1.

Fundamental Operations of
RADAR/ARPA

A typical ARPA gives a presentation of the current

situation and uses computer technology to predict
future situations. An ARPA assesses the risk of
collision, and enables operator to see proposed
maneuvers by own ship.

While many different models of ARPAs are

available on the market, the following functions are
usually provided:

1. True or relative motion radar presentation.

2. Automatic acquisition of targets plus manual acquisition.
3. Digital read-out of acquired targets which provides course, speed, range, bearing, closest point of approach
(CPA, and time to CPA (TCPA).
4. The ability to display collision assessment information directly on the PPI, using vectors (true or relative) or a
graphical Predicted Area of Danger (PAD) display.
5. The ability to perform trial maneuvers, including course changes, speed changes, and combined course/speed
changes.
6. Automatic ground stabilization for navigation purposes. ARPA processes radar information much more
rapidly than conventional radar but is still subject to the same limitations. ARPA data is only as accurate as the
data that comes from inputs such as the gyro and speed log.

The parabolic radar antenna transmits and receives electromagnetic waves; as far as a target being displayed is
concerned, that is basically the wave that bounced off a certain object that paints itself on the PPI (Plan Position
Indicator)

The frequency and the time taken by the flashes to return (reflections) to the radar receiver of the ship helps to
find out whether the route of the boat can be continued with or not. The transmission and receiving of the pulse
travels twice the distance in going and hitting the target and back; therefore, the target displayed on the PPI is
basically halved with regard to its range.

On the PPI, the reflections can be seen so that identifying the actual distance of the objects can be even easier.
The same paint on the PPI can be also be checked for determination of the bearing of the target.

Operations of Radar and ARPA

Radar (Radio Detection And Ranging) consists of different parts which can be mainly divided into:
a) Transmitter c) Scanner and
b) Receiver d) Display
 The working process of Radar starts with an
oscillator known as ‘magnetron’, which has a fixed
frequency. The magnetron takes electrical inputs from
a power source through a modulator and produces an
output of electro-magnetic energy known as ‘pulse’.
These pulses are sent to the scanner or the antennae
through a metallic tube known as ‘wave guide’.
From the scanner these pulses are sent out to the
atmosphere. The number of pulses sent out through
the scanner per second is called the Pulse Repetition
Frequency. The pulses travel through the atmosphere
at the speed of light and gets reflected back after
striking any target on its way. The reflected echoes
reach back the scanner and the receiver processes and
amplifies it and shows on the display screen as a
‘blip’ which is identified as the detected target.
The above diagram depicts the working sequence
of Radar as explained. In the diagram, the following
parts mentioned, serve for the purpose as stated below.
1. Delay Line – It stores the energy received from the power source.
2. Modulator – It switches on / off the Magnetron and releases one DC pulse from delay line to magnetron.
3. TR Cell – It blocks receiver part of the waveguide during transmission and blocks transmitter end during
reception.
4. Mixer – Mixes received echoes with local oscillations.

ARPA (Automatic Radar Plotting Aid) is a computerised additional feature to the Radar. ARPA takes feed
of the own ships course and speed, and target’s course and speed, and calculates the collision avoidance data
and simplifies the need for the users to calculate the data themselves. ARPA provides various other additional
features and controls as well.

Assess target movement

The Echo Trail feature simulates target movement in afterglow. It is useful for assessing the movement of all
targets relative to own ship. Some Radars have the capability to show the true movement of targets, providing
increased navigational safety.
Determine own ships position
Since Radar sees further than the naked eye, the echoes from islands and landmasses can be used to determine
own ships’ position. When running near land, you can use peninsulas and other targets whose echoes show
distinct contours on the display to determine own ships’ position. Distant, tall mountains or bridges may be
similarly used provided they are above the horizon.

Navigate to specific location

Fishing vessels and pleasure boats use Radar to help them navigate to favorite fishing spots. When navigating to
a fishing spot, the forces of wind and current can combine to throw the vessel off its intended course. To
remember your location if your ship drifts, use the VRM and EBL to mark range and bearing to nearby islands
or peninsulas.
Navigate straight to waypoint
The map-like picture displayed by Radar helps you navigate straight to a waypoint and compliments chart
plotter images. Receive Radar beacon (RACON) Radar can receive pulsed signals from a Radar beacon to
determine own ships position.
2. Types and Characteristics of RADAR/ARPA

TYPES OF RADAR/ARPA

STAND-ALONE AND INTEGRAL ARPA’s

Over the past 10 years, the most significant changes to the ARPA systems has been in their design. The
majority of ARPAs manufactured today integrate the ARPA features with the radar display.
The initial development and design of ARPAs were Stand-alone units. That is they were designed to be an
addition to the conventional radar unit. All of the ARPA functions were installed on board as a separate unit but
needed to interfaced with existing equipment to get the basic radar data. The primary benefits were cost and
time savings. This of course was not the most ideal situation and eventually it was the integral ARPA that
gradually replaced the stand-alone unit.
The modern integral ARPA combines the conventional radar data with the computer data processing
systems into one unit. The main operational advantage is that both the radar and ARPA data are readily
comparable.
Ships rely on S-band and X-band frequency radar system for navigation and detection of incoming ships or
land obstacles to avoid a collision. The radars use a rotating antenna to discover the surrounding area of the
ship. It can detect targets and display the information on the screen. Radar is an important component for every
ship. It ensures ships safety across the sea and near the shore.
In commercial ships, radars are integrated to form a complete system of marine instruments. These
instruments include: chart plotters, a two-way marine radio, sonar, a satellite navigation system like the GPS
(Global Positioning System) and an emergency locators (SART).
The current integrated system provide a 3D display to allow navigators monitor the ship’s surrounding
environment, the area above or below the ship and overlays of the satellite imaging.
1. Naval and Coastguard Radar
These shipborne radars search the surrounding environment and provide a 3D surveillance.
It detect small targets in a longer range while in a severe weather. It uses both X and S band frequency
mechanisms to ensure high reliability on detections of small objects in distance. Solid radar require minimal
maintenance routines and uses low power patented pulse sequence.
2. Naval Fire-Control radar
Fire-control radar are designed to provide information to navy officers on how to control their weapons to
hit the target. They use radio waves to accurate track the target and provide the exact location to avoid losing
the target.
3. VTS and Coaster Surveillance Radars
This type of radar systems provide Vessel Traffic Management services (VMTS) and ships with early warning
of incoming target. They ensure safety and security along the ports, coastlines or on waterways. The radars
provide information to the navy officers on any remotely pilot vehicles and objects on a long range.

4. Small watercraft Radar

Used for small boats and designed using SharpEyeTM SCV for small crafts to detect target at a range of
24NM. The large shipborne use SharpEyeTM surveillance.
5. Commercial /Merchant Marine Navigation Radar
This marine radar provides a safe navigation watch. The radar is used to identify, track, position vessels and
safely navigate the vessel from point to another. The radar tracks the exact range of the target in order to avoid
collisions. Uses X-band frequency to sharpen the image of the target.
6. High Frequency Over-the-Horizon (HF OTH) Radar
This radar uses high frequency electromagnetic spectrum of 3-30 MHZ to detect targets or objects at a range
of 2000 nautical miles. It detects other small ships, ballistic missiles, ocean waves and approaching aircraft.
7. Frequency-modulated Continuous-wave (FM-CW) Radar
This kind of radar changes the frequency with time. To get the actual range of the target, the frequency of
the transmitted and received frequency is recorded. The radar model changes the frequency in a linear manner
to give room for up and down frequency alternation.
8. Electronically Scanned Phased-Array Radar
In this type of radar, a scanned phased-array antenna beam placed on one direction scans the area without
moving the entire navigation system. The beam switching enables the radar to detect incoming targets
simultaneously.
9. Simple Pulse Radar
This is the most common type of radar which consist of repetitive short-duration of pulses to monitor any
moving object. It uses Doppler frequency to accurately measure the distance of the moving objects.
10. 3D Radar
The radar measures the exact location of the target object in two dimensions. It can determine the angle of
elevation on the target object. Has an automatically or manually rotated antennae to determine the target range.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR/ARPA

• Acquires up to 20 targets automatically

• Movement of tracked targets shown by true or relative vectors (Vector
length 1 to 99 min. selected in 1 min steps)
• Setting of nav lines, buoy marks and other symbols to enhance navigation safety
• On-screen digital readouts of range, bearing, course, speed, CPA, TCPA, BCR (Bow Crossing Range) and
BCT (Bow Crossing Time) of two targets out of all tracked targets.
• Audible and visual alarms against threatening targets coming intooperator-selected CPA/TCPA limits, lost
targets, two guard rings, visual alarm against system failure and target full situation
• Electronic plotting of up to 10 targets in different symbols (This function is disabled when ARPA is activated)
• Electronic parallel index lines
• Interswitching (optional) built in radar or ARPA display unit
• Enhanced visual target detection by Echo Average, Echo Stretch, Interference Rejector, and multi-level
quantization
• Stylish display
• Choice of 10,25 or 50 kW output for X-band; 30kw
output for S-band,
either in the transceiver aloft (gearbox) or RF down
(transceiver in bridge)
• Exclusive FURUNO MIC low noise receiver

CHARACTERISTICS OF RADAR/ARPA

Basic system
The basic Radar system consists of two units: the
scanner unit and the display unit. The transceiver (transmitter/receiver unit, or t/r) is generally housed in the
gearbox of the scanner unit. In some designs the t/r is separate from the scanner unit and contained in its own
housing; such a unit is referred to as ‘t/r down.’ Also, the control unit may be separate from the display unit so
as to allow for custom selection of display in
what is referred to as a ‘black box’ system.

Scanner unit components

Most scanner units employ the circuits and
devices shown in Figure 3:

Magnetron
The magnetron generates the radio pulses.
Magnetrons, as well as the Radar itself, are
classified by their transmitting frequency
band. There are two main frequency bands in commercial Radar: X-Band (9,000 MHz band; wavelength 3cm)
and S-Band (3,000 MHz band; wavelength 10 cm). Magnetron output power ranges from 1kW for small Radars
to 60kW for large Radars. Table 1 compares the S-Band and X-Band frequencies.
3. RADAR/ARPA Controls and its functions
HM OFF Temporarily erases the heading marker.

ECHO TRAILS Shows trails of target echoes in the form of simulated afterglow.

MODE Selects presentation modes: Head-up, Head-up/TB, North-up, Course-up, and True Motion.

GUARD ALARM Used for setting the guard alarm.

EBL OFFSET Activates and deactivates off-centering of the sweep origin.

BKGR COLOR Selects the background color.

INDEX LINES Alternately shows and erases parallel index lines.

X2 ZOOM enlarges a user selected portion of picture twice as large as normal. (R-type only)

CU, TM RESET Resets the heading line to 000 in course-up mode; moves own ship position 50% radius in

stern direction in the true motion mode.

INT REJECT Reduces mutual radar interference

RANGE RINGS Adjusts the brightness of range rings.

ORIGIN MARK Show and erases the origin mark (a reference point).
VECTOR TRUE/REL Selects true or relative vector.
VECTOR TIME Sets vector length in time.
RADAR MENU Opens and closes RADAR menus.
E-PLOT, AUTO PLOT MENU Opens and closes E-plot and AUTO PLT menus.
NAV MENU Opens and closes NAV menu.
KEYS 0-9 Select plot symbols. Also used for entering numeric data.
CANCEL Terminates plotting of a specified target or all tracked targets.
ENTER Used to save settings on menu screen.
TARGET DATA Displays the acquired target data.
TARGET BASED DATA Own ship’s speed is measured relative to a fixed target.
AUTO PLOT Activates and deactivates the Auto Plotter.
TRIAL Initiates a trial maneuver.
LOST TARGET Silences the lost target audible alarm and erases the lost target symbol.
HISTORY Shows and erases past positions of tracked targets.
MARK Enter/erase mark.
CHART ALIGN Used to align chart data.
VIDEO PLOT Turns the video plotter on/off.
4. Performance Standards of RADAR/ARPA
1. Detection: If a separate facility is provided for the detection of targets, other than by the Radar, its
performance should not be inferior to that which could be obtained by the use of the radar display.

2. Acquisition:
➜ Target acquisition may be manual or automatic for relative speeds up to 100 knots. However, there should
always be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and cancellation: ARPA with automatic acquisition
should have a facility to suppress acquisition in certain areas. On any range scale where acquisition is
suppressed over a certain area, the area of acquisition should be defined and
➜ The automatic or manual acquisition should have a performance not inferior to that which could be obtained
by the radar display indicated on the display.
3. Tracking:
➜ The ARPA should be able automatically to track, process, simultaneously display and continuously update
the information on at least 20 targets, whether automatically or manually acquired.
➜ If an Automatic Acquisition is provided, a description of the criteria of selection of targets for tracking
should be provided to the user. If the ARPA does not track all targets visible on the display, targets which are
being tracked should be clearly indicated with the relevant symbol” on the display.
➜ The reliability of tracking should not be less than that obtainable using manual recordings of successive
target positions obtained from the radar display.
➜ The ARPA should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly distinguishable on the display for 5
out of 10 consecutive scans, provided the target is not subject to target swop.
➜ The possibility of tracking errors, including target swop, should be minimized by ARPA design. A
qualitative description of the effects of error sources on the automatic tracking and corresponding errors should
be provided to the user, including the effects of low signal-to-noise and low signal-to-clutter ratios caused by
sea returns, rain, snow, low clouds, and non-synchronous emissions.
➜ The ARPA should be able to display on request with a relevant symbol at least four equally time-spaced past
positions of any targets being tracked over a period appropriate to the range scale in use.
➜ The time-scale of the past position plot should be indicated. The operating manual should contain an
explanation of what the past position plots represent.

4. Display
➜ The display may be a separate or integral part of the ship’s Radar. However, the ARPA display should
include all the data required to be provided by a radar display in accordance with the performance standards for
navigational radar equipment.
➜ The design should be such that any malfunction of ARPA parts producing data additional to information to
be produced by the radar as required by the performance standards for navigational equipment should not affect
the integrity of the basic radar presentation.
➜ The ARPA facilities should be available on at least 3, 6 and 12 nautical mile range scales, and there should
be a positive indication of the range scale in use.
➜ ARPA facilities may also be provided on other range scales permitted by resolution A.477(XII) and, if
provided, should comply with these standards.
➜ The ARPA should be capable of operating with a relative motion display with “North-Up” and “Course-Up”
azimuth stabilization. In addition, the ARPA may also provide for a true motion display.
➜ If true motion is provided, the operator should be able to select for the display either true or relative motion.
➜ There should be a positive indication of the display mode and orientation in use.
➜ The course and speed information generated by the ARPA for acquired targets should be displayed in a
vector or graphic form which clearly indicates the target’s predicted motion with relevant symbols*, In this
regards:
an ARPA presenting predicted information in vector form only should have the option of both true and relative
vectors.
➜ There should be an indication of the vector mode selected and, if true vector mode is selected, the display
should show whether it is sea or ground stabilized; an ARPA which is capable of presenting target course and
speed information in the graphic form should also, on request, provide the target’s true and/or relative vector;
vectors displayed should be time-adjustable; a positive indication of the time-scale of the vector in use should
be given; and if stationary targets are being used for ground reference, this fact should be indicated by the
relevant symbol’. In this mode, relative vectors including those of the targets used for ground referencing
should be displayed when requested.
➜ The ARPA information should not obscure the visibility of radar targets. The display of ARPA data should
be under the control of the Radar Observer. It should be possible to cancel the display of unwanted ARPA data
within 3 secs.
➜ Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the ARP A data and radar data, including
the complete extinction of the ARPA data.
➜ The method of presentation should ensure that the ARPA data are clearly visible in general to more than one
observer in the conditions of light normally experienced on the bridge of a ship by day and by night.
➜ Screening may be provided to shade the display from sunlight but not to the extent that it will impair the
observer’s ability to maintain a proper look-out. Facilities to adjust the brightness should be provided.
➜ Provisions should be made to obtain quickly the range and bearing of any object which appears on the ARPA
display.
➜ When a target appears on the radar display and, in the case of automatic acquisition, enters within the
acquisition area chosen by the observer or, in the case of manual acquisition, has been acquired by the observer,
the ARPA should present in a period of not more than 1 min an indication of the target’s motion trend, as
discussed above.
➜ After changing range scales on which the ARP A facilities are available or resetting the display, full plotting
information should be displayed within a period of time not exceeding one scan.

5. Data Requirements:

➜ The observer should be able to select any tracked target to obtain data. Targets selected should be marked
with the relevant symbol* on the Radar Display. If data is required for more than one target at the same time
each symbol should be separately identified, for example with a number adjacent to the symbol*.
➜Following data for each selected target should be clearly and unambiguously identified and displayed
immediately and simultaneously in alpha-numeric form outside the radar area:
• Present range of the target
• present bearing of the target
• predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA)
• predicted time to CPA (TCPA);
• calculated true course of the target; and
• calculated true speed of the target.
➜The display of the calculated true course and speed of the target should include an identification of whether
the data provided is referenced to sea or ground stabilization.
➜When data for several targets are displayed, no fewer than two items listed above should be displayed
simultaneously for each target selected. If the items of data are displayed in pairs for each target, the groupings
should:
•Range and Bearing
•CPA and TCPA
•Calculated true course and speed

6. Accuracy:
➜The ARPA should provide accuracies not less than mentioned below for the four scenarios defined in
Appendix 2.
➜With the sensor errors specified in Appendix 3, the values given relate to the best possible manual plotting
performance under environmental conditions of ±10 degrees of roll.
➜An ARPA should present within one minute of steady-state tracking the relative motion trend of a target with
the following accuracy values (95% probability values).

➜An ARPA should present within three minutes of steady-state tracking the motion of a target with the
following accuracy values (95% probability values).

7,Trial Manoeuvre
➜The ARP A should be capable of simulating the effect on all tracked targets of an own ship maneuver with or
without time delay before maneuver without interrupting the updating of target tracking and display of actual
target alpha-numeric data. The simulation should be indicated with the relevant symbol* on the display.
➜The operating manual should contain an explanation of the principles underlying the trial maneuver technique
adopted including, if provided, the simulation of own ship’s maneuvering characteristics.
➜It should be possible to cancel a trial maneuver at any time.
8. Sea and Ground Stabilization
➜The ARPA should be capable of sea and ground stabilization.
➜Log and speed indicators providing inputs to ARPA equipment should be capable of providing the ship’s
speed through the water in the fore and aft direction.
➜The ground stabilized input may be provided from the log, from an electronic position-fixing system, if the
speed measurement accuracy is in accordance with the requirements of Resolution A 824(19), or from tracked
stationary targets.
➜The type of input and stabilization in use should be displayed.

9. Operational Warnings:
➜The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible signal of any
distinguishable target which closes to a range or transits a zone chosen by the observer.
➜The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with relevant symbols· on the display.
➜The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible signal of any tracked
target which is predicted to close within a minimum range and time chosen by the observer.
➜The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with relevant symbols* on the display.
➜The ARP A should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of range, and the target’s last
tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display It should be possible for the observer to activate or
de-activate the audible warning signal.
10. Sea and ground stabilization
➜The ARPA should be capable of sea and ground stabilization.
➜Log and speed indicators providing inputs to ARPA equipment should be capable of providing the ship's
speed through the water in the fore and aft direction.
➜The ground stabilized input may be provided from the log, from an electronic position-fixing system, if the
speed measurement accuracy is in accordance with the requirements of resolution A.824(19), or from tracked
stationary targets. The type of input and stabilization in use should be displayed.
5. Advantages and Disadvantages of using RADAR/ARPA
Advantages of using RADAR/ARPA
➜ARPA provides all the necessary information for the radar users and helps in saving a lot of critical time from
observing a target to finding the data using radar plotting and calculations.
➜Reduction in the workload of bridge personnel and fuller and quicker information on selected targets.
➜In both restricted visibility and clear weather the ARPA can help prevent collisions and ensure the safety of
the ship.
➜Provides the operator a bird’s eye view where other targets are portrayed relative to own ship.
➜Provides the location of the inlet to a harbor inthe pitch black of night.
➜Provides information about the whereabouts ofneighboring vessels, coastal outlines, etc.
➜Collision avoidance and detection data is thus readily available to the radar users in no time, just by a click on
the target.
➜Integration with other shipboard equipment (such as ECDIS) to derive precise data
➜Navigating own vessel and her course with regard to collision avoidance
➜Fixing the ship’s position using terrestrial objects such as lighthouses, buoys etc
➜Usage of features such as parallel indexing to ensure safe navigation
➜Used extensively in pilotage that covers the above aspects

Disadvantages of using RADAR/ARPA

➜ARPA data is only as accurate as the data that comes from inputs such as the gyro and speed log.

➜Accidents can occur if the watch keeping officer is not fully conversant with the operation of the equipment.

➜RANGE DISCRIMINATION:

It is the ability of the RADAR set to clearly distinguish two small targets on the same bearing at slightly
different ranges. The distance between the two targets is equal to or less than ½ PL .
➜BEARING DISCRIMINATION:

It is the ability of the radar set to clearly extinguish two targets of the same range and slightly different
bearings.Factor affecting bearing discrimination : HBW
➜MINIMUM RANGE:

THE PULSE LENGTH - The TR circuit prevents the TX of any signal before receiving it. Hence, the
theoretical minimum range of detection is repeated by half PL in minutes.
A PL of 0.2 micro would have a range of 30 mtrs.
➜DEIONISATION DELAY:

A small delay occurs in the TR cell between the completion of TX & Receiving. A delay of 0.5 microsecond
would increase the minimum range a further by 7.5 mtrs.