UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO UCMP

1)What is meant by the term non-traditional machining?

A) Non-Traditional (or) Unconventional (or) Advanced (or) Newer machining processes: -
Definition: -
1st para: -
 In traditional machining process, the material is removed only when the cutting tool stresses the
workpiece material beyond its yield point.
 The operation is performed effectively, only when, the cutting tool materials are harder than the
workpiece materials.
 The tool materials are sufficiently hard and strong enough to cut the materials like stainless steel,
titanium etc., are not determined so far in the conventional methods.
2nd para: -
 Thus, merchant in the year 1960, explained the need for the development of new material removal
processes by adopting a unified programming language.
 These new methods are called non-traditional, in the sense that the traditional tools are not anymore
used for material removal processes.
 The selection and application of newly developed machine is based on the material properties like
melting temperature, electrical and thermal conductivity.
5)Characteristics (or) Machining characteristics (or) characteristics features of UCMP (or) NTMP: -
1. Materials with high hardness, thermal and wear resistance can be easily machined.
2. Surface defects such as cracks, flaws, porosity due to traditional machining are eliminated.
3. Higher strength alloys can also be machined at higher cutting speeds.
4. Higher production rates, automated data transmission and miniaturisation makes it highly efficient.
5. Machining process can be integrated with computer system, which provides high reliability,
accuracy and surface finish.
6. Complex or irregular shapes such as sharp corners, square holes, pin holes can be easily produced.
7. The process can also be integrated with adaptive control for optimum utilisation and enabling
automated machining.
9)Applications of UCMP: -
1. It is best suited for machining of hard and brittle materials.
2. Cutting thin sections of harder material without any distortion.
3. Cutting complex geometries on thin surface films for making integrated circuits.
4. Micro drilling in harder materials like tungsten and ceramics.
5. This method is very useful for machining of materials which are having low thermal conductivity
and high melting point.
6)Explain why the mechanical properties of workpiece materials are not significant in most of the NTMP?
A)1st para: -
  because fewer materials are having low specific heat and low thermal conductivity.
 These materials are machined at lower cutting speeds and feeds so as to avoid the deformation of the
structure.
 These low cutting speeds and feeds are unable to control in non-traditional machines.
2nd Para: -
 The newer machines mainly depend on the properties like atomic valency, thermal conductivity and
melting temperature etc. whereas the mechanical properties like hardness, toughness, strength are
carried with TMP.
7)Give a comparison of UCMP in terms of material removal rate, process and applications?
A) The comparison of various UCMP are as follows,
S. Process Rate Material Removal Dimensional Surface Capital power
N (mm3/s) Accuracy(µm) Finish(µm) (KWh) cost consumption
1 (EDM) 10-20 15-50 0.2-2.5 Medium 2-4
2 (ECM) 200-300 15-100 0.1-2.5 Very high 100-150
3 (ChM) 0.15-30 25-100 0.5-2.5 medium -
4 (USM) 5-10 7-15 0.2-2.5 Low 2-3
5 (LBM) 0.001-0.002 10-100 0.5-1.5 Low to Medium 0.003-0.005

2) Limitations of Traditional (or) older (or) conventional machining processes: -

Following are the some of the basic limitations of the traditional machining process are, (or)
The CMP that involve chip formation have various limitations. They are as follows,
 Large amount of energy is released during machining operations.
 Residual stresses are developed inside the workpiece during operations.
 Machining of complex geometries is very difficult and time-consuming process.
 Materials with high strength to weight ratio, heat resistant and hard are difficult to machine.
3) Four Materials difficult to machine: -
The four materials which are difficult to machine are as follows,
 Titanium
 Stainless steel
 Cobalt
 Tungsten
 Nickel etc.,
4)State the need for UCMP?
(or)
What are the industrial needs for newer machining processes?
(or)
Explain role of non-traditional processes in industries?
(or)
What is the need for advanced machining processes?
A)1st para: -
 The developing technological industries like automobiles, nuclear reactors, aeronautics etc., are
demanding for high strength, hardness, toughness and other different properties.
 These properties can be obtained by the development of improved cutting tool materials.
2nd Para: -
 During conventional process, the increase in hardness of the material, results in decrease of tool
cutting speed.
 Due to low cutting speed, the dimensional accuracies and surface finish of many harder materials
like tungsten, stainless steel, stellites and high strength temperature resistant alloys etc., are not
possible in conventional methods.
 Example: -Machining a complicated turbine blade made of super alloys, producing holes and slots in
materials such as glass, ceramics and semi-conductors.
3rd Para: -
 Apart from the above situations, higher production rate and economic requirement demands the use
of non-traditional (Un-conventional) Machining processes.
22)Classification of UCMP or Modern machining processes: -
A) The modern machining processes are classified based upon their following categories,
UCMP processes

According to Mechanism
Medium for
the type of of metal Source of energy
energy transfer
energy removal

Mechanical Shear High current density Electrons

Chemical Erosion High voltage Electrolyte
Electro Spark erosion Hydrostatic pressure Hot gases
chemical
Vaporisation Ionized material Radiations
Electro
Ionic Corrosive agent etc High velocity
thermal
dissolution particles etc
Chemical
ablation etc.

33)Importance of UCMP: -(Q4 and Q5)

32)Considerations for Process selection: -(Q27)
27)What are the main parameters to be considered while selecting a particular UCMP (particular process)
and why?
A) The following parameters must be taken into consideration while selecting a particular process,
 i. Size and shape of the required material to be produced.
ii. Physical properties of material.
iii. Process capabilities like MRR, expected tolerance, surface finish, power requirements etc.
iv. Types of operations like hole making, cutting slot etc.
v. Economic considerations.
->The reasons for using NTMP or UCMP are as follows: -
Difficult  The difficult geometries like small holes with <0.1mm diameter (or)
Geometries long holes with L/d=100 is impossible to produce by CMP.
High Accuracies  They in hard workpiece materials cannot be achieved by CMP.
and surface finish  But obtained by UCMP
Complex surfaces  Machining= very difficult and time consuming
 Here unconventional machines are used.
Economic  Used for selecting a particular UCMP
considerations  Initial machining and tool cost selected = low
 Parameters to be considered during the selection of a machine are as
follows:
Capital cost
Tooling cost
Efficiency of MRR
Power consumption.

29) differences between UCMP and CMP

A) Differences between UCMP and CMP are as follows: -
CMP
1)These machines require direct contact of tool and
workpiece.
2)These are less accurate and precise.
3)Tool life is low
4)These tools are less expensive
5)These tools do not require any special expert for
its operation.
6)These methods produce more noise
7)Components of these machines are easily
available.
UCMP
1)In these machines, there is no need of physical
contact between tool and workpiece.
2) These are more accurate and precise.
3)Tool life is high.
4)These tools are comparatively very expensive
5)These tools have complex setup and needs a
skilful operator.
6)less noise as compared to CMP.
7) components of these machines are rarely
available.

30)Advantages of NTMP over CMP?

1. Capable of machining metals and alloys irrespective of hardness, toughness, brittleness, and strength
of materials.
2. Complex or irregular shapes such as sharp corners, square holes and pin holes can be easily produced
3. Machined surface is free from burrs and residual stresses
 4. Materials with high hardness of brittle materials, thermal and wear resistance can be easily
machined.
5. Negligible tool wear.
6. Closer tolerances up to 0.05mm can be easily obtained.
7. High surface finish=0.1-0.2µ is obtained.
8. Work material is not subjected to any distortion.
9. MRR is high compared to CMP.
31)Hybrid process: -
 Definition: -
The combination of two or more material processes to improve the quality and potential of
machining processes is referred to as Hybrid process.
 Consider a condition of conventional grinding where smooth surface finish and low tolerance values
are achieved.
 But the machined components have some burrs, heat affected zones, and residual stresses.
 If these components machined electrochemically, don’t have these defects.
 Thus, the combination of ECG is introduced, which is called a hybrid process.
 The different hybrid processes are 1) Electro chemical spark machining (ECSM)
2)Electro chemical Arc machining (ECAM)
3)Electro discharge Abrasive grinding (EDAM)
28)How will you decide to recommend specific AMP for, (i) Cutting a glass plate into two pieces (ii)
Making holes in a mild steel work piece?
A) The selection of suitable machining process for cutting the glass and making a hole in mild steel
workpiece usually depends on surface finish
Tolerances
Size of workpiece and
Integrity of the surface.
i. Cutting a glass plate into two pieces: -
 The glass plates are harder
Non-conductive
Less expensive
Possess high surface finish
 Thus, due to the above materials properties of glass the machining processes like EDM,
ECM, ChM, LBM, EBM, AFM, MAF, cannot be used for cutting the glass.
 Therefore, the processes that can be used are USM, AJM, AWJM for cutting the glass into 2
pieces.
ii. Making holes in a mild steel work piece: -
 The mild steel possesses the properties such as electrical conductivity, ductility etc.
  Thus, due to the above materials properties, the machining processes like AWJM, USM,
AJM, MAF, AFM cannot be used for making a hole in mild steel workpieces.
 Therefore, the processes that can be used are PAM, LBM, EBM, ECM, EDM for making a
hole in mild steel workpiece.
26) Types of Energy sources used in UCMP: -
A) The types of energy sources used in UCMP are,
Energy source Description
Hydraulic pressure  It forms the energy source for USM and WJM
 In USM, high pressure abrasive slurry transfers the hydraulic pressure on to
the work piece and causes material removal by erosion.
 In WJM, high velocity water cause erosion of material by exerting hydraulic
pressure.
Pneumatic pressure  It forms the energy source for AJM
 High velocity abrasive air stream exerts pressure on work surface and
erodes the material.
High current  It forms the energy source for ECG and ECM process
density  Here the electrolyte transfers high current to work surface and causes
material removal by ion displacement.
High voltage  It forms the energy source for EBM
 Beam of electrons carries the high voltage, and vaporizes the material when
it strikes the work surface.
 It is also used in EDM so as to generate the electric impulses which are
capable of vaporising the work material.
Ionised potential  It forms energy source for PAM and IBM
 It is transferred by means of hot gases in order to obtain material removal by
fusion.
 But in IBM, ion stream cause fusion of work material.
Corrosive Agent  It forms the energy source for ChM
 It reacts with work material and dissolves, so as to obtain a cub.
Amplified Light  It forms energy source for LBM.
 It is transferred on to the work surface through radiation so as to vaporize
the work material.

25) Illustrate primary machining energy, energy source, transfer medium and work material removal for
various UCMP?
High velocity WJM
A) water
Hydraulic
pressure
High velocity
USM
Mechanical abrasive
Erosio particles
n
 Pneumatic High velocity AJM
pressure abrasive particles

Ablativ
e
chemical Reactive
Reactio Corrosive Agent Chemical Milling
Environment
n

Electro- Ion High current electrolyte ECM

chemical Displac
ement

High velocity Electrons EBM

vaporiz
Amplified Light Radiation LBM
ation

Thermo- Ion stream IBM

Ionized material
electric

Fusion Ionized material Hot Gases PAM

10)Describe the term ‘ultrasonic’ and describe the process in which these are used to machine the materials?
A) Ultrasonic: -
Definition: -
 The term ‘Ultrasonic’ refers to waves of high frequency above the audible range i.e., 20KHz.
1st Para: -
 The USM process was proposed by L. Balamuth in the year 1945.
 It was developed for finishing operations by electro spark machines.
 The development of EDM made less importance for the use of USM.
 As the machining of hard and brittle materials which are either electrically conducting or non-
conducting became more important in the present trends.
 Thus, for machining these components, various types of USM’s have been developed.
2nd Para: -
 It consists of a tool which is made up of ductile and tough material.
 The tool oscillates with the high frequency and the continuous flow of abrasive slurry is fed in the
gap between the tool and work piece.
 The tool has the same shape as required in the workpiece.
 The impact of abrasive grains causes the fracture of workpiece, resulting in material removal in the
form of small wear particles.
 These wear particles are removed by using abrasive slurry.
11)Principle of USM process: -
1st Para: -
 Principle of USM process involves, allowing the abrasive grains in the abrasive slurry to get
hammered and forced into the workpiece material, in order to obtain cutting by erosion of work
material.
2nd Para: -
 During operation, an ultrasonic oscillator passes a high frequency electric current to the ultrasonic
transducer which converts electrical energy into mechanical vibrations of ultrasonic range (20KHz to
30KHz).
 There by, the tool oscillates at this frequency range.
12)Salient features or important characteristics of USM: -
Characteristic Description
Work materials Hard and brittle materials like glass
Semiconductors and
ceramics
Tool Materials Brass
Mild steel
Material removal Due to impact of grains, the work materials develop fractures.
Process parameters Frequency
Amplitude
Grain size
Static load or feeding force
Slurry concentration
Abrasive Materials B4C, Sic, Al2O3
Grain size The size of mesh is in the range of 100-800mm
Gap 0.2-0.5mm

13)Four elements of USM or equipment used in USM process: -

A) The equipment used in USM process are as follows: -
Element Description
Generator  The function of generator is to convert low frequency electric power into high
frequency electric power from 50Hz to 20KHz.
Transducer  It converts high frequency electric power into mechanical motion.
Transformer  It helps in providing the required and adequate amplitude of vibration for th
purpose of tool movement.
Tools  Tools are brazed to tool holders, in order to reduce the possibility of failures,
due to fatigue.
 These are made up of materials like mild steel, brass, stainless steel etc to
reduce tool wear.
 Tool holder is used to increase amplitude at face of tool in range of 0.013-
 0.1mm.

14) Oscillator function in USM: -

A) Oscillator: -

 In order to carry out USM process, it is required to make the tool to vibrate at ultrasonic speed.
 Therefore, an oscillator is used to generate electrical energy which eventually converted into
ultrasonic vibrations of the tool
 Function: -
The function of an oscillator is to generate oscillating current of high frequency.
High frequency vibrations are developed when generated current is supplied to transducer.
15)Function of Transducer in USM: -
A)1st Para: -
 The function of transducer is to convert electrical energy into vibratory motion by utilizing the
principle of piezo electric or magnetostriction.
 Most transducers will work on principle of magnetostriction because it provides
a) high efficiency
b) High reliability
c) high supply voltage and
d) Simple arrangement for cooling
2nd Para: -
 The magneto strictive transducers are magnetized rods which are made up of materials like Nickel,
Perm alloy or Permedur.
 When an electric current is applied, a strong magnetic field is induced, due to which the size of
material is increased.
 On removing the electric current, the material gets back to its original size.
 Thus, the movement of tool holder and tool is obtained.
19)Types of Abrasives used in USM: -
Various types of abrasives used in USM process are as follows: -
Abrasive Description
Boron carbide(B4C)  Employed for the use on tool steel, precious stones and tungsten carbide.
 Cost is very high.
Silicon carbide (Sic)  It got wide range of application
 Cutting times is 20 to 40% higher than that of B4C
Aluminium oxide  Also known as alumina.
(Al2O3)  Efficiency of alumina is less, since its cutting ability will be lost quickly
and wears at a faster rate.
 Cutting times is 3-4 times higher than that of B4C
 Application: - for cutting germanium, glass, ceramics.
 Diamond dust  Cutting at faster rates with greater accuracy and good surface finish
 Employed for use on diamond and rubies.
Boron Silicarbide  Is new abrasive
 Cutting power is 8-12% more than that of B4C.

17)Importance of MRR in USM: -

 MRR is significant in USM since, it is affected by all the process variables like
amplitude,
frequency
grain size
Particle velocity and
Feeding force.
 As, parameters such as accuracy, cutting power, surface finish depends on MRR, Values of process
variables are chosen accordingly.
16)Characteristics required for a good suspension medium (Liquid): -
1. Density of liquid medium=density of abrasive.
2. It must have good wetting properties so that it wets the abrasive, tool and workpiece.
3. It must have high specific heat and thermal conductivity for efficient transfer of heat between tool
and workpiece.
4. It must have low viscosity so that it can carry abrasives from any corner.
5. It must have non-corrosive properties to avoid corrosion between tool and workpiece.
20) Advantages of USM: -
1. Cost for material removal = less
2. As there is no internal heat generation, there are no changes in physical properties of job during
machining.
3. Machining of hard and brittle materials can be performed very easily.
4. Residual stresses are not developed inside workpiece during operation.
5. It produces high accurate profiles and good surface finish.
45) Applications of USM: -
1. Used to perform several machining operations (Threading, milling, slotting, grinding, turning etc).
2. Machining of hard and brittle materials can be easily performed.
3. Used in dentistry work for fine drilling holes of required shapes in teeth.
4. Suited to make holes of any shape that can be made on the tool.
5. Used to perform coining operations for materials like glass, ceramics etc.
6. Employed for multistep processing for fabricating silicon nitride (Si3N4) turbine blades.
Limitations of USM: -
1. Machining rate = very low when compared to CMP
2. Power consumption=high compared to other processes.
 3. Limited for machining of small workpieces only.
4. Machining of deep holes is difficult as the slurry movement is restricted.
5. Tool wear= relatively high.
37) what is the function of abrasive slurry (Slurry) in USM? Explain how the abrasive particles are selected?
A) Function of Abrasive Slurry: -
In an USM process, large variety of abrasive slurry are used. Some of them are,
1. Boron carbide
2. Silicon carbide
3. Aluminium oxide
4. Diamond dust
In USM process, abrasives of 30-60% by volume are suspended in a liquid medium. The liquid performs
the following function: -
1. Acts as acoustic bond between workpiece and vibrating tool.
2. Allows a medium to carry the abrasive particles up to the cutting zone.
3. Acts as a coolant and helps to carry away the waste abrasives.
4. Helps for transfer of energy between tool and workpiece.
Selection of Abrasive particles: -
It depends upon the following factors1. Particle size 2. Hardness 3. Abrasives cost &4. Life of abrasives.
 High life time of abrasive can be obtained when hardness of abrasive material >W/p material.
 The size of abrasive plays a vital role in order to obtain MRR & surface finish.
 Finer grains results in low MRR and high surface finish where as for coarse grains vice-versa.
 Next continue from Q19.
46) Recent development in USM: -
 USM has been developed in many forms due to its wide applications in manufacturing industries.
 The recent developments made in existing USM are explained as follows,
1. Contouring USM: -
 Developed to overcome difficulties in manufacturing 3D complex cavities.
 The conventional USM is used in conjunction with CNC machine with a simple form of tool.
 CNC facilitates a specified tool path.
 Thus, it can be used for increased limits of cavity volume and sinking depth.
2. Rotary USM: -
 Used for machining non-metallic and composite materials.
 It is a modified form of conventional USM in which a tool-bit is rotated at high speed (5000 rpm)
against the workpiece.
 It reduces machining time and ensures a. Improved mechanical properties
b. High MRR
C. Low tool pressure for fragile & delicate components.
 3. US Assisted USM: -
 Conventional USM+ECM=US assisted USM.
 USM equipment is connected to D.C. generator
 The w/p and tool are connected to anode and cathode
 A voltage of 3-15 volts is supplied to ensure current density of 5-30A/cm2
 Tool oscillates ultrasonically with amplitude 10-40µm & frequency of 18-25KHz.
 The metal removal is carried through I. Mechanical abrasion of conventional USM
II. Electrolysing current densities in ECM dissolution.
43) Explain the basic function of feed mechanism involved in USM and enlist its types?
A) Feed Mechanism: - It performs the following functions,
 The tool must have sufficient cutting force, it must withstand with this cutting force during operation
 Cutting force must be decreased, when required depth is obtained
 Tool must be moved very slowly through the workpiece.
 Tool must overrun a small distance to ensure accurate and required hole size.
 After machining operation, tool must be returned to its original position.
Types of feed mechanism: -The different types of feed mechanisms used in USM process are,
1. counter weight type
2. spring type
3. Hydraulic and pneumatic type
4. Motor type
For precise and accurate working, the hydraulic or pneumatic type of feed mechanism are employed
in USM.
44)Economic considerations in USM: -
They are explained as follows,
1. advantageous for machining of hard and brittle materials as it cuts complex shapes with high accuracy
and best surface finish.
2. Appreciable economy is obtained from USM of hard alloy press tools, dies and wire drawing devices
as they have high wear resistance of tool.
3. USM is economically good as it does not have high speed movable parts & no harmful effects because
sufficient care is taken to protect device from ultrasonic radiations.
4. Power consumption varies for different materials. For glass 0.1 and for hard alloys 5W-h/mm3
5. manufacturing and tooling cost = very high for complicated contours.
6. It also involves abrasive cost.
As abrasive slurry needs to be replaced frequently, since they are broken and blunted during usage.
7. These machines may some times fail due to faults in acoustic head, pump & generator.
Due to this the overall cost of the system is affected.
36) Differences between magneto striction and piezoelectric transducers base on construction, working,
merits and demerits: -
S.No Magneto striction Transducer Piezo Electric Transducer
.
1 Works on principle of magnetostriction effect Piezoelectric effect “when one pair of opposite
which states that “the length of ferromagnetic faces of a crystal subjected to mechanical
rod changes, when it is placed in a magnetic- pressure, equal and opposite electric charges are
field parallel to its length. produced across its other two opposite faces.
2 Transduction element: - A rod made of iron or A crystal-like quartz
nickel.
3 Rod is clamped at middle Crystal is placed between two metal plates
4 A resonant circuit of collector tuned oscillator The electronic oscillator circuit is a base tuned
is formed by winding the coil L1 on right side oscillator circuit. The base coil L1 & variable
of the rod along with a variable capacitor C. capacitor C1forms tank circuit of oscillator.
5 As the high-tension battery is switched on, As the high-tension battery is switched on,
collector circuit oscillates with frequency ‘f’ alternating voltages are produced by oscillator at
i.e., f=1/ (2π square root of L1C1), where high frequency, f=1/ (2π square root of L1C1),
L1=coil on right side of the rod where L1=Base coil, C1=variable capacitor
C1=variable capacitor
6 An alternating magnetic field is produced An oscillatory emf is induced in primary coil of
across the rod length by Alternating current. transformer.
7 Due to this effect, rod gets vibrated Due to inverse piezo electric effect, mechanical
vibrations are generated in crystal.
8 Ultrasonic vibrations are generated from rod Longitudinal ultrasonic waves are produced in
ends due to longitudinal vibrations. vibrating crystal.
9 Merits: - simple oscillator design High oscillator output
Low production cost Good resistance to temperature & Humidity.
10 Demerits: - 1) Ultrasonic frequencies above High crystal cost
3000kHz cannot be generated Very complex process of crystal cutting and
Loss of energy by hysteresis and eddy currents shaping.
34) Draw the schematic setup of USM and indicate its various parts.
(or)
Explain USM with a neat diagram. Or Describe working principle of USM with diagram?
A) Working of USM: -
Figure: Principle of USM
 The principle setup of USM is shown in the above figure.
 Next write Q10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 20, 45.
These vibrations are transmitted through intermediate connecting parts (transducer cone, connecting
body and tool holder) to the cutting tool.
 As a result, tool vibrates in longitudinal direction.
  The cutting tool is attached at end of the focusing unit. The parts are all together known as focusing
unit.
 A slurry of small abrasive particles is fed into the machining location by means of a pump.
 In addition, a cooling system can also be equipped for keeping w/p at low temp.
 The shape of cutting tool resembles the cavity produces in the w/p.
35) Describe structure of transducer in USM (or) Explain magneto strictive transducer?
A) Function of Transducer: -
 Q15, Q11.
 Figure: structure of transducer.
Function of tool cone: -
 Also called as horn.
 Generally made up of titanium, Monel or stainless steel.
 Function: - to amplify the mechanical energy which is produced by transducer.
 It mechanically modifies the vibratory energy to obtain required force-amplitude ratio.
 Thus, high gain horn has high amplitude and low force capability and vice-versa.
 In order to operate more effectively, horn must be tuned to required frequency.
42) Discuss effects of various process parameters on MRR and accuracy of machined w/p?
(or)
Explain various parameters influencing MRR in USM process?
A) The process parameters effecting MRR in USM are discussed below: -
I. Frequency & Amplitude of vibrations: -
The MRR increases linearly with an increase in both frequency and amplitude.
 *As shown in fig(a), the MRR increases with an increase in frequency for brittle materials
than ductile materials.
 According to Rosenberg, frequency depends on work and tool characteristics.
 Theoretically, MRR increases with frequency but in actually it is not linear.
 **According to Rosenberg, the MRR (α) to square of amplitude.
 When amplitude of vibration is increased, the MRR increases linearly.
 Increasing the amplitude tends to increase surface roughness.
 The actual nature of variations is shown in figure(b)
II. Applied static load: -
 The MRR increases with an increase in static load.
 In practice, MRR tends to decrease beyond a certain critical value of applied static load.
 The max static load depends on amplitude of vibration & cross-sectional area of the tool.
 *The higher static load does not give a rougher finish instead it improves surface finish as the
grains starts getting crushed with higher loads.
 The variation of MRR & static load is shown in figure.
III. Grainsize (Grain size Vs Machining Rate): -
 The MRR & surface finish depends on size of abrasive grains.
 When grainsize=tool amplitude, then max MRR (machining rate) is achieved.
 Beyond this point, increase in grain size, decreases MRR as shown in figure.
 Grain size also determines accuracy in USM.
 Greater accuracy and better surface finish are obtained when machining is performed in
multiple stages by using different tool and abrasive grains of different sizes.
 Stage-1: High frequency, tool of under size, coarse grit
 Stage-2: High frequency, tool of under size, finer grit
 Stage-3: low frequency, tool of full size, very fine grains.
IV. Abrasive concentration in the slurry: -
 The concentration of abrasive is (α) to magnitude and number of grains produced per cycle.
 As shown in the figure, MRR increases with the increase of abrasive concentration in slurry.
 The MRR is low beyond 40% concentration by volume.
24)How the modern machining processes are classified based on source of energy and shapes to be
machined?
A) Classification of modern machining processes based on fundamental source of energy: -
1. Mechanical Energy: -
 In case of processes, which uses mechanical energy as source, the material removal is done by the
principle of mechanical “Erosion”.
 The common machining processes based on mechanical energy are,
Process Principle
USM K.E of abrasive slurry is used.
AJM High velocity (K.E) of abrasive jet is used.
WJM High velocity (K.E) of water jet is used.
AWJM K.E of abrasive slurry is used.
AFM K.E of semisolid abrasive media is used.
MAF Magnetic abrasive brush is used.
2. Electrical energy: -
 Material removal done by means of large number of sparks generated each second over the work
material.
 Hence sparks melts and vaporises undesired material from work surface.
 The common MP based on this are (a)EDM and (b) Wire cut EDM
3)Electro chemical Energy: -
 Material removal by means of ionic dissolution or electrochemical affect.
 ECM, ECG, ECH
4) Chemical Energy: -
 Material removal by chemical reaction (etching process)
 Ex: - material is dipped in a chemical solution which dissolves uncovered work material portions.
  CHE, CHM, HCM
5)Electro-thermal energy: -
 Material removal is by melting & vaporising undesired material from the work surface.
 The electrical energy is converted into heat, which is concentrated on small area of work material.
 This results in melting and vaporisation of work material.
 PAM, LBM, EBM, IBM
Classification of modern machining processes based on shapes to be maintained: -
AJM For cutting, slotting, deburring, etching, cleaning of metallic & non-metallic materials.
AWJM Single or multi-layer cutting
EDM Shaping and cutting complex parts
Wire cut EDM Contour cutting of flat or curved surfaces
ECM Complex shapes with deep cavities.
ECG Cutting off and sharpening harder materials.
Chm Shallow removal on large flat/curved surfaces.
LBM, EBM Cutting and hole making on thin materials.

23)State the mechanism of material removal, transfer media and energy sources used for different methods
of modern machining processes?
A) The various mechanisms of material removal, transfer media and their energy usage for different
methods of modern machining are as follows: -
Type of method Material removal Transfer Media Energy Usage
Process
(i) Mechanica
l Energy
(a) USM Q11 Tm of abrasive is Uses mech and
process through high velocity electrical energy for
particles removal of metal
(ii) Chemical
Energy
(a) Chemical Metal removal is carried out by Tm is etchants or Uses chemical energy
machining dipping the materials into chemical maskants or reactive & corrosive agents.
solution that consists of ‘etchants environment.
& maskants’ i.e., Ablative reaction
(iii Electro-
) chemical
energy
(a) ECM MRR governed by faradays law of Tm is electrolytes Uses electrical energy
electrolysis i.e., Ion displacement and coverts to
chemical
(iv) Electro
thermal
energy
(a) PAM Metal removed by heating work Tm are gases and Uses energy of
piece using plasma and removing electrons ionised materials and
molten metal by gas steam i.e., high voltage.
through fusion.

Unit-4 EBM and LBM

1)Theory of EBM: -
 It is a metal removing process, in which a high velocity electron beam is used for machining.
 The machining is processed by converting K.E of electrons into heat energy.
 When beam strikes the component, which is placed in vacuum, then material gets melted and
vaporised due to heat.
 The diameter of electron beam should be slightly smaller than the diameter of required hole.
 An organic backing plate is placed at exit of hole.
 After producing hole in w/p, beam slightly penetrates the backing plate.
 A small hole is also produced in plate material which gets melted & vaporised due to high pressure.
 The metal is expelled from hole along with vaporised metal.
2)Explain briefly how material is removed in EBM process?
A) EBM: - 1st para
 A high velocity electron beam is used for machining.
 Electron beam is allowed to focus on w/p that is held inside a vacuum chamber (10-5 mm of Hg).
 Vacuum chamber used to prevent scattering of electron beam when it collides with gas molecules.
 The chamber consists of door to place w/p on table and for safety.
2nd Para: -
 The KE produced by electron is released and converted into heat energy.
 This heat results in melting & vaporising w/p material at spot of beam impingement.
 Thus, the operation continues by alternative focussing and turning off the beam to obtain desired
geometry of work piece.
3) Name and explain device which produce electron beam?
 In EBM, electron beam removes material on w/p, is generally produce by electron gun.
 It acts as heart of EBM process.
 This device is a cathode ray tube in which cathode made up of tungsten, or tantalum.
 This gun produces electrons and are accelerated to required velocity by heating the cathode filament
up to 2500oC.
 The accelerated electrons are focused on to the w/p in form of small size spot.
4) Purpose of Deflection coil in EBM: -
 Used to change beam cross section to circular shape & project or deflect it onto the work surface in
desired direction.
 Placed below focusing lens.
 *The deflection system allows the beam programming in any geometrical pattern.
 This is obtained by varying input current to the deflection coil.
 **Another method of deflecting beam is by use of relay tray or a flying spot scanner which is used
for drilling a cross shaped holes.
7) Write about characteristics of process selection of electron beam for machining process?
A) The main characteristics of process selection of EBM are,
 High resolution & long depth of field is obtained due to short wavelength of high energy electrons.
 More compatible & controlled process within range of high vacuum.
 High amount of energy about 106 KW/cm2 of power densities can be achieved.
 Capable to catalyse many chemical reactions.
8)The process parameters that affects machining characteristics in EBM process are listed as follows,
 Accelerating voltage
 Beam current
 Lens current
 Pulse duration
 Beam shape
 Energy per pulse
 Power per pulse
 Spot size
 Power density
9)Efficiency of EBM: -
 The cutting efficiency varies with c-s area of slot.
 When c-s area is increased gradually, the cutting efficiency increases slightly to max rate & then
decreases rapidly.
 To reduce heating rate & melting rate of metal at cutting zone, a short beam of ‘on’ pulses are used
for small period of time & Kept off for long period of time.
 There by, heat rejection occurs & heat affected zone is minimised.
 Therefore, cutting efficiency is low (about 15%).
10)Applications of EBM: -
 Used for micro-drilling operations for parts of electronic microscope, thin orifices, dies for wire
drawing, nozzles for C.I engines, fibre spinners. Etc.
 Micro-machining of thin sectional area.
 Machining of materials with high MP and low K.
26)Specific Applications of EBM: -
The four specific applications of EBM where it is preferable choice are as follows: -
(i) Aerospace industries.
(ii) chemical industries
(iii) Food processing industries and (iv) Fabric/Textile industries.
25,27) Advantages: -
 Heat can be focused on specified spot, where material has to be removed.
 Provides excellent techniques for micro-machining.
 No physical contact between tool & W/p.
  Dimensional accuracy=good, negligible tool wear.
 No physical or metallurgical damage to w/p.
 Machining of any material is possible.
Dis-Advantages: -
 Initial investment = high
 MRR = very low; power consumption = high
 Highly experienced and skilled operators are required.
 Not applicable for producing perfect cylindrical deep holes.
 Limited size of w/p, due to lack of space in vacuum chamber.
 Limited to small & fine cuts.
 Difficulty in producing holes & slots of very close dimensional accuracy.
21)Why EBM is carried out in vacuum? Explain with neat sketch? (or) Explain equipment used in EBM?
(or) Explain principle of EBM with labelling the parts?
A) EBM: -
 The principle elements of EBM are shown in figure.
 Next Q1 and Q2
 A beam of electrons emitted from electron gun categorised into 3 components and are explained as
follows,
Tungsten filament  Connected to -ve terminal of D.C power supply, acts as cathode.
 It is heated to temp of 2500oC in vacuum which emits a high -ve
potential electrons (cloud of electrons)
Grid cup  It is at -ve potential w.r.t filament.
 Allows cloud of electrons to travel downwards.
Anode  Connected to +ve terminal of power supply.
 The electrons are accelerated to get high velocity (2/3rd of light)
 Velocity is attained until electron beam strikes w/p.
 Next Q3 & Q4
22) Sketch and explain generation & control of electron beam used in EBM? (or) Explain basic components
of EBM process?
A) Generation and control of electron beam used in EBM process, is obtained by using electron beam gun &
power supply.
Electron beam gun: -
 It consists of 3 major components, tungsten filament, grid cup, anode.
 Above box
 Figure of EBM
Power supply: -
 Whenever it is required to accelerate electrons, high voltage(150KV) is generated by power supply.
 To operate a high-power electron gun, pulse energy(120J/pulse) & power (12 KW) is supplied.
23) Describe process parameters & characteristics of EBM process?
A) process parameters in EBM: -
The important process parameters involved in EBM are as follows: -
Beam current  Varies from 100µA-1A.
 Pulse or energy supplied to components regulated by this.
 Machining time for drilling hole depends on pulse or energy supplied.
Pulse duration  It is to be supplied demanding upon depth & diameter of hole to be produced.
 Deep & wider holes can be drilled using long pulse duration.
 In EBM, it varies from 0.05ms-10ms.
Lens current  It determines distance between focal point & electron beam gun.
 It determines, diameter of focal beam.
Shape of Beam  Depends on type of hole to be drilled.
 Desired shape of hole is obtained by proper positioning of focal point on top
surface of component.
Characteristics of EBM process: -
 Electrically conducting & non conducting materials easily machined. Ex: -Al, Cu, Ni, ceramics,
plastics, leather etc.
 Thin, brittle & low strength component materials also be machined.
 The physical, mechanical & metallurgical properties do not affect MRR
 Relatively very small diameter holes with large depth can be obtained.
 Inclined or tapered holes can also be produced.
 Component is free from distortion, (since there are no mechanical forces)
 The thermal properties & pulse energy of component determines surface finish of edge produced.
 Required voltage is 150 KV, power density: 6500GW/mm2, specific power consumed by equipment:
500W/mm3/min.
 A high vacuum medium of about 10-5 mm of Hg is required.
 Accuracy of +-0.1 mm for position & +-5% of drilled hole diameter is obtained.
24) Can you machine electrically non conducting materials using EBM?
A) 1st para: -
 Yes, EBM is capable of machining both electrically conducting & non-conducting materials.
 It can machine or drill holes in ceramics, plastics, leather etc.
 While machining non-conducting materials, complete vacuum is created in machining chamber.
 During the process, a small burr (solidified layer) may be left out at entry side of electron beam.
 The beam of electrons strikes w/p by which KE of electrons converted into heat.
 This heat cause work material to melt & vaporize.
 For drilling a hole, dia of electron beam < diameter of hole to be made.
 A synthetic or organic backing material used on other side of w/p.
2nd para: -
  In another method of EBM, machining is done by keeping beam stationary & moving work table in
desired path using a CNC machine.
3rd para: -
 EBM generally used in areas like aerospace, chemical, clothing, food processing etc.
 Used for drilling holes in filters & screens that are used in food processing industries
 Used for making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors, cooling holes in turbine blades. Etc.
11)LBM: -
 It is process of machining in which high intensity monochromatic light beam (laser) used to melt &
vaporize work material.
 Laser beam produces heat & it can remove material, whenever it is focused on work.
 Laser is electromagnetic radiation & the light produced is in form of collimated beam.
Applications: -
 Drilling small holes in hard materials like tungsten & ceramics.
 Trimming of sheet metal, plastic parts & carbon resistors.
 Machining of complicated profiles or geometry on thin & hard metals.
 Dynamic balancing of rotating components.
 Engraving patterns on thin films.
14) Advantages: -
 Machining of any material performed easily.
 No contact between tool & w/p, which reduces large cutting forces.
 Tool wear not occurs
 Heat affected zone around machined part is very small.
 Machining of holes and cuts can be performed with greater accuracy.
 Welding of dissimilar metals can be performed effectively.
Dis-advantages: -
 Capital investment = very high; rate of production = low; MRR = very slow
 Experienced & skilled operators are required.
 Applicable to thin cross-sectional materials.
 Machining of heat conductive & reflective materials is not efficient.
39) Describe how the laser beam is used for machining? (Q28)
28) LBM process: -
 Figure: electron principle setup of LBM
Principle of LBM method: -
 LASER is abbreviated as Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
 The above figure illustrates the principle of LBM method.
 It mainly comprises of ruby laser tube, a pair of mirrors, amplifying source, flash tube, cooling
system, lens & enclosure (with high reflection of inside surface).
  Q11, 12, 13, 15, 16,18.
 Since the process is accomplished by melting & vaporising, it is also known as thermal cutting
process.
15)Accuracy of cut in LBM process: -
 There are no mechanical forces acting on w/p.
 It is capable of machining brittle, hard, metallic & non-metallic materials.
 The cutting accuracy obtained by this process is within 0.8mm.
12)Types of lasers used in LBM process are,
A. Solid state
B. Gas
C. Helium-neon
D. Carbon dioxide laser
13)Solid state lasers: -
 Made up of materials like Ruby, Neodymium (Nd)-glass, Neodymium-Yittrium Aluminium Garnet
(Nd-YAG).
 These materials used in form of rods.
 Rods are surrounded by a flash lamp.
 A cylinder with reflective type internal surfaces accommodates the rod and flash lamp assembly
inside it.
 During operation, reflective surfaces causes the light produced by flash lamp to penetrate into the rod
 Thus, ions in rod material gets excited to higher energy bands.
 When these ions return to original bands, photons are released.
Gas laser: -
 The gases involved are Co2, N2, He.
 These gases are recirculated & replenished through the glass discharge tube.
 N2 acts as intermediate medium between vibrational & electrical energy of Co2.
 He acts as coolant for gas mixture which re-excites the molecules.
 When these gases generate electrical energy, photons are generated due to energy absorption by co2
molecules.
29) Explain production of laser beam? (Or) Describe types of lasers & explain production of lasers?
A) Types of Lasers: -
 There are different types of lasers which produce highly directive beams of optical or infrared
radiation. Few of them are as follows, 1. Solid state 2. Gas 3. He-Ne 4. Co2 lasers.
1. solid state lasers: -
 Q13
 Energy is penetrated into material producing high intensity light flux.
 Flux is absorbed by laser material & transformed into collimated laser beam.
  Xenon filled flash lamps used for generating high intensity light flux as shown in following figure.
2. Gas laser: - (or) Explain working of Co2 laser with net sketch?
 In axial flow Co2 gas laser, large amount of gas volume is used.
 The beam is reflected several times, by positioning resonator mirrors before it emerges from
output mirror.
 A typical axial flow Co2 gas laser, is shown in figure below,
32) Process parameters of LBM: -
The various process parameters of LBM process are explained as follows,
(i) Lamp current
(ii) pulse frequency
(iii) pulse width (iv) cutting speed (v) Air pressure
 The above described process parameters are analysed experimentally at different levels & are
tabulated as follows: -
Process parameters Levels of process parameters
Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Lamp current (A) 15 17.5 20 22.5 25
Pulse frequency (Hz) 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Pulse width (%) 2 4 6 8 10
Cutting speed (mm/sec) 10 14 18 22 26
Air pressure (Kg/cm2) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
30)Doping of Laser: -
1st para: -
 It is process of converting semiconducting materials into electrically conductive materials by adding
a doping additive.
 The concentration of excess electrons or holes can be determined by doping.
 Doping of lasers is done to provide sufficient ions necessary for producing or improving laser action.
2nd para: -
 In solid state laser, calcium fluoride crystals are doped with neodymium & glass with rare earths.
 Al2O3 is mostly used as laser crystal is doped with 0.05% chromium.
 Doping helps in achieving high energy in short pulses.
Doping materials & their advantages: -
Doping Materials Advantages
1. Ruby laser- Crystalline sapphire (Al2O2) 1 Hard and durable
doped with chromium oxide (Cr2O3) 2 Better optical quality
3 High k.
2. YAG laser-Doped with Neodymium (Nd3+) 1 Powerful solid-state laser
2 Pumping requirements are less
3+
3. Glass laser- Doped with Nd 1 Easy to produce
2 Availability is more
31) Mechanism of material removal in LBM process: -
  Q11, Q15
 The MRR for both metals & non-metals is given as follows:
MRR=k *(P/60EAt) (in mm3/s) where k= constant depends on type of material (mm/min)
P= power of laser incident on surface (Watts)
E= Vaporisation energy of material(W/mm3)
A= area of laser beam at focal point (mm2)
T= thickness of material(mm)
 LBM can be used for both cutting & drilling operations. However, MRR in this process is
comparatively low(4000mm3/min).
 In this process no mechanical forces acting on the w/p. Thus, it is capable of machining brittle, hard,
metallic & non-metallic materials. The cutting accuracy is obtained in this process is within 0.8mm.
36) Differences between EBM & LBM: -
EBM LBM
1 For machining, a high velocity electron beam is 1 An intense& uni-directional
used. beam of light is used.
2 MRR in this process is given by, 2 (MRR)LBM=k*(P/60EAt)
(MRR)EBM=efficiency *(P/W) where n=cutting where,
efficiency, P=power(W), W=specific
energy(J/cm3)
3 In this process, MRR is very high (about 10 3 Low(5mm3/min)
mm3/min), and it can be used with all materials
4 Better surface finish 4 low
5 Wear rate of material is more 5 less
6 Working medium: - Vacuum 6 air
7 Power consumed: - high 7 Comparatively less
8 It can be applied for micro-drilling up to size of 8 Drilling, 0.005mm
0.002mm
35) Discuss the applications of LBM in drilling, cutting & marking systems? (or) List out applications of
LBM?
A) There are many numbers of applications of laser in machining industries. The different processes which
uses laser are: -
I. Micro-drilling: -Q16
II. Cutting and: -Q15, 16
III. Marking systems: -Q11
34) The important characteristics of LBM process are as follows: -
 All materials can be machined except Al, Cu & their alloys.
 MRR: 5mm3/min; specific power consumed: 1000W/mm3/min; dimensional accuracy: +0.025mm.
 High Aspect ratio(L/d) of holes can be easily drilled.
 Tapered holes can also be drilled.
 The rays of laser beam are perfectly parallel & monochromatic.
  It minimizes fatigue strength of components.
 Capable of producing high power density (107 W/mm2) with use of focused laser beam.
 Carried out in normal atmospheric conditions.
33)Thermal features of LBM: -
The consumption of radiant energy delivered onto the surface by a focused laser beam are as follows,
 A part of beam is lost after reflection
 The unreflected energy is used for melting of metal.
 Small amount of energy is utilized for evaporation of liquid metal
 The unmelted base material is also conducted by some amount of energy.
 The thermal & optical properties of work material, pulse duration, intensity of the beam etc affects
magnitude of above features.
 Therefore, completed energy of laser beam is not absorbed by material, which reduces thermal
efficiency.
37) Compare EBM and LBM on following aspects?
A) (i) Machining Rate: -
EBM: - first 3 points in differences
LBM: -
(ii) Tool Wear Rate: -
In EBM & LBM, no physical tool is used for machining. Hence, there is no tool wear takes place.
(iii) Accuracy: -
EBM: -
Used for drilling fine holes, contour cutting in sheets, cutting narrow slots.
Used for micro drilling upto the size of 0.002mm.
LBM: -
Used for drilling of holes upto diameters of 0.005mm.
Dimensional tolerance in range of +-0.015 to +-0.125mm.
Ra values varies between 0.4-6.3µm.
16)laser beam drilling: - 1st para
 It is carried out for harder materials.
 Very small sized holes can be drilled
 The micro-sized holes are drilled with help of laser beam pulses, made to pass through w/p material,
which is placed at focal point of laser beam.
 The pulse coming from laser strikes small portion of w/p material, due to which it undergoes partial
melting & vaporisation.
 The vaporised material escapes with high charge resulting in removal of more quantity of molten
material as droplets spray.
 This method is called laser percussion hole drilling.
 2nd para: -
 The diameter of holes produced 0.127-1.27mm and l/d=100.
 The holes may also be tapered or rough shaped due to lack of degree of roundness.
17)How accuracy of drilling can be obtained by LBM?
 Drilling process using LBM technique involves following uncertainties. They are,
A. Irregular shape of hole
B. Tapered hole
C. Recast structure in heat affected zone.
 In this process, for every 10 mm drill depth, there will be taper of 0.5mm.
 To minimize taper & to get high accuracy, component is rotated as hole is drilled.
 The material is placed with in tolerance of +-02mm to obtain better surface finish.
 High accuracy(+-0.1mm) in profile cutting, obtained by using numerical control or photoelectric
tracer unit.
 For drilling in thicker materials, focal point is moved down the hole.
18) Characteristics of different lasers used in industries: -
Type of laser Pulse duration Works Focused power Overall efficiency
(sec) length(µm) density(W/cm2) (%)
-13
Fibre laser 10 1.07 106-10-9 10-30
Co2 10-4 10.6 106-8 5-10
-12
High power diode 10 0.65-0.94 103-10-5 30-50
-8 -3
Nd: YAG 10 -10 1.06 105-10-7 1-3
20)Differences between thermal and non-thermal processes: -
Thermal process Non-Thermal process
1 Material removal takes place due to 1 Due to chemical reaction of electron beam.
bombardment of electrons with very high temp
2 High energy densities can be achieved. 2 Cannot
3 Thick laminar structures can be machined. 3 Thin films or layer
4 Highly used for construction of deep cavities. 4 Limited use
5 Low resolution is obtained 5 High
6 MRR/unit area is less 6 More
7 Ex: EBM, LBM 7 USM
19) LBM & EDM both are thermal processes? Justify the statement?
A) 1st para: -
 In thermal process like LBM & EDM, LBM results in more thermal damage than EDM.
 In EDM, machining is carried out in electrically conductive materials.
 On the machined surface itself, the metal is melted & vaporised due to high temp(1000oC) and there
is a small depth of damage layer on w/p.
2nd para: -
 In LDM due to laser beam properties (high energy per pulse, high peak power, monochromaticity,
high degree of coherence), the w/p metal possess high heat affected zone resulting in high thermal
damage than EDM.
 3rd para: -
 Therefore, due to above characteristics of LBM & EDM, it can be concluded that LBM results in
more thermal damage than EDM.

Unit 5- PAM
1) Write a short note on plasma?
 Plasma is generated by heating the gases to very high temperatures.
 When gases are heated to such high temperatures, the following changes takes place: -
A. Collisions between the atoms increases
B. Ionization of gases takes place, producing electrons and ions.
C. Collisions of new electrons with atoms, thus increasing their KE.
 Plasma can be seen in electric arcs, fluorescent tubes, lightnings, high temp combustion flames, sun.
2)Fourth state of matter in PAM: -
 It refers to plasma state of gas, where gas conducts electricity & becomes sensitive towards
magnetism.
 The plasma state of gas is reached when it is heated to very high temperature (about 3000OC), as
electrons & ions are dissociated from the gas atoms at this temp, leading to ionisation of gas.
 This ionised gas is referred as plasma.
3)What is basic heating phenomenon takes place in PAM?
A) 1st para: -
 Removal of material is due to production of high temp.
 The w/p gets heated by electron bombardment & also due to convection heating from high temp
plasma.
 The heat produced has capacity to rise temp of w/p above its MP.
 The molten metal is blown away by high velocity gas stream.
 It is possible to remove the material if 45% of electrical power is supplied to torch.
2nd para: -
 On a specific part of w/p, the arc heat is concentrated to rise the temp to its MP.
 The metal removal mechanism involves quality of cut with which the metal is removed, depends
upon distribution of heat flow.
 If heat is supplied uniformly through out the thickness of material, then a better quality of cut is
obtained.
 The speed with which the metal is removed also depends upon distribution oh heat flow.
4) Characteristics of PAM: -
 Tool used: plasma jet (max velocity: 500m/s)
 MRR: 150 cm3/min; Max temp: 16000Oc; power range: 2-200 KW.
  Voltage: 30-250V; current: 600A
15) Limitations of PAM: -
 Surfaces contain metallurgical alterations.
 Requires secondary machining on the surfaces.
 Operator requires eye shielding & noise protection.
 High initial coat of equipment.
 Shielding may be needed, as the oxidation & scale formation takes place.
14) Application of PAM: -
 It consists of multiple torch system hence used to cut variety of shapes from single plate at a time.
 Used to prepare ends of pipe section before the welding.
 CNC type PAM used for performing operations (punching & shape cutting).
Shape cutting operations are performed on light duty plates which are complicated to machine by
oxy-fuel system.
 Suitable for machining materials like stainless steel, Al and Cu.
 The complicated operations to turn or cut the material is done by PAM.
31), 27) List applications of plasma in machining? (or)discuss applications of plasma in manufacturing? (or)
Write the applications of plasma in manufacturing industries: -
A) Applications of plasma in manufacturing industries: -
The uses of plasma in various fields on manufacturing industries are as follows,
 Most imp application of PAM is profile cutting of metals (especially for steel & Al)
 By using PAM, profile cutting of metals (mild steel, alloy steel, Ti) can be instantaneously & clearly.
 PAM increases production rate in various manufacturing industries by considering CNC table.
 PAM is employed for rough turning of medium size bar stocks.
It is also used for turning of hardened shafts so that it can be utilised for making grooves on various
pulley.
 In normal turning & Milling machines, plasma is used for machining of hard materials.
 PAM involves some other applications such as,
(i) Plasma Arc surfacing, used for facing of hard alloys.
(ii) Plasma Arc Spraying, used for generating surface coating of refractory materials.
It is also used for fabrication of free-standing shapes.
28) Safety precautions to be taken in PAM: -
A) The safety precautions that are to be taken while performing PAM are as follows,
 It is essential to protect eyes from UV & infrared radiations.
These radiations are generated from plasma flame & if observed in large quantity, it will be harmful
to the eye.
Hence more care must be taken while working with plasma.
  The over-exposing of UV & infrared radiations causes reddening of eyes & due to loss of sleep a
gritty feeling will be observed by an operator.
 Over exposing to UV rays lead to painful skin burns and cancer in most of the cases.
 Before going near to torch, worker must wear appropriate glasses & dresses.
 Worker should cover his total body and good quality of glasses, so that he protected from rays.
 Torches be operated in an airy room so that toxic gases (NO2, O2) can be synthesized in atmosphere.
 While operating the torch, it may be noticed that noise levels are very high.
Hence, ear plugs should be used to protect the ears.
 While operating hand torches, worker should wear asbestos gloves having leather as inner layer.
 Every operator seeks a consultation by a health physician depending upon the hours limit in
operating of plasma torch.
29)Differences between PAC and PAW: -
PAC PAW
1 This is a machining process. It is a type of gas tungsten arc welding.
High temp, high velocity stream of ionised Uses plasma arc to form a weld.
gas(plasma) is used as cutting tool.
2 This process is used for ferrous & non-ferrous C, low alloy steels, stainless steel, alloys of
materials. copper, Ni, cobalt, Titanium & Al can be welded.
3 Plasma is formed by an inert gas. Argon, helium, nitrogen, used to perform plasma
It acts as shielding gas. & acts as shielding gas.
4 Torches may be different types based on Torches are similar in design to PAC torches.
carrier gas like air, dual gas, O2, H2O. Water as coolant.
Wate is used as coolant.
5 Temp up to 60,000OF can be attained. 30,000
6 It is automated process Either manual or automated.
7 Main elements: - power & gas supply, cooling Power supply, high frequency generator, plasma
system, plasma torch. torch, shielding gas etc.
20) Differences between transferred & non-transferred arc type in PAM process base on principle,
construction & working: -
Transferred Arc Non-transferred Arc
1 In this, cathode is directly connected to -ve Cathode & anode directly connected to D.C. power
terminal of D.C source & anode (nozzle) is source.
connected to +ve terminal of D.C.
2 The current through nozzle is limited to about Same amount of current is carried by both cathode
50A by connecting a resistor between +ve & anode.
terminal of supply & nozzle.
3 Workpiece is directly connected to +ve of Is not connected
power supply.
4 Plasma flame is generated b/t cathode & Plasma is form of flame in this case
nozzle which produces a high current
constricted arc b/t cathode &w/p.
 5 Figure: Transferred PAM Non-transferred PAM
6 Pilot flame circuit is disconnected once the No hottest portions appear outside the nozzle.
arc is struck.
7 Electrothermal efficiency 85-90% 65-75%
Advantages of transferred & Non-transferred arcs: -
 In transferred arc type, high electro thermal efficiency can be obtained i.e., about 85-90%.
 In non, current is not limited and no hotter portion is appeared outside the nozzle.
 In both the types, Argon or N2 or mixture of 2 gases used for generation of plasma.
Dis-Advantages of transferred & Non-transferred arcs: -
 In transferred arc type, current is limited to about 50A.
 In non, anode dissipation is lost by unwanted heating of nozzle.
Applications of transferred & Non-transferred arcs: -
 transferred arc type is used for cutting, welding & hard surfacing of metals etc.
 Non-transferred arc type is used for spraying or ceramic plating.
19)Describe non-transferred and transferred modes of plasma Arc?
With help of diagram explain use of various modes for various purposes in industry?
What are the different modes of operation of plasma torches? Explain
A) The modes of operation of plasma torch are, 1. Non-transferred 2. Transferred.
1. Non-transferred Arc mode: - (q20)
 Plasma torch under this mode is useful for various applications (spraying, ceramic working &
chemical synthesis).
 The electrothermal efficiency varies for different stabilised torches i.e., for sheath stabilised torch
it is about 65%, for vortex one 75%.
 If nozzle is heated ineffectively, then there is a loss in anodic dissipation.
 Figure: non transferred PAM
2. Transferred Arc Mode: -(Q20)
 The high-pressure flow of gas removes molten material from w/p results in machining the surface.
 The pressure of flowing gas in plasma is 1.4Mpa. and electrothermal efficiency increases to about
85-90%
 Figure: -Transferred PAM.
18)Explain the types of plasma arc torches used in PAM? Or Explain types of plasma arc systems?
A) Types of Torches: -
1. Non-transferred Arc Torches
(i) Turbulent Mode Flame Torch: -Q7
(ii) Laminar Mode Flame Torch: - Q7.
(iii) High power Torch: -
 Used for tunnels, having max arc temp.
 Operated at very high currents i.e., (>= 2000A)
  Electrode erosion in torches protected by using special magnetic fields at the nozzle section.
2. Transferred Arc Torches
(i) Cutting torches
(a) Single flow torch: -
 Shape of cathode looks like a disc & is tapered on its sides.
 High velocities are achieved by maintaining high flow rates of gas.
 Steels of all types can be cut using transferred arc.
(b) Dual flow torch: -
 Here an additional gas flow is provided, which surrounds main arc.
 Flow helps in avoiding double arcing.
 w/p is shielded by this gas flow.
(c) Multiport Nozzle Torch: -
 a part of plasma gas is used for shielding & is provided through small parts.
 These parts surround main hole of nozzle.
 Thus, arc is constricted by the flow.
(d) Oxygen plasma cutting torch: -
 Cathode is zirconium.
 Used for electrodes having short life span.
(ii) Welding Torches: - 29(PAW)
(iii) Micro or Needle Torches: -
 Used for welding, cutting thin foils, wires at very low power i.e., 1KW.
 Operation is similar to welding torch.
 Both arc types use this type of torches.
21) Advantages of Dual gas plasma torch: -
 Prevents double arcing, as nozzle is located inside the recess of a ceramic cup.
 Avoids thermal distortion of ceramic cup, by providing cold gas shield.
 Possible to produce sharp corners on upper edges of the cut portion.
Advantages of water injected plasma torch: -
 Increase in nozzle life.
 Water shield reduces smoke emission.
 High quality cuts are produces, as a result of effect of cooling water.
 Reduction in heat affected zone, due to presence of water shield.
 Prevents oxide layer formation over edges of cut portion.
22) Important considerations in design of plasma torch: -
 If higher amount of current is used, then the large orifice diameter of cathode, orifice length, &
electrode gap is needed.
 When torches are operated at higher arc voltages, enlarged taper angle at cathode tip is required.
  When torches are operated in transferred arc mode, then anode, flat face cathodes are suitable to
use.
 Cathodes having rounded off sections & smaller in size are used to prevent phenomenon of
turbulence.
The higher orifice ratio (l/d) is used for balancing laminar flow modes in design of torches.
 It is necessary to have better coordination between electrodes, for any torch.
 A non-transferred arc mode has large orifice throat section, for transferred small.
 The insulator section of torch should be placed far away from arc zone so that proper protection
can be done.
 Optimum cooling of cathode to be provided for less uniform erosion with out breaking the cathode
& collapsing the max stability.
 High frequency voltage is used for ignition.
High quality insulation must be used in other sections of torch.
 The use of O2 or compounds of O2 in plasma gas are harmful to cathode & there must be no water
leakage into the plasma chamber.
23)Metal Removal Mechanism of PAM: -
Q3----> Figure------>Matter------> Figure
 The surface quality of material mainly depends on MRR.
 As MRR decreases (i.e., less amount of material is removed from machined surface), there is an
increase in surface quality of the material.
 Thus, surface quality & MRR are inversely proportional to each other & their affect is shown in
figure.
24)Explain process parameters & process characteristics of PAM process?
Discuss factors influence quality of cut in PAM?
Discuss process parameters tat influence on quality of cut in PAM?
A) 1st para: -
 The surface quality of material mainly depends on MRR.
 As MRR decreases (i.e., less amount of material is removed from machined surface), there is an
increase in surface quality of the material.
 Thus, surface quality & MRR are inversely proportional to each other.
2nd para: -
 There are many process parameters which influence the MRR & surface quality in PAM.
 But, the most imp parameters are described as follows,
(i) Surface speed: -
 As it is increased, it removes the material very precisely & fastly.
 But after reaching max value, the MRR decreases as shown in figure.
(ii) Power Developed: -
  As power of m/c is increased, it tends to increase the speed of plasma inside.
 The plasma torch results in increasing the MRR.
 The surface speed is constant for different values of power supplied & it is about 2.1m/min.
 The graph represents effect of power on MRR.
(iii) Cutting speed: -
 As thickness of plate increases, the material to be removed increases thereby cutting speed
decreases.
 To obtain better accuracy & surface conditions, cutting speed should be so that uniform heat
distribution occurs across plate thickness.
 The figure illustrates affect of cutting speed on plate thickness.
26) Advantages of PAC over other UCMP: -
 Chemical analysis is not required to initiate the process.
 Easy maintenance.
 Toxic chemical (CFC’s, solvents or acid cleaning chemical) are not required.
 Requires less efforts.
 Avoids workers from exposure to harmful effects.
 It uniformly effects material irrespective of its hardness or refractory nature.
 Avoids requirement of vapor decreasing, solvent wiping, ultrasonic cleaning & grit blasting. And it
is a tidy operation.
 A simply supported w/p structure is sufficient to use since there is no connection tool & w/p.
 The cutting rates are high enough to assist the PAM technique on all the materials.
25) Discuss the surface finish and tolerances obtained in PAM?
A) Q24 only matter no headings-------> 1st para.
2nd para: -
 The surface finish that can be usually obtained using this process, ranges from 3.2-12µm & slightly
above, whereas in case of cut edges, it ranges b/t 5-75µm.
3rd para: -
 The accuracy generally attainable by this process is about 0.25mm, whereas, at max MRR, the
accuracy obtained is about 2.5mm.
4th para: - (Q13)
5th para: - Hence this process is mostly followed by secondary machining on the surfaces, in order to obtain
desired accuracy or surface quality.
16)Working principle of PAM: -
Q1----> Q2------>Q3---->11---->12----->13
Figure: - Direct current plasma generation
The PAM system uses DC power source under following medium: -
1. Dual gas system: -
  This system requires 2 types of gases i.e., plasma gas and secondary gas.
 Generally, N2 is used as plasma gas.
 The gases such as Ar-H2, Co2, O2 etc used as secondary gas for shielding of machining zone &
they are selected based on material to be cut.
 The sharp corners on top portion of cut edges can be retained by using secondary gas system.
2. Water injected torch: - advantages as matter from 21
3. Water muffler: - (Q5)
17) PAC process: - PAC 7 points from Q 29------->figure: PAC process---->
The process parameters which given the performance of PAM can be categorized into 3 groups: -
 Terms related to design & operation of torch.
 Terms related to physical configuration of setup.
 Location at which work is performed.
12) Process parameters of PAM: -
 Feed of torch (mm)
 Speed of work (m/min)
 Axial setting angle (degrees)
 Tangential setting Angle (degrees)
 Thickness of material being machined (mm)
5)Function of water mufflers in PAM: -
 It is a hollow shell which is positioned around plasma torch.
 The gap b/t shell &plasma torch provides passage for water.
 It is used to reduce adverse effects due to highly concentrated heat source.
 The functions of water muffler are as follows: -
 Controls smoke & noise generation
 Lower the toxic gases
 Reduces power of arc glare. Thus, effect on eyes is reduced.
 Using proper dye in water, the UV radiations can be reduced.
6) Types of plasma arc torches (or) various types of torches used in PAM: -
A) The various types of torches used in PAM are,
7)Turbulent Mode: -
 Comes under category of flow mode & is used to operate torch in PAM technique.
 It is used if high velocity flames are needed for removing of material by melt blasting, spraying &
high gas flow rates.
 The flames generated are shorter in length & cold out-side the nozzle.
 Torch operated under turbulent mode useful for cutting, low quality welding & spraying applications
 Plasma arc
torches

Non-trnsferred Transferred arc

arc torches torches

Turbulent
High pwer Laminar mode welding micro or needle
mode flame cutting torches
torches flame torches torches torches
torches

single flow oxygen plasma multi port

Dual flow torch
torch cutting torch nozzle torch

Laminar Mode: -
 Comes under category of flow mode & is used to operate the torch.
 It is employed, if low velocity & lengthy flames are required
 It is possible to attain length of flame up to 900mm & velocity of flame: 50m/sec.
 If breaking of molten drops into fine droplets is undesirable, then laminar mode is used.
8)Design of torches in PAM: -
1st para: -
 They are deigned in a way that they provide max thermal o/p & high efficiency.
 The high efficiency of torches increases electrode life by attaining the max temp of gas& decreasing
electrode losses.
 In addition to this, Min rate of erosion of electrode is to be considered in design of torches.
2nd para: -
 While designing torches, the following terms are to be considered which influence the performance
of torch.
A. Size of cathode
B. Taper section of cathode
C. Convergence of nozzle.
D. Diameter & length of orifice.
E. Electrode gap & cooling of electrodes.
9)Advantages of water circulation in the torch of PAM: -
 Helps in obtaining cuts with high quality.
 Increased cutting speeds.
 Less chances of double arcing effects.
 When the water pass onto the plasma, about 10% of it vaporizes which forms a thin layer of steam
that acts as water constriction.
The produced water constriction helps in: -
A. Smoke reduction
B. Less heat affected Zone area
 C. Increasing nozzle life by minimising nozzle erosion.
D. Prevents oxidation on cutting edges.
10) Cutting gases of PAM: -
 The cutting gases of PAM are selected based on economics & quality of cutting edge required.
 For cutting Al & Mg, Ar-H2 mixture is used.
 For cutting stainless steel up to thickness of 50 mm, N2-H2 mixture is used.
 For cutting heavy workpieces, mixture of 65% Argon+35% H2 is used.
 For cutting carbon steel, gas with O2 is used. Pure O2 cannot be used as it corrodes electrode.
11)How stand-off distance affect MRR in PAM?
 The affect is as follows: -
 As plasma jet is in columnar shape, more tip-to-w/p distance is seen.
 This allows machine cutting along irregular or warped shapes.
 The max allowable stand-off distance ranges about 6.5-76.2 mm.
 The highly closer stand off distances can lead to arcing as slag drops accumulates on tip.
 Shorter distances give better quality cuts as it has less divergence & high thermal intensity.
 For higher stand-off distances, input power required is higher.
13) Accuracy levels that can be achieved by PAM: -
 Accuracy is low.
 Machining tolerances depends on material thickness i.e., thickness of work part.
 It is difficult to obtain closer tolerances in PAM.
 If thickness of work part is <25mm, then tolerance of +-3mm is obtained and if >25mm, +-0.8mm.
Unit 2: ECM
1)