FLICKER ANALYSIS GENERATED BY ARC WELDING ELECTRONIC
MACHINES
A. Galhardo
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa
DEEA
R. Conselheiro Emídio Navarro, 1900
Lisboa, Portugal
Phone: 351-1-8317107
Fax:351-1-8317109
Galhardo@deea.isel.pt
Abstract: Welding machines are widely used in
industry. This type of equipment produces very high
disturbances in the low-voltage network, where they are
mostly connected. The arc welding machines input currents
have low frequency oscillations and also a wide-band
harmonic spectrum with the presence of interharmonics,
which can give rise to flicker. In this paper an electronic
welder model is developed. The system simulation is
performed so that the voltage harmonic spectrum at the Point
of Common Coupling (PCC) is analysed. The model for a
flicker meter is proposed and used in measurements. The
flicker level created by the electronic welder is studied and a
criterion for further analysis is pointed. Simulation results
are presented and discussed.
1.- INTRODUCTION
To achieve a good level of power quality in the three-
phase electricity supply network, all sources causing
significant disturbances must be studied, looking for
solutions that can reduce and minimise voltage distortion.
One important group of disturbances generators are the
welding machines. Beside other aspects they are large
sources for harmonics, interharmonics and subharmonics,
thereby for flicker (low frequency mains voltage
fluctuations). This is caused by the non-linear behaviour of
the welding process and also due to the individual welding
action varying between a second and several seconds. This
voltage fluctuation cause changes in luminance of lamps. At
certain oscillation frequencies the flicker becomes annoying,
even for voltage fluctuations of very small amplitude. In
certain cases interharmonics can also cause interference in
ripple control systems. Nowadays, the levels of
interharmonic voltages have not been thoroughly
investigated. These levels are under consideration [2,3,4].
P. Verdelho
Instituto Superior Técnico
SMEEP/CAUTL
Av. Rovisco Pais, 1096
Lisboa, Portugal
Phone: 351-1-8417433
Fax: 351-1-8417167
pcverdelho@alfa.ist.utl.pt
Electronic welders, due to their capability for controlling
the welding current and the dc voltage and being easily
adapted for any kind of welder techniques, are at the moment
important sources for flicker generation. The portability of
those machines has increased their spread as well as the
flicker problem dissemination.
There are several welding processes [1]. In the most
common processes a high welding dc current is used with
low voltage. In Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW),
which is the most popular welding process or in Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) also known as TIG
(Tungsten Inert Gas), the dc welding current must be
controlled.
This dc welding current can also be controlled with a
pulsed shape with a frequency varying between 10 Hz and
300 Hz. On the high current level penetration and fusion are
achieved. The quantity of fusion metal can be adjusted acting
in the peak current. On the low current level the work is
allowed to cool slightly and so the welding power can be
controlled.
There are other processes where a welding dc voltage
must be applied like Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
popularly known as MIG (Metal Inert Gas).
There are also mixed processes where dc welding
current control and dc voltage control must be performed
alternately, like in Pulsed GMAW. Each control type is
selected by an external pulsed wave with a frequency that
may vary between 10 Hz and 300 Hz.
The two pulsed arc-welding processes mentioned
produce even higher disturbances in the ac network. The
interaction between the pulse and main frequency generates
more interharmonics and subharmonics which, depending on
their frequencies, can result in annoying values.

Figure 1 shows the experimental mains voltage and
current waveforms and spectra when a Pulsed GMAW
welding machine is used with a 42 Hz pulse frequency.
vs 400 V/div
In the paper an electronic welder model is presented.
The system simulation is performed so that the voltage
harmonic spectrum, focusing the flicker generation, is
analysed and studied. The model for a flicker meter is also
proposed and used in measurements. The flicker level
created by the electronic welder is presented for different
simulations.

0V-

2.- ELECTRONIC WELDER MODELLING

15 A/div The simplified welder power circuit is shown in Fig. 2.

is
To analyse the flicker produced by this equipment a
0A- model for the system must be developed for simulation
reasons. It is desirable that a simplified model is used to
obtain fast system simulations. This is necessary due the very
100 ms/div high IGBT’s switching frequency (50 kHz), compared with
(a) Mains voltage and current the mains frequency. Moreover, to observe the undesirable
problems caused by this type of system in the mains, large
vs time intervals must be simulated.
400 V/div

0V-
Equation (1) shows the system state model [8]. The Ls
and L resistive values are represented by rs and r, rM and LM
are the transformer equivalent shunt branch resistance and
15 A/div inductance, iM represents the magnetising current and N the
is transformer voltage ratio.

0A-
The converters control functions fr, fi and fro are
determined respectively by (2), (3) and (4).

20 ms/div
(b) Mains voltage and current (zoom)  diS  − rS −
fr
0 0 0 

 dt   LS LS
 dv   f   vS 
fi Nfi fro
0   S   LS 
i
10  c  r 0 − −
 dt   Ci Ci Ci  v   (1)
 diM  =  fi rM  c   0 
0  iM  +  0 
is [A]

 dt   0 − 0
 di   LM LM  i   
 L  0 Nfi fro rL 1  L   0 
0 − −   vo   io 
0  dt   L L L −
0 400 Hz  dvo   1  C 
 dt   0 0 0 0 
(c) Current spectrum  C 

40 The input rectifier control function fr depends on the

input ac current by:
vs [V]

fr=1 if is≥0 and fr=-1 if is<0 (2)

0
0 400 Hz The inverter control function fi is determined by:
(d) Voltage spectrum
fi=1 if G=1
Fig. 1: Experimental result for a 42 Hz Pulsed GMAW. fi=-1 if (G=0 and iT1=NiT2+im>0) (3)
fi=0 otherwise
 The function G is the IGBT’s control signal. For G=1 respectively Rperiod, Rrand and Rbase. The Requiv inverse will be the
the IGBT’s are being fired and for G=0 they are opened. The modulation signal in which harmonics will be present,
function iT1 is the transformer primary current. although varying Rperiod in a pure sinusoidal way.

ir iinv

is iT1 iT2 iL L iO
Ls +

+ VT1 VO
Vs Vr Vc VT2 C
Ci

Fig. 2 : Welder power circuit.

The output rectifier control function fro depends on its

input ac voltage by:

fro=1 if vT2≥0 and fro=0 if vT2<0 (4)

The inductance current is controlled acting in the

inverter IGBT’s control signal G (fig. 3). The IGBT’s must
be closed during a time shorter then 10 µs to avoid saturation
Fig. 4: Welder output load model.
of the transformer. This is imposed by the clock signal, ck.
Condition (5) is satisfied during the high value of the clock
and so the current control is achieved.
3.- HARMONIC SPECTRUM
dei *
eiL L < 0 , eiL = iL − iL (5)
dt A typical electronic welding machine input current is
presented (fig. 5a), using a constant load. Also a constant
output current control is applied and so fc=0.
fc

ipeak
* R
Analog

Multiplexer
iL*
+ eiL D Q G
iback
*
-
iL CK

Fig. 3: Welding machine current control circuit.

The external signal fc enables the selection of constant (a) Input current (A,s) (b) Current spectrum (A,Hz)
output current control or pulsed output current control. In the
high cycle of fc the peak current control is applied and in the Fig. 5: Welding machine input current for a constant output
low cycle the background current is established. load and constant current control.

The system simulation is performed with the software
program Matlab/Simulink. A time varying equivalent
resistance, periodically and randomly, was introduced to
simulate the welder arc load (fig. 4). It simulates the non-
linear behaviour of the welding phenomena and the human
influence. It can be adapted for different simulations
controlling the periodic, random and base parcels,
Due to the input rectifier, with a large capacitor, odd
harmonics are present in the mains current. The ac supply
current harmonic spectrum is shown (fig. 5b).
Introducing a modification in the equivalent arc
resistance, the load and mains current will change.
Modulating the load with an 8.8 Hz sinusoidal factor, within
75% of the initial level value, using 90 A as the reference
value, the ac supply current displays the correspondent
modulation (fig. 6a).
The ac supply current harmonic spectrum (fig. 6b)
shows the rise of interharmonics and subharmonics. In the
modulation signal a base value and harmonics are present so
it can be detected the fundamental and harmonics with
sidebands, at 50+/-n8.8 Hz, 150+/-n8.8 Hz, 250+/-n8.8 Hz...
n=0,1,2,..., in the modulated signal, as shown in (6) being Ai
and Bj the amplitudes of the original and the modulation
signals.
 n  n 
 ∑ A i cos( ω i t − ϕ i )  . B base + ∑B
The bus impedance is considered to be mostly inductive
(R=2.5%.wL at 50 Hz) and causing 5% voltage drop at
nominal load conditions, 6 kW with this electronic welding
machine model.
The electric power spectrum (fig. 6e and 6f), simulated
for a 60 w filament lamp, 230 V, shows, not only all
differences and sums between all components present in
voltage waveform spectrum, but also a dc level and double
frequencies. They can be calculated, as shown in (7), by
squaring the voltage V composed by several parcels each one
with amplitude Vk and with frequency ωk.
cos( ω j t − ϕ j )  n

∑V
j
 i =1  j =1  V = k cos( ω k t − ϕ k )
n k =1

= ∑AB cos( ω i t − ϕ i ) + n −1 n

i =1
i base
V 2
= ∑ ∑V
k =1 l = k + 1
k V l cos(( ω k m ω l ) t − ϕ k ± ϕ l ) +
n n Ai B j
+ ∑∑
i =1 j =1 2
cos(( ω i m ω j ) t − ϕ i ± ϕ j )
+
1 n

∑A 2
k +
1 n

∑A 2
k cos( 2 (ω k t − ϕ k )
2 k =1 2 k =1
(6)
(7)

Distorted supply current causes distorted voltage drop

It has been found that the human eye and nervous system
across the network impedance and so non-sinusoidal bus
are more sensitive for voltage frequency variations in the
main voltage is obtained. The voltage and voltage drop
band from 3 Hz to 20 Hz, with a gain peak for 8.8 Hz. The
spectra at the local bus are shown in Fig. 6c and 6d.
interesting zone is shown in Fig. 6f, where the 8.8 Hz, 17.6
Hz, 26.4 Hz,…can be easily detected. It can be noticed a
base level with contributions from all other combinations.

If a pulsed signal is applied in fc, a pulsed current control

is achieved. The next results are obtained with a 35 Hz
control pulse, 50% duty cycle, controlling alternately the
peak, 120 A, and background current, 60 A, maintaining the
load constant. The ac supply current is shown in Fig. 7a. In
this case the supply current spectrum (fig. 7b), displays not
(a) Input current (A,s) (b) Current spectrum (A,Hz)
only the fundamental 50 Hz and correspondent odd
harmonics 150 Hz, 250 Hz,…,but also the differences and
sums between them and the modulation signal with 35 Hz
and its odd harmonics 105 Hz, 175 Hz,…, i.e. the 50-35=15
Hz, 50+35=85 Hz, 150-105=45 Hz, 175-150=25 Hz, 250-
175=75 Hz,…

(c) PCC voltage spectrum (d) Voltage drop spectrum

(V,Hz) (p.u.,Hz)

(a) Input current (b) Current spectrum

(A,s) (A,Hz)

(e) Electric power spectrum (f) Elect. power spect. Zoom Fig. 7: Welding machine input current and current spectrum
(w,Hz) for constant load and 35 Hz pulsed current control.

Fig. 6: Welding machine input current, voltage and power spectra

for a variable output load and constant current control.
 The voltage spectrum at the PCC and the voltage drop
spectrum are shown in Fig. 8a and 8b.

The electric power spectrum (fig. 8c and 8d), will

exhibit the double frequencies 30 Hz, 90 Hz, 100 Hz,…and
other combinations, as the 5 Hz (50-45). In certain cases
those combinations origin the reappearance of frequencies
previously detected as the 35 Hz (85-50 or 50-15).
(a) Input current (A,s) (b) Current spectrum (A,Hz)

(a) PCC voltage spectrum (b) Voltage drop spectrum (c) PCC voltage spectrum (d) Voltage drop spectrum
(V,Hz) (p.u.,Hz) (V,Hz) (p.u.,Hz)

(c) Electric power spectrum (d) Elect. Power spect. Zoom (e) Electric power spectrum (f) Elect. power spect. Zoom
(w,Hz) (w,Hz)

Fig. 8: PCC and drop voltages and power spectra Fig. 9: Welding machine input current, voltage and power spectra
for constant load and 35 Hz pulsed current control. for a variable output load and pulsed current control.

Adding now the previous shown load variation in an 8.8

Hz sinusoidal mode, a more complex current is obtained,
4.- FLICKER METER MODELLING
shown in Fig. 9a.
Following the recommendations expressed in IEC
In this case the supply current spectrum (fig. 9b) will
Publication 868 and following Amendment, a flicker meter
display not only the fundamental 50 Hz and harmonics 150
model (fig. 10) was studied. It is intended to connect the
Hz, 250 Hz…, but also all differences and sums between
flicker meter input to the supply bus, measuring the voltage
them and the modulation signals 35 Hz and 8.8 Hz and their
variations. The model works with data collected from the
harmonics, the 105 Hz, 175 Hz,…, and the no significant
PCC voltage.
17.6 Hz, 26.4 Hz,…Several frequencies can be foreseen as
the 50-35=15 Hz, 50+35=85 Hz, 50-8.8=41.2 Hz,
50+8.8=58.8 Hz, 50-35+8.8=23.8 Hz, 50-35-8.8=6.2 Hz, [T,V] Squaring H igh pass Low pass
0.05 Hz 35 Hz
50+35-8.8=76.2 Hz, 105-50-35=20 Hz…

The voltage and voltage drop spectra are also presented

in Fig. 9c and 9d and show the bus impedance influence, in Statistics

this simulation mostly inductive. The electric power

spectrum (fig. 9e and 9f) will exhibit the double frequencies FL Low pass Squaring
Perceptibility
Curve 8.8 Hz
300 ms
12.4 Hz, 30 Hz, 40 Hz, 47.6 Hz,…and other combinations
43.8-8.8=35 Hz, 20+23.8=43.8 Hz, 41.2-15 and
Fig. 10: Flicker meter simplified model.
20+6.2=26.2 Hz, 23.8+15=38.8 Hz, 23.8-15=8.8 Hz…
 The first block simulates the behaviour of a lamp by For simulation purposes, where the different type of
squaring the bus voltage scaled to the average real value. disturbances can be incorporated by operator command, it is
The second block is a first order high pass filter that not usually found as necessary to evaluate the statistical
eliminates the dc signal present after the first block squaring. flicker level analysis for such a long time. Nevertheless a
The cut off frequency is 0.05 Hz. The 3rd block is a 6th order simulation block is added weighting the several levels
Butterworth low pass filter with cut off frequency at 35 Hz. reached by the flicker level in the total measurement period.
It eliminates the main frequency and its double generated by
squaring. It also eliminates all other resulting frequencies High pass Butterworth F(s)
[T,V]
focusing to the frequency range that affects human vision. 0.05 Hz 9
th
, 30 Hz equation (8)

The 4th block simulates the human visual system response to

a coiled coil filament gas filled lamp, 60 w 230 V, supplied
at low frequency sinusoidal voltage fluctuation. The overall
response is centred at 8.8 Hz. The 5th block squares the
signal simulating the eye and nervous system response to
Gain adjust Low pass
intensity variations. The 6th block is a first order filter with a FL
C alibration 300 m s
Squaring

300 ms time constant that simulates the brain storing

phenomena. Fig. 11: Used Flicker meter simplified model.

The output of this final stage, that should have an

adjustable gain control for calibration, indicates the
instantaneous flicker sensation severity. It should be
5.- FLICKER LEVEL MEASUREMENTS
calibrated and the overall response gain adjusted. The
The instantaneous Flicker Level (FL) can be measured
calibration can be done and checked by means of the values
for different modulation frequencies and depths. Its output
presented and accepted in the IEC publication.
amplitude shows the global frequency response.
The same publication proposes an overall transfer
The response for variable frequency input between 0 and
function (8) for blocks 1 and 4. It is used for measuring the
50 Hz, within 10 seconds, is shown in Fig. 12a. A delayed
flicker level.
peak gain at 8.8 Hz is evident. The output for weighted 2 Hz,
4 Hz, 8.8 Hz and 12 Hz is shown in Fig. 12b.
Kw 1 s 1 + s / w2
F (s) =
s 2
+ 2 λ s + w 12 ( 1 + s / w 3 )( 1 + s / w 4 )

k = 1 . 74802
λ = 2 π 4 . 05981
w 1 = 2 π 9 . 15494
w 2 = 2 π 2 . 27979
w 3 = 2 π 1 . 22535
w 4 = 2 π 21 . 9
(a) FL for frequencies from (b) FL for 2, 4, 8.8, 12 Hz
(8) 0 to 50 Hz

The influence of the supply voltage 50 Hz is present for
relatively small modulation signals. A clearer picture can be
obtained with a 9th order Butterworth low pass filter with cut
off frequency at 30 Hz.
The model used for measuring the flicker level was
created using Matlab/Simulink and is presented in Fig. 11.
The flicker severity is a low frequency phenomena and
develops and changes gradually and slowly. According to
the IEC publications measurements during 10 minutes are
required to evaluate the short-term flicker.
Fig. 12: Output Flicker Level for variable frequency
and weighted frequencies (FL,s).
The results shown in Fig. 12b were obtained for the
230V supply voltage sinusoidal weighted modulation: 2 Hz
with 0.882%.230V amplitude from 4 to 8 seconds, 4 Hz with
0.5%.230V from 8 to 12 seconds, 8.8Hz with 0.25%.230V
from 12 to 16 seconds and 12 Hz with 0.312%.230V from 16
to 20 seconds. Is visible the supply voltage 50 Hz transient,
immediately after switching on, which causes the necessity
of long periods of time to be used, in this example 20
seconds.

To prevent the measurement during such a long time and
to avoid handling with large data files, for routine
measurements the voltage fluctuation, 230V/50Hz free can
be applied.
The flicker meter output, when analysing the voltage
drop at the PCC where the electronic welding machine is
connected, is shown in Fig. 13a. It shows the flicker level at
the PCC when the constant current control is used and the
load resistance is varying in an 8.8 Hz sinusoidal way.
In the paper the simulation of an arc welding electronic
machine is realised. The system simulation is performed so
that the voltage harmonic spectrum at the point of common
coupling is analysed. A model for a flicker meter is proposed
and used to determine the flicker level created by the
electronic welder.
Several results are shown for flicker levels outside the
accepted range when a pulsed control is applied to the
welding machine. When several modulations are applied, in
the load resistance or in the control signal, the flicker level
changes accordingly with the amplitude of the frequencies
present, which in certain case origin a less significant flicker
level.

Increasing current reference or bus impedance values,

(a) 8.8 Hz variable load,
inductive impedance.
(b) 8.8 Hz variable load,
resistive impedance.
flicker level will increase and annoying situations can be
simulated. It depends on the voltage drop frequency and
amplitude. The voltage drop varies with the bus impedance
type. It can be easily seen that low frequency fluctuations
causes less significant voltage drops and lower flicker levels
when the bus impedance is typically inductive. When
resistive bus impedance is considered the supply current
transfer function to voltage or voltage drop is not related
with the frequencies present and so only the perceptibility
curve and functions defined in the flick meter model
determine the overall response.

(c) 35 Hz pulse control, (d) Pulse control and variable References

inductive impedance. load, inductive impedance.
Fig. 13: Instantaneous FL caused by welding machine (FL,s).
The low values achieved are due to the low values
imposed by current control in these simulations and due to
mostly inductive bus impedance simulation. Simulating a
resistive bus impedance the Flicker Level will increase as
seen in Fig. 13b.
Using a 35 Hz pulsed control the flicker meter output
displays a larger signal (fig. 13c), although inductive bus
impedance and a constant load have been simulated.
Together with variable load, the pulsed control will not result
always in an increased output level, as presented in Fig. 13d
obtained with 8.8 variable load and 35 Hz pulsed control.
The level will be a result of the frequencies used and of the
generated interharmonics and subharmonics.
6.- CONCLUSION
[1] C. Stinchcomb, 1989, Welding technology today,
principles and practices, Prentice Hall.
[2] European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardisation (CENELEC), EN50160, November 1994.
[3] International Electrotechnical Commission,
International Standard IEC 1000-2-1, 1990.
[4] International Electrotechnical Commission,
International Standard IEC 1000-2-2, 1990.
[5] P. Verdelho, G. Marques, “An active power filter and
unbalanced current compensator”, IEEE Trans. Industrial
Electronics, vol.44, n.3, 1997, pp.321-328.
[6] T. Larson, A. Ekstrom, “A PWM operated voltage
source converter for flicker mitigation”, Electronic Power
Electronics, vol.3, 1997, pp.1016-1020.
[7] A. Cavallini, G.C. Montanari, L. Pitti, D. Zaninelli “ATP
simulation for arc-furnace flicker investigation”, European
Trans. On Electrical Power, vol.5, n.3, 1995, pp 165-172.
[8] P. Verdelho, M. Pio Silva, E. Margato, J. Esteves “An
electronic welder control circuit”, Industrial Electronics
Conference, 1998, pp.612-617.