Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case

of Northeast India
Mainak Ghosh and Farha Shermin, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal
r 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

In the past several years, the concept of sustainable architecture has evolved significantly. It cannot be denied that traditional
architecture of any region has been a source of knowledge and inspiration in practicing sustainable architecture. Traditional
architectural design is an extraordinarily perceptive practice that has evolved through interpretation of past knowledge and
experience and has been tailored to meet the needs of time, and this evolution has happened through trial and error without being
based on any scientific research or study (Upton, 1993).
Today in the unsustainable world of architecture and planning, we have high regards for sustainability. It is considered as a
fresh idea that has made people conscious about concepts of ecology, energy efficiency, cost efficiency, etc. However, we often fail
to see that this concept has prevailed throughout the ages and only needs to be understood and rediscovered.

Sustainability – A Traditional Concept

As mentioned before, it is believed that the concept of sustainability is a relatively new idea. The Brundtland Commission’s final
report, Our Common Future, famously defines sustainable development as: “development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” Whether we consider this definition or any other
and study the traditional architectural and planning practices, the fact would be undeniable that sustainability has been followed
as a very important concept in the past.
There is nothing extraordinary in traditional architecture. Traditional architecture and planning has been just a solution to the
needs and problems of the society. And these solutions have been a result of years of experience and knowledge. In fact, traditional
architecture is not just an individual entity; it always has a particular relationship with the surrounding, as the surrounding
environment is also the source of life for all those living there (Oliver, 2006).
The traditional settlements in India have all evolved as a sensitive response to the surrounding, the ecology, climate, and also culture.
Spiritual beliefs are another factor that has helped to conserve many natural elements like trees and rivers and water bodies.
For example, in Ladakh, a region in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, which has a cold and dry climate, the traditional
houses are built on two levels. The lower level being reserved for cattle, wood, fodder, etc., for winters, whereas the upper level
consists of the livable space. Ovens are sometimes placed in the corners, which also help in keeping the interiors warm. The houses
are made entirely of mud, sometimes reinforced with horizontal timber members. The sundried brick or rammed earth walls are
often mud plastered. The ceiling height is kept low. Thus, every possible care is taken to trap the heat and maintain the temperature
inside for comfortable living (Sharma and Sharma, 2016).
Similarly in the hot and dry climate of Jaisalmer of Rajasthan, which is a state in the northwestern part of India, the heat inside
the building is controlled by using textures organized at two levels, the town level and the building level. At the town level the
buildings are built with unequal heights with parapets and high walls. This creates irregular skylines, which make the buildings
shade each other. The roads are also kept narrow so that they are shaded most of the daytime. At the building level, the facades are
designed with numerous projections, like jharokhas, which are overhanging, semi-enclosed small balconies and chajjas, which are
small overhangs or canopies over the openings. Such projections not only make the facade visually appealing but also act as a
shading device for the facade (Arora, 2018).

Material Culture
“Material culture” refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily lives, including food items, houses, factories and new
materials, etc. Studying the elements of material culture gives us an insight about the people who interacted with or used those objects.
The term material culture emphasizes how apparently inanimate things within the environment act on people, and are acted
upon by people, for the purposes of carrying out social functions, regulating social relations, and giving symbolic meaning to
human activity (Woodward, 2007).
Architecture is a very important element of material culture and also probably the most complex of all. It is also a dynamic
component of material culture that should not be studied in isolation from other material assemblages. Thus while studying the
architecture of an area, it is very important to understand the preceding social, environmental, and cultural conditions that
contributed to the type of architecture in the particular area.
Keeping that in mind when we study the traditional architecture of a place or region, we can see that it connects to every
component of the setting very carefully whether it is the surrounding, climate, or culture.

Encyclopedia of Renewable and Sustainable Materials doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.11314-1 1

2 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

Traditional Architecture in Northeast India

The Northeast of India comprises of eight states, namely Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland,
Sikkim, and Tripura. This region is very distinct in terms of it customs, rituals, and ethnic culture, which are abundant here.
Geographically the region is a combination of plains and mountains both, which makes it abundant in natural resources as well.
Most of these states have a humid subtropical climate with hot and humid summers, severe monsoons, and moderate winters. The
states of Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim, however, have a montane ecosystem with cold, snowy winters and mild summers.
The traditional structures are time tested, sustainable, and show great respect to the existing microclimatic conditions and are
also sensitive to the natural calamities, including earthquakes and floods, which the Northeast region is extremely prone to.
This region of India is one of the most seismically active regions in the world; three great earthquakes and several big earthquakes
have struck this and adjoining regions in the last 110 years. The region experiences severe shaking due to subduction of the Indian plate
under the Eurasian plate along the northeastern direction at a rate of about 40 mm per year (Kaushik and Babu, 2009).
The architecture in these areas has developed over the ages as aspects of tradition, climate, topography, and function. Locally
available materials like bamboo, cane, mud, and lime are generally used for construction. Influence of the British style has also
added to the tradition where bricks, wood, stone, rock slabs, etc., are also being used. As these areas are susceptible to heavy
rainfall, sloping roofs are a common architectural feature in all the structures.
Although the traditional architecture in these areas differs from each other as the traditions, culture, and function differ from
area to area, there are certain similarities. Based on those similarities the traditional architecture can be categorized in two broad
sections: Kachcha structures and pukka or semi pukka structures (Nag and Gondane, 2014).

Kachcha construction
Kachcha, meaning raw or uncooked, is an adjective used for structures made of natural and locally available materials such as mud,
bamboo, and thatch. Consolidated earth with timber or bamboo posts are used for the plinth and footing and the walls are made
with bamboo frames and mat. The roof is usually thatched with hay, cane, and palm leaves with split bamboo frames. In some
regions the walls and floor are also plastered with a mixture of mud and cow dung. In colder areas such as Arunachal Pradesh, the
bamboo in the walls is taken over by wood or stone, which helps in retaining the heat.
Similar houses are sometimes built on stilts. Called Chang ghar locally (Fig. 1), these stilted houses are built in areas that have
high precipitation and moisture content in the soil. The basic idea is to keep away the effects of monsoons. Bamboo being a bad
conductor of heat also helps to keep the interior cool in summers and the permeable bamboo surfaces of the walls and floors keep
the moisture content low inside (Kaushik and Babu, 2009). The lower level of the chang ghar is also used to shelter the cattle,
which helps in keeping the interiors warm.
Another variation in kachcha structures is the high pitched roof, which is again built with slight variations based on tribal identities.
Such structures are mostly built in Nagaland, which is a comparative hilly and colder region. The steep slope of the roof ensures that no
water enters the building. The fenestrations are minimal to trap the heat as much as possible (Nag and Gondane, 2014).

Pukka construction
On the other hand the pukka or semi-pukka structures are made with a combination of organic and inorganic materials. These are a
result of the influence of the British colonial architecture to the local architecture.
The most common type of pukka, which means cooked or that which is not raw, is the Ikra type of construction, which is
also known as the Assam type house. Buildings of Ikra type of construction are found in most of the northeastern states. The

Fig. 1 A chang ghar in a village in Dhemaji district, Assam. Reproduced from Karmakar, S., 2014. Flood control, the mising way – Dispur falls
back on ‘Coping Practices’ of indigenous communities to tackle annual disaster. The telegraph. Available at: https://www.telegraphindia.com/
1140717/jsp/northeast/story_18623734.jsp (online) (accessed 16.08.18).
 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India 3

name Ikra is derived from the locally available reed known as Ikra and it is used extensively in walls and roofs of such houses.
Generally, it is a single-story house; however, two-story houses are also found in some places. Based on local requirements,
small variations are present in different areas. Ikra houses are built on raised plinths to avoid marshy grounds and surface
run-off during rains and also stray animals and reptiles. The vertical columns and roof truss are made of wood, usually
Sal wood.
The wall panels are made of either wood or bamboo frames and are then infilled with the shoots of the Ikra reed oriented in the
vertical direction; the Ikra reed shoots are plastered from either side with mud–dung mixture. In some cases slitted bamboo is also
used for the infill instead of Ikra.
The covering on the roof truss is a thick stack of Ikra reed. However, many such buildings use corrugated GI sheets that
are more durable. The roof is pitched with a high gable to cater to the heavy rainfall in the region over many months
(Alhasani, 1996). The slope of the roof varies from one-third to one-fifth of the span. Thatched roofs have steeper slopes than
the GI sheet roofs.
One major drawback of such construction is the fire hazard. Therefore precautions are taken in terms of design and planning.
The kitchen, which is the main source of fire accidents, is built away from the main house or an open veranda of about 3 m is
generally provided between the kitchen and the rest of the house to prevent fire accidents.
Ikra-type of construction is not restricted only to dwelling units but also it is implemented in commercial, institutional, and
religious structures. The composition of the spaces and also the building elements may differ based on the functional require-
ments. For example, the shape and slope of roof, windows, doors, etc., for a church will be completely different than a school or
college building, and that again will be different from a residential building. Fig 2 is an example of an old institutional building
constructed with ikra which has survived the tests of time. The architecture follows a general norm of having at least one door in
the rear of the house that can act as an escape route in case of any emergency.
This construction technique has been in use for at least 200 years and has proved to be extremely good in several past
earthquakes in the region. The lightweight materials used for walls and roofs, flexible connections between the elements, and also
the planning are some of the factors that have improved its performance during natural calamities (Kaushik and Babu, 2009).

Sualkuchi – Identifying a Typical Site of Northeast India

Located 36 km away from the city of Guwahati in Assam, is the historic settlement of Sualkuchi. The importance of this settlement
throughout history is because of the production of silk and this significance is reflected in the settlement with distinguishing
features demonstrating ecological, social, and economic examples for sustainability.
Sualkuchi has been known since the 4th century BCE as a center for silk weaving and is the busiest silk textile center of the
northeastern region of India. It used to be a major contributor in the production of the most expensive Muga silk. This
particular golden silk is a very important part of the Assamese culture. Historically it's importance can be determined by the
fact that sericulture was exempted from payment of land revenue as the kings of Assam patronized the development of
sericulture (Baishya, 2005).
Sualkuchi is a traditional village of weavers, which has preserved, sustained, and transmitted a cultural system. The structure of
the heritage settlement as it is today was basically established by Momai Tamuli Barbarua, an administrator of the Ahom kingdom
during the reign of Swargadeo Pratap Singha (1603–1641). This patronage led to the advancement and development of sericulture
in Assam (Morol, 1979).
The sociocultural institutions like the Satras (monasteries), located within played an important role in the survival of the
system. This system was sustainable and is reflected in the planning of the settlement as well as in the traditional architecture. The
traditional architecture of the settlement had developed as a response to the natural environment and most importantly to

Fig. 2 A more than a century old traditional building of the Cotton College in Guwahati, Assam (Author, 2012. Photograph by Farha Shermin).
4 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

accommodate the function of silk production. This sustainable cultural system has not only supported the process of silk weaving
but had also led to the advancement of silk production in the region.
Even today, it is sustaining the tradition, although in many cases in a transformed form. This settlement has been chosen
because at present it is on the verge of transformation. The settlement is an amalgamation of reminiscence of ancient history and
modern culture and thus is a perfect example to study the transformation, which has directly or indirectly affected the aspects of
being a sustainable development.

Sualkuchi as a Sustainable Settlement

The historic settlement of Sualkuchi can be explicitly considered as a sustainable one. The concept of sustainability can be
defined as having three independent spheres of influence, which are ecological, socioeconomic, and physical sustainability
(Tipnis, 2012).
Ecological Sustainability – The setting of Sualkuchi is ecologically very significant. The settlement is located between natural
features that form its boundaries, the Bor-beel, which is a wet land, to the northwest, the Gandhmou hills to the east, the river
Brahmaputra to the south, and the Siddeshwar hills to the west (Fig. 3). Other than the hills and the water bodies, the settlement
lies in a gently sloping land, which slopes down towards the Bor-beel and the river. This ensures good water drainage. The
expansion of the settlement is regulated by these natural features.
Also, a small valley is formed between the Siddeshwar hills, which connects the Bor-beel and the Brahmaputra River. A number
of manmade ponds are located in this valley. This whole system ensured drainage of the water to the river.
There are number of manmade ponds or pukhuris as they are locally called, which act as water reservoirs during dry seasons and
also recharge the ground water. The locations of the pukhuris were also decided based on the natural drainage. Another interesting
feature is the presence of a natural embankment in the east, which benefits a portion of the settlement by obstructing the water and
thus preventing the floods. The settlement has restricted its growth towards the river to safeguard the flood plains. The overall
ecological setting favors the production of silk.
Socioeconomic Sustainability – A very crucial aspect of sustainability is the social and cultural significance. The local society and
culture is best expressed in the way they manage their environment. The built environment in such a sustainable area is thus
shaped by the social values and beliefs of the community.
Socioeconomic sustainability in Sualkuchi is prevalent in Sualkuchi from the time it was established. This is evident from the
fact that the settlement was deliberately planned on the basis of the communities who were to reside there. Based on oral history
and present context, Fig. 4 shows an estimated location of the communities as per the original settlement plan.
The main community was the Tanti or weavers’ community and the rest were placed to support the Tanti community. The
communities were mainly occupation based. They were placed on the site according to hierarchy and also feasibility of
workplace. For example, the Koiborto Para, which is the fishermen’s community, is located near the river bank, whereas the
Mahanta Para, which is the priest’s community, was placed in the heart of the settlement. A water canal was later added, which
was not only a source of water but also a physical demarcation that divided the weavers and nonweavers’ communities. The
same exists even today.
The weavers’ communities settled on the west of the canal were very interestingly planned in a grid iron pattern, which
formed small clusters. Each cluster is bounded by roads on all four sides. All the houses faced the roads and the central area of
the cluster was an open space to grow mulberry trees. The heart of the settlement where the two axial roads meet formed the
market place.

Fig. 3 The natural setting of the settlement. Reproduced from Shermin, F., 2017. Impacts of rural tourism on architectural and cultural heritage –
The cases of Sualkuchi and Mawlynnong, Northeast India. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 4 (11), 318–322.
Available at: https://www.irjet.net/archives/V4/i11/IRJET-V4I1156.pdf (online) (accessed 10.06.18).
 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India 5

Fig. 4 The occupation based communities of Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential
Architecture of the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).

Fig. 5 A traditional house at Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., 2017. Impacts of rural tourism on architectural and cultural heritage – The
cases of Sualkuchi and Mawlynnong, Northeast India. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 4 (11), 318–322. Available at:
https://www.irjet.net/archives/V4/i11/IRJET-V4I1156.pdf (online) (accessed 10.06.18).

All the communities were interdependent; the Koiborto community supported by providing fish, which is a staple diet of the
region; the Jalua keot (net makers) community supported the Koiborto community by providing nets for fishing; the basket makers
provided bamboo baskets, which are necessary for rearing of silkworms, and so on.
Further, when we consider a cluster, it has been observed that each cluster functions as an individual unit that combines with
other clusters to form a system. This has been discussed later in the aricle.
The contemplative planning and functioning of the settlement and cluster creates an intricate system that functions as a whole to
directly or indirectly sustain silk production. This system also ensured community participation or involvement in the overall process.
Physical Sustainability – Physical sustainability is the most tangible aspect of sustainability. With the change in needs
and values of the society, the physical built environment either adapts itself to suit the new demands, is abandoned,
neglected, or is replaced. Physical sustainability is that quality of a building that allows it to adapt itself to the changing needs
(Tipnis, 2012).
Sualkuchi as a built environment has been growing and developing throughout the ages. Traditional architecture of the
settlement is a result of the quality and value that this particular culture has produced. It is typified by durable bamboo framework,
and mud plaster. Ikra houses are the common typology seen in the whole of the settlement (Fig. 5). The significance of the
architecture has a lot to do with the environment, climate, and weaving other than esthetics.
6 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

The ikra houses are generally single dwelling units and do not have common walls with adjacent buildings. The ikra and
bamboo construction material keeps the interiors cool in summer and warm in winter and also helps in sustaining during
earthquakes. The plinth was constructed in stone or brick. The walls in some of the dwellings were partially constructed in brick,
which formed a sturdier base and is extended with bamboo or ikra with mud plaster. The basic structure of the wall is the timber
framework. The framework is then filled with ikra and bamboo woven panels. The ikra is cut in size of the panel and laid vertically.
Bamboo is used as the horizontal member, which is woven with the ikra. After a few days when the ikra is dry, the wall is plastered
on both sides with mud plaster. The finished coat is usually a mix of mud and cow dung, which gives a smooth finish.
The roof can be single or it can be in various levels and multicornered. Initially thatched roofs were used, which were later
replaced with corrugated iron sheets.
Weaving, being the main occupation and an important aspect of the culture, plays a dominant role in shaping the architecture
of the settlement. Every traditional household has tried to accommodate weaving inside the house.
As most of the communities today have taken up weaving as their means of livelihood, the residential architecture has been
altered to accommodate this change in their occupation. The original weavers had a separate area dedicated to weaving inside their
house, whereas the residences of those who became weavers later had either an area modified to accommodate the looms or had a
separate space outside the house for the same.
As discussed before, a traditional cluster was designed to accommodate the various activities of silk weaving. Similarly, a
traditional weaver’s house was also designed to accommodate the same. The loom, being the most important element in a
weaving room, was the basis of the design of the weaving area. The height of the fenestrations was based on the height of the loom
as constant daylight was required for weaving. The weaving rooms had a bamboo jaali (latticed screen) running from the sill to
lintel level for undisturbed lighting and ventilation throughout the room. The sloping roof is covered mostly with corrugated GI
sheet, which helps in easy draining of the rain water but in summer heats up the interiors. This issue is resolved by placing a false
ceiling made with woven bamboo mats. Most of these houses also have an attic space, which is the space between the false ceiling,
and the sloping roof, which is used as the storage. Fig. 6 shows an illustration of traditional weaver's house and images of a typical
false ceiling and access to the attic. The weaving room formed an integral part of the house plan and is located at the best and
easily accessible location of the site (Fig. 7).

Settlement History and Changes Today

As mentioned before, the settlement was planned during the Ahom rule. But from historic records it is known that the settlement
existed since the 4th century BCE on the basis of Kautilyas (a scholar of the Mauryan Empire, who authored the ancient Indian
political treatise, the Arthashastra) reference to Suvarnakudya of ancient Kamrupa (historical kingdom of Assam) where the best
quality of patrorna (Pat silk) was produced. The presence of a 400-year-old monastery called as the Hati Satra and a temple called as
the Siddeshwar Devalaya, which is known to have been built in the 14th century BCE by king Arimatta, and several historic
manmade water bodies, shows that the earliest existing settlement must have been along the road from Siddeshwar Devalaya.
Most of the old buildings are found in and around this area. During the Ahom rule, the settlement became a commercial hub. It
was due to this reason the market area gained significance.
The most recent phase, which has drastically changed the settlement, is the construction of the outer road along the Bor-beel,
and the Hospital road. These roads gave a new dimension to the settlement, but ignored the natural system of drainage, unlike the
historic settlement. There is also an extension towards the east, where new institutional buildings have been constructed (Fig. 8).

Traditional Versus Modern

The new areas along the outer road display a complete different planning and design, which partially or in some cases completely
disregards the aspects of sustainability. To understand this, two clusters have been selected for study: One from the historic core
and the other from the new developed areas.

Fig. 6 A traditional weaver’s house at Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential Architecture of
the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).
 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India 7

Plan Reflected Ceiling

Plan

View
Elevation

Section
Fig. 7 Documentation of a traditional weaver’s house at Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential
Architecture of the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).

A traditional cluster
Each cluster functions as an individual unit, which combines with other clusters to form a system. With reference to the Fig. 9, it is
clearly seen that the spaces for every activity related to silk weaving are clearly designated. Linear spaces along the roads are used for
drying the silk yarn and the finished fabric. The common open spaces bounded by two or more dwellings are used for silk reeling.
The weaving of the silk takes place inside the house and the central core of the cluster is used for silk rearing in the mulberry plants.
This proximity helped the members to look after the silkworms to ensure their safety from birds and other predators. The clusters
were also in close proximity to the market, which enhanced the efficiency of silk production and supply.
The traditional buildings were also designed to be climate responsive and low cost and could sustain natural calamities.

Newly developed cluster

As the settlement expands towards the north, the vernacular character of the clusters changes drastically. Apart from loss of the
function of the traditional cluster, a new cluster seems to have developed randomly without any concern to the natural ecology,
climate, or even function (Fig. 10).
8 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

Ring Road New Hospital Road

Bor-beel

River Brahmaputra

Market
Fig. 8 Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential Architecture of the Historic Crafts Settlement of
Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).

Fig. 9 Traditional clusters. Reproduced from Shermin, F., 2017. Impacts of rural tourism on architectural and cultural heritage – The cases of
Sualkuchi and Mawlynnong, Northeast India. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology 4 (11), 318–322. Available at: https://
www.irjet.net/archives/V4/i11/IRJET-V4I1156.pdf (online) (accessed 10.06.18).

In addition to that, a new typology of residences can be seen in the newly developed areas. This typology is of linear temporary
houses for the wage-based workers who work as hired weavers. The linear houses mainly consist of continuous rooms, with each
family occupying a room. The standard of living of these people is very low. This has created a social hierarchy in the new clusters
that completely disturbs the social sustainability that existed in the past.
The weaving areas are temporary structures made with bamboo with a flat bamboo roof. Fenestrations hardly exist and
therefore artificial lighting is required throughout the day. The flat roof, low plinth, and unstable structure disrespect the concept of
sustainability in that area.
The other new structures are concrete buildings, which are of two forms. One that follows the traditional vocabulary but uses
modern materials like concrete and glass and the other, which is completely a modern structure that is similar to any other
building and can exist in any part of the world. The performance of these materials in earthquakes and in maintaining the
temperature inside is much less than that of a traditional ikra or bamboo structure.
 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India 9

Traditional Clusters

New Cluster

Fig. 10 Traditional planning vs. modern planning. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential Architecture of
the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).

The energy consumption is also considerably high as artificial lighting and ventilation are required. Silk rearing is limited to a few farms,
which are not able fulfill the market demand of Assam silk. The production of Muga silk has reduced considerably, which has not only
made it very expensive but has also invited the use of low quality silk from other parts of the world for making the traditional garments.

Findings and Discussion

The study of the settlement of Sualkuchi has been carried out to understand the importance of the relation between material
culture and the concept of sustainability with respect to traditional architecture. However, this study inspects a specific type of
traditional architecture that is consistently present in most of the areas of Assam, a state in Northeast India. The findings are based
on a primary fieldwork conducted in the settlement, which is discussed below.

Sustainable Features of the Traditional Architecture and Planning of Sualkuchi

When the features of the traditional architecture and sustainable design are compared, it is clear that there are several common
characteristics in terms of design criteria.
The term sustainability may not be known in the history of the settlement but it had been very well manifested in
traditional buildings. The natural, economic, and sociocultural conditions of the region have a tremendous influence on the
traditional architecture. The settlement planning is an outcome of the physical and environmental factors; the planning of the
clusters and the religious architecture is shaped by the social factors and emerging of the temporary bamboo dwellings
10 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

is an impact of the economic factors. Also the climatic conditions have very evidently been responsible for shaping the
housing as well.
The buildings were designed by their own users and thus the users used all the possibilities and prospects that were offered by
their surroundings. They also tried to avoid anything that could make a negative impact in their lives. As a natural result of this
process, the traditional buildings incorporated the values of today’s concept of sustainability.
Below are two comparative tables showing the materials used in traditional and modern constructions simultaneously, which
are listed against the previously discussed three spheres of influence of sustainability – physical sustainability, ecological sus-
tainability, and socioeconomic sustainability (Table 1).
The basic objective of traditional architecture has been to meet the needs through creating simple and functional buildings.
Therefore it is very sensible to choose building materials that were readily available in the surroundings, which in this case were
mainly bamboo, wood, ikra, and stone (Figs. 11 and 12) (Tables 2 and 3).
From the tables above, it can be clearly concluded that the natural and locally available materials used in traditional con-
struction are much more sustainable than the ones used in modern construction. In terms of today’s idea of sustainability,
regarding the traditional building culture of Sualkuchi, the following can be observed.

Table 1 Table showing the materials used in traditional constructions

Sl. no. Architectural Materials used Remarks

components

1 Foundation Timber Locally available and organic though increase in demand can have ecological impacts
2 Plinth Brick/mud Locally available bricks and the mud excavated on site for the foundation are used for the plinth
3 Framework Wood Wooden framework with bracings supports the structure during earthquakes
4 Walls Ikra/bamboo/brick Light weight, low cost and locally available and has insulating properties which keeps the interiors
cool in summer and warm in winter
5 Wall finish Mud plaster with Locally available and adds to the insulating properties of bamboo or Ikra
lime wash
6 Ceiling Bamboo Locally available, low cost, and supports local bamboo craftsmen
7 Roof Clay tiles/thatch Locally made, low cost, and supports local craftsmen

Fig. 11 Examples of traditional architecture at Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential
Architecture of the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).

Fig. 12 Examples of modern architecture at Sualkuchi. Reproduced from Shermin, F., n.d. Conservation of the Vernacular Residential Architecture
of the Historic Crafts Settlement of Sualkuchi. New Delhi: School of Planning and Architecture (Postgraduate in Architecture).
 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India 11

Table 2 Table showing the materials used in modern constructions

Sl. no. Architectural Materials used Remarks

components

1 Foundation
2 Plinth
3 Framework
4 Walls
5 Wall finish
6 Ceiling
7 Roof
Concrete/steel Durable and allows multiple stories but high cost; materials are not locally available
Concrete Faster construction and low maintenance but high cost
Concrete/steel Faster construction and allows multiple stories but high cost and risky during earthquakes
Brick Locally made and easily available
Cement plaster with Faster application
synthetic paint
Plaster of paris/gypsum Easy and quick installation but high cost and skilled labor required
Concrete/GI sheet Comparatively low maintenance and high cost but being nonresponsive to Local climate it
increases the consumption of energy

Table 3 Table comparing the aspects of sustainability in traditional and modern construction materials

Sl no. Architectural Ecological Respect for Reduction in Response Local Cost Supports Overall
elements sensitivity socioeconomic energy to climate availability creative sustainability
values consumption economy

1 Foundation Traditional Average Average High High High Low Average High
Modern Low Average Low High Low Very Very low Low
high
2 Plinth Traditional High Average High High Very high Very High High
low
Modern Low Low Low Low Low Very Very low Low
high
3 Framework Traditional Average Average Average Very high High Low Average Average
Modern Low Low Very low Very low Very low Very Very low Very low
high
4 Wall Traditional Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very High Very high
low
Modern Low Low Low Very low Average High Very low Low
5 Wall finish Traditional High Average High High Very high Very Average High
low
Modern Low Low Very low Low Very low High Very low Very low
6 Ceiling Traditional Very high Very high Very high Very high Very high Very Very high Very high
low
Modern Low Low Low Average Very low High Very low Low
7 Roof Traditional High High High Very high High Average High High
Modern Very low Low Very low Very low Very low Very Very low Very low
high

Sustainable design culture

The designing of enclosed and semienclosed spaces in a dwelling unit was done keeping in mind the function of silk production
and the functioning of the cluster as a whole. All these factors not only made an impact on the production of silk but also
facilitated interaction among the people. The proficiency in construction methods and materials offers solutions for construction
as well as natural disaster issues.
They have efficiently used the natural resources and materials provided by the surroundings and have designed their own
environment using local materials to suit their needs, specifically to suit silk production. Thus a building culture very typical to the
region has evolved throughout history.

Sustainable land use

The planning and designing of the structures in a traditional historic cluster was done so as to meet the needs of the local weavers.
As already discussed before, the other occupation-based communities were made to settle in Sualkuchi to support the weaving
community. The planning ensured feasibility and ease of movement of the different communities according to their occupation
and thus guaranteeing efficiency.
Instead of treating nature as an obstacle like we do today, they made use of the best out of nature. Measures like avoiding
construction along the flood plains and along the natural drainage helped the settlement to check the seasonal floods. Natural
12 Material Culture and Sustainability: Traditional Versus Modern in a Case of Northeast India

water drainage was also made easy by the addition of manmade water bodies. The settlement was also very strategically planned
keeping in mind the access routes through land and water.

Designing for durability

The common locally available materials like bamboo may not be as durable as stone or brick but the traditional buildings
incorporated suitable protective measures or design features/solutions to prevent damage. Being in an earthquake prone area
where safety is the main concern, the lightweight traditional structures serve the purpose very well. However, the important
structures like temples and monasteries were built in stone and wood to ensure durability.

Energy efficiency
It is already known that the Ikra and bamboo construction material keeps the interiors cool in summer and warm in winter, which
is a necessity for the hot and humid summer months and the harsh winter months in the region. When it comes to silk production,
lighting plays the most important role. And as we have seen, the fenestrations were designed to make sure that proper daylight
reaches the weaving areas in the structure.
Another factor that makes the settlement energy efficient is the proximity to the workplaces. Locating occupation-based
communities close to their place of work, for example fishermen close to the river, and fishnet making close to the fishing
community, and also the central location of the market place, made the work–home distances considerably short thus reducing
the carbon footprint of the transportation.

Summary of Findings and Discussion

In the past Sualkuchi has evolved in harmony with the surroundings while serving the sole purpose of silk production. The utilization of
easily available local materials for construction and the strategic planning serve to support environmental sustainability.
The solutions for disasters, whether it is a natural calamity like flood or earthquake or a fire, have been well thought of,
developed, and mastered. The settlement as a whole had achieved not only environmental sustainability but also had directly or
indirectly achieved social and economic sustainability. For example the use of local materials by the local people is important in
terms of energy efficiency, cost efficiency, and also helps in supporting the local economy.
The enthusiasm with which communities work and support each other to fulfill the objectives of silk production is also an important
part of sustainability and that has been possible only through achieving all the factors of sustainability that we have discussed.

Conclusion

This study aimed at investigating and understanding the relation between traditional architecture as a material culture and
sustainability. It was also an attempt to determine the potential of traditional architecture in the concept of sustainability today. It
has been observed that the main principles of traditional architecture and the basis of sustainability are both in the same track.
Social, economic, and environmental concerns that are the basis of sustainability can be seen in the traditional construction
methods and planning of Sualkuchi in the Northeast of India. With this study it has been made quite clear that the local people of
the settlement had mindfully taken into consideration the ideas of a sustainable living. The living spaces were designed to improve
their lives and enhance the means of their livelihood, which directly or indirectly followed a sustainable design. Today we take
sustainability as a solution to the issues we have created where as back then it was a way of life.
The study makes it clear that sustainability has been inbuilt in our culture and recognizing and transferring this knowledge
system of the past to the future generations can ensure a more sustainable future.

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