FIRE BEHAVIOR AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

HISTORY OF FIRE

• The ability of primitive people to use fire was crucial to their development. Every human culture of the recent past is known to had
endless experience with fire; a site near Nice, France, has yielded evidence that hominids used fire even half a million years ago.
Although the first sources of fire were assumed to be the results of the natural effects (lightning or volcano), the methods originally
used for deliberate fire making are not clearly known, it is likely, thought that some means of generating heat by friction was first
used, many variations of these principles have been used.

• The earliest use of fire was to keep warm. As civilization advanced, people learned to use fire in many more ways, people learned to
use fire to cook food, to shape weapons and tools, to change clay into pottery, and to furnish light. But early people had extremely
slow and quite unsatisfactory ways of kindling fires. (World Book Encyclopedia, 1994)

• Today, we have not only improved the methods of kindling fire, but we also use fire in many more ways. Fire furnishes the energy to
drive machines and keep industry running. It supplies the power to drive trains, ships and planes, and it generates electricity.

EARLY MEANS OF PRODUCING FIRE

1. TWO STICKS – one of the oldest methods of starting fires consists of rubbing two sticks together. The rubbing creates friction between
the sticks, and the friction generates heat. This heat eventually causes the wood to ignite. This method often times takes lot of time
and energy.

2. HAND DRILL – the hand drill is a more efficient method of rubbing two pieces of wood together. Rapidly spinning a stick of wood
against another piece of wood can generate enough friction and heat can cause the wood to ignite.

3. 3. BOW DRILL – as people developed tools, they adopted some of these fire marking. Drawing the bow back and forth spins the stick
rapidly against the piece of wood, producing a large amount of friction. This friction between the stick and the piece of wood can heat
the wood until it ignites.
 4. 4. WEIGHTED BOW DRILL – the weighted bow drill generates more friction than the bow drill by weighing down the wooden stick,
making it push with more force against the other piece of wood. Moving the bow back and forth creates frictional heat between the
stick and piece of wood, which can ignite the wood.

5. STRIKING FLINT – Another ancient method of starting fires consists of striking flint against another piece of flint to produce sparks.
Later, people also used flint and metal to produce sparks. The sparks can ignite tinder to start a fire. The tinder usually consists of a
substance that burns readily such as wood or metal shavings.

6. 6. MAGNIFYING GLASS – People have used magnifying glasses and sunlight to light fire since the invention of lenses several thousand
years ago. The magnifying glass focuses the sunlight on tinder, and the energy of the sunlight heats the tinder until it ignites.

THEORIES OF COMBUSTION

• FIRE TRIANGLE THEORY- A plane geometric figure in which the three sides of an equilateral triangle represent oxygen, heat and fuel,
these elements are necessary to sustain combustion

• FIRE TETRAHEDRON THEORY - a four-sided, solid geometric figure that resembles a pyramid, with one of the sides forming the base.
Each indicates one of the four elements required to have fire.
ELEMENTS OF FIRE TRIANGLE

• 1. HEAT – a form of energy measured in degree of temperature, the product of combustion that caused the spread of fire.

• 2. OXYGEN – a colorless and odorless gas and one of the composition of air that supports fire which is approximately 21% by volume
but at about 15 - 16% of oxygen is needed for flaming combustion and charring and smoldering can occur with a little as 8% oxygen .

• 3. FUEL – any substance/combustibles which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

THREE WAYS TO EXTINGUISH FIRE

• 1. Reduce the Temperature – Cooling.

• 2. Cut-off the oxygen supply - Smothering

 • 3. Remove the fuel source - Separation

FIRE TETRAHEDRON

• FIRE TETRAHEDRON – a four-sided, solid geometric figure that resembles a pyramid, with one of the sides forming the base. Each
indicates one of the four elements required to have fire.

• - Another theory that explains combustion and extinguishment of fire.

ELEMENTS OF FIRE TETRAHEDRON

1. OXIDIZING AGENT (OXYGEN)

– material/substance that yield oxygen or oxidizing gases during the

process of chemical reaction.

• - Oxidizers are not themselves combustible but they support

combustion when combined with fuel

• - oxygen in the air and in the surrounding area is considered the

primary oxidizing agent.

2. REDUCING AGENT (FUEL) – any material or substance being burned in the combustion process.

• - The fuel in a combustion reaction is known as the reducing agent.

• - Most common fuels contain carbon along with combinations of hydrogen and oxygen

3. TEMPERATURE (HEAT) – represents heat energy above the minimum level necessary to release fuel vapors and cause ignition.

• - Heat is commonly defined in terms of intensity or heating rate or as the total heat energy received over time.
 • - A form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in combustion or burning.

• -In a fire – heat produces fuel vapors, cause ignition, promotes fire growth and flame spread by maintaining a continuous cycle of fuel
production and ignition.

4. Self-sustained Chemical Reaction (Uninhibited Chain Reaction) - a series of events that occur in sequence with the results of each
individual reaction being added to the rest.

• - Once flaming starts, it can continue when enough heat or energy is produced to cause the continued chain reaction.

• - it occurs when sufficient excess heat from the exothermic reaction radiates back to the fuel to produce vapors and cause ignition in
the absence of the original ignition source.

Ways to put out Fire Using Fire Tetrahedron Theory

1. Reducing/Removing Heat – Cooling = process used to reduce temperature of burning material below its flash point/reduce vaporization of
liquid fuel

2. Cut-Off/Removing Oxygen – Smothering = excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that gases or vapors of the fuel cannot ignite and continue
the combustion

3. Removing Fuel – Separation = process of avoiding the union of oxygen and heat, if fuel is unavailable regardless of how high or low
heat/temperature is and/or oxygen content in surrounding fire will not exist

4. Interrupt Chemical Reaction – Inhibition = breaking of chemical bond/or reaction of solid, liquid, and gas from its physical and chemical
properties from forming again and continued or support combustion/burning
COMBUSTION OR BURNING – is a complex sequence of exothermic chemical reactions between a fuel and an oxidant accompanied by the
production of heat or both heat and light in the form of either a glow or flames, appearance of light flickering.

• Fire and Combustion are terms that are often used interchangeably.

• Technically speaking, Fire - is a form of combustion

Fire and Combustion differentiate -

• Combustion – is self-sustaining chemical reaction producing energy or products that cause more reactions of the same kind.

• Fire – is a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the release of heat and light of different intensities.

PYROLYSIS

• Pyrolysis – the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel.

• It is the thermal decomposition of the solid fuel through the action of heat.

Process of Pyrolysis

• The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point

• Decomposition takes place – moisture in the fuel is converted into vapours;

• Decomposition produces combustible vapours that rise to the surface of the fuel. These combustible vapours are technically termed
as free-radicals;

• Free radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is present.

ELEMENTS OF FIRE TRIANGLE

• FUEL

• HEAT
 • OXYGEN

FUELS

• FUEL – any substance/combustibles which reacts chemically with oxygen and produces flames.

Classification of Fuels:

• Class A- Wood, paper, rubber, plastic ( extinguished with water, water-based agents or foam, and multi-
purpose dry chemicals).
• Class B- liquid, gases, greases (extinguishing agents are carbon dioxide (CO2), regular and multi-purpose dry chemical
and foam).
• Class C- live electrical equipment (disconnect electrical power or used extinguishing agents like carbon dioxide
(CO2), regular and multi-purpose dry chemical.
• Class D- combustible metals (extinguishing agents dry powder).
• Class E- high voltage electrical installation and LPG

Physical state of fuels

• Solid – coal, wood, paper, cloth etc.

• Liquid – gasoline, kerosene, turpentine etc.

• Gas – natural gas, propane, butane, hydrogen etc.

SOLID FUELS
• Factors affecting ignition and burning of Wood

1. Physical Form – wood used for kindling is chopped to smaller pieces in order to speed up burning. Heavier wood, logs or timbers
shows considerable resistance to ignition.
 • The reason for this observation is that the sizes of the particles are smaller. The ratio surface area to the volume(mass) increases.

• There is greater exposure of fuel to air and less mass to conduct heat away from the surface of the particle. Hence, heat does not
readily dissipate within the material.

2. Moisture Content – from laboratory ignition and burning test, it has been shown that the behavior of combustible solids of the
same size, shape and chemical composition will vary with moisture content. The moisture content of the materials also influences the rate of
burning.

• Since the specific heat of water is high, the amount of heat necessary to drive off moisture is quite considerable.

3. Heat of Conductivity – It is the measure of the rate in the which absorbed heat will flow through the mass material. It is the inverse
property of insulating.

• The heat conductivity of a particular material also plays a major role in its behavior under fire condition.

• For example, wood is a poor conductor of heat, thus, it has a high insulating value. An illustration of this facts is that the wood
matchstick burning at one end can be held at the other end between the fingers, in contrast, a steel needle of the same size as a
matchstick when heated at one end cannot be held at the other end with equal ease.

4. Rate and Period of Heating - it influences the susceptibility of wood and wood products to ignition.

• Combustible solids are usually considered less hazardous compared to flammable liquid or gases because they do not vaporize readily
nor they give off flammable vapors at ordinary temperature and atmospheric pressure.

• Ignition of solid usually requires contact between the heat source and the material for along period enough to permit release of
flammable vapors.

• 5. Rate of Combustion – it is markedly influenced by physical form of combustible, the air supply present, the moisture content and
other factors but for complete combustion to proceed there should be progressive vaporization of the solid.

• 6. Ignition Temperature – specific ignition temperature of wood is difficult to determine because of the variables concerned.
FIBERS and TEXTILES

Factors that Influence the burning of Textiles

1. Chemical Composition

• Classification of fibers according to chemical composition;

a. Natural Fibers

• Vegetables (cellulosic) as cotton; kapok (seed fibers);

• Animal (protein) as wool (from sheep); silk (from cocoon of silkworm)

• Mineral (inorganic) as asbestos

b. Synthetic or Artificial Fibers

• 1. Organic – this fiber imitates vegetable fibers, divided into cellulose, as for example rayon, which is “reconstituted”
cellulose; and cellulose acetate which is prepared by creating cellulose with acetic acid; non-cellulose includes rayon.

• 2. Inorganic – fiberglass and steel.

• 3. Fiber Finish – if sufficient combustible coating or decorative materials are placed on fabric, this will support continued flaming.

• 4. Fabric Weight – it affects the rate of combustion at which the textile undergoes. The heavier the fabric of the same composition,
the more considerable resistance to ignition.

• 5. Tightness of Weave – the closer the fibers are in the weaving of fabrics the more it will minimize the air spaces between them and
thus delay the rate of burning.

• 6. Flame Retardant Treatment – the effect of chemical treatments in reducing the flammability of the combustible fabric is varied and
complex.
PLASTICS

• - Plastics other than cellulose nitrates, are classified as ordinary combustibles. They comprise a group of material
consisting mainly of organic substances or high molecular weight substances.

• They are solid in the finished state although at some stage of manufactures plastic can be made to follow into the desired
shape, usually through the application of heat or pressure or both

LIQUID FUELS
• The most common liquid fuels are kerosene, gasoline, oil based products and other volatile substances (though they may be
compressed slightly).

• Liquid, like gases assume the shape of their containers and may diffuse. Unlike gases they have definite volume.

• Liquid exhibit a free surface and if left to stand uncovered, will evaporate.

• Evaporation occurs when individual molecules of the liquid escape as gas into the surrounding atmosphere.

• An increase in temperature will cause an increase in the rate of evaporation and consequently, an increase in the vapor pressure. The
temperature at which a liquid turns gas by producing continues vapor bubbles is called boiling point. At this temperature, the vapor
pressure is equal or above to the normal atmospheric pressure.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIQUID FUELS

1. Flammable liquid – it refers to any liquid with a flashpoint below 100 degrees F and a vapor pressure not over 40 psia (pound per square
inch absolute) They called Class 1 liquids, which are subdivided into the following classes;

• Class 1A – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73F, and a boiling point below 100F

• Class 1B – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 73F, a boiling point at or above 100 degrees F

• Class 1C – any liquid that has a flashpoint below 100F but not below 73F.
2. Combustible Liquids – refers to any liquid that have flashpoint at or above 100F. They are subdivided into the following categories:

• Class II – any liquid having flashpoint at or above 100F and below 14F.

• Class IIIA – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 140F and below 200F.

• Class IIIB – any liquid having a flashpoint at or above 200F.

TYPE OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

1. Hydrocarbons 2. Halogenated Carbons

a) alkanes a. alcohol

b) alkenes b. aldehydes

c) alkynes c. amines

d) aromatics d. ethers

e. ketones

f. esters

Hazards of Flammable Liquids

• 1. Produce vapors that;

– Burn

– Corrosive

– Oxidizers
 – Toxic

– Narcotic

– Unstable

2. Slopover - Water trapped at the bottom of storage tanks vaporizes from heat expanding and expelling contents above it.

BURNING CHARACTERISTICS OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

• Flammable and Combustible liquid, will not cause fire, it is then the vapors from the evaporation of the liquid when
exposed to air and under the influence of heat, which will burn or explode.

• Pound by pound flammable liquid produced about 2.5 time more heat than wood.

• This heat liberated 3 to 10 times faster than liquid from wood.

• These ratios illustrate quite clearly why flammable liquid vapor burns with such intensity.

• When flammable liquids spill, they expose a very large surface area, release a great amount of vapor and thus produce
great amounts of heat when ignited.

• This is the reason why large open tank fires and liquid –spill fires burns so violently .

GASEOUS FUELS
• Gaseous fuels are either natural or manufactured flammable gases.

• Gaseous fuels are those in which the molecules are in rapid movement and random motion.
 • They have no definite shape or volume, and assume the shape and volume of their container.

• Other properties include compressibility, expandability, permeability and diffusion.

Gases are classified by their chemical, physical properties and usage

A. Chemical Properties – the ability of gas to react within it or with other materials.

• 1. Flammable Gases – any gas that which burn in normal concentrations of oxygen in the air. These gases are subjected to
the same conditions as flammable vapors.

• 2. Non-flammable gases – any gases that will not burn in the air. Some of these will support combustion and are called
oxidizers. Those that do not support combustion are called inert gases.

• 3. Reactive gases – any gases that will react within itself or with other materials under conditions other than fire, i.e.
shock, heat and etc.

• 4. Toxic gases – any gases that may complicate firefighting efforts due to its serious life hazards.

B. Physical Properties – is the physical behavior of a gas both outside and inside its container when accidentally released.

• 1. Compressed gases – matter which is solely in a gaseous state in its container with a lower pressure limit of 25 psig
(pound per square inch gauge) at normal temperature of 70F to 100F.

• 2. Liquefied gases – matter which exist partly as gas and partly as a liquid at normal temperatures inside the container and
remain under pressure as long as any liquid is in the container.

• 3. Cryogenic gases – gas which remains as liquefied gas in its container at temperature far below normal temperature.

C. Classification of gases according to its uses

• The primary concern of this method of classification is the relation between principal use and life protection. Not only
does general industry use classification but also standards and codes.
 • 1. Fuel gases – gases which burn with air to produce heat, power, or light.

• 2. Industrial gases – gases used in industry processes such as; water treatment, welding and cutting, refrigerants etc.

• 3. Medical gases – gases used for medical purposes such as therapy and anesthesia.

FLAMMABLE COMPRESSED GAS

• 1. Natural gas – common flammable gas.

• 2. Methane – lighter than air and not toxic

• 3. Propane and Butane – colorless, tasteless, odorless and not toxic – heavier than air

• 4. Acetylene – colorless, tasteless, odorless, shock sensitive, burns ethylene 4217F

• 5. Hydrogen – difficult to keep in container, lighter than air, extremely flammable

• 6. Ethylene Oxide – gas at room temperature, extremely wide explosive range – 3.0 to 100%

• 7. Oxidizer – can burn inside its own container

NON- FLAMMABLE GAS

• 1. Oxygen – most common, does not burn, support combustion

• 2. Ammonia – non-flammable – but does burn, flammable range is less than 10%, water soluble

• 3. Refrigerants – may be toxic when heated

 • 4. Halogens – a) Fluorine – most powerful oxidizer, extremely toxic, extremely reactive, water reactive b)
Chlorine – toxic, corrosive, irritating

• 5. Acid gases – turn to acids when dissolved in water, toxic, corrosive, irritating

• 6. Inert gases: Helium, nitrogen, argon, carbon dioxide, krypton neon

• 7. other gases

FIRE – SOURCE OF HEAT/PRODUCTS/PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

Six (6) Type of Common Source of Energy/Heat
CHEMICAL ENERGY NUCLEAR ENERGY

ELECTRICAL ENERGY HEAT

MECHANICAL ENERGY LIGHT

CHEMICAL ENERGY – Chemically produced heat is the result of rapid oxidation.

- An energy released as a result of a chemical reaction such as combustion example;

a. heat generated from a burning match

b. Self-heating (spontaneous combustion)

Four (4) Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Heat of Combustion
 2. Spontaneous Heating

3. Heat Decomposition

4. Heat Solution

• A. Heat of Combustion – it is the amount of heat released during the complete oxidation where the organic fuel is converted to water and carbon
dioxide.

• B. Spontaneous Heating – it is the process of increase in temperature of a material as a result of slow oxidation without drawing heat from its
surrounding until the ignition temperature results into combustion.

• C. Heat of Decomposition – it is the heat produced by the decomposition of compounds requiring additional heat for their formation.

• D. Heat Solution – it is the heat released by the solution matter in a liquid. E.g. acids

ELECTRICAL HEAT ENERGY

- An energy develop when electrons flow through a conductor

- Is the product of arcing, shorting or other electrical malfunction.

- Electricity has the ability to generate high temperature that are capable of igniting any combustible materials near the heated area.

Factors involving electrical heating -

a. Current flow through a resistance

b. Arcing

c. Sparking

d. Static

e. Lightning
 Example;

- Poor wire connection

- Too much resistance

- Loose ground

- Too much current flowing through improperly

sized wire

ELECTRICAL HEAT ENERGY

• A. Resistant Heating – refers to heat generated by passing an electrical current through a conductor such as wire or an appliances. –

• Resistant heating is increased if the wire is not large enough in diameter for the amount of current.

• B. Leakage Current Heating – it occurs when the wire is not properly insulated well enough to contain all the current. Some current leaks out into
the surrounding material such as inside the wall of a structure.

• C. Inductive Heating – Whenever atoms are subjected to electric potential gradients from external sources the arrangement of the atoms (or
molecules) is distorted with a tendency for electrons to move in the opposite direction.

• D. Static Electricity – it is the build – up of positive charge on one surface and negative charge in the opposite direction.

Example; lightning and a person touches a metal after crossing a carpet.

Electrical Heat Energy – Heat generated by electricity, which can occur in a variety of ways.

• Resistance heating – Generated by an electrical current passing thru a conductor with a small resistance. Ex: overloaded appliances.

• Dielectric heating – Action of pulsating a DC or AC at high frequency on a non-conductive material. Ex: Defective micro-oven.

• Leakage current heating – Generated by current leaks to surrounding combustible materials. Ex: wires which are not well insulated.
 • Heat from arcing - Heat generated when the current flow is interrupted. Ex: Loose connections.

• Static electricity – Build-up of positive charge on one surface and a negative charge of another. Ex: Lightning

MECHANICAL ENERGY

• An energy created by Friction and Compression.

• Heat of Friction (frictional Heat) – the movement of two surfaces against each other.

• Heat of Compression – heat is generated when gas is compressed in a container or cylinder.

• Overheating of Machinery –heat is accumulated from rolling, sliding, or friction between two hard surfaces.

Two (2) TYPE OF ENERGY

1. Potential Energy – an energy possessed by an object that can be released in the future.

2. Kinetic Energy – an energy possessed by a moving object.

NUCLEAR ENERGY

• An energy generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion).

• Nuclear power plants generate power as a result of the fusion of Uranium-235.

• Example;

• Fission heats water to drive turbines and produce electricity.

• Solar energy is a product of fusion reaction.

HEAT

– An energy that is transferred between two objects of differing temperature such as sun and earth.

LIGHT

- a visible radiation created at the atomic level such as flame produced during combustion.

Oxidizing Agents
• Oxidizing agents are substances that can easily accept or gain electrons. They are involved in reactions in
solutions, as well as exciting combustion reactions.

• They naturally have a strong ability to gain electrons because they have high electronegativity. This
means that they easily attract electrons.

• An oxidant is also called an oxidizing agent. Oxidizing agents can be expressed in the form of a single
molecule, a compound (a mixture of substances) or an element.

• An oxidant is usually expressed as a molecule when the subject pertains to biological functions. These
biological oxidants are formed during various types of intracellular processes such as metabolism and
inflammatory reactions.

• When an oxidant is expressed as a compound, it generally pertains to chemical functions.

• Chemical oxidants can be artificially created through industrial or manufacturing processes, such as with
hydrogen peroxide or ferric salt.
 • Oxidants expressed as natural elements --- such as oxygen or iodine -- can pertain to either biological or
chemical functions.

• Oxidants or oxidizing agents are electron acceptors that cause "oxidation" on a biological or chemical
level. Previously, the term oxidation was applied to reactions that exclusively involved oxygen. However,
today, it is acknowledged that oxidation can be caused by oxidants, with or without the prevalence of
oxygen. Whether oxidants or oxidation is "good" depends on the nature of the reactions and their
consequences.

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
Four (4) products of Combustion (Fire)

1. Fire Gases

2. Flame

3. Heat

4. Smoke

1. FIRE GASES

• Chemical decomposition of the fuel, percent of oxygen present and the temperature of fire. Are those that remain when
other products of combustion cool to normal temperature.

• Common combustibles contain carbon, which forms carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide when burned.

• Records of fatal fires show that more people died from inhaling these super-heated and toxic fire gases than from other
cause.
 • The complete combustion of fuels containing carbon will produce CO2 , but seldom will there be enough oxygen for
complete combustion.

• When only part of carbon is oxidized, carbon monoxide is formed.

• When CO is not the most toxic fire gas, it causes more deaths than any other gases because it robs the body oxygen.

• It burns rapidly when combined with oxygen at high temperatures, causing dangerous backdraft or explosions.

• Carbon monoxide which is also produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers, caves, wells, mines, stove furnaces and
automobile exhaust.

TYPES OF POISONOUS GASES

1. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

2. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN)

3. Hydrogen Chloride (HCL)

1. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) – is a fire gas formed during fires involving organic-material containing sulfur, such as;

rubber, hair, wood, meat and hides

• It is colorless, highly toxic gas with strong odor of rotten eggs

• Exposure for even a short time is dangerous.

• It will ignite at 500 degrees F (260 degrees C)

2. Hydrogen Cyanide (HCN) – a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-starve fires involving nitrogen-containing materials such as;
 wool, silk, urethane, polymides and acrylics

• These gases are also used as fumigant which can pose serious danger to firefighters working in recently fumigated buildings

• Hydrogen cyanide smells like bitter almond which may not be easily detected

3. Hydrogen Chloride (HCL) – a gas which can be fatal after only a few breaths, is produced in fires involving chloride-containing plastic.

• Plastic can be found anywhere; from furnishing to electrical insulation, conduit and piping.

3. FLAMES
The luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more oxygen;

Flame fades when carbon burns completely, flame is considered a product of incomplete combustion;

It is the manifestation of fire when the fire is in gas phased combustion;

Definition of flame-

• A flame is the visible (light-emitting) part of fire

• It is caused by highly exothermic reaction taking place in a thin zone.

If a fire is hot enough to ionize the gaseous components, it can become a plasma.

TYPES OF FLAMES

• Flames are classified into –

– A. According to color and completeness of combustion;

– B. According to Burning Fuel and Air Mixture;

– C. Based on Smoothness;

A.ACCORDING TO COLOR AND COMPLETENESS OF COMBUSTION

 1. Luminous Flame –

– a reddish-orange in color

– It deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion

– It has lower temperature

2. Non-luminous Flame –

- Bluish in color

- It does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion

- it has a higher temperature than the luminous flame

B. ACCORDING TO BURNING FUEL AND AIR MIXTURE

• 1. Pre-mixed Flame – example of Bunsen Burner;

• 2. Diffusion Flame – example of flame of the oxyacetylene torch;

– Diffused-dispersed, widely spread

PREMIXED FLAMES
DIFFUSION FLAMES

C. BASED ON SMOOTHNESS

1. Laminar Flame – (smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame;

2. Turbulent flame – (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies

LAMINAR(SMOOTH) FLAMES
TURBULENT FLAMES

3. HEAT – A form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy;

– A form of energy measured in degree of temperature

– It is the product of combustion that spread the fire

– It causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion and respiratory tract injuries

– Temperature is an indicator of heat and is measure the warmth or coldness of an object

– Freezing (32 degrees Fahrenheit)(0 degrees Celsius)

– Boiling Point (212 degrees Fahrenheit) (100 degrees Celsius

 4. SMOKE – a visible product of incomplete combustion, a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and finely divided particles
released from the burning material.

PROPERTIES OF FIRE

1. Physical

2. Chemical

a. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES involves;

– Specific Gravity

– Vapor Density
 – Vapor Pressure

– Temperature

– Boiling Point

– Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature

– Fire Point

– Flashpoint

b. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE

• 1. Endothermic Reaction

• 2. Exothermic Reaction

• 3. Oxidation

• 4. Combustion/flame

1. Physical Properties of Fire

a. Specific Gravity – The ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an equal volume of water;

– Ratio of the density of a given solid or liquid substance to the density of water at a specific temperature and pressure;

b. Vapor Density – the weight of a volume of pure gas compared to the weight of a volume of dry air at the same temperature;

- density would indicate whether a gas is denser or less dense than air

c. Vapor Pressure – the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at equilibrium;
 – The vapor pressure of a liquid is the equilibrium of a vapor above its liquid(solid)

– The pressure of the vapor resulting from evaporation of a liquid(solid) above a sample of the liquid(solid) in a closed container

d. Temperature – the measure of thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a given substance

- the measure of the molecules activity within a substance

e. Boiling Point – the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure;

– A liquid in a vacuum environment has a lower boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure;

– A liquid in a high pressure environment has a higher boiling point than when the liquid is at atmospheric pressure

– Boiling point varies with and depends upon the surrounding environment pressure

f. Ignition Temperature or Kindling Temperature – the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be heated in order to initiate or cause
self-contained combustion without the addition of heat from outside sources

g. Fire Point – the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapours to keep burning

h. Flash point – the temperature at which a material is not hot enough to keep burning but still gives off enough vapours to cause a flame to “flash” across
the surface;

– Is used to express the condition of a fuel vaporizing, whether or not it is vaporizing fast enough to keep burning

2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIRE

• 1. Endothermic Reaction – are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or is added before the reaction takes place

• 2. Exothermic Reaction – reactions or changes that release or give off energy (heat) thus they produce substances with less energy than the
reactants

• 3. Oxidation – a chemical change in which combustible material (fuel) and an oxidizing agent react

• 4. combustion/flame – the manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion

– A matter that is produced by fire

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE

• Class A – material involving ordinary combustible materials such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber and plastics including grasses;

• Class B – involves flammable and combustible greases and gases such as gasoline and other petroleum products; Lubricants

• Class C – involves energized electrical equipment, electrical motors, appliances and apparatus

• Class D – involves combustible metals, alloys or metal compounds either in a solid, semi-solid or liquid state such as aluminum, magnesium,
titanium, etc.

• Class K – these are material involved in the kitchen fires such as oils, animal fats and vegetable oils

Fire Development

Growth

• Fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel.

• As plume develops, it begins to draw or entrain air from the surrounding space into column.

• Heat is rising due to convection and also being spread to other fuels through conduction, radiation, and direct flame impingement.

• It will continue if enough fuel and oxygen are available

• A person will experience extreme pain from temperatures of 280°F to 320°F on unprotected skin.

• Also called the “Point of No-Return” because with the temperature on this stage, a fire fighter is expected to last only about 2-seconds before being
overcome by the heat and pain

• The average speed a Fire fighter can crawl in full protective clothing is about 2 ½ feet/sec.

• Therefore, a fire fighter should not go more than five (5) feet into a room that may Flashover.

• In the said situation, fire fighters should use tools to extend their reach into a room when searching and keep within 5-feet of the door or window
they entered.

Flashover
 • The transition between the growth and fully developed fire stages.

• Defined as the state of fire at which all combustibles are heated to their ignition temperature and the area becomes fully involve in fire.

• During this stage, conditions in the compartment change very rapidly as the fire changes from one that is dominated by the burning of the
materials first ignited to one that involves all of the exposed combustible materials remote from the origin of the fire.

• Temperature at this stage is approximately 900 °F to 1,200 °F (483 °C to 649 °C)

Fully developed

• It occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are involved in fire.

• Burning fuels in the compartment are releasing the maximum amount of heat possible for the available fuel packages and producing large volumes
of fire gases.

Decay

• As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of heat release begins to decline.

• The fire becomes fuel controlled, the amount of fire diminishes and the temperatures within the compartment begin to decline.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT FIRE DEVELOPMENT

1. Size, number, and arrangement of ventilation openings

2. Volume of the compartment

3. Thermal properties of the compartment enclosures

4. Ceiling height of the compartment

5. Size, composition, and location of the fuel package that is first ignited

6. Availability and locations of additional fuel packages (target fuels)

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Phases of Burning/Three stages of Fire

• 1. Incipient/Beginning Phase

• 2. Free-Burning Phase

• 3. Hot Smouldering/Smoldering Phase

Incipient/Beginning Phase

• – it is the initial stage of fire/actual ignition

• - Characteristics;

– Normal room temperature

– Oxygen plentiful

– Thermal updraft rise accumulate at higher point

– Flame temperature at 1000 degrees Fahrenheit

– Producing pyrolysis products(carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur oxide water vapor and other gases)

Fire Behavior

- “Rollover” – an eruption of flames following the ignition of gas that has collected at top of an enclosed space or structure

- “ Flashover” – stage of fire in which a room or other confined area becomes heated to the point that the flames will sweep or flashover the entire
surface area

Free burning phase/Steady state

 - it is the phase of fire where sufficient oxygen and fuel are available for fire growth and Flashover

- a stage in the development of a continued fire in which all exposed surfaces reach ignition temperature, more or less simultaneously and fire
spread rapidly

Hot smoldering phase/final phase

- fire ceases to exist

- burning is reduced to glowing embers

- dense smoke and heat completely fill the confined room

- intense heat evaporates the lighter fuel fractions such as hydrogen and methane

-resulting super-heated mixture of gases needs only a fresh supply of oxygen to resume free burning at an explosive rate

BACKDRAFT – is a sudden influx of oxygen causing combustion to restart possibly at devastating speed consistent with an explosion.

With vid….

HEAT TRANSFER

• Conduction – it is the transmission of heat through an object or conductor

– Heat flow through a solid

 Convection – It is the transmission of heat by the moving current of liquid or gas

– Solid to gas

– Heat is transferred from the moving fluid (hot gas) to adjacent solid

 Radiation – the transmission through the discharge and spread of heat from a heated or burning source
 – Electromagnetic waves are emitted in all direction

– Radiant heat – heat transfer is proportional to the 4th power of temperature. Thus doubling smoke temperature (in
degrees K) causes a 16X increase in heat transfer

– The dirtier or darker the smoke in a fire the more heat it will transfer at equal temperature

– Dirty smoke consist of millions of tiny, dark, and solid particles each reacting as a radiator

 Flame Contact - Direct flame contact or Combination of Convection and radiation

IGNITION PROCESS

Gases

-Flammability Limits

- Auto-Ignition Temperature

- Ignition Energy

Liquids

- Flashpoint

- Ambient air flow

Solids

- Ignition Temperature

- Incident heat Flux

- Morphology – Size of material before it ignites

 - Thermal Properties

Fire Pattern Development

The rate and pattern of fire development depend on a complex relationship between the burning fuel and the surrounding environment;

The collection of heat at the top of the room can raise the temperature of the ceiling and produce a large body of high temperature smoke;

Radiation from this upper potion of the space can significantly enhance the rate of heat release from a burning item;

When no ceiling exists over a fire and the fire is far from walls, the hot gases and smoke of the plume continue to rise vertically;

Fire spread from an unconfined fire, plume will be primarily by radiant ignition of nearby fuels;

Spread rate across solid materials will generally be slow unless aided by air environment or sloping surfaced that allow preheating of the fuel;

- The damage created by flame, radiation, hot gases and smoke creates patterns that investigators use to locate the area or point of origin;

- Shape of the plume of rising hot gases above a burning item with its apex directed down toward the source of heat;

- Plume width varies with the size of the base of fire and will increase over time as the fire spreads;

- Blowing air over glowing embers will raise their temperatures and can generate enough heat to melt materials;

- One of the major objectives of scene examination is the 1. Recognition 2. Identification 3. Analysis of fire pattern;

- The recognition, identification and proper analysis of fire patterns by an investigator is dependent upon the understanding of the dynamics of fire
development, heat and flame spread;

FIRE PATTERNS

- are the physical effects that are visible or measurable remaining after a fire;

- That includes thermal effects on materials such as ; Charring, Spalling, Oxidation, Consumption of Combustibles, smoke and soot deposits, Clean
Burn, Calcination, Distortion, melting, Color Changes, Changes in the character of materials and Structural Collapse

Lines or Areas of Demarcation -

 - are the borders defining the differences in certain heat and smoke effects of the fire upon various materials;

- They appear between the affected area and adjacent unaffected or less affected areas;

Surface Effects – Are produced by response of materials to the effects of various intensities of heat exposures;

Penetration of Horizontal Surface – from above or below, can be caused by radiant heat, direct flame impingement, or localized smoldering with or without
the effects of ventilation;

Loss of Materials- the shapes and quantities of remaining combustibles can themselves produce lines of demarcation and ultimately fire patterns to be
analyzed by investigator;

Two (2) Types of Fire Patterns

1. Movement Pattern – Flame and movement pattern are produced by the growth and movement of fire and the products of combustion away from an initial
source;

– Plume generated fire pattern

2. Intensity (heat) Pattern – are produced by the response of materials to the effects of various intensities of heat exposures. The various heat effects on a
certain materials can produce lines of demarcation which is helpful for determining the characteristics and quantities of fuel materials as well as the direction
of fire spread;

Locations of Objects –

1. Heat Shadowing – results from an object blocking the travel of radiated heat, convected heat, or direct flame contact from its source to the material upon
which the pattern is produced;

– The object blocking the travel of the heat energy may be a solid, or liquid, combustible or non-combustible; any object that absorbs or reflect
heat energy may cause the production of a pattern on the material in protects;

– Heat shadowing can change, mask, or prohibit the production of identifiable lines of demarcation that may appeared on that material;

2. Protected areas – result from an objet prohibiting the product of combustion from depositing on the material that the object protects;
 Location Patterns – Fire patterns may be found on any surface that have been exposed to the effects of the fire or its by-products

- Interior surfaces would commonly include: walls, floors, ceilings, doors, windows, furnishings, appliances, machinery, equipment, other contents,
personal property, confined spaces, attics, closets and inside walls;

-Exterior surfaces would include: walls, eaves, roofs, doors, windows, gutters and down spouts, utilities(meters, service drops, etc.);

- Outside exposures would commonly include: out-buildings, adjacent structures, trees, and vegetation's, utilities(poles, lines, meters, fuel storage
tanks, transformers, etc.

- Elevations

Low burn patters

Fall down(drop down)

GEOMETRY Patterns

- Various patterns having distinctive geometry or shape created by the effects of fire and smoke exposure on building material and contents

1. “V” shaped patterns

2. Inverted Cone patterns

3.Hourglass Pattern

4. “U” shaped patterns

5. Truncated Cone patterns

6.Pointer and Arrow patterns

7. Circular shaped patterns

 8. Irregular Patterns

9. Doughnut Shaped patterns

10. “Saddle Burns”

11. Linear patterns

12. Area patterns

1. “V” shaped patterns – appearance of V shaped patterns is created by flames convective or radiated from the hot fire gases
and smoke within the plume;

- The V patterns often appears as lines of demarcation, defining the borders of the fire plume and less heated areas outside
the plume;

2. Inverted Cone patterns – often called inverted “V”s - are triangular pattern, wider at their base than the top;

- they are commonly caused by vertical flame plumes of the burning volatile fuels not reaching the ceiling;

- the type of fuel source combined with the geometry of the room in which they occur and the width of the fuel source base
at floor level are the major factors in their formation;

3.Hourglass Pattern – the plume of hot gases above a fire is composed of a hot gas zone shaped like a “V” and a flame zone at its base;

- The flame zone is shaped like an inverted “V”;

-when the hot zone is truncated by a vertical plane surface, the typical “V” pattern is formed;

- if the fire itself is very close to or in contact with the vertical surface, the resulting pattern will show the effect of both the
hot zone and the flame zone together as a large “V” above an inverted “V”;
 - The inverted “V” is generally smaller and may exhibit more intense burning or clean burn. The overall pattern that results is
called an “Hourglass”

4. “U” shaped patterns – are similar to the more sharply angled “V” pattern but display gently curved lines of demarcation
and curved rather than angled vertices;

- “U” shape patterns are created by the effects of radiant heat energy on the vertical surfaces more distant from the same
heat sources than surfaces displaying sharp “V” pattern;

- The lowest lines of the demarcation of the “U” pattern are generally higher than the lowest lines of demarcation of
corresponding “V” patterns that are closer to the fire source;

- “U” patterns are analyze similarly to “V” patterns with the additional aspect of noting the relationship between the height
of the vertex of the “U” pattern as compared to the height of the vertex of the corresponding “V” patterns ;

- If there are two patterns from the same heat source, the one with the lower vertex will be closer to that heat source;

5. Truncated Cone patterns – also called “truncated plumes”

- are three dimensional fire patterns display on both horizontal and vertical surfaces;

- it is the interception or truncating of the natural cone shaped or hourglass shaped effects of the fire plume by these vertical
and horizontal surfaces that causes the patterns to be displayed;

- Combinations of more than one 2-dimensinal pattern on perpendicular vertical and horizontal surfaces gives the truncated
cone pattern its three-dimensional character;

6.Pointer and Arrow patterns – these fire patterns are commonly displayed on vertical wooden walls studs or furring strips
of walls whose surface sheathing has been destroyed by fire;

- the progress and direction of fire spread along a wall can often be identified and traced back towards its source by an
examination of the relative heights and burned away shapes of the wall studs left standing after a fire;
 - shorter and more severely charred studs will be closer to a source of a fire than taller studs;

-heights of the remaining studs increase as distance from a source increases;

- shape of studs’ cross section will tend to produce “arrow” pointing back toward the general area of the source of heat, this
is caused by the burning off the sharp angles of the edges of the studs on the sides towards the heat source that produce them;

7. Circular shaped patterns – Patterns that are generally circular in shape are common at the fire scenes;

- These pattern are never truly circular unless they represent areas that have been protected from burning by circular items
such as wastebaskets or bottoms of furniture items;

8. Irregular Patterns – lines of demarcation between the damaged and undamaged areas of irregular patterns range from
sharp edged to smooth graduations depending upon the properties of the material and the intensity of heat exposure;

- These patterns are common to post flashover conditions, long extinguishing time, or building collapse;

These patterns may result from the effects of hot gases, flaming and smoldering debris, melted plastics or ignitable liquids;

9. Doughnut Shaped patterns – A distinct “doughnut” pattern where a roughly ring shaped burn area surrounds a less
burned area may result from ignitable liquids;

- When a liquid caused this pattern, it is due to the effects of the liquids cooling center of the pool as it burns while flames at
the perimeter of the doughnut produce charring of the floor or floor coverings;

10. “Saddle Burns” – are distinctive “U” or saddle shaped patterns that are sometimes found on the top edges of joist (beam,
truss);

- They are caused by fire burning downward through the floor above the affected joist;

- displayed deep, heavy charring and the fire patterns are highly localized and gently curved;

11. Linear patterns – patterns that have overall linear or elongated shapes ;
 - they appear usually on horizontal surfaces

12. Area patterns – these patterns are most often formed when the fuels that create them are widely dispersed before
ignition or when the movement of the fire through the areas is very rapid as in flash fire;

Charring – turning of wood to and be subjected to chemical decomposition that drives off gases, water vapor, and various
pyrolysis products;

– Discoloration of material and/or decomposition of material

Spalling – is the breakdown in surface tensile strength of concrete, masonry or brick caused by exposure to high temperatures
and rates of heating resulting in mechanical forces within the material;

Oxidation – chemical process associated with combustion;

– A combination of oxygen with substances such as metals, rocks or soil that is brought about by high temperatures;

– A chemical change in which the combustible material and oxidizing agent reacts

Smoke and soot deposits – formation of fuels that contain carbon can form soot – black particles of carbon produced in
flame, and smoke condensate – condensed residue of suspended vapors and liquid products of incomplete combustion

Clean Burn – is the phenomenon that appears on non-combustible surfaces when the soot and smoke condensate that would
normally be found adhering to the surfaced burned off, this produces a clean area adjacent to areas darkened by products of
combustion;

– Is produced most commonly by direct flame contact or intense radiated heat;

Calcination – termed used to cover the numerous changes that occur in plaster or gypsum wall surfaces during a fire;

Distortion, melting, Color Changes, Changes in the character of materials and Structural Collapse;

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Sample pictures of investigation.