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Body armour – New materials, new systems

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DOI: 10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002

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Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Defence Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/dt

Body armour e New materials, new systems

Ian G. Crouch*
Armour Solutions, Trentham, Victoria, 3458, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This is a very timely review of body armour materials and systems since new test standards are currently
Received 27 November 2018 being written, or reviewed, and new, innovative products released. Of greatest importance, however, is
Received in revised form the recent evolution, and maturity, of the Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene fibres enabling a
21 January 2019
completely new style of system to evolve e a stackable system of Hard Armour Plates. The science of
Accepted 22 February 2019
body armour materials is quickly reviewed with emphasis upon current understanding of relevant
Available online xxx
energy-absorbing mechanisms in fibres, fabrics, polymeric laminates and ceramics. The trend in on-
going developments in ballistic fibres is then reviewed, analysed and future projections offered. Weak-
Keywords:
Body armour
nesses in some of the ceramic grades are highlighted as is the value of using cladding materials to
Body armor improve the robustness, and multi-strike performance, of Hard Armour Plates. Finally, with the drive for
Ceramic armour lighter, and therefore smaller, soft armour systems for military personnel the challenges for armour
Reaction sintered silicon carbide designers are reported, and the importance of the relative size of the Hard Armour Plate to the Soft
UHMWPE Armour Insert is strongly emphasised.
Fibres © 2019 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
Fabrics license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Strike-face materials
Aramids
Small-arms ammunition
Hard armour plates
Soft vests

1. Background
It is extremely timely for a review of body armour materials and
systems for the following reasons:
(1) The National Institute of Justice, in the US, are currently in
the final phase of revising their standard, with NIJ 0101.07
[1], expected to be issued in 2019 [2]. This new standard will
include guidance for testing of female body armour, and a
radical step change in the range of small arms ammunition
used to test future systems, as well as a significant relaxation
of critical blunt trauma measurements.
(2) The UK Home Office has recently, in July 2017, issued a
further revision of their body armour test standard [3].
(3) The latest in the series of Personal Armour Systems Symposia
has recently been held in Washington D.C [4].
(4) The UK MOD is soon to appoint the preferred tenderer for
VIRTUS, their completely new body armour system e an
example of fit, form and function dominating evolution,
especially in response to changes in the military operational
environment [5].
(5) In Australia, Victoria Police have recently appointed ADA to
supply 14,000 completely new ballistic vests in 2019 [6], e
another example of fit, form and function dominating design,
not new materials!
(6) And finally, as a warning to armour technologists keen on
developing new body armour materials, the case against
Second Chance, for selling defective vests in the early 2000s,
has just been settled, after nearly twenty years [7]. These
vests were constructed of a man-made fibre called Zylon
which, whilst offering a very attractive set of initial proper-
ties, were found to environmentally degrade to the point
where the vests seriously underperformed leading to tragic
loss of life.

* Managing Director, Armour Solutions Pty Ltd, PO Box 42, Trentham, Victoria,
3458, Australia.
E-mail address: ianarmoursolutions@gmail.com.
Peer review under responsibility of China Ordnance Society
This review is also extremely timely because there has been a
quantum shift in the market place in 2018. Armour solutions, based
upon Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWPE), have

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
2214-9147/© 2019 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
2 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Nomenclature HM High Modulus

HP High Purity
ADA Australian Defence Apparel HT High Tensile (strength)
ADF Australian Defence Force HV High Velocity
AP Armour Piercing IED Improvised Explosive Device
BABT Behind Armour Blunt Trauma KED Kinetic Energy Density
BAS Body Armour System MCC Modern Ceramics Company (Australia)
BFD Back Face Deformation MS Multi Strike
BFS Back Face Signature NIJ National Institute of Justice (USA)
CNT Carbon Nano Tube PoS Point of Strike
COD Crack Opening Displacement RDOP Residual Depth of Penetration
CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research RSSC Reaction Sintered Silicon Carbide
Organisation (Australia) SAI Soft Armour Insert
DMTC Defence Materials Technology Centre (Australia) SS Single Strike
DSTG Defence Science and Technology Group (Australia) TD Theoretical Density
DSTL Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (UK) UHHS Ultra High Hardness Steel
FFV Forsvarets Fabriksverk (Sweden) UHMWPE Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene
FSP Fragment Simulating Projectile VIRTUS UK Body Armour System, circa 2016 onwards
HAP Hard Armour Plate VPP Viscous Plastic Processing
HEL Hugoniot Elastic Limit V-50 Velocity at which probability is 50% for perforation of
HHS High Hardness Steel an armour

now become the systems of choice for many police and miltary
users, replacing the aramid-based solutions that have dominated
the market for the past three decades or so. Even though UHMWPE
armour materials have been available for the past forty years, since
they were invented by DSM in The Netherlands in 1979, it is only
now, in 2018, that developers and producers of this high-
performance material can claim supremacy, and market accep-
tance [8,9].
This paper will therefore cover major advances in both fibres,
and fabrics, as well as armour-grade ceramics. The main emphasis
is placed upon protective materials for the torso but some mention
will be made of new helmet technologies, as well as new, smarter
uniform materials. Essential background reading to this review is
contained within a recent publication covering the science of ar-
mour materials [10], especially Chapter 5 (Polymers and Fibre-
Reinforced Plastics) [11], Chapter 6 (Fibres, textiles and protective
apparel) [12], and Chapter 7 (Glasses and Ceramics) [13].
2. Introduction
2.1. Basic description
The wearing of body armour is known to reduce fatalities in
military environments [14]. It has also been very effective in
reducing injuries and fatalities within the police force and correc-
tional services. In an earlier review of some of the key issues [15],
Horsfall describes some of the injury mechanisms associated with
these attacks, and in a more recent historical review, Yadav et al.,
[16] cover the evolution of body armour systems and introduce
some futuristic material options. However, there is still a constant,
and purposeful, drive to reduce the weight of such systems even
further, as well as improve levels of comfort and fit. Cost reduction
is also a commercial driver, especially when standard body armour
systems can be priced as high as several thousand dollars per set.
Each of these challenging requirements are being met through
development of new materials, innovative designs and lighter
weight systems. This paper reviews all important aspects of body
armour and reports on the evolution of exciting new materials
which are enabling new systems to come to market.
2.2. Fundamental principles
By definition, a ballistic impact is a dynamic event and is usually
completed within 50e200ms. It is not too surprising, therefore, that
effective, resistive responses by an armoured structure, including
the armour material itself, need to occur within this timeframe. For
example, mechanisms associated with novel auxetic structures [17]
need to operate in a timely fashion in order to be effective, and the
popular addition of shear thickening fluids to textiles [18] also need
to possess the appropriate kinetic behaviour to be beneficial.
Futhermore, with strain rates of up to 105 s
1, any material whose
elastic and/or plastic behaviour is time-dependent will also
respond differently under ballistic impact conditions. The flow
strength and tensile modulii of polymeric materials like the
UHMWPE and aramid fibres are particularly sensitive to strain rate.
The high strain rate testing of all armour materials is covered, in
detail, elsewhere [19].
All bullet-resistant, protective apparel is designed to arrest an
attacking projectile without serious insult to the human body. This
is achieved by various means and through the use of various con-
ventional materials, depending upon the perceived threat. For hand
gun bullets it is common practice to use a pack of layered fabrics,
loosely held or stitched together to form a comfortable wrap
around the torso. For knife and spike attack, additional, or different,
packs are used which contain various “stiffer” materials like lami-
nated fabrics, or metallic elements e a recent review covers this
Fig. 1. Images of miltary body armour systems.

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
very important group of body armour materials [20] and testing
techniques [21]. For high-velocity rifle rounds, including armour-
piercing (AP) ammunition, a hard armour plate (HAP) is
commonly added to the front of the system to work in conjunction
with the soft armour pack and prevent perforation and serious
blunt trauma (see Fig. 1). These HAPs normally contain two basic
families of materials: a strike-face which is designed to blunt, erode
or shatter the incoming round, and a laminated, polymeric backing
material which is designed to support the strike-face material,
during initial impact, and then act as an efficient absorber, and
arrestor, of the damaged projectile. Therefore there are three major
groups of armour materials which require description, under-
standing and review: (a) formable, technical textiles, (b) fibre-
reinforced polymeric laminates, and (c) hard, brittle, strike face
materials like ceramics and high hardness steels. Fig. 2 shows these
three elements, together with camouflage uniform material.
Material advances in armour systems are normally driven by the
need for either a weight and/or cost reduction. But, as recently
witnessed in operational theatres like Afganhistan, reduced
coverage can also lead to significant weight reductions. And in
more recent times, October 2018, the US Army started fielding a
very lightweight, narrower system [22]. This highlights the con-
ventional trade-off between weight, comfort and protection, and
whilst this paper will naturally be covering the areal density
(weight per unit area) and protection levels associated with
advanced systems, it will not be covering comfort issues. Fit, form
and function are very dependent upon operational roles and differ
markedly between civilian and military theatres [23]. Human factor
studies, based upon anthropometric data, are a hugely important
set of parallel activities and, in combination with advances in ar-
mour materials, lead to much improved, and comfortable, body
armour systems. In recent years, more serious attention has
rightfully been given to the needs of the female combatant and it is
very clear that such studies [24], and methodologies, will lead to
improved body armour systems generally.
2.3. Threats
The threats considered in this review are confined to small arms
ammunition that range from 9 mm hand-gun bullets to 7.62 mm
hard-cored, armour-piercing rounds. These are thoroughly
reviewed in a recent publication [25], and only briefly discussed
here. Images of selected rounds are shown in Fig. 3.
It is important to note that it is the core of the bullet that con-
trols its penetration behaviour, not the calibre. The hardness of the
core materials and the sharpness of the nose (blunt, ogival, or
Fig. 2. Typical sub-systems and material groups used in a body armour system. Note
that, for photographic purposes, the UHMWPE backing material has been off-set from
the ceramic tile.
Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
3
conical) will also affect the bullet's penetration capability. The
effectiveness of each of these small arms rounds can be best
appreciated, therefore, if one calculates a Kinetic Energy Density
(KED) value based upon core dimensions, rather than calibre. This is
the kinetic energy of the core, divided by the contact area projected
onto the target. The data contained within Fig. 4, for example, has
been calculated using the tip geometry of each of the respective
cores, together with their respective muzzle velocities. The pene-
trative power of the tunsgten-carbide-cored, FFV round is quite
clear. However, it should be noted that this particular round is not
currently included in any military or civilian body armour threat
spectrum although it is an established part of the threats covered
by STANAG Level 3 [26]. It has, however, been used extensively for
research purposes for the past decade or so and is included here for
completeness.
2.4. Energy-absorbing mechanisms
When designing advanced, lightweight body armour systems,
and/or developing armour materials, the guiding principle is al-
ways to maximise energy absorbing mechanisms whilst designing-
out, or minimising, low energy failure mechanisms [27]. This
fundamental approach to design is based upon a thorough under-
standing of the science of armour materials. In this following sec-
tion, the reader is reminded, therefore, of the conventional energy-
absorbing mechanisms already identified during ballistic impact of
body armour materials and systems.
In soft, textile-based armour systems, there are two deformation
processes involved, as illustrated in Fig. 5:
(1) The formation of a cruciform of stretched fibres, pulling-in
material from the whole “width” of the soft armour pack e
this mechanism introduces a size-effect in Soft Armour In-
serts (SAIs) e see Sections 4.1 and 4.2.
(2) Out-of-plane deformation around the Point-of-Strike (POS)
e the extent of this z-movement will control the Back Face
Signature/Deformation and the degree of behind-armour
blunt trauma (BABT).
In terms of energy absorbing mechanisms, Cunniff [29] identi-
fied two major contributors: the first relates to the strain wave
velocity in the fibres, V; the second relates to the Work Done by the
fibres as they are stretched, defined as the Elastic Stored Energy, Es.
These two terms are defined by the following two equations
V ¼ (E/r)1/2 (1)
ES ¼ s.ε / 2r (2)
where V ¼ strain wave energy, E ¼ elastic modulus of the fibre,
r ¼ the bulk density of the fibre, ES ¼ elastic stored energy in the
fibre, and s and ε are the stress and strain values up to the yield
stress of the fibre. Following the pioneering work of Cunniff, an
extended examination of these influential parameters has recently
been published by Guo et al. [30].
With fibre-reinforced plastics, and therefore in laminated
backing materials for HAPs, the energy-absorbing mechanims and
failure modes have very recently been reviewed [12], and can be
collated into two main areas:
(1) The dynamic, through-thickness, compressive strength and
modulii of the laminate, during the initial phase of the
penetration behaviour
(2) Membrane stretching of the rear fibres and plies of fabric, in
the arresting, final phase of the penetration process. It should
4 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 3. Schematic table of selected small arms ammunition.

Fig. 4. Kinetic Energy Density values for the cores of selected small arms ammuntion.

be noted that delamination, an interlaminar fracture process,
does not, in itself, absorb much energy (it is a fracture pro-
cess) e it just allows the separated plies to stretch and
deform.
For brittle, strike face materials, Crouch and co-workers recently
reported the range of energy-absorbing mechanisms involved
during a typical ballistic impact and listed the step-wise failure
mechanisms that occur during the penetration process [13]. These
are captured by the x-ray image shown in Fig. 6. Conoidal fracture is
absolutely essential if a strike face material is going to be effective.
On the other hand, radial cracking is a secondary event and
circumferential cracking a tertiary event e both absorb minimal
impact energy (being fracture processes) and contribute little to
impact energy absorption. Their formation and presence, however,
is very important when designing mult-hit HAPs e these issues will
be discussed in Section 4. So, for ceramic materials there are two
highly influential material properties e both of which govern its
ballistic properties:
(1) Dynamic, through-thickness compressive strength (i.e. dy-
namic hardness).
(2) The stiffness of the material (a combination of the materials
elastic modulii, its sectional modulii, and the support con-
ditions confered on the ceramic).
After decades of research investigating relationships between
the mechanical and ballistic properties of ceramics, the one

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 5. Photographic evidence of physical damage to a single ply of aramid fabric when
impacted by a high velocity steel fragment [28].
Fig. 6. High resolution x-radiograph of an impacted HAP showing damage from a
7.62 mm APM2 round. Note the symmetry of the field of damage, with the arrested
round captured in the centre of the conoidal fracture zone, as well as radial cracks
extending to the edge of the plate, and circumferential bending cracks [31].
singular material parameter that is found, consistently, to be
strongly related to ballistic performance is the simple indentation
hardness measurement. This fundamental relationship was, once
again, confirmed in the latest research carried out by DSTL in the UK
when studying the penetration behaviour of spark plasma sintered
boron carbide [32]. At this juncture, it should be emphasised that
whilst the fracture toughness of ceramics has an influence upon the
cracking behaviour of a HAP, it does not significantly affect its
ballistic performance. Research aimed at improving fracture
toughness of brittle materials is therefore ill-founded if the moti-
vation is simply to improve the penetration resistance of an armour
material.
3. Material developments
3.1. Fibres
One of the most noteworthy and significant advances in body
armour materials in the past 20 years has been the evolution, and
extended development, of the Ultra-High Molecular Weight Poly-
Ethylene (UHMWPE) fibres and fabrics. In the early days of devel-
opment, in the 1980s, they were an excellent ballistic material,
especially against high-velocity fragments, but an extremely poor
structural material. About ten years ago, the structural properties
had been improved sufficiently to consider manufactuing combat
helmet shells from this material [12,33]. However, whilst this field
of application has not quite matured yet, within the global
marketplace, the ballistic properties of this family of fibres
Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
5
Fig. 7. Relationship between specific tensile modulus and specific tensile strength of a
broad range of both structural and ballistic fibres.
continues to advance, and set new standards. In a laminated form,
they are now able to arrest a mild-steel-cored, 7.62 mm, high-
velocity bullet at point blank range - a feat that few thought was
ever possible.
In 1991 [34], Pervorsek first published a diagram showing the
relationship between the specific tensile modulus of ballistic fibres
and their tenacity. Based upon this work, and an earlier publication
[12], Crouch has recently updated this important relationship by
including data for newly-developed fibres, including the family of
natural fibres e see Fig. 7. The upward trend for the ballistic fibres
(glass, aramid and UHMWPE) is very clear and shows that the most
recently developed variants of UHMWPE have now surpassed the
values for Zylon, a PBO fibre claimed in the 2000s to be the “fibre of
the future”. It is also clear from this new diagram that the more
structural fibres, like K149, the steels, and the carbon fibres
(especially the HM variants) lie consistently above the trend line for
the ballistic fibres. It also confirms that the “goal” data, originally
laid down for the development of the M5 fibre, was probably
erroneously set! The data point for HT-700 carbon fibre suggests
that these HT variants might be the most suitable in hybrid lami-
nates designed to cope with both structural loads and ballistic
impacts. At the bottom end of this trend line, lies the family of
natural fibres, like curaua, a plant fibre from South America. From
their measured properties [35], it is clear from this diagram, that
the natural fibres will never become high-performance fibres but,
as the latest research states [36], they do benefit from being envi-
ronmentally friendly and low cost.
Both strength and modulus values are important e not one, but
an optimised balance of both parameters. Using the data for the
ballistic fibres, as indicated by the trend line in Fig. 7, one can assign
a power law relationship between the two which has an R2 value of
0.86.
1.44
y ¼ 0.0185 x (3)
Since Fig. 7 is a plot of specific values, and with reference back to
Equations (1) and (2),
y ¼ E/r ¼ V2 (4)
6 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
x ¼ s/r ¼ 2ES/ε (5)
In other words, a high value of wave velocity (sonic velocity) is
essential, as is the work done in physically stretching the fibres, if
the ballistic performance of these fibres is to be maximised. Further
improvements in any ballistic fibre, therefore, would be expected to
sit close to this trend line as described by Equation (3). Time will tell
whether this relationship is valid.
In recent work published by Harm van der Werff and colleagues
at DSM [37], the authors claim that the strength of such fibres may
never be bettered. Supported by some excellent work from re-
searchers at the Ernst Mach Institute in Germany, they argue that
amongst all of the leading fibres, including the sp2 family of gra-
phenes and carbon nanotubes, it is the UHMWPE fibres that show
maximum potential, achieving about 44% of their theoretical
strength. However, no mention was made of tensile modulus
which, as this review paper has shown, is equally important as
tensile strength. The dynamic modulus and strain wave velocity of
fibres can also be measured very easily, as presented by Menghe
Miao of the CSIRO, Australia [38], and should be used more regu-
larly to measure sonic velocities in yarns, and tows, as well as single
fibres.
3.2. Fabrics
It is normal, and conventional, practice for body armour de-
signers to use multiple layers of dry fabric, like a woven aramid
fabric. However, some researchers have investigated the effects of
adding an elastomeric matrix to the fabrics. Gopinath [39], for
example, showed that such additions can reduce the maximum
deflection of the armour but increased the deformed area. How-
ever, the mass efficiency of the soft armours, with and without a
matrix, was not calculated. Earlier work in this area has regularly
shown that there is little to be gained, ballistically, in using a matrix
material for soft armour applications.
Woven fabrics are still very popular for soft vests because they
conform extremely well and provide maximum levels of comfort.
They are however, not very efficient, ballistically [11], since by
design most of the fibres/tows/yarns are not straight. Recognising
this fact, the global producers like DuPont, Honeywell and DSM,
have been developing fabrics using unidirectional fibres. DuPont
produce an elegant, stitched, non-crimp, aramid fabric, whilst the
UHMWPE producers have focused upon manufacturing plies of
fibre-reinforced, thermoplastic films. In both cases, the finished
fabrics consist of either two or four cross-plied layers. These layers
are then normally stitched, as in the case of dry, aramid fabrics, or
tack-bonded, as with the range of the thermoplastic UHMWPE
preimpregnated fabrics. Crouch et al. [11] cover the general effects
of stitching and quilting, and, whilst some researchers, like Carr
[40], report likely improvements in ballistic performance of quilted
fabrics, others, like Abtew [41], only report expected findings. For
example, decreases in formabilty and draw-in with an increase in
the stitch density of the quilting.
Over the past two decades, it has become very popular to
research the benefits of adding shear thickening fluids, either as
fabric coatings or as discreet pockets of fluid [11,42e45], as high-
lighted in a recent review of soft body armours by Arora and Ghosh
[18]. However, in another study by Gurgen et al., [46], whilst
application of STFs, applied as a coating, was found to be beneficial,
they determined that the advantages were not driven by any shear
thickening effect e instead, they identified that the STFs were
responsible for simply increasing the inter-fibre friction which
enhanced fibre-yarn coupling, spreading the impact load over a
greater area thus reducing the penetration depth. This suggests that
any claimed benefits of shear-thickening fluids require deeper
Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
scrutiny. However, most researchers, like those researching the
effects upon 3D structures [47] still believe that there are en-
hancements to be gained.
One further group of fabrics has been receiving more attention
recently e knitted fabrics. These fabrics have poor structural
properties but, when impacted, they do demonstrate very large
out-of-plane deformations. This has perceived benefits when
looking to improve wound ballistics by capturing small fragments,
and soil particles, from Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) thus
reducing the need for multiple operations and improving healing
times. Recent modelling work at ARL [48], is looking to optimise the
knit architecture and thereby ballistic performance of these fabrics.
If successful, knitted fabrics could replace the very fine, woven silk
fabrics that have been reportedly used in groin protective wear
[49].
Advances in fabric technologies are not restricted just to the
ultra-lightweight fabrics used for backing materials. Ashok Bhat-
nagar and his team at Honeywell have developed a new range of
hybrid fabrics for use in load carriage equipment [50] and claim
that up to 40% saving in weight can come from the use of a lami-
nated hybrid fabric combining UHMWPE fibre-reinforced films
with thin, low denier CORDURA fabrics. The authors reported that
the weight-saving laminates can also be laser cut to a more precise
shape compared to conventional webbing attachments.
3.3. Strike-face materials
Even with the advent of ultra-lightweight laminates based upon
UHMWPE, with their remarkable ability to arrest some of the mild-
steel-cored ammunition, ceramics remain the most important and
influencial group of armour materials because they are very effec-
tive against hard-cored, armour-piercing ammunition. This is
because for glasses and ceramics, the hardness of the strike-face
material by and large governs its ballistic performance. High
hardness steels (HHS), like AR500 [51], and most recently Ultra
High Hardness steels (UHHS), like Armox Advance from SSAB, have
been a popular stand-alone HAP for decades, and still represent the
lowest cost option. Advances in metallurgical practices have
enabled thinner and thinner products to be produced. However, on
a weight-for-weight basis, they do not compete very favourably
with the ceramic grades e see Table 1.
For body armour applications, three main grades have estab-
lished themselves in the market place: high-purity aluminas, sili-
con carbides and boron carbides, increasing in ballistic merit rating,
and price, in that ascending order.
Nowadays, little attention is being given to the well-established
families of aluminas whilst the glass-ceramics continue to play only
a small part in body armour systems. This latter family has recently
been thoroughly reviewed by Benetez and co-workers from Brazil
and Germany [54] since they offer great potential for transparant
armours. The family of silicon carbides are also well established and
the hot-pressed, SiCeN variant (see Table 1) still represents the
ceramic of choice, in tile form, for many vehicular systems. How-
ever, for body armour applications, Reaction Sintered Silicon Car-
bide (RSSC) grades have become more popular because of their
ability to be near-net shaped and, over the past 15 years or so, both
US and Australian-made HAPs, incorporating this material, have
been fielded. In support of such acquisitions, these inherently more
defective grades have been extensively researched, new quality
control procedures adopted, and improved NDI techniques devel-
oped, [53]. A wide variety of siliconized silicon carbide grades, like
Silit® SKDH, are now available through suppliers like St. Gobain,
[55].
For most ballistic applications, boron carbide remains the ulti-
mate armour material of choice e it is one of the hardest ceramic
 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx 7

Table 1
Summary of important properties of a range of strike-face materials.

Class of material Source, grade, (reference) Density/(kg$m
3) Hardness/GPa Elastic modulus/GPa Flexural strength/MPa Fracture toughness/(MPa$m
1/2)

UHH Steel SSAB, Armox Advancea 7780 2.3 208 NK 15e20

Glass Ceramics Silceramb 2900 7.0 122 180 NK
Alumina CoorsTek, AD85,c 3420 9.4 221 296 3e4
Alumina CoorsTek, AD998,c 3920 14.1 370 375 4e5
AlON Surmet,d 3695 18.5 323 380 ~2
TiB2 CoorsTek, PADc 4480 26.4 555 275 ~7
SiC CoorsTek, SiCeN, PADc 3200 23.5 460 570 ~5
SiC MCC, RSSC,e 3106 24.5 399 504 NK
B4C CoorsTek, PADc 2500 25.5 460 410 4

Sources.
a
SSAB, general data sheets, and advice.
b
Carter, S., et al., 1988 [52].
c
http://www.coorstek.com/resource-library/library/8510-1364_ceramic_properties_mp.pdf.
d
http://www.surmet.com/products-and-applications/ALON-Transparent-Armour/.
e
MCC data sheet, 2009, as reported by Ref. [53].

Fig. 8. VPP boron carbide impacted by a 7.62 mm tungsten carbide cored FFV round
[58]. Fig. 9. RDOP data, into AA6082-T651, for impacts from FFV rounds against various
6 mm thick ceramic tiles [59].

materials (see Table 1), falling just short of diamond and cubic
boron nitride, and, because of its low density (~2,520 kg m
3), it
has a very attractive set of specific properties for body armour
systems [56]. Its structure, properties and stability under stress
have recently been reviewed in a highly recommended paper by
Domnich et al. [57].
It is well known to armour technologists that boron carbide
strike face materials behave in a more glass-like manner when
impacted by high velocity rifle rounds, as compared with SiC and
Al2O3 materials e see Fig. 8. However, this does not affect their
excellent ballistic performance except against some specific
armour-piercing threats, like the tungsten carbide-cored FFV round
(see Fig. 3). In previously unreported work by Crouch [58], boron
carbide targets, using 10 mm thick VPP B4C tiles with an UHMWPE
backing, in combination with a standard Soft Armour Insert,
exhibited the following V₅₀ values against three different 7.62 mm
AP rounds: 949 m s
1 against the APM2; 1,002 m s
1 against the
B32; but only 598 m s
1 against the FFV round. This unexpected
drop in ballistic performance was first identified by Colin Roberson,
and others, in a landmark paper given at the “Cocoa Beach” con-
ference in 2005 [59], in which RDOP measurements were recorded
for three different materials; AD99 alumina, sintered SiC, as well as
a HP version of B4C e see Fig. 9. Against this specific threat, the
RDOP measurements for B4C are very similar to the considerably
less hard alumina targets.
This under-performance appears to be due to shear localization
occurring within the material under shock loading. As reported by
Volger in 2004 [60], the shear strength of boron carbide in the
shocked state decreases rapidly above the HEL, indicating prema-
ture failure of the material as the shock stress reaches a threshold
of ~20 GPa e but why is this? Current understanding of this
premature failure mechanism is favouring the notion of a phase
transformation although the proposition that it might be related to
catastrophic propagation of microcracks is still mooted. Chen [61]
had reported shock-induced localised amorphisation in boron
carbide as early as 2003. Since then deeper understanding and
prevention of this shear localization effect has been the subject of
much research as typified in a 2016 paper by Subnash et al., entitled
“In search of amorphisation-resistant boron carbide” [62], and
more recently through the work of Xie et al., in 2017 [63], and that
of Parsard and Subnash [64].
Despite the absence of a deep understanding of the amorph-
isation issue, boron carbide continues to be used with confidence in
high-end, weight-driven armour applications, but it does have
several natural drawbacks: cost of manufacture and, like all ce-
ramics, shapeability. These aspects have been addressed in a
number of ways through the adoption of liquid phase sintering and
pressureless sintering [13], or by utilising the reaction bonding (or
sintering) process as reported by Chhillar in 2008 [65], Karandikar
in 2010 [66], and more lately, by Hayan [67]. However, the most
exciting developments in recent years have been those that couple
a shaping process with a pressureless sintering operation. Re-
searchers at Georgia Institute of Technology, led by Robert Speyer,
reported [68] success with the use of pre-formulated, dry powders
being forged into final shapes, followed by pressureless sintering,
and the Israeli researchers from Haifa filed a patent in 2005 [69],
which relied upon similar technology. These works were followed
by a relevant PhD thesis published in 2011, by Charles Wiley,
entitled “Synergistic methods for production of high-strength and
low cost boron carbide” [70]. However, one of the most successful

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
8 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
advances in this field was led by the DMTC in the development, and
full-scale commercialisation, of a unique shaping process (Viscous
Plastic Processing, VPP), especially effective for thin boron carbide,
armour-grade ceramics [71].
Improving the ballistic performance of ceramics through the
addition of reinforcing particles has always attracted the attention
of researchers. For example, in a very recent study Alexander et al.,
[72], looked at the effects of adding graphene nano platelets (GNP)
to boron carbide matrices. The addition of 2% (by volume) of GNP
was found to improve bulk density by acting as a sintering aid but
apart from a small increase in fracture toughness levels, there was a
reported decrease in flexural strength e a common finding when
working towards a ceramic matrix composite.
Others, over the past two decades, have focussed their devel-
opment work on creating optimal blends of boron carbide and
silicon carbide, using reaction bonding (sometimes called reaction
sintering) techniques [67,73]. The resultant products possess bulk
densities between 2,650 and 2,950 kg m
3 (compared with typical
values for boron carbide of 2,520 kg m
3 and silicon carbide of
3,150 kg m
3). In a recent in-depth study by Williams [74], in 2015,
compositions were varied between 20% and 80% (by weight) of
boron carbide. Optimum ballistic perfomance was achieved with a
boron carbide content of ~40%, coupled with Theoretical Density
(TD) values of greater than 96.5% and the use of coarse B4C particles.
In reaction bonded materials, residual silicon contents can be as
low as 10% by weight thus maximising hardness values. Commer-
cially available blends are available through Paxis (in Israel) and
Precision Ceramics (in UK), to name but two. It is believed that such
companies use a 40/60 blend of B4C/SiC to obtain optimum ballistic
performance at an affordable price. This blending approach also
circumvents any issues arising from amorphisation of the pure
boron carbide grades e the author suspects that this may be one of
the drivers for their development and recent adoption.
3.4. Backing materials
Ideally, backing materials need to be as rigid as possible and
therefore metal-based systems are instinctively attractive. Unfor-
tunately, they cannot be shaped very easily. Hence, mouldable,
fibre-reinforced plastics are the obvious choice. Functionally, they
also need to be very effective at arresting blunt projectiles, since the
strike-face material will blunt the core of any bullet. Fibre-
reinforced plastics are exceptionally good at absorbing energy in
this way, so polymer-based laminates are ideal as backing mate-
rials. Generally, the most effective backing materials are those that
have the greatest ballistic efficiency against FSPs, and these are
presently those based upon UHMWPE fibres, which is why many
HAPs are manufactured using either Spectra® or Dyneema® prod-
ucts. They are expensive though, which is why the aramid-
reinforced plastics, and even glass-fibre reinforced thermosets,
are still in use.
As the UHMWPE fibres and fabrics have been refined, the matrix
material plays a significant part in their ballistic behaviour. Kraton
was one of the first matrix materials used in 3rd generation
UHMWPE products, but now the two main global suppliers offer
two, totally different matrices. For example, Honeywell's SR5143
product, a 4-ply, cross-plied prepreg with an areal density of
163gsm, has a fairly compliant, rubber-like matrix, useful for BFS-
controlled HAPs. In contrast, their SR5231 product, a 4-ply, cross-
plied prepreg with a mean areal density of 167gsm, has a PU-
based matrix, which is a lot stiffer and is useful when HAP de-
signs are limited by a critical perforation velocity. These represent
5th generation products and DSM provide a very similar set of
diverse products for different applications, including those for use
in the production of combat helmet shells.
Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
UHMWPE backing laminates are produced by subjecting dry
stacks of the prepregs to a time/temperature/pressure cycle, either
in an autoclave, hydroclave or between heated, high-pressure
platens. Choice of manufacturing route is critical and the pros
and cons of these processes have recently been reviewed by Crouch
et al., [13]. Processing temperatures are normally about 130e140  C,
but the one strongly influential parameter that has emerged in the
last ten years is consolidation pressure. Little can be found in the
open literature but both leading suppliers recommend as high a
pressure as possible on the basis that this improves ballistic per-
formance. Whilst this may be true for monolithic laminates, the
relationship may not carry over into the production of HAPs.
Furthermore, the fundamental reason behind this has never been
published, although verbal advice suggests that an increase in
consolidation presssure leads to an increase in the in-plane flexural
modulus of the laminate. This author goes one step further and
suggests that if this is the case, then it is probably due to an increase
in volume fraction of fibres, which is known to increase both in-
plane properties, and ballistic performance [12], e however, the
scientific community awaits the evidence in the case of highly
compressed UHMWPE products.
Alternative backing materials are constantly being developed/
assessed because the UHMWPE stock material is a very expensive
option, and often in short supply. In 2018, Benzait et al. [75] pub-
lished a review of a range of polymer-matrix composites for body
armor applications. This is a very broad-based review but focusses,
almost exclusively, on futuristic materials like CNTs, graphene and
natural fibres, without any reference to, or acknowledgement of,
the critical properties required of a backing material, namely
through-thickness, compressive strength, and modulus, and in-
plane tensile properties of the rear plies. What is very clear
though is that use of a low volume fraction (30%) of a low strength,
low modulus natural fibre, like curaua, is simply not going to be
adequate as a stand-alone ballistic material e see Fig. 7. However,
hybridisation may provide more scope.
The use of hybrid fabrics is not new to the armour technologist
[11], especially when attempting to design a backing material with
graded properties: combinations of carbon/aramid and aramid/
UHMWPE fabrics are quite common e see recent published work
by Bhatnagar and co-workers for some typical examples [50]. This
is also the approach taken by Ali and co-workers [76] who reported
their attempts to integrate bamboo fibres into a conventional E-
glass/polyester laminate for armour materials offering 9 mm
handgun protection. The results were rather cursary and incon-
clusive e nevertheless, this is the necessary approach for natural
fibres, I believe e integration through hybridisation, rather than by
substitution.
3.5. Cladding materials
Second only in importance to the families of strike-face and
backing materials, is the existence of cladding materials, which
have grown in recognition over the past decade. The effects of
cladding ceramic tiles with a layer, or layers, of polymeric materials
have been investigated by a number of researchers. Early results of
Nunn et al. [77] showed a significant improvement in the ballistic
performance of ceramic armours based upon 100 mm square, sin-
gle tiles of 6 mm boron carbide, against the 7.62 mm AP M61 round,
when layers of UHMWPE were bonded onto the surface of the
ceramic. This was in line with parallel work by Sarva et al. [78] who
also showed that the ballistic efficiency of silicon carbide tiles,
impacted with tungsten penetrators at ~900 m s
1, could also be
enhanced through the use of E-glass/epoxy cladding layers. How-
ever, in more recent work by Crouch, Appleby-Thomas and Hazell
[79], it was clearly demonstrated that, for single impacts of a
 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx 9

7.62 mm M43 (AK47) round, a cladding of aramid-fibre reinforced

epoxy, bonded to the surface of thin boron carbide tiles, had no
measurable effect upon penetration resistance. This latest view has
been reinforced by some elegant work of Rhabek et al. [80] who
demonstrated that there was no difference in the degree of core
erosion of the M61 7.62 mm AP round against 98% alumina targets
whether a cladding layer was present or not. Further research is
quite clearly required in this area.
However, this lack of understanding is not the case with multi-
strike behaviour and ballistic performance. In 2014, Crouch et al.
reported a detailed investigation into the effects that cladding has
upon the ballistic performance of a series of tightly-controlled
HAPs, constructed of 9 mm thick, silicon carbide tiles, and tested
using the 7.62 mm APM2 round at a nominal velocity of 870 m s
1,
[31]. They also investigated the effect that various cladding mate-
rials had upon radial crack formation, Crack Opening Displacement
(COD), and ballistic resistance, as measured by Back Face Signature
Fig. 10. Variations in mean BFS values for UHMWPE-based soft vests, of different sizes,
(BFS). What they found was that a cladding of aramid-fibre rein- as a function of shot location.
forced epoxy resulted in a lowering of the mean BFS values, and a
reduction in Crack Opening Displacements (COD) but an increase in
the number of radial cracks. Research continues in this area [81],
location. As military vests have shrunk in size quite dramatically
especially to gain a complete understanding of the acceptance, or
over the past ten years, the significance of edge performance and
otherwise, of HAPs containing cracks. Table 2 illustrates how the
shot placement have started to take effect, and affect design. By
presence of cracks has been shown to reduce the measured V-50 of
example, consider the data shown in Fig. 10. This is a standard set of
a plate but that the degree of degradation depends upon the
ballistic testing data using 9 mm handgun ammunition, in accor-
function, and therefore the design, of the HAP itself. As one might
dance with NIJ 0101.06 [82], against a series of soft vests of various
expect, multi-strike HAPs do not degrade as severely as HAPs
sizes (Tiers). There are two things to notice; (i) that the BFS values
designed to withstand just one strike.
for shot number six is significantly lower than for shots 1, 2 and 3
In summary, for multi-strike HAPs, therefore, it would appear
(noting that shots 4 and 5 occur at 30 obliquity), and (ii) that for
that the presence of an appropriate cladding layer does not improve
shot six in particular, there is a distinct decrease in mean value for
the ballistic performance of the first strike but does improve multi-
BFS with a decrease in size of vest. These effects are discussed in
hit performance by ensuring that the cracks, emanating from the
detail elsewhere [11]. Suffice to say that because of these quanti-
first strike, are kept as closed as possible. In future, therefore, the
fiable edge effects, the effective coverage for soft vests decreases
use of thin plies of 5th generation UHMWPE or nano-layers of ultra-
with size of vest and not simply because the vests are physically
strong fibres like the sheet-like graphenes, may prove beneficial, as
smaller. As proposed in a recent paper by Robinson and Horlick
cladding layers, since these materials possess very attractive in-
[83], there is a current need for a systematic, large-scale study to
plane properties.
fully understand, and further quantify, these effects.
It should also be noted that cladding the ceramic increases the
For hard armours, edge effects become even more complex and
general robustness of the finished HAP. In fact, with the advent of
far more significant. It is well known that any armour product will
stacked systems (see Section 5) the cladding/wrapping of backing-
not confer a perfect level of protection right up to the edge of that
free, ceramic-only HAPs may well take on a more major role in
product, even for a free-standing piece of armour steel. What is not
future systems.
fully recognised yet is that the relative sizes of the HAP and the soft
vest is crucial in dictating the ballistic performance of the system
4. Design aspects [84]. Whilst little has been published in this area, the drive during
the past decade to reduce the weight and therefore size of the vest,
Before completing this review and discussing the evolution of has had severe consequences upon performance and is now
body armour systems, it is necessary to recognise that a number of limiting design. Fig. 11, taken from the work of Sandlin and Crouch
significant design issues have arisen from system development [85], illustrates the point and introduces the following three
activities over the past decade. terms:
For soft armours, these issues centre on coverage and shot

Table 2
Measured V-50 values as a function of strike number, for a triangular shot pattern, in which the distance between strikes from a 0.3” APM2 was recorded to be between 100 and
125 mm.

Threat V-50 value/(m$s
1) Reference, Year

1st strike 2nd strike (% reduction) 3rd strike (% reduction)

MS AP(Steel) 1075 1005 965 Crouch [27], 2009

(7%) (10%)
SS AP(Steel) 880 750 700 Azevedo [81], 2018
(15%) (20%)

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
10 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
Fig. 11. BFS values as a function of Total Edge Distance (TED) for a series of an impacts
from a 0.300 APM2 round against a multi-strike HAP supported by vests of different
sizes.
(1) Edge Distance, ED, the distance between the PoS and the
edge of the HAP
(2) Overlap Length, OL, the distance between the edge of the
HAP and the edge of the vest.
(3) Total Edge Distance, TED, the distance between the PoS and
the edge of the vest, such that TED ¼ ED þ OL.
It is quite clear from Fig. 11 that BFS generally increases as TED
decreases - an effect not previously reported. In this case, however,
the effect was not overly significant because all BFS values were
below the maximum allowable value of 44 mm. However, during
development of a much lightweight plate, designed to take three
strikes from a range of high-velocity 7.62 mm rounds, the effect
started to dictate design. Fig. 12, like Fig. 11, shows a very obvious
relationship between BFS values and the size of the soft vest.
However, on this occasion, at small values of TED, the BFS values are
well above the allowable maximum of 44 mm. At least they were at
the time since this work was carried out circa 2010. With the
advent of NIJ 0101.07 this maximum value will be relaxed such that
some BFS values can be up to 50 mm. Furthermore, there are recent
reports that the US Army are considering raising the maximum
values to 58 mm [22]. If this were the case, then the data presented
in Fig. 12 would need to be revisited, and the beneficial conse-
quences realised: greater effective coverage and/or much lighter
weight HAPs.
Fig. 12. BFS values as a function of Total Edge Distance (TED) for a series of an impacts
from a 7.62 mm M80 round against a multi-strike HAP supported by vests of different
sizes.
Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
5. Body armour systems, old and new
Over the past five decades, as covered in Fig. 13, through all of
the changing demands imposed by the different military and
civilian theatres of operation, it is the design, form and function of
the Hard Armour Plate that has seen most dramatic changes. And,
even though these changes have been brought about by the con-
stant drive for lighter and lighter systems, most of the material
options are still available in the market place, even the heavier
systems based upon high hardness steels.
In the 1970s, it was fairly common to simply use a lightly clad
plate of high grade alumina positioned in front of the soft vest to
offer protection against both lead-filled and armour-piercing vari-
ants of the 7.62 mm rounds. During the 1980s better designed, SiC-
containing plates became more popular with accompanying weight
savings - armour designers recognised that the ceramic tiles
behaved more efficiently if they were backed by a stiff, fibre-
reinforced polymer. However, during the period 2000e2010,
body armour systems became more complex, more protective, and
purchase specifications far more demanding with more and more
multiple strikes defined. As a result, and as the red arrow shows in
Fig. 13, the weight of these systems started to escalate, until the
systems designed to stop the tunsgten carbide cored rounds were
considered too heavy for some users. Then came a strategic shift in
the need for HAPs and body armour systems generally e the con-
flict in Iraq was subsiding but the war in Afganhistan was height-
ening. Rather than big, bulky and fully protective systems that were
required to patrol the streetscapes of Iraq, body armour systems
needed to be lighter and smaller, enabling greater mobility for
soldiers covering the ground in Afganhistan. From 2010 onwards,
therefore, systems have become smaller and smaller, specifications
less demanding and, as a consequence, weights began to fall
through either specification changes, improved designs or through
the use of boron carbide materials. The lowest of the three green
arrows in Fig. 13 illustrates the weight saving that was possible
when the number of required strikes was reduced from six to three.
As systems have become smaller with the size of the HAP
approaching, if not matching, the size of the soft vest, stand-alone
systems have emerged, as illustrated by the top green arrow in
Fig. 13. Whilst this is a heavy example of a HAP designed to with-
stand multiple strikes from an AP round, the principle also applies
at lower threat levels: stand-alone plates, if designed correctly,
should be lighter in weight than a combination of a HAP and a SAI of
the same size.
And finally, since 2015, the rapid development of highly com-
pressed forms of UHMWPE UD fabrics has seen a dramatic reduc-
tion in the weight of body armour systems against both lead-filled
and mild steel cored ammunition [37]. Refer to the blue arrow in
Fig. 13. This latest evolution in high performance armour materials
has brought about a shift change in the form and function of HAPs e
stacked systems are now possible, and fielded.
In summary, therefore, Fig. 14 presents the full suite of body
armour systems that are currently available to the designer and
user. Modular systems, as represented by the Modular Combat
Body Armour System (MCBAS) developed for the Australian mili-
tary, have a fixed shape and a soft vest that provides near maximum
coverage e these are very functional when carrying out patrolling
duties e they are also popular with the police services since they
offer comprehensive coverage against handgun rounds and offer
the ability to be upgraded for protection against high-velocity rifle
rounds, by using a supplementary HAP in front of the vest. Tiered
systems, on the other hand, utilise smaller vests that differ in size
depending upon the operational requirements. It is these systems
that have brought the biggest challenges to the armour designer
because of the consequential effects of size, as described in Section
 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx 11

Fig. 13. An historical chart showing the evolution of HAPs and, in particular, the effects that new materials, as well as threat level, have upon the areal density of the finished
product. For reference, the SS AP(Steel) contour line is equivalent to the threat described in NIJ 0101.06 Level IV.

ceramic-rich HAP which, in combination with the first HAP, offers

protection against the high-velocity armour-piercing rounds [87]. It
also appears that the Canadian DND have acquired a similar stacked
system from PRE Labs [88]. These are highly comendable systems
but they do come with their own set of drawbacks: from a logistical
point of view, they have an increased number of protective items to
control; from a ballistic performance aspect, some concerns have
been expressed about controlling the fit between the two HAPs;
and, from this author's perspective, if the second, complimentary
HAP is ceramic-rich, then one needs to be careful of the robustness
and crack-tolerance of such a product in the field. Presumably, the
suppliers, and users alike, have accepted and/or overcome these
potential issues.

6. Conclusions and final words

As the reader can now appreciate from this review, the evolution
of new body armour systems is very dependent upon, not only new
armour materials being developed but also, on the well-informed,
and judiscous, use of strict, and evolving, design principles.
From this study, the following general conclusions can be made:
Fig. 14. A schematic, overhead view of the four different groups of Body Armour
Systems.
(1) Significant advances in materials will continue to enable the
development of different body armour concepts, like the
stacked systems currently available. It is strongly emphasised
that these systems would not have been possible had it not
4 above. When the size of the plate matches the size of the vest, it is
been for the development of the latest generation of
often more beneficial to use a Stand-alone system e these HAPs
UHMWPE materials.
will be thicker than normal but can function without a soft vest.
(2) The full gamut of body armour systems is now available to
They are naturally more convenient in the field since only one
the civilian and military Users and it is definitely a case of
article is required rather than two. Global suppliers of body armour
horses for courses: i.e. operational requirements will
systems, like Morgan Defence Systems [86], offer a very compre-
continue to dictate which particular system is employed in
hensive range of both stand-alone and lightweight, tiered systems.
the field, and the choice is now very wide.
Of greatest significance, however, are the Stacked systems e these
(3) Lessons learnt from the consequences of a reduction in the
are totally new and would not have been possible had it not been
size of the soft vests, without changing the size of the hard
for the rapid development of the UHMWPE laminates described
armour plate, should now be fully appreciated and more
above. Tencate Advanced Armour launched such a system at Mil-
informed design-decisions made in the future.
ipol, France, in November 2017 e these utilise two, stackable, HAPs
(4) Material developments across fibres, fabrics, amd strike-face
e the first is UHMWPE based and offers protection against both
materials, will continue to refine, and improve, body armour
lead-filled and mild-steel-cored ammunition; the second is a
systems but only in small, incremental steps.

Please cite this article as: Crouch IG, Body armour e New materials, new systems, Defence Technology, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dt.2019.02.002
12 I.G. Crouch / Defence Technology xxx (xxxx) xxx
(5) The perceived threat spectrum, as specified by the User, will
continue to be the dominant factor in determing the overall
weight of a body armour system
(6) There is now a very coherent drive in the development of
smart textiles that will enable fabrics, especially those worm
for uniforms, to be used for health monitoring, as well as
increased levels of protection.
(7) The advent of stacked systems, introduces yet another
interface within a body armour system, and a final word of
caution is required. Controlling the quality, and magnitude,
of interfaces, not only between the layers within a soft ar-
mour pack, and the gap between soft vest and the HAP, but
now also between HAP1 and HAP2, is very crucial in guar-
anteeing the reproducible quality and ballistic performance
of a body armour system e it is highly recommended,
therefore, that more attention be given to this topic since it is
not a trivial exercise.
Acknowledgements
I am eternally grateful to all of my colleagues, past and present,
within the global armour community, especially those from the UK
and Australia, and, in particular, my colleagues at the Defence
Materials Technology Centre and Australian Defence Apparel dur-
ing the period 2000 to 2015.
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