to explain the relationship between the independent variables
and dependent variable, but they were not or could not be easily assessed.
 LESSON 4. IDENTIFYING THE INQUIRY AND STATING THE PROBLEM
Nature of Quantitative Research Problem

Life is not always a bed of roses. It is made up of both negative and positive aspects of life. Experiencing something
negative or making you fail to aver or affirm the existence of a thing you expected to see or happen is a natural occurrence in
life. This situation in life, where you find difficulty in knowing or finding answers or solutions to questions causing you worries or
perplexities is called problem. By nature, you or any person on earth do not want to stay long in a problematic kind of life. Once
you encounter a problem, being an inquisitive, speculative, and creative person, you immediately would like to find ways and
means to free yourself from such conundrum in your life.
Sparked by your curiosity or interest, you get to ponder on a problem needing answers. You resort to thinking of what
to solve, whom to ask, where to go, and how to do all the thins you want to happen to find the answers to the problem. Behaving
this way, you are then confronted with a research problem. A research problem is something that nurtures in your mind, a
difficulty or uncertainty, enough to push you to do an empirical investigation whereby you search for answers to a problem by
collecting and analyzing data or information through which you can find the right answer or solution
Requiring you to adopt an empirical attitude toward your problem in a way that you depend on your sensory
experience, conduct experimentation, or perform a scientific method in arriving at the truth about something makes your
problem a researchable problem. Being researchable, your research problem becomes a Quantitative Research Problem, not a
Qualitative Research problem that people consider not researchable because it is more inclined to explaining or describing
people’s views, values, attitudes, opinions, and other subjective traits. Unlike the Quantitative research problem that is not only
characterized by precision, specificity, or stability, but also geared toward a possible result, qualitative research problem is
described as expansive, widespread, and developing and it is focused more on processes rather than on outcomes. (Matthew
2010; Schreiber, 2012)

SOURCES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEMS

What are the things around you that could trigger your mind to mull over one problematic area in your life that you want to look
into empirically? The following could give rise to a quantitative research problem.
1. Agencies of the government, or any non-government institutions.
2. Your own experience or genuine interest in something.
3. Previous research findings which you want to validate or consider as studies suffering from some inconsistencies or
discrepancies.
4. Present political, social or economic issues in society.
5. Review of related literature

RESEARCH QUESTIONS VS. RESEARCH PROBLEMS

RESEARCH PROBLEM
A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be improved, a difficulty to be eliminated,
or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for meaningful
understanding and deliberate investigation.
A problem statement is a clear concise description of the issue(s) that need(s) to be addressed by a problem solving
team. It is used to center and focus the team at the beginning, keep the team on track during the effort, and is used to validate
that the effort delivered an outcome that solves the problem statement

RESEARCH QUESTION
A research question is an answerable inquiry into a specific concern or issue. It is the initial step in a research project. The
'initial step' means after you have an idea of what you want to study, the research question is the first active step in the research
project.
  A research question is the fundamental core of a research project, study, or review of literature. It focuses the study, determines
the methodology, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. ... Questions seeking answers.

GUIDELINES IN FORMULATING QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. Formulate a research problem that is researchable: meaning, open to empirical investigation.
2. See to it that your quantitative research problem clearly, concisely, and possibly if under APA referencing style, not
beyond 12 words.
3. Have your research problem focus on a general understanding of your research topic.
4. Construct a research problem that mirrors the importance of carrying out the research for finding answers or solutions
to a problem.
5. Let your quantitative research problem state the variables and their relationships with one another.
6. Construct an introductory statement to present your research problem, which is the main problem of your research.
7. State your research questions or sub-problems, not in the form of yes-or-no questions, but in informative questions.
8. Express your research problem and research questions either in an interrogative or declarative manner.
 RESEARCH PROBLEMS IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Quantitative research may either be non-experimental or experimental, and that the latter is of two types: true
experimental or quasi-experimental research. IN most aspects of experimental research, both of these two types have
similarities, like both include selection of subjects, pre-and post- tests, and the use of treatment or control group. Among these
three key aspects of experimental research, randomized selection is its leading characteristic, so much so, that the absence of
random selection of participants denies its identity as a true experimental and converts it into quasi-experimental research.
FOUR BASIC ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Subjects or objects (people, places, things, events, etc.)
2. The subject’s condition before the actual experiment.
3. The treatment, intervention, or condition applied on the subject.
4. The subject’s condition after the treatment

TYPE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

A quantitative research problem can generate a set of research questions or sub-problems that fall under any of these types of
research questions:
1. Descriptive research questions – ask question on the kind, qualifications and categories of the subjects or
participants.
2. Relation questions – are questions about the nature and manner of connection between or among the
variables.
3. Causal questions – reasons behind the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable is the
focus of these types of research questions.

APPROACHES TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUESTIONS

1. DEDUCTIVE APPROACH –
Your questions begins from “hunches or predictions” or expectations about the outcome of your research. Ask
questions centering on a theory or concept. Discover the accuracy of the theory, ponder on variables to represent the extent of
the application of the theory, and make up your mind on which variable to study through observation, interview, or
experimentation. Explaining the meaning of a variable based on its involvement or role in the research process, particularly, in
the measurement, manipulation, or control of the concept application is giving such term its operational definition
2. INDUCTIVE APPROACH
Deductive approach goes from bigger ideas such as theories or concepts to smaller ideas. Inductive approach starts
from smaller and simpler ideas to bigger or more complex ones. Inductively formulated research questions focus on description
of things to prove an idea or a system. Central to this approach are specific details to prove the validity of a certain theory or
concept.

Do not be anxious about anything, but in every situation, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your
requests to God.  And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds
in Christ Jesus. -Philippians 4:6 – 7

COMPREHENSION CHECK:

I. ESSAY. Briefly explain what is asked below. A. How important quantitative research across fields? Cite at
least five fields and explain how quantitative research is interconnected with it.
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II. IDENTIFICATION. Identify what is being asked in each number. Write your answer after the statement.
Choose your answer from the box below.
  VARIABLE  DEPENDENT  INDEPENDENT  CONTROL  CONTINUOUS  INTERVENING 
CONFOUNDING  INTERVAL  NOMINAL  ORDINAL  RATIO  ABSTRACT

1. It refers to the characteristics that have two or more mutually exclusive values or properties. ________________________
2. Variables that represent categories that cannot be ordered in any particular way. ________________________
3. Special kind of independent variables that are measured in a study because they potentially influence the dependent
variable. __________________________
4. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers when there is an absolute zero, as opposed
to net worth, which can have a negative debt-to-income ratio-level variable. ____________________________
5. Kind of variable that are not actually measured or observed in a study. They exist but their influence cannot be directly
detected in a study. __________________________
6. It “stands between” the independent and dependent variables, and they show the effects of the independent variable on the
dependent variable. __________________________
7. Variables that represent categories that can be ordered from greatest to smallest. _____________________
8. Kind of variable that probably cause, influence, or effect outcomes. They are variably called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent or predictor variables. ________________________
9. Variables that depend on independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent
variable. _______________________
10. Variables that have values that lie along an evenly dispersed range of numbers. ______________

III. DETERMINATION. Determine if what type of variable are the following. Write I if the variable is Interval, N if
Nominal, R if Ratio and O if Ordinal.

1. Military Title ___________

2. Temperature in degree Celsius ___________
3. Birthplace ___________
4. Year Level ___________
5. Favorite Type of Music ___________
6. Clothing such as hat, shirt, shoes ___________
7. A score in 5- item quiz in Math ___________
8. Feeling for today ___________
9. Means of Transportation ___________
10. How internet is used at home ___________
11. Freshman, Sophomore ___________
12. Person’s net worth ___________
13. Male or female ___________
14. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ___________
15. Political Affiliation ___________

“Do not be anxious about anything, but in every situation, by prayer and petition, with thanksgiving, present your
requests to God.  And the peace of God, which transcends all understanding, will guard your hearts and your minds
in Christ Jesus.” -Philippians 4:6 - 7