RSM353 Textbook PDF

Seventh Canadian Edition
Consumer Behaviour
Buying, Having, Being
This page intentionally left blank
Seventh Canadian Edition
Consumer Behaviour
Buying, Having, Being
Michael Solomon
Saint Joseph’s Univesity
and the
University Of Manchester (UK)
Katherine White
University of British Columbia
DarRen W. Dahl
University of British Columbia
With Contributions from

JUDITH LYNNE ZAICHKOWSKY, SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
AND
ROSEMARY POLEGATO, MOUNT ALLISON UNIVERSITY
Toronto
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 V0C0
Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication
Solomon, Michael R., author

Consumer behaviour : buying, having, being / Michael Solomon,
Katherine White, Darren W. Dahl. — Seventh Canadian edition.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-13-395809-6 (bound)
1. Consumer behavior—Textbooks. I. Dahl, Darren W. (Darren William),

1968–, author II. White, Katherine, 1974–, author III. Title.
HF5415.32.S64 2015 658.8’342 C2015-906355-8
ISBN 978-0-13-395809-6
Brief Contents
Section 1
Consumers in the Marketplace
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour 1
Section 2
Consumers as Individuals
Chapter 2 Perception 33
Chapter 3 Learning and Memory 61
Chapter 4 Motivation and Affect 93
Chapter 5 The Self 120
Chapter 6 Personality, Lifestyles, and Values 150
Section 3
Attitude Change and Decision Making
Chapter 7 Attitudes 183

Chapter 8 Attitude Change and Interactive Communications 209
Chapter 9 Individual Decision Making 242
Chapter 10 Buying and Disposing 277
Section 4
Consumers in Their Social and
Cultural Settings
Chapter 11 Group Influence and Social Media 309

Chapter 12 Income, Social Class, and Family Structure 341
Chapter 13 Subcultures 376
Chapter 14 Cultural Influences on Consumer Behaviour 410
Chapter 15 The Creation and Diffusion of Culture 441
Contents
About the Authors xi Sensory Marketing: Harnessing Perception for a
Preface xiii Competitive Advantage 35
Sight 35
Acknowledgments xvi
Smell 39
Section 1
Hearing 40
Touch 41
Consumers in the Marketplace Taste 42
Exposure 44
Chapter 1 Sensory Thresholds 45
An Introduction to Consumer Subliminal Perception 46
Behaviour 1 Attention 47
Introduction 1 Personal Selection Factors 49
Stimulus Selection Factors 50
Consumer Behaviour: People in the Marketplace 2
What Is Consumer Behaviour? 3 Interpretation 51
Consumers’ Impact on Marketing Strategy 4 Stimulus Organization 52
Perceptual Positioning 54
Segmenting Consumers 4
Chapter Summary 55
Marketing’s Impact on Consumers 9
Key Terms 56
Marketing and Culture 9
Review Questions 56
The Meaning of Consumption 10
The Global Consumer 10 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 57
Marketing Ethics and Public Policy 12 Case Study: Marketing in Practice 57
Notes 58
Needs and Wants: Do Marketers Manipulate Consumers? 14
Do Marketers Create Artificial Needs? 15
Are Advertising and Marketing Necessary? 15 Chapter 3
Public Policy and Consumerism 15 Learning and Memory 61
Consumer Activism and Its Impact on Marketing 17
The Learning Process 61
The Dark Side of Consumer Behaviour 18
Addictive Consumption 19 Behavioural Learning Theories 62
Compulsive Consumption 20 Classical Conditioning 62
Illegal Activities 20 Associative Learning 63
Marketing Applications of Conditioning 65
How Do We Find Out about Consumers? The Role of Instrumental Conditioning 67
Consumer Research 23 Four Types of Learning Schedules 69
Primary Research 23 Applications of Instrumental Conditioning
Taking It from Here: The Plan of the Book 25 Principles 70
Chapter Summary 27 Cognitive Learning Theory 71

Key Terms 27 Is Learning Conscious or Not? 72
Observational Learning 72
Review Questions 28
Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles 73
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 28
Case Study: Marketing in Practice 29 The Role of Memory in Learning 74
Notes 30 Encoding of Information for Later Retrieval 75
Memory Systems 76
Section 2 Storing Information in Memory 77
Consumers as Individuals Analogical Learning 79
Retrieving Information for Purchase Decisions 80
Products as Memory Markers 82
Chapter 2 Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli 84
Perception 33 Chapter Summary 85
Key Terms 86
Introduction 33
Review Questions 87
Sensory Systems 34 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 87
Contents vii
Case Study: Marketing in Practice 88 Key Terms 144

Notes 90 Review Questions 144
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 144
Case Study: Marketing in Practice 145
Chapter 4
Notes 147
Motivation and Affect 93
Introduction 93 Chapter 6
The Motivation Process 93
Personality, Lifestyles, and
Motivational Strength 94 Values 150
Drive Theory 95
Expectancy Theory 95 Personality 150
Consumer Behaviour on the Couch: Freudian Theory 151
Motivational Direction 95
Motivational Research 152
Needs versus Wants 95
Trait Theories 154
Types of Needs 96
Motivational Conflicts 96 Brand Personality 158
Classifying Consumer Needs 99 Personality of Positioning 160
Motivation and Goal Fulfillment 101
Lifestyles and Psychographics 163
Consumer Involvement 104 Lifestyle: Who We Are, What We Do 163
Levels of Involvement: From Inertia to Passion 105 Products Are the Building Blocks of Lifestyles 166
The Many Faces of Involvement 106 Psychographics 167
Segmenting by Involvement Levels 107 Conducting a Psychographic Analysis 168
Strategies to Increase Involvement 108 AIOs 169
Affect 109 Uses of Psychographic Segmentation 170
Psychographic Segmentation Typologies 171
Types of Affective Responses 109
VALS™ 171
How Social Media Taps into Our Emotions 111
Geodemography 172
Discrete Emotions 112
Chapter Summary 115 Values 172
Key Terms 115 Core Values 173
How Values Link to Consumer Behaviour 174
Review Questions 115
Ways to Classify Values 174
consumer behaviour challenge 116
Conscientious Consumerism: A New Core Value? 174
Materialism: “He Who Dies with the Most Toys Wins” 176
Notes 117
Chapter Summary 177
Key Terms 177
Chapter 5 Review Questions 178
The Self 120 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 178
Perspectives on the Self 120
Notes 180
Does the Self Exist? 120
Self-Concept 121 Section 3
Multiple Selves 122
Self-Consciousness 124 Attitude Change and Decision Making
Consumption and Self-Concept 124
Self–Product Congruence 125
Chapter 7
The Extended Self 126
The Digital Self 128 Attitudes 183
Wearable Computing 128
The Power of Attitudes 183
Gender Roles 129
Androgyny 131 The Functions of Attitudes 183
Female Roles 132 The ABC Model of Attitudes 185
Male Roles 133 Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story 187
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender (GLBT) Consumers 133 Forming Attitudes 189
Body Image 135 Not All Attitudes Are Created Equal 189
Body Cathexis 135 Levels of Commitment to an Attitude 190
Ideals of Beauty 136 The Consistency Principle 190
Working on the Body 140 Attitude Models 195
Chapter Summary 143 Multi-attribute Attitude Models 195
viii Contents
Using Attitudes to Predict Behaviour 199 Evaluation of Alternatives 256

The Extended Fishbein Model 199 Identifying Alternatives 256
Obstacles to Predicting Behaviour in the Theory of Reasoned Action 201 How Do We Put Products into Categories? 257
Types of Normative Influence 202 Product Choice: Selecting among Alternatives 261
Evaluative Criteria 262
Chapter Summary 204
Cybermediaries 263
Key Terms 204
Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts 264
Review Questions 205 Choosing Familiar Brand Names: Loyalty or Habit? 267
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 205 Decision Rules 267
Chapter Summary 270
Notes 207
Key Terms 271
Review Questions 271
Chapter 8 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 271
Attitude Change and Interactive Case Study: Marketing in Practice 273
Communications 209 Notes 274
Changing Attitudes through Communication 209 Chapter 10

Decisions, Decisions: Tactical Communications Options 210 Buying and Disposing 277
The Elements of Communication 210
Introduction 277
An Updated View: Interactive Communications 211
Consumer Interactivity 212 Situational Effects on Consumer Behaviour 278
The Increasing Role of the Consumer 213 Physical and Social Surroundings 279
New Message Formats 214 Temporal Factors 280
Levels of Interactive Response 214 Antecedent States: If It Feels Good, Buy It . . . 284
Shopping: A Job or an Adventure? 285
The Source 215
E-commerce: Clicks versus Bricks 286
Source Credibility 216
Retailing as Theatre 287
Hype versus Buzz: The Corporate Paradox 218
Store Image 288
Source Attractiveness 219
In-Store Decision Making 290
The Message 222 The Salesperson 292
Sending the Message 222 Postpurchase Satisfaction 293
Constructing the Argument 224
Perceptions of Product Quality 294
Types of Message Appeals 226
Acting on Dissatisfaction 295
The Message as Art Form: Metaphors Be with You 231
The Real Value of Happy Customers 296
The Source versus the Message: Sell the Steak or the Total Quality Management: Going to the Gemba 296
Sizzle? 232 The Evolution of Product Ownership 297
The Elaboration Likelihood Model 232 Product Disposal 298
Support for the ELM Model 234
Disposal Options 298
Chapter Summary 235 Lateral Cycling 300
Key Terms 235 Chapter Summary 301
Review Questions 236 Key Terms 302
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 236 Review Questions 302
Case Study: Marketing in Practice 237 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 302
Notes 238 Case Study: Marketing in Practice 304
Notes 305
Chapter 9
Section 4
Individual Decision Making 242 Consumers in Their Social and
Consumers as Problem Solvers 242 Cultural Settings
Perspectives on Decision Making 244
Stages in Consumer Decision Making 244 Chapter 11
Types of Consumer Decisions 245 Group Influence and Social
Problem Recognition 247 Media 309
Information Search 248 Reference Groups 309
How Much Search Occurs? 253 Types of Reference Groups 310
Contents ix
When Reference Groups Are Important 314 Case Study: Marketing in Practice 371
The Power of Reference Groups 316 Notes 372
Conformity 318
Social Comparison 320
Resisting Conformity 323 Chapter 13
Opinion Leadership 323 Subcultures 376

Identifying Opinion Leaders 326 Subcultures, Microcultures, and Consumer Identity 376
Word-of-Mouth Communication 328 Age and Consumer Identity 377
Factors Encouraging WOM 328 Age Cohorts 378
Negative WOM 329 Children: Consumers in Training 379
Buzz Building 329 The Youth Market 380
Social Media and Consumer Behaviour 331 Gen Z 382
Gen Y 382
Online Social Networks and Online Communities 332
Gen X 386
Digital Opinion Leaders 333
The Mature Market 386
Chapter Summary 334 Baby Boomers 387
Key Terms 335 The Grey Market 388
Review Questions 335 Grey Power: Seniors’ Economic Clout 388
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 336 Regional Subcultures 391
Notes 338
Ethnic Subcultures and Consumer Identity 394
Ethnicity and Marketing Strategies 395
Ethnic Groups in Canada 396
Chapter 12 The Effect of Immigration on Canadian Diversity 400
Ethnic Stereotypes 402
Income, Social Class, and Family
Structure 341 Chapter Summary 403
Key Terms 403
It’s Not Just Money 341 Review Questions 404
Income Patterns 341 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 404
To Spend or Not to Spend: That Is the Question 342 Case Study: Marketing in Practice 405
Consumer Confidence 345 Notes 406
Social Class 346
Picking a Pecking Order 346 Chapter 14
Social Mobility 347
Components of Social Class 353
Cultural Influences on Consumer
Behaviour 410
How Social Class Affects Purchase Decisions 354
Class Differences in World View 354 Understanding Culture 410
“What Do You Use That Fork For?” Taste Cultures, Codes, and Aspects of Culture 411
Cultural Capital 357
Factors That Differ Across Cultures 411
Online Social Capital 357 Values and Norms 411
Myths and Rituals 415
Status Symbols 358 Sacred and Profane Consumption 426
Language and Symbols 428
How Do We Measure Social Class? 361
Problems with Measures of Social Class 362 Marketing Across Cultures: Think Globally or Act
Problems with Social Class Segmentation: A Summary 363 Locally? 430
Adopting a Standardized Strategy 430
Family Structure 363
Adopting a Localized Strategy 431
Household Structure 364 When Does Global Marketing Work Best? 433
Family Age 365
Family Size 365 The Diffusion of Consumer Culture Across Cultures 434
Non-traditional Household and Family Structures 366 Chapter Summary 436
The Family Life Cycle 367 Key Terms 436
Chapter Summary 369 Review Questions 436
Key Terms 370 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 437
Review Questions 370 Case Study: Marketing in Practice 437
Consumer Behaviour Challenge 371 Notes 438
x Contents
Chapter 15 A “Medical” Model of Fashion 458

The Creation and Diffusion Cycles of Fashion Adoption 459
of Culture 441 Chapter Summary 462
Key Terms 462
Cultural Selection 441 Review Questions 463
How Do We Know What’s “In”? 441 Consumer Behaviour Challenge 463
Culture Production Systems 443
High Culture and Popular Culture 446
Notes 465
Product Placement 448
The Diffusion of Innovations 450

How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation? 451
Appendix I: Sources of Secondary Data (available online)
Types of Innovations 453 Appendix II: Careers in Consumer Research 467
Glossary 469
The Fashion System 455
Cultural Categories 455 Product, Services, Corporate, and Celebrity Index 479
Behavioural Science Perspectives on Fashion 456 Subject Index 493
About the Authors
Michael R. Solomon, Ph.D., is Professor of Marketing in the Haub School of Business
at Saint Joseph’s University in Philadelphia. Before joining the Saint Joseph’s faculty
in the fall of 2006, he was the Human Sciences Professor of Consumer Behavior at
Auburn University. Before moving to Auburn in 1995, he was chair of the Department
of Marketing in the School of Business at Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New
Jersey. Professor Solomon began his academic career in the Graduate School of
Business Administration at New York University (NYU), where he also served as
Associate Director of NYU’s Institute of Retail Management. He earned his B.A. degrees
in psychology and sociology magna cum laude at Brandeis University and a Ph.D. in
social psychology at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In 1996 he was
awarded the Fulbright/FLAD Chair in Market Globalization by the U.S. Fulbright
Commission and the Government of Portugal, and he served as Distinguished Lecturer
in Marketing at the Technical University of Lisbon. He held an appointment as
Professor of Consumer Behaviour at the University of Manchester (United Kingdom)
from 2007 to 2013.
Professor Solomon’s primary research interests include consumer behavior and
lifestyle issues; branding strategy; the symbolic aspects of products; the psychology of
fashion, decoration, and image; services marketing; marketing in virtual worlds; and
the development of visually oriented online research methodologies. He has published
numerous articles on these and related topics in academic journals, and he has
delivered invited lectures on these subjects in Europe, Australia, Asia, and Latin
America. His research has been funded by the American Academy of Advertising, the
American Marketing Association, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the International
Council of Shopping Centers, and the U.S. Department of Commerce. He currently sits
on the editorial or advisory boards of The Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Journal of
Marketing Theory and Practice, Critical Studies in Fashion and Beauty, and Journal
for Advancement of Marketing Education, and he served an elected six-year term on
the Board of Governors of the Academy of Marketing Science. Professor Solomon has
been recognized as one of the 15 most widely cited scholars in the academic behavioral
sciences/fashion literature, and as one of the 10 most productive scholars in the field
of advertising and marketing communications.
Professor Solomon is a frequent contributor to mass media. His feature articles
have appeared in such magazines as Psychology Today, Gentleman’s Quarterly, and
Savvy. He has been quoted in numerous national magazines and newspapers,
including Advertising Age, Adweek, Allure, Elle, Glamour, Mademoiselle, Mirabella,
Newsweek, the New York Times, Self, Time, USA Today, and the Wall Street Journal.
He frequently appears on television and speaks on radio to comment on consumer
behavior issues, including appearances on The Today Show, Good Morning America,
Inside Edition, Newsweek on the Air, the Entrepreneur Sales and Marketing Show,
CNBC, Channel One, the Wall Street Journal Radio Network, the WOR Radio
Network, and National Public Radio. He acts as consultant to numerous companies
on consumer behavior and marketing strategy issues and often speaks to business
groups throughout the United States and overseas. In addition to this text, Professor
Solomon is coauthor of the widely used textbook Marketing: Real People, Real
Choices. He has three children, Amanda, Zachary, and Alexandra; a son-in-law,
Orly; and three granddaughters, Rose, Evey, and Arya. He lives in Philadelphia with
his wife Gail and their “other child,” a pug named Kelbie Rae.
xii Ab o u t t h e A u t h o r s
Katherine (Kate) White is professor of marketing and behavioural science at the

Sauder School of Business, University of British Columbia. She holds a Professorship
in Consumer Insights, Prosocial Consumption, and Sustainability. Kate is trained as a
social psychologist and she completed her Ph.D. at the University of British Columbia,
her M.A. at the University of Waterloo, and her B.A. at Simon Fraser University. Kate
teaches courses in consumer behaviour, consumer insights, marketing strategy, and
sustainability marketing at the undergraduate, graduate, and executive levels. She has
also consulted on various marketing and behaviour change projects with clients such
as the City of Calgary, My Sustainable Canada, DDB Canada, and Big Rock Brewery.
Kate’s research is focused on the application of social psychology to understand-
ing consumer behaviour. In particular, her research interests focus on social influence,
social marketing, and sustainability marketing. Her published work has appeared in
top-tier journals including Journal of Marketing, Journal of Consumer Research, Jour-
nal of Marketing Research, Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Journal of Experi-
mental Social Psychology, and Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology. In addition, her
work has been presented at over 50 national and international conferences.
Kate recently received the Dean’s Award for Outstanding Scholar and has been
identified as a “Young Scholar” by the Marketing Science Institute. This latter honour
is given to young academics identified as potential leaders of the next generation of
marketing researchers. Kate is associate editor at the Journal of Marketing Research
and is on the editorial boards of Journal of Consumer Research and Journal of
Consumer Psychology. She has been ranked number 15 worldwide for publications in
the A-level marketing journals by the American Marketing Association.
Kate is mother of twin daughters, and in their spare time they like to travel. When
the girls were two they went on Semester at Sea, a program run through the University
of Virginia. They spent a semester at sea and travelled to Spain, Morocco, Ghana,
South Africa, Mauritius, India, Singapore, Vietnam, China, and Japan. Follow Kate on
Twitter @White_K8
Darren Dahl is the senior associate dean of Faculty, director of the Robert H. Lee
Graduate School, and BC Innovation Council Professor at the University of British
Columbia. Darren completed his Ph.D. at the University of British Columbia and his
B.Comm. at the University of Alberta.
Darren’s research interests are in the areas of new product design and develop-
ment, creativity, consumer product adoption, the role of social influence in consumer
behaviour, and understanding the role of self-conscious emotions in consumption. His
research has been presented at numerous national and international conferences, and
published in various texts and such journals as the Journal of Marketing Research,
Journal of Marketing, Journal of Consumer Research, Management Science, and Jour-
nal of Consumer Psychology. He is currently editor in chief of the Journal of Consumer
Research and serves on the editorial board of the Journal of Marketing Research, Jour-
nal of Marketing, and International Journal of Research in Marketing. He has been
ranked number one worldwide for publications in the A-level marketing journals by
the American Marketing Association.
Darren teaches courses in consumer behaviour, marketing research, and strategic
marketing analysis at the undergraduate, MBA, and executive education levels. He has
won awards for both his research (e.g., Marketing Science Institute Young Scholar) and
his teaching (e.g., 3M Award for Excellence in Teaching) efforts. Before coming to UBC
he held a faculty appointment at the University of Manitoba for four years and has been
a visiting professor at Stanford, Columbia University, Hong Kong University of Science
and Technology, and Thammasat University in Thailand. Darren has consulted and
organized education programs for a number of nonprofit and for-profit organizations,
such as Cathay Pacific, Procter & Gamble, Xerox, General Electric, Vancouver Public
Health, Teekay Shipping, Lululemon Athletica, Earls Restaurants, Agent Provocateur,
Daehong Advertising–Korea, and LIC India.
Preface
This is the seventh Canadian edition of Consumer Behaviour. The changes over all
these editions have really made this a unique text that captures the Canadian identity.
The textbook still carries Michael R. Solomon’s trademark of vastly interesting
examples and issues. We have tried not to interfere with his winning style, but have
definitely added our own twist. Chapters 12 and 13 are presented with a distinctly
Canadian focus. Throughout, we have integrated successful Canadian stories. In a ddition,
the “As I See It” boxes, which present the point of view of consumer researchers, are all
from scholars at Canadian universities. The cases presented at the end of each chapter all
represent real companies and issues that have a distinctly Canadian focus.
THE “BUYING, HAVING, BEING” APPROACH

AND OBJECTIVE
As the book’s subtitle, “Buying, Having, Being,” suggests, our version of this field goes
beyond looking at the act of buying to having and being as well. Consumer behaviour
is more than buying things; it also embraces the study of how having (or not having)
things affects our lives and how our possessions influence the way we feel about our-
selves and about each other—our state of being.
In addition to understanding why people buy things, we try to appreciate how
products, services, and consumption activities contribute to the broader social world we
experience. Whether shopping, cooking, cleaning, playing basketball, hanging out at the
beach, or even looking at ourselves in the mirror, our lives are touched by the marketing
system. And, as if these experiences weren’t complex enough, the task of understanding
the consumer multiplies dramatically when a multicultural perspective is taken. In
addition to the numerous examples of marketing and consumer practices relating to
consumers and companies, chapters contain boxes called “Consumers in Focus” that
highlight ways in which consumption impacts us as individual consumers.
The book also emphasizes the importance of understanding consumers in formu-
lating marketing strategy. Many (if not most) of the fundamental concepts in marketing
are based on the practitioner’s ability to know people. After all, if we don’t understand
why people behave as they do, how can we identify their needs? If we can’t identify
their needs, how can we satisfy those needs? To illustrate the potential of consumer
research to inform marketing strategy, the text contains numerous examples of specific
applications of consumer behaviour concepts by marketing practitioners, as well as
examples of windows of opportunity where such concepts might be used—perhaps by
alert strategists after taking this course! Many of these possibilities are highlighted in
special features called “Marketing Insight.”
FEATURES OF THE SEVENTH

CANADIAN EDITION
The seventh Canadian edition of Consumer Behaviour retains and updates the best elements
of the previous edition.
As I See It: We have asked fellow researchers to share their current work and explain
how it relates to the various theories of consumer behaviour.
End-of-Chapter Cases: These cases highlight current real-world marketing and con-
sumer issues and have a distinctly Canadian focus. The questions at the end of each case
ask students to use concepts they learned in the chapter to address real-world questions
and problems.
xiv p r e fa c e
Consumers in Focus: These examples highlight implications for marketing and

consumption on individual consumers.
Marketing Insight: These examples help to highlight how principles of consumer
behaviour are relevant in real-world marketing contexts.
Learner objectives: Learner objectives at the start of every chapter help students focus
on key skills and topics as they make their way through the chapter material.
Full-colour figures, photographs, advertisements, and illustrations: Throughout each chap-
ter, key concepts and applications are illustrated with strong, full-colour visual materials.
Chapter Summary: This feature provides a concise review of the chapter’s key topics.
Key Terms: Key terms are bolded within the text and listed at the end of each chapter
with page references. All of the key terms are collected together in the glossary at the
back of the book, and are boldfaced with their page references in the subject index.
Review Questions: These straightforward questions draw attention to key concepts
and theories in each chapter.
Consumer Behaviour Challenge: Each chapter contains two sets of questions that chal-
lenge the student to apply the key issues covered. Discussion Questions encourage
dialogue about important issues in consumer behaviour. Experiential Exercises con-
nect learners directly to the marketplace and communities that provide the contexts
for consumer behaviour. Many new questions have been added for this edition.
Indexes: A subject index and a product, service, corporate, and celebrity index reference
all information and examples in the book.
ADDITIONAL LEARNING AIDS
Ne w to th is E dit io n MyMarketingLab Resources

MyMarketingLab delivers proven results in helping individual students succeed. It
provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure learning for
each student. MyMarketingLab includes powerful learning resources, including online
simulations to help students work through and master key business topics, a Study
Plan for student self-study, and a wealth of engaging assessment and teaching aids to
help students and instructors explore unique learning pathways. MyMarketingLab
online resources include:
• Study Plan. MyMarketingLab offers students an engaging and focused self-study
experience that is driven by a powerful new Study Plan. Students work through
assessments in each chapter to gauge their understanding and target the topics
that require additional practice. Along the way, they are recognized for their mas-
tery of each topic and guided toward resources in areas that they might be strug-
gling to understand.
• Decision-Making Simulations. Decision Making Mini-Simulations walk students
through key business decision-making scenarios to help them understand how
marketing decisions are made. Students are asked to make important decisions
relating to core marketing concepts. At each point, students receive feedback to
help them understand the implications of their choices in the marketing environ-
ment. These simulations can now be assigned by instructors and graded directly
through MyMarketingLab.
• Business Today Video Database. Business Today is a dynamic and expanding
database of videos that covers the disciplines of business, marketing, manage-
ment, and more. In addition to the videos that are specifically correlated to this
text, you will find new videos posted regularly. Check back often to see up-to-date
video examples that are perfect for classroom use.
P r e fa c e xv
• Writing Assignments. Each assisted-graded writing assignment is based on a ques-

tion from the text and provides the perfect framework for instructors to efficiently
assign, review, and grade students’ written work. Questions are accompanied by a
clickable rubric that allows instructors to review written work, provide immedi-
ate feedback, and assign a grade quickly and consistently.
• Learning Catalytics. Learning Catalytics is a “bring your own device” student
engagement, assessment, and classroom intelligence system. It allows instructors
to engage students in class with a variety of questions types designed to gauge
student understanding.
• Glossary Flashcards. These provide a targeted review of the Key Terms in each
chapter. The Glossary Flashcards allow learners to select the specific terms and
chapters that they would like to study. The cards can also be sorted by Key Term
or by definition to give students greater flexibility when studying.
• Pearson eText. The Pearson eText gives students access to their textbook anytime,
anywhere. In addition to note taking, highlighting, and bookmarking, the Pearson
eText offers interactive and sharing features. Rich media options may include vid-
eos, animations, interactive figures, and built-in assessments, all embedded in the
text. Instructors can share their comments or highlights, and students can add
their own, creating a tight community of learners within the class.
The Pearson eText may include a responsive design for easy viewing on smart-
phones and tablets. Many of our eTexts now have configurable reading settings,
including resizable type and night reading mode.
Supplements
This edition of Consumer Behaviour is accompanied by a complete supplements package.
For Instructors
Computerized Test Bank: Pearson’s computerized test banks allow instructors to filter
and select questions to create quizzes, tests, or homework. Instructors can revise
questions or add their own, and may be able to choose print or online options. These
questions are also available in Microsoft Word format.
Instructor’s Resource Manual with Video Guide: The Instructor’s Resource Manual with
Business Today Video Guide contains lecture notes, field project ideas, and answers to
the questions in each Consumer Behaviour Challenge.
Learning Solutions Managers: Pearson’s Learning Solutions Managers work with faculty
and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology products, assessment
tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet your specific needs. This highly
qualified team is dedicated to helping schools take full advantage of a wide range of
educational resources by assisting in the integration of a variety of instructional materi-
als and media formats. Your local Pearson Education sales representative can provide
you with more details on this service program.
PowerPoint Slides: More than 150 slides highlighting key concepts featured in the text
are available electronically in PowerPoint.
Image PowerPoint: The Image PowerPoint contains all the advertisements featured in
this edition, as well as all the figures and tables.
Acknowledgments
The Canadian authors would like to thank Michael R. Solomon for continuing to
provide updated, relevant material and interesting revisions. We also owe much to our
colleagues who wrote many interesting articles that were incorporated into this
edition, including David Hardisty and Lindsey Boyle. We may have missed many
additional important papers and hope our colleagues will point out to us where these
can be added to the text for future editions. We especially thank all our colleagues who
contributed to the As I See It boxes:
Tandy Chalmers Thomas, Queen’s University

Peter Darke, York University
Robert Fisher, University of Alberta
Gerald Häubl, University of Alberta
Scott Hawkins, University of Toronto
Bonnie Simpson, Western University
Brent McFerran, Simon Fraser University
Annamma Joy, University of British Columbia, Okanagan
Steven Kates, Simon Fraser University
Sandra Laporte, HEC Montreal
Anne M. Lavack, Simon Fraser University
Kelley Main, University of Manitoba
Antonia Mantanakis, Brock University
Mehdi Mourali, University of Calgary
Monica Popa, University of Saskatchewan
Malcolm C. Smith, University of Manitoba
Sarah J.S. Wilner, Wilfrid Laurier University
We also thank the following colleagues who provided reviews of the seventh edition:
Dr. Mark Cleveland, Western University

Magdalena Cismaru, University of Regina
Steven M. Kates, Simon Fraser University
Duane Weaver, Vancouver Island University
Pat Browne, Kwantlen Polytechnic University
We appreciate the work of the staff at Pearson Canada, including Carolin Sweig,
Karen Townsend, Keriann McGoogan, Jessica Hellen, Monika Schurmann, and Joanne
Tang. The authors also wish to thank Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky and Rosemary Polegato
for their excellent work on the first five Canadian editions of this work.
Michael R. Solomon
Katherine White
Darren W. Dahl
C HAPTER
1
An Introduction to
Consumer Behaviour
Chapter Objectives
When you finish reading this chapter you will:
1 Understand that consumer behaviour is a process. 6 Understand that various behaviours can have

negative impacts on consumers and society, and
2 Be aware that marketers need to understand the these are sometimes referred to as the “dark side”

wants and needs of different consumer segments. of consumer behaviour.
3 Understand that popular culture is both a product of 7 Understand that many different research

and an inspiration for marketers. methodologies can be used to understand
consumer behaviour.
4 Understand that the Internet has changed patterns

of consumer behaviour.
5 Understand that there are many ethical issues to

consider in the domain of marketing and consumer
behaviour.
Introduction
Gail has some time to kill before her accounting class, so she pulls out her iPhone to see
what’s going on in her social networks. Between studying for her accounting and market-
ing exams, she hasn’t checked out anything interesting in days—even her Facebook friends
around campus have been quiet. Enough of the serious stuff, she decides. It’s time for some
really educational surfing.
So, where to go first? Gail goes straight to Pinterest to see if anyone has pinned any
new styles on her Shoe-aholic board. She’s just about to jump to Gen Y Girl when she
gets a text from Jewelmint.com to notify her that the site has a new jewellery option for
her that’s based on the profile she filled out when she registered. Sweet—it’s a bracelet
recommended by actress Allison Williams from Girls. With her PayPal account, it doesn’t
take Gail long to throw the pendant in her cart and order it—and to share a photo of her
haul on Facebook. On a whim, Gail opens the Tinder app on her phone—yes, as usual,
plenty of guys want to meet up if she “swipes right.” Not happening with these dweebs—
a flurry of left swipes and she’s done. As Gail glances at the clock, she realizes she’d bet-
ter come back to the real world or she’ll miss her exam. Okay, enough time for one quick
post before she runs to catch the campus shuttle: Gail logs on to RateMyProfessors.com
and writes a quick but glowing paragraph about how great her Consumer Behaviour pro-
fessor has been this semester . . . not to mention that awesome textbook the class has
been using.
2 S E C T I O N I Consumers in the Marketplace
Consumer Behaviour: People in the Marketplace

This book is about people like Gail—and you. It concerns the products and services we
buy and use, and the ways these fit into our lives. This introductory chapter describes
some important aspects of the field of consumer behaviour and some reasons why it’s
essential to understand how people interact with the marketing system. For now,
though, let’s return to one “typical” consumer: Gail, the business major. The preceding
vignette allows us to highlight some of the aspects of consumer behaviour we will
cover in the rest of the book. Gail is a consumer; let’s compare her to other consumers.
• For some purposes, marketers find it useful to categorize her in terms of her age,
gender, income, or occupation. These are descriptive characteristics of a popula-
tion, or demographics. In other cases, marketers would rather know something
about Gail’s psychographics, which can include aspects of a person’s lifestyle,
interests, attitudes, values, and personality. These could include her interests in
clothing or music, or the way she spends her leisure time. Knowledge of con-
sumer characteristics plays an extremely important role in many marketing appli-
cations, such as when a manufacturer defines the market for a product or an
advertising agency decides upon the appropriate techniques to employ when it
targets a certain group of consumers.
• Gail’s friends strongly influence her purchase decisions. The conversations we
have with others transmit a lot of product information, as well as recommenda-
tions to use or avoid particular brands; this content often is more influential than
what we see on television commercials, magazines, or billboards. The growth of
the Web has created thousands of online consumption communities, where mem-
bers share opinions and recommendations about anything from Barbie dolls to
baseball fantasy league team lineups to iPhone apps. Gail forms bonds with fellow
group members because they use the same products. There is also pressure on
each group member to buy things that will meet with the group’s approval.
• As members of a large society, such as Canada, people share certain cultural val-
ues, or strongly held beliefs, about the way the world should function. Members
of subcultures, or smaller groups within the culture, also share values; these
groups include teens, French Canadians, or “prairie people,” and even hipsters
who listen to Arcade Fire, wear Band of Outsiders clothing, and eat vegan tacos.
• Every day, Gail comes into contact with information about many competing
brands. Some don’t capture her attention at all, whereas others are just a turnoff
because they don’t relate to “looks,” people, or ideas with which she identifies.
The use of market segmentation strategies means that an organization targets its
product, service, or idea only to specific groups of consumers rather than to
everybody—even if it means that other consumers who don’t belong to this target
market aren’t attracted to it. That’s why they make chocolate and vanilla ice cream
(and even candied bacon flavour!).
• Brands often have clearly defined images, or “personalities,” that advertising,
packaging, branding, and other marketing elements help to shape. Even the
choice of a favourite website is very much a lifestyle statement: It says a lot
about a person’s interests, as well as something about the type of person she
would like to be. People often purchase a product because they like its image or
because they feel its “personality” somehow corresponds to their own. More-
over, a consumer may believe that if she buys and uses the product or service, its
desirable qualities will “magically” rub off on her. When a product or service
succeeds in satisfying our specific needs or desires, we may reward it with many
years of brand loyalty, a bond between product and consumer that is very diffi-
cult for competitors to break.
• The appearance, taste, texture, or smell of the item influences our evaluations of
products. A good website helps people to feel, taste, and smell with their eyes. We
may be swayed by the shape and colour of a package on the store shelf, as well as
C H A P T E R 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour 3
by more subtle factors, such as the symbolism in a brand name, in an advertise-

ment, or even in the choice of a cover model for a magazine. These judgments are
affected by—and often reflect—how a society feels people should define them-
selves at that point in time. Many product meanings lurk below the surface of the
packaging and advertising; we’ll discuss some of the methods marketers and
social scientists use to discover or apply these meanings.
What Is Consumer Behaviour? CO 1
The field of consumer behaviour covers a lot of ground: It is the study of the processes
involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, ser-
vices, ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and desires. Consumers take many forms,
ranging from an eight-year-old child who begs her mother for a Frozen Elsa doll to an
executive in a large corporation who helps to decide on a multimillion-dollar computer
system. The items we consume include anything from canned peas to a massage, democ-
racy, Juicy jeans, Reggae music, or a celebrity like Taylor Swift. Needs and desires to be
satisfied range from hunger and thirst to love, status, or even spiritual fulfillment. And, as
we’ll see throughout this book, people can get passionate about a broad range of products.
Co nsum e r Be h av i o u r Is a P roc e s s
In its early stages of development, the field of consumer behaviour was often referred
to as buyer behaviour, reflecting an emphasis on the interaction between consumers
and producers at the time of purchase. Marketers now recognize that consumer behav-
iour is an ongoing process, not merely what happens at the moment a consumer hands
over money or a credit card and in turn receives a good or service.
The exchange, in which two or more organizations or people give and receive
something of value, is an integral part of marketing.1 Although exchange is an impor-
tant part of consumer behaviour, the expanded view emphasizes the entire consump-
tion process, which includes the issues that influence the consumer before, during,
and after a purchase. Figure 1–1 illustrates some of the issues addressed during each
stage of the consumption process.
FIGURE 1–1
Some Issues That Arise during Stages in the Consumption Process
CONSUMER’S PERSPECTIVE MARKETER’S PERSPECTIVE
How does a consumer decide that How are consumer attitudes toward
PREPURCHASE he or she needs a product? products formed and changed?
ISSUES What are the best sources of information What cues do consumers use to infer
to learn more about alternative choices? which products are superior to others?
Is acquiring a product a stressful or How do situational factors, such as time

PURCHASE
pleasant experience? What does the pressure or store displays, affect the
ISSUES
purchase say about the consumer? consumer’s purchase decision?
What determines whether a consumer

Does the product provide pleasure or
will be satisfied with a product and
perform its intended function?
POSTPURCHASE whether he or she will buy it again?
How is the product eventually disposed
ISSUES Does this person tell others about his or her
of, and what are the environmental
experiences with the product and affect
consequences of this act?
their purchase decisions?
CO 2 Consumers’ Impact on Marketing

Strategy
Why should managers, advertisers, and other marketing professionals bother to learn
Goodwill: Understanding Consumer and
about consumer behaviour? Very simply, understanding consumer behaviour is good
Business Buyer Behavior business. A basic marketing concept states that firms exist to satisfy consumers’ needs.
These needs can be satisfied only to the extent that marketers understand the people
or organizations that will use the products and services they are trying to sell—and do
Marketing so better than their competitors.
Insight Consumer response is the ultimate test of whether a marketing strategy will suc-
ceed. Thus, knowledge about consumers is incorporated into virtually every facet of a
Successful companies understand that needs are
successful marketing plan. Data about consumers help marketers define the market
a moving target. No organization—no matter how
and identify threats to a brand and opportunities for it. And, in the world of marketing,
renowned for its marketing prowess—can afford
nothing is forever. This knowledge also helps ensure that the product continues to
to rest on its laurels. Everyone needs to keep inno-
appeal to its core market. The purpose of understanding consumer behaviour is to pre-
vating to stay ahead of changing customers and
dict the future. Anyone can see what is happening at present, but in consumer behav-
the marketplace. BMW is a great example. No one
iour we are also focused on tomorrow. Throughout this book, we will highlight takeaways
(not even rivals like Audi or Mercedes-Benz) would
deny that the German automaker knows how to from consumer behaviour for marketers in boxes entitled “Marketing Insight.”
make a good car (though they may not agree with
the company’s claim to be “the ultimate driving Segmenting Consumers
machine”). Still, BMW’s engineers and designers
The process of marketing segmentation identifies groups of consumers who are similar
know they have to understand how drivers’ needs
to one another in one or more ways and then devises marketing strategies that appeal to
will change in the future—even those loyal own-
one or more groups. As our society evolves from a mass culture in which many consum-
ers who love the cars they own today. The com-
ers share the same preferences to a diverse one in which we have almost an infinite num-
pany is highly sensitive to such key trends as the
following: ber of choices, it’s more important than ever to identify distinct market segments and to
take care in developing a marketing mix that resonates with each of these segments.
• A desire for environmentally friendly products
As we’ll see later, building loyalty to a brand is a very smart marketing strategy, so
• Increasingly congested roadways and the sometimes companies define market segments by identifying their most faithful cus-
movement by some cities such as London tomers or heavy users. As a rule of thumb, marketers use the 80/20 Rule: 20 percent of
to impose fees on vehicles in central areas users account for 80 percent of sales. This guideline often holds up well but varies by
• N ew business models that encourage product category. At the very least, it is relevant for the marketer to be aware of who
consumers to rent products only while they the heavy users of the product category are.
need them rather than buying them outright As we’ve already seen, demographics are statistics that measure observable
BMW’s response: The company committed aspects of a population, such as birth rate, age distribution, and income. Statistics
more than $1 billion to develop electric models Canada is a major source of demographic data on families. This information is a vailable
like its new i3 commuter car and i8 sports car.
These futuristic-looking vehicles are largely made
from lightweight carbon fibre to maximize the
distance they can go between battery charges,
and 25 percent of the interior plastic comes from
recycled or renewable raw materials.2 In addition,
BMW launched a car-sharing service called
DriveNow, which started in Germany and is now
available in San Francisco.3 Drivers use a com-
puter chip in their licences to hire a car and leave
it wherever they are when they no longer need it.
That’s forward thinking.
The Benjamin Hotel in New York City offers a

“Dream Dog” program that pampers not only
guests, but also their dogs. The hotel is seg-
menting based on both income and lifestyles,
and is appealing to higher-income consumers
who enjoy travelling with their pets.
© Design Pics Inc/Alamy
TABLE 1–1
A Statistical Picture of the Average or Typical Canadian Consumer
• The typical Canadian is a woman who is 39.9 years old.
• The average Canadian worked approximately 36.6 hours per week in 2012.
• The median annual income of a Canadian was approximately $31 320 in 2012.
• In 2013, the average Canadian household spent $16 387 on shelter.
• In 2013, the average household spent $1229 on personal care.
• In 2013, the average household spent $3550 on clothing and accessories.
• In 2013, the average Canadian spent $2407 on health care.
• The average household spent $3922 on recreation in 2013.
Sources: Statistics Canada, Individuals by total income level, by province and territory (Canada) (CANSIM Table 111-0008). Ottawa: Statistics
Canada, 2015, www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum-som/l01/cst01/famil105a-eng.htm; and Statistics Canada, Average household
expenditure, by province (Canada) (CANSIM Table 203-0021 and Catalogue no. 62F0026M), Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 2015. All computations,
use, and interpretation of these data are entirely that of the authors.
at www.statcan.gc.ca. The changes and trends revealed in demographic studies are of

great interest to marketers, because the data can be used to locate and predict the sizes
of markets for many products, ranging from home mortgages to brooms and can open-
ers. Imagine trying to sell baby food to a single male, or an around-the-world vacation
to a couple making $35 000 a year!
Table 1–1 provides a statistical snapshot of the “typical” Canadian consumer,
based on data compiled from Statistics Canada. As you go down this list, you will
quickly see that many characteristics do not apply directly to you. How different are
you from this consumer?
In this book, we’ll explore many of the important demographic variables that
make consumers the same as or different from others. We’ll also consider other impor-
tant characteristics that are not so easy to measure, such as psychographics—
differences in consumers’ personalities, attitudes, values, and lifestyles. For now, let’s
summarize a few of the most important demographic dimensions, each of which will
be developed in more detail in later chapters.
Ag e
Consumers of different age groups obviously have very different needs and wants.
Although people who belong to the same age group differ in many other ways, they
tend to share a set of values and common cultural experiences that they carry through-
out life.4 In some cases marketers initially develop a product to attract one age group
and then try to broaden its appeal later on. That’s what the energy drink Red Bull has
done. Red Bull was originally introduced in bars, nightclubs, and gyms to the prod-
uct’s core audience of young people. Over time, the drink became popular in other
contexts, and now the company is sponsoring the PGA European Tour to broaden its
reach to older individuals. It’s also handing out free cans to commuters, cab drivers,
and car-rental agencies to market the drink as a way to stay alert on the road.5
Ge nd e r
Many products, from fragrances to footwear, are targeted at either men or women. Dif-
ferentiating by gender starts at a very early age—even diapers are sold in pink versions
for girls and blue for boys. Many brands that initially appeal to only one gender even-
tually seek to expand their market share by appealing to the other gender, too. Take,
for example, Lululemon, originally a women’s clothing brand that now actively targets
the male market.6
Fa mily S t r uctu r e an d Lif e Stag e

A person’s family structure and marital status are two other important demographic variables,
because they have a big impact on a consumer’s spending priorities. Young singles and
newlyweds are the most likely to exercise; go to bars, concerts, and movies; and consume
alcohol. Families with young children are big purchasers of health foods and fruit juices,
while single-parent households and those with older children buy more junk food. Home
maintenance services are most likely to be used by older couples and dual-career couples.
S o cia l C l ass an d In co me
People grouped within the same social class are approximately equal in terms of their
incomes and social standing in the community. They work in roughly similar occupa-
tions, and they tend to have similar tastes in music, clothing, art, and so on. They also
tend to socialize with one another and share many ideas and values regarding the way
life should be lived.7 The distribution of wealth is of great interest to marketers because
it determines which groups have the greatest buying power and market potential.
Et h nicit y
Multiculturalism and Canada go hand in hand. This country comprises immigrants
from all over the globe. Canada accepts nearly 1 million immigrants and refugees
every four years, by far the highest per capita rate of immigration in the world.8 We are
diverse in our languages and in the cultural consumption that stems from our different
ethnicities. For example, English is now a minority language in Vancouver. The growth
of the Asian market in Canada has led to trilingual labelling of some products. Since
Canadians blend together from many different racial and cultural backgrounds, we
also blend together in our consumption heritage, as signified by food. As a culture, we
are just as likely to enjoy eating sushi as pyrohy (a.k.a. perogies) or lasagna.
Ge o g r ap h y
The climate changes drastically from region to region in Canada, which makes seg-
menting some products by region a profitable strategy. For example, while more snow
blowers and fur coats are sold east of the Rocky Mountains, more umbrellas and rain-
coats in the west. Humidifiers and dehumidifiers are a must in regions around the
Great Lakes. On the Prairies, it is not unusual for people to have two or more freezers
in their basements; many people who live in farming regions preserve the food they
produce for winter and year-round consumption.
Within regions, there are some different cultural pockets and hence differences in
food tastes. New Brunswick has the highest consumption of sliced white bread, while
Alberta leads in bubblegum sales. Most corn flakes are sold on the Prairies, and lin-
guini has its highest sales in Toronto. Quebecers consume the least amount of frozen
french fries, preferring the real thing.9
Life sty l e s
Consumers also have very different lifestyles, even if they share other characteristics such
as gender or age. The way we feel about ourselves, the things we value, the things we like
to do in our spare time—all of these factors help determine which products will push our
buttons, or even those that will make us feel better. As one example, the car company VW
decided to market to consumers who followed the program Pimp My Ride and enjoyed the
activities involved in restoring cars into tricked-out street machines. To do so, it released a
series of online viral ad videos featuring a German engineer and his assistant “unpimping”
autos belonging to those who enjoy this specific lifestyle. By poking fun, the VW brand
attracted individuals to watch the ad and pass it along to others with similar interests.
Se mg me nti n g b y Relati o nsh ips an d Bi g Data

Marketers are carefully defining customer segments and listening to people in their
markets as never before. Many of them have realized that a key to success is building
relationships that will last a lifetime between brands and customers. Relationship
marketing involves making an effort to interact with customers on a regular basis, giv-
ing them reasons to maintain a bond with the company over time. The cosmetics
brand Sephora practises the notion of relationship marketing by providing its most
loyal customers with product rewards, personalized beauty recommendations, and
even a special gift when it is their birthday.
One way marketers attempt to create relationships with consumers is through
database marketing, which tracks specific consumers’ buying habits very closely and
crafts products and messages tailored precisely to people’s wants and needs based on
this information. Walmart stores massive amounts of information on the 100 million
people who visit its stores each week, and the company uses these data to fine-tune its
offerings. We all generate massive amounts of information that hold tremendous value
for marketers. You may not see it, but we are practically buried by data that come from
many sources—sensors that collect climate information, the comments you and your
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friends make to your favourite social media sites, the credit card transactions we
authorize, and even the GPS signals in our smartphones that let organizations know
where most of us are pretty much anytime, day or night. This incredible amount of
information has created a new field that causes tremendous excitement among market-
ing analysts (and other math geeks). The collection and analysis of extremely large
datasets is called big data, and you’ll be hearing a lot more about it in the next few
years. Hint: If you have aptitude or interest in quantitative topics, this will be a very
desirable career path for you.
Here are some of the types of relationships a person might have with a product:
• Self-concept attachment: The product helps to establish the user’s identity.
• Nostalgic attachment: The product serves as a link with a past self.
• Interdependence: The product is a part of the user’s daily routine.
B:9.25”
T:7.5”
• Love: The product elicits emotional S:7”

bonds of warmth, passion, or other strong
positive feelings.
Technologies like Bluetooth connectivity

allow consumers to interact with products
more intimately, which in turn strengthens
their relationships.
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Marketing’s Impact on Consumers

Does marketing imitate life or vice versa? After the movie The Hangover became a big
hit, consumers indicated an interest in replicating the same experiences as the charac-
ters in the film, including trying to get on the roof of Caesar’s Palace!10 For better or for
worse, we all live in a world that the actions of marketers and the media significantly
influence. Throughout this book, we will highlight the ways in which marketers influ-
ence consumers in boxes entitled “Consumers in Focus.”
We are surrounded by marketing stimuli in the form of advertisements, stores, and
products competing for our attention and our dollars. Marketers filter much of what
we learn about the world, whether through the affluence they depict in glamorous
magazines or the roles actors play in commercials. Ads show us how we should act
with regard to recycling, alcohol consumption, and even the types of houses and cars
we wish to own. In many ways we are also “at the mercy” of marketers, since we rely
on them to sell us products that are safe and that perform as promised, to tell us the
truth about what they are selling, and to price and distribute these products fairly.
Marketing and Culture CO 3
Popular culture, consisting of the music, movies, sports, books, celebrities, and other
forms of entertainment consumed by the mass market, is both a product of and an
inspiration for marketers. Our lives are also affected in far-reaching ways, ranging
from how we acknowledge cultural events such as marriage, death, or holidays to how
we view social issues such as air pollution, gambling, and addiction. The Stanley Cup,
Boxing Day shopping, federal elections, container recycling, and tweeting are all
examples of products and activities that touch many lives.
This cultural influence is difficult to overlook, although many people do not seem
to realize how much their views of the world around them—their movie and musical
heroes, the latest fashions, food and decorating choices, and even the physical features
they find attractive or ugly in men and women—are affected by marketers. For exam-
ple, consider the product icons that marketers use to create an identity for their prod-
ucts. Various mythical creatures and personalities—from the Pillsbury Doughboy to
Sasquatch—have been at one time or another central figures in popular culture. In fact,
it is likely that more consumers could recognize such characters than could identify
past prime ministers, business leaders, or artists. Although the characters never really
existed, many of us feel as if we “know” them, and they certainly are effective “spokes
characters” for the products they represent.
Consumer-generated content, in which consumers themselves voice their opin-
ions about products, brands, and companies on blogs, podcasts, and social networking
sites such as Facebook, and even film their own commercials that thousands view on
In an example of consumer-generated
content, this “Pug Goes For the Chips”
Doritos tortilla chip advertisement (made by
a consumer) tied with a corporate-funded
Bud Light commercial for first place for
Super Bowl Advertisements in the USA Today
Ratings.
Used with permission of Frito-Lay North America, Inc.
sites such as YouTube, is also an important part of marketing’s influence on culture.

Doritos has utilized consumer-generated ads in its Super Bowl advertising since 2006,
and these ads often score top honours as the ad that the most viewers remember.11
Videos like the one for Rebecca Black’s song “Friday” have shown that anyone can
produce content that, even if strongly disliked by the majority of consumers, finds its
way into the broader North American culture.
The Meaning of Consumption

One of the fundamental premises of the modern field of consumer behaviour is that
people often buy products not for what they do but for what they mean. This principle
does not imply that a product’s basic function is unimportant, but rather that the roles
products play in our lives go well beyond the tasks they perform. And the deeper
meanings of a product may help it to stand out from other, similar goods and services.
Other things being equal, a person will choose the brand that has an image (or even a
personality!) consistent with his or her underlying needs.
For example, although most people probably couldn’t run faster or jump higher if
they were wearing Under Armour as opposed to Nike athletic gear, many diehard loy-
alists swear by their favourite brand. These arch-rivals are largely marketed in terms of
their images—meanings carefully crafted with the help of legions of rock stars, ath-
letes, and slickly produced commercials—and many millions of dollars. So when you
buy a Nike “swoosh,” you may be doing more than choosing athletic wear; you may
also be making a lifestyle statement about the type of person you are or want to be.
Our allegiances to particular sneakers, musicians, or soft drinks help us define our
place in modern society, and these choices also help us form bonds with others who share
similar preferences. This comment by a participant in a focus group captures the curious
bonding that can be caused by consumption choices: “I was at a Stanley Cup party, and I
picked up an obscure drink. Somebody else across the room went ‘Yo!’ because he had the
same thing. People feel a connection when you’re drinking the same thing.”12
The Global Consumer

One way the consumer experience has changed in the past 10 years is that, ever-
increasingly, consumers can connect with other consumers and have similar experi-
ences with other consumers around the globe. Increases in social media usage and
e-commerce have made it so that consumers can not only find information about prod-
ucts and events around the globe, they can also purchase them (through internationally
accessible websites) and experience them (through media such as YouTube). This has
given rise to a global consumer culture, in which people around the world are united by
their common devotion to brand-name consumer goods, movie stars, and celebrities.13
For example, Beyoncé has seen global success with international album sales and con-
cert tours that sell out worldwide. Likewise, football star Messi, who plays for FC Barce-
lona, has been an effective spokesperson for Samsung products around the world.
We owe much of this interconnectedness to developments in technology that
allow us to link with companies—and with each other—regardless of our physical
location. U-commerce is the use of ubiquitous networks, whether in the form of wear-
able technology or customized advertisements beamed to us on our cell phones (“Hey,
you’re walking by McDonald’s. Come on in for today’s burger special”), that enable
real-time connections in business and consumption behaviour.14
The rise of global marketing means that even smaller companies are looking to
expand overseas—and this increases the pressure to understand how customers in
other countries are the same as or different from the customers in the host country.
In the restaurant industry, for example, Shakey’s pizza restaurants are mushrooming in
the Philippines, and food from the International House of Pancakes is selling like hot-
cakes in Tokyo. This book pays special attention to the good and bad aspects of this
cultural homogenization.
V irt u a l C on su mp tio n CO 4
Electronic marketing increases convenience by breaking down many of the barriers
caused by time and location. You can shop 24 hours a day without leaving home
and you can find a product online at an e-tailer in another country and order it for
delivery—whether you are at home or somewhere else around the globe.
And it’s not all about businesses selling to consumers (B2C commerce). In addi-
tion, virtual consumption has greatly facilitated consumer-to-consumer activity (C2C
commerce). Just as e-consumers are not limited to local retail outlets in their shop-
ping, they are not limited to their local communities when looking for friends. An
excellent example of this is the e-commerce website Etsy, where consumers can mar-
ket their products, from jewellery to baby toys, to other consumers.
Picture a small group of local collectors who meet once a month at a local diner
to discuss their shared interests over coffee. Now multiply that group by thousands,
and include people from all over the world with a shared passion for sports
memorabilia, Barbie dolls, Harley-Davidson motorcycles, refrigerator magnets, or
massively multiplayer online games (MMOGs) such as League of Legends. These are
examples of virtual brand communities. League of Legends alone has 27 million
people playing each day.15
The Web also provides an easy way for consumers around the world to exchange
information about their experiences. Sites like Yelp, Amazon.com, and RateMyProfes-
sors.com enable consumers to share their thoughts and feelings on everything from
restaurants, to books, to the professor they had last semester.
If you’re a typical student, you probably can’t recall a time when the Internet was
just a static, one-way platform that transmitted text and a few sketchy images. Today
the Internet is exploding in terms of possibilities and is the backbone of our society.
Widespread access to devices like personal computers and smartphones ensures that
consumers of practically any age and living in virtually any part of the world can cre-
ate and share content. But information doesn’t just flow from big companies or govern-
ments down to the people; today each of us can communicate with huge numbers of
people by a click on a keypad, so information flows across people as well.
This type of information flow across people has been referred to as a horizontal
revolution. This horizontal revolution is characterized in part by the prevalence of
social media. Social media are the online means of communication, conveyance, col-
laboration, and cultivation among interconnected and interdependent networks of peo-
ple, communities, and organizations enhanced by technological capabilities and
mobility. There is little doubt that the digital revolution is one of the most significant
influences on consumer behaviour, and the impact of the Web will continue to expand
as more and more people around the world log in. Many of us are avid Web surfers, and
it is hard to imagine a time when texting, tweeting, Facebooking, or pinning favourite
items on Pinterest were not an accepted part of daily life—not to mention those who
compulsively check in on FourSquare at their local Starbucks 10 times a day!
Facebook, the largest social media platform, offers synchronous interactions (ones
that occur in real time, as when you text back and forth with a friend) and asynchro-
nous interactions (ones that don’t require all participants to respond immediately, as
when you text a friend and get an answer the next day), photo sharing, games, applica-
tions, groups, e-retailing, and more, and currently has more than 1.3 billion active
users.16 And people aren’t just joining social communities; they are contributing, too!
YouTube users upload more than 100 hours of video every minute of every day. That’s
roughly equivalent to 504 000 full-length movies uploaded weekly. Consider these
mind-boggling social media stats:17
• If you were paid $1 for every time an edit was made on Wikipedia, you would
earn $360 per hour.
• It took radio 38 years to reach 50 million listeners. TV took 13 years to reach 50
million users. The Internet took four years to reach 50 million people. In under
nine months, Facebook added 100 million users.
• Social media activity has overtaken porn as the number-one online activity.
Social media has not only changed the way

in which consumers interact with each other,
but also how they interact with and think
about brands.
© Twin Design/Shutterstock
• If Facebook were a country, it would be the third largest country in the world,
bigger than the United States and Indonesia.
• Eighty percent of companies use LinkedIn as their primary recruiting tool.
• 23 percent of teens consider Instagram their favourite social network.
• 80 percent of Pinterest users are female, and 92 percent of Pinterest posts are
pinned by women.
• Six billion hours per month are spent watching YouTube videos.
• There are 400 million Snapchat snaps being sent every day.
This is all exciting stuff, especially because social media platforms enable a culture
of participation—a belief in democracy; the ability to freely interact with other people,
companies, and organizations; open access to venues that allows users to share content,
from simple comments to reviews, ratings, photos, stories, and more; and the power to
build on the content of others from one’s own unique point of view. Of course, just as
with democracy in the real world, we have to take the bitter with the sweet. There are
plenty of unsavoury things going on in cyberspace, and the hours people spend on
Facebook, on online gambling sites, or in virtual worlds such as Second Life have led to
divorce, bankruptcy, or jail in the real world.
The Internet is also changing how we interact with products themselves. The term
“the Internet of things” has been used to refer to the growing number of smart, con-
nected, and interactive products available to consumers today.18 For example, the mar-
ket for wearable technology is expanding, and home audio providers such as Sonos are
taking advantage of cloud technology to allow greater convenience and access to
music.19 In another example, Google has purchased Nest, a smart thermostat system
that programs itself around the user’s behavioural patterns. The purchase of Nest by
Google indicates that the company has an interest in moving beyond its core competen-
cies toward smart, connected product offerings as well.20
CO 5 Marketing Ethics and Public Policy

In business, conflicts often arise between the goal of succeeding in the marketplace
Ethics and the desire to conduct business honestly and to maximize the well-being of con-
sumers by providing them with safe and effective products and services. Accordingly,
many universities and corporations are now focusing very intently on teaching and
reinforcing ethical behaviour.
Busine ss Eth ics

Business ethics are essentially rules of conduct that guide actions in the marketplace—
the standards against which most people in a marketplace judge what is right, wrong,
good, or bad. These universal values include honesty, trustworthiness, fairness,
respect, justice, integrity, concern for others, accountability, and loyalty.
Ethical business is good business. Consumers think better of products made by
firms they feel are behaving ethically.21 But just what is ethical behaviour? Some-
times it’s not so easy to tell. For example, when you download songs from music-
sharing sites such as Pirate Bay, are you stealing? The film and recording industries
think you are!22
Notions of right and wrong do differ across people, organizations, and cultures.
Some businesses, for example, believe it is all right for salespeople to persuade cus-
tomers to buy even if it means giving them false information, while other firms feel
that anything less than total honesty with customers is terribly wrong. Because every
culture has its own set of values, beliefs, and customs, ethical business behaviours
are defined quite differently around the world. For example, one recent study found
that because of differences in values (more on this in Chapter 6), Mexican firms are
less likely to have formal codes of ethics and more likely to bribe public officials
than are American or Canadian companies. On the other hand, different attitudes
about work and interpersonal relationships mean that Mexican companies are also
more likely to treat lower-level employees better than do their NAFTA partners to
the north.23
These cultural differences certainly influence whether business practices such
as bribery are acceptable. In Japan, it’s called kuroi kiri (black mist); in Germany,
it’s schmiergeld (grease money); Mexicans refer to la mordida (the bite); the French
say pot-de-vin (jug of wine); and Italians speak of the bustarella (little envelope).
They’re all talking about baksheesh, the Middle Eastern term for a “tip” to grease
the wheels of a transaction. Giving “gifts” in exchange for getting business from
suppliers or customers is common and acceptable in many countries, even though
this practice may be frowned upon in Canada. Recently, more than 800 business
experts were asked to identify the countries where this practice is most flagrant.
Russia and China emerged at the top of the list, with Taiwan and South Korea close
behind. The “cleanest” countries were Australia, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria,
and Canada.24
Pr e scr ib i ng Et hic a l S ta n da r ds o f Co n d uct

Professional organizations often devise a code of ethics for their members. For exam-
ple, the American Marketing Association’s Code of Ethics (see www.marketingpower.
com) provides guidelines for conduct in many areas of marketing practice, some of
which are as follows:25
• Disclosure of all substantial risks associated with a product or service
• Identification of added features that will increase the cost
• Avoidance of false or misleading advertising
• Rejection of high-pressure or misleading sales tactics
• Prohibition of selling or fundraising under the guise of conducting market research
Intentionally or not, some marketers do violate their bond of trust with consum-
ers. In some cases these actions are actually illegal, as when a manufacturer deliber-
ately mislabels the contents of a package, or when a retailer adopts a bait-and-switch
strategy, whereby consumers are lured into the store with promises of inexpensive
products with the sole intent of getting them to switch to higher-priced ones.
Industry is increasingly coming to realize that ethical behaviour is good busi-
ness in the long run, since consumer trust and satisfaction translates into years of
loyalty. However, many problems remain. Sometimes consumers’ buying behaviour
is not consistent with their positive attitudes about ethical products. In a survey
The Canadian Code of Advertising Standards

helps to ensure that the ads you see and
hear are truthful, accurate, and fair.
Reproduced with permission of Advertising Standards
Canada.
Marketing
Insight
One of the biggest ethical issues facing many
marketers today relates to how much they
can—or should—know about their customers.
Virtually anyone who surfs the Web or carries a ASC helps protect Canadians from false messaging Advertising Standards Canada
in advertising. Because among all the pretty words
smartphone shares reams of personal informa- and pictures – truth matters.
adstandards.ca
tion with all sorts of companies (whether he or
she knows it or not). Social network sites such
as Facebook and major companies such as
Apple have come under fire for their privacy
policies. Still, it’s unclear whether many
“digital natives” (i.e., those born and raised
during the age of digital technology, who are
highly comfortable and familiar with computers designed to measure people’s willingness to pay for fair-trade coffee, researchers
from an early age) are that concerned about found that most coffee drinkers were willing
Cossette ASC to pay an average price premium
100% of Final Size of 10
Speak the Truth Mag Ads 7.875” x 10.75”
whether others know where they are or what percent. Only 10 percent of respondents were willing to pay the7.375”
current
x 10.25” 27 percent
they buy. 105071-1 26
105071-1_ASC_CHE_DRE_4C_E.indd
7.875” x 10.75”
price premium.105071 Throughout this book, ethical issues related to 8.125”
4C the xpractice
11” of mar-
Some online data and tracking firms are Cyan None
keting are12-3-2010
highlighted.
10:06 AM
Magenta None
concerned about what gets shared—and they Chatelaine ENG
Yellow
Black
7.875” x 10.75”
None
want to preempt any consumer backlash that K.Dhillon E.Gertz G.Kouts
A.Jacob Jacob, Ashleigh / Jacob, Ashleigh
might prevent them from gathering valuable
data. Several major firms are banding together
to form the Open Data Partnership, which will
Needs and
3 Wants: Do Marketers 100%
allow consumers to edit the interests, demo- Manipulate Consumers?

graphics, and other profile information col-
lected about them. It will also allow people to One of the most common and stinging criticisms of marketing is that marketing tech-
choose to not be tracked at all.27 niques (especially advertising) are responsible for convincing consumers that they
“need” many material things and that they will be unhappy and somehow inferior
people if they do not have these “necessities.” The issue is a complex one and is cer-
tainly worth considering: Do marketers give people what they want, or do they tell
people what they should want?
Do Marketers Create Artificial Needs?

The marketing system has come under fire from both ends of the political spectrum.
On the one hand, some believe that advertising contributes to the moral breakdown of
society by presenting images of hedonistic pleasure, thus encouraging the pursuit
of secular humanism. On the other hand, some argue that the same deceitful promises of
material pleasure function to buy off people who would otherwise be revolutionaries
working to change the system.28 Through advertising, the system creates demand that
only its products can satisfy.
One response to this argument is that a need is a basic biological motive, while a
want represents one way society has taught us to satisfy that need. For example, while
thirst is biologically based, we are taught to want Coca-Cola to satisfy that thirst rather
than, say, goat’s milk. Thus, the need is already there; marketers simply recommend
ways to satisfy it. A basic objective of advertising is to create awareness that these
needs exist, rather than to create the needs.
Are Advertising and Marketing Necessary?

As social critic Vance Packard wrote, “Large-scale efforts are being made, often with
impressive success, to channel our unthinking habits, our purchasing decisions, and
our thought processes by the use of insights gleaned from psychiatry and the social
sciences.”29 This criticism may be even more relevant to online communications,
where a simple click delivers a world of information to us.
Goods are arbitrarily linked to desirable social attributes. One influential critic
even argued that the problem is that we are not materialistic enough; that is, we do not
sufficiently value goods for the utilitarian functions they deliver but instead focus on
the irrational value of goods for what they symbolize. According to this view, for exam-
ple, “Beer would be enough for us, without the additional promise that in drinking it
we show ourselves to be manly, young at heart, or neighbourly.”30
As we saw above, one response to this particular argument is that products are
designed to meet existing needs, and advertising merely helps to communicate the
products’ availability. According to the economics-of-information perspective, advertis-
ing is an important source of consumer information.31 This view emphasizes the
economic cost of the time spent searching for products, arguing that consumers are
willing to pay for advertising because the information it provides reduces search time.
Public Policy and Consumerism

The welfare of the consumer is protected by many laws at the federal, provincial, and
municipal levels. Regulations put forth by these governmental agencies sometimes
overlap and are constantly changing. The main thrust of regulation is to protect the
consumer from unfair business practices and to protect the broad interests of society.
Laws that involve “cooling-off” periods for signing purchase agreements try to protect
average consumers from getting into things they later regret. Other laws, such as the
labelling of harmful products (e.g., cigarettes), are meant to protect the health of
Canadians. Some of the various laws are outlined in Table 1–2.
The field of consumer behaviour can play an important role in improving our
lives as consumers.32 Many researchers assist in formulating or evaluating public poli-
cies such as those that ensure that products are labelled accurately, that people can
understand important information presented in advertising, or that children are not
exploited by program-length toy commercials masquerading as TV shows.
TABLE 1–2
Examples of Federal Government Legislation Intended to Enhance Consumers’ Welfare
Year Act Purpose
1949 National Trademark and True Sets out who is authorized to use the national trademark “Canada Standards” and how
Labelling Act it is to be used. The act also empowers the governor in council to regulate how the con-
tent and quality of goods are required to be labelled or described when advertised.
1953 Food and Drugs Act Protects consumers from purchasing food, cosmetics, drugs, and therapeutic devices
that are passed off in a deceptive or misleading manner or pose a risk to human health.
1969 Hazardous Products Act Fosters consumer safety through the banning of products that pose unacceptable hazards
to the consumer. Products that have a limited potential to harm individuals because of
improper care or use are required to be affixed with labels warning consumers of the
nature of the danger.
1970 Motor Vehicle Safety Act Establishes minimum safety standards for motor vehicles and their components through
the setting of specific design and performance requirements.
1970 Consumer Packaging and Sets out regulations for the packaging, labelling, and sale of prepackaged goods to
Labelling Act consumers.
1970 Textile Labelling Act Requires all textile products that are offered for sale to consumers to bear labels attesting
to the amount and types of generic fibres contained within the product. The act also
places conditions on the importation, advertising, and sale of these types of products.
1971 Weights and Measures Act Establishes standardized forms of measurement for use in trade in Canada and assures
the accuracy and correct use of all equipment used for this purpose.
1973 Precious Metals Marketing Act Sets the quality and grading standards to be followed in the identification and marking
of precious-metal items.
1986 Competition Act Prohibits misleading advertising and deceptive marketing practices in promoting the
supply or use of a product or service or any business interest.
2000 Personal Information Protection Offers consumers the opportunity to know what information is being collected about
and Electronic Documents Act them by regulated businesses, to opt out of businesses’ information-collection practices,
and to correct inaccurate information.
2003 Physical Activity and Sport Act The objectives of this act are to encourage, promote, and develop physical activity and
sport in Canada.
2010 Canada Consumer Product Safety The purpose of this act is to protect the public by addressing or preventing dangers to
Act human health or safety that are posed by consumer products in Canada, including those
that circulate within Canada and those that are imported.
Sources: Based on Revised Statutes of Canada (Ottawa: Queen’s Printer for Canada, 1985), © Queen’s Printer for Canada; Department of Consumer and Corporate Affairs, “Federal Legislation and Programs Relating
to Consumer Protection,” March 1973, rev. February 1975; Department of Justice Canada, “2012 Annual Statutes,” rev. April 2012, http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/AnnualStatutes/index2012.html.
Of course, to a large degree consumers depend on their governments to regulate

and police safety and environmental standards. Protecting consumers is more problem-
atic this century as the majority of manufacturing has moved offshore. Millions of
Chinese-made toys are regularly pulled off shelves because of lead paint or basic design
flaws.33 MEGA Brands used to be a darling of the Canadian stock exchange, but finan-
cial losses from product recalls of poorly manufactured and designed toys hurt the
company for a period of time. These problems are not limited to hard goods. A major
Chinese supermarket chain in Canada had to pull a possibly tainted baby milk formula
after 6000 babies were sickened in China. The Chinese-made brands were suspected of
containing melamine, a chemical that makes the product appear to have higher protein
levels than it actually does.34
Consumer Activism and Its Impact on Marketing

Adbusters is a not-for-profit organization that advocates for “the new social activist
movement of the information age.”35 Adbusters sponsors numerous initiatives, includ-
ing Buy Nothing Day and TV Turnoff Week, intended to discourage rampant commer-
cialism. These efforts, along with biting ads and commercials that lampoon advertising
messages, are part and parcel of a strategy called culture jamming that aims to disrupt
efforts by the corporate world to dominate our cultural landscape. The Culture
Jammers Manifesto proclaims opposition to the so-called mind-polluters: “On the rub-
ble of the old culture, we will build a new one with a non-commercial heart and
soul.”36 Indeed, Adbusters was at the forefront in starting the Occupy movement seen
in 2011 in a number of North American cities.
Firms themselves are becoming increasingly interested in Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR), by which they voluntarily choose to protect or enhance their
positive social and environmental impacts as they go about their business activities.
This is often driven by consumer demand, as companies attempt to differentiate them-
selves in the marketplace. Companies such as Lush, the Body Shop, and American
Apparel have successfully differentiated themselves on ethical attributes. While some
marketers donate their own money to good causes (corporate giving), others promise
donations to charity as purchase incentives (a form of cause-related marketing).37
Other firms have taken a green marketing approach in which marketers offer
products in ways that are less harmful to the environment and position their brand on
the basis of sustainable attributes. Some firms have focused their efforts on reducing
wasteful packaging. For example, Unilever recently committed to an ambitious plan
for reducing by one half the waste associated with the packaging and disposal of its
products by 2020.38 Other companies, such as Patagonia and Seventh Generation,
have been very successful in positioning their offers on the basis of sustainable attri-
butes. Some consumers are skeptical of green marketing efforts as a result of green-
washing, which occurs when companies make false or exaggerated claims about how
environmentally friendly their products are.39
Social marketing refers to using marketing techniques normally employed to
sell beer or detergent to encourage positive behaviours such as increased literacy or
to discourage negative activities such as drunk driving.40 A Swedish project aimed at
curbing adolescent drinking illustrates social marketing at work. The Swedish
Brewers Association invested 10 million Skr (about $7.5 million) in a cooperative
effort with the Swedish Non-Violence Project to change teens’ attitudes about alco-
hol consumption. Consumer researchers working on the project discovered that
Swedish adolescents freely admitted that they “drink in order to get drunk” and
enjoyed the feeling of being intoxicated, so trying to persuade them to give up alco-
hol would be a formidable task. However, the teens reported they were also afraid of
Tim Hortons uses cause-related marketing to
HELP SEND EVEN support sending kids in need to camp.
MORE KIDS TO CAMP

All Tim Hortons trademarks referenced herein are owned
by Tim Hortons. Used with permission.
BUY A COFFEE WEDNESDAY, JUNE 3
© Tim Hortons, 2015

FrogBox is a Canadian company that offers

consumers eco-friendly, reusable moving
boxes. The company is a great example of a
successful green marketing enterprise, and
it also engages in cause-related marketing
by donating 1 percent of gross revenues to
frog habitat restoration.
Courtesy of www.frogbox.com
losing control over their own behaviour, especially if there was a risk of being
exposed to violence. And, while worries about the long-term health effects of drink-
ing didn’t concern this group (after all, at this age many teens believe they will live
forever), female adolescents reported a fear of becoming less attractive as a result of
prolonged alcohol consumption.
Indeed, some consumer researchers are themselves organizing to not only study
but to rectify what they see as pressing social problems in the marketplace. This per-
spective is called Transformative Consumer Research (TCR). It promotes research
projects that include the goal of helping people or bringing about social change. Con-
sumers are not objects of research, but collaborators who work with the researchers to
realize this change. Adherents of TCR work with at-risk populations, such as children,
the disadvantaged, and the disabled, or on such topics as materialism, consumption of
dangerous products, and compulsive consumption.41
CO 6 The Dark Side of Consumer Behaviour

In late 2008, a crowd waiting to take advantage of a big holiday sale at a Walmart store
in New York trampled a temporary worker to death as people rushed to grab dis-
counted merchandise off the store’s shelves. A lawsuit filed on behalf of the man’s
family claimed that in addition to providing inadequate security, the retailer “engaged
in specific marketing and advertising techniques to specifically attract a large crowd
and create an environment of frenzy and mayhem.”42 Just how far will people go to
secure a bargain?
Despite the best efforts of researchers, government regulators, and concerned

industry people, consumers’ worst enemies are sometimes themselves. Individuals are
often depicted as rational decision makers, calmly doing their best to obtain products
and services that will maximize the health and well-being of themselves, their families,
and society. In reality, however, consumers’ desires, choices, and actions often result in
negative consequences to the individual or the society in which he or she lives.
Some consumer activities stem from social pressures, such as excessive drinking
or cigarette smoking, and the cultural value put upon money can encourage such
activities as shoplifting or insurance fraud. Exposure to unattainable media ideals of
beauty and success can create dissatisfaction with the self. Many of these issues will
be touched upon later in the book, but for now let’s review some dimensions of what
has been called the “dark side” of consumer behaviour.
Addictive Consumption
Consumer addiction is a physiological or psychological dependency on products or
services. This type of addiction includes addiction to alcohol, drugs, and cigarettes,
and many companies profit from selling addictive products or by selling solutions to
addiction. Although most people equate addiction with drugs, virtually any product
or service can be seen as relieving some problem or satisfying some need to the point
that reliance on it becomes extreme.
This advertisement from Mothers Against

Drunk Driving (MADD) highlights some of
the negative consequences of alcohol
consumption.
Courtesy of MADD
Psychologists have compared social media addiction to chemical dependency, to the

Consumers point where it induces symptoms of withdrawal when users are deprived of their fix. As
in Focus one noted, “Everyone is a potential addict—they’re just waiting for their drug of choice to
come along, whether heroin, running, junk food or social media.”43 Indeed, a survey
Yik Yak is a hugely popular social app that has reported one in three smartphone owners would rather give up sex than their phones!44
invaded numerous high schools and college And as many of us realize, this fixation grows by the “enablers” around us as they exhibit
and university campuses. The downside is that the same behaviour. Indeed, one study documented that college students were much more
it fosters cyber-bullying because it does not likely to pull out their phones when someone they were sitting with had just done so.45
require users to post a profile, so they remain
anonymous. It sorts messages only by geo-
graphic location and only posts within a Compulsive Consumption
1.5-mile radius, so it’s ideal for a school envi- For some consumers, the expression “born to shop” is quite literal. These consumers
ronment. Offensive “yaks” that derogate stu- shop because they feel compelled to do so rather than because shopping is a
dents by name, encourage violence, or make pleasurable or functional task. Compulsive consumption refers to repetitive
sexually suggestive comments appear more
shopping, often excessive, done as an antidote to tension, anxiety, depression,
often than they should. It’s like a graffiti-
or boredom. “Shopaholics” turn to shopping in much the same way as those with
defaced bathroom wall at the student union—
addictions turn to drugs or alcohol.46
but on digital steroids.
Compulsive consumption is distinctly different from impulse buying, which will
be discussed in Chapter 10. The impulse to buy a specific item is temporary, and it
centres on a specific product at a particular moment. In contrast, compulsive buying is
an enduring behaviour that centres on the process of buying, not the purchases them-
selves. As one woman who spent $20 000 per year on clothing confessed, “I was pos-
sessed when I went into a store. I bought clothes that didn’t fit, that I didn’t like, and
that I certainly didn’t need.”47
In some cases it is fairly safe to say that the consumer, not unlike a drug addict,
has little or no control over consumption. The products, whether alcohol, cigarettes,
chocolate, or diet colas, control the consumer. Even the act of shopping itself is an
addicting experience for some consumers. Much negative or destructive consumer
behaviour can be characterized by the following three common elements:48
1. The behaviour is not engaged in by choice.
2. The gratification derived from the behaviour is short-lived.
3. The person experiences strong feelings of regret or guilt afterward.
Consumers
in Focus
Gambling is an example of a consumption addiction that touches every segment
of consumer society. Whether it takes the form of casino gambling, playing the slots,
betting on sports events with friends or through a bookie, or buying lottery tickets,
One of the negative effects of marketing on
excessive gambling can be quite destructive. Taken to extremes, gambling can result in
consumers is that it can lead to distorted views
lowered self-esteem, debt, divorce, and neglected children. According to one psychol-
of body image, especially among young girls.
ogist, gamblers exhibit a classic addictive cycle: They experience a high while in
Although there are many cultural factors influ-
encing how young women view themselves, action and a depression when they stop gambling, which leads them back to the thrill
marketing and advertising surely play a role.51 of the action. Money is the substance that hardcore gamblers abuse.49
In one intriguing study, the incidence of disor- A $3.5 billion lawsuit against the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation on
dered eating rose dramatically after Western behalf of more than 10 000 problem gamblers gives a glimpse into the devastating
television was introduced in Fiji.52 effects of addictive consumer gambling.50 Families have lost their livelihoods, and
The website www.about-face.org attempts suicide is sometimes seen as the only option. Although the government has created a
to call out companies that promote unrealistic, self-exclusion program in which problem gamblers can self-identify and ask to be
unattainable, or demeaning images of women. barred from any gambling facilities, this has not been effective. Provincial governments
Its gallery of offenders includes brands such as across the country now rely heavily on gambling to finance projects. No one seems to
Diesel (for suggesting “stupid” women are sexy), have a good solution.
PETA (for objectifying women, although they are
nice to the animals), and American Apparel (for
advertising clothing with models wearing very Illegal Activities
little of it). Their gallery of winners, on the other
C o ns u me r Th eft
hand, offers examples of marketers who have
gotten it right, portraying women in positive, In North America, a retail theft is committed every five seconds. Shrinkage is the
realistic, and attainable ways. industry term for inventory and cash losses from shoplifting and employee theft.
This is a massive problem for businesses, and the cost is passed on to consumers in
As I See It
Eating is an inherently social activ- Importantly, our study showed that it is not simply eating
ity. Most meals are consumed with with heavy people that makes you eat more (or less); it depends
Courtesy of Simon Fraser University/Journal
others. As the obesity rates in most on what these other consumers choose. If a heavy-set colleague
developed countries reach epi- eats a lot, he or she is a better lunch partner than a thin colleague
demic proportions, understanding who orders the same dish. On the other hand, a thin colleague who
why we make the food choices we eats lightly is more likely to cause others around him or her to
do is crucial. Past research order less. Perhaps ironically, the most dangerous people to eat
of Consumer Research
strongly suggests that obesity is with are not those who are overweight, but rather those who are
driven largely by the overconsump- thin but eat large portions.
tion of food. However, given that Thus, from the perspective of self-regulation, it’s impor-
people eat many meals in a social tant to identify situations where you are likely to be vulnera-
Brent McFerran, Assistant or public setting, it is surprising ble to overconsumption. As a matter of maintaining a healthy
Professor, Simon Fraser University that little research has examined body weight, small food-intake decisions have a larger impact
how our food choices are shaped on weight than people realize. This research gives us a clearer
by those around us. picture of how such cues operate, which is important to
In order to test how the body understanding and moving toward the goal of a healthy body
type of others affects our food consumption, we used a profes- weight.
sionally constructed obesity prosthesis (commonly known as a
“fat suit”) that was worn by a confederate (fake participant) in
our studies. The suit allowed a single female to portray both a
thin (size 00) and obese (size 16) consumer, with identical
clothes tailored to fit each body type. Participants believed the
confederate was another participant. The confederate (some-
times wearing the suit, sometimes not) then took either a large
or small quantity of food, and then the participant made her
choice.
What we found was that people used the other’s choice as a
guide that informed their own choice of how much to put on their
plate. Larger portions chosen by others led participants to greater
consumption, and smaller portion choices by others were associ-
ated with eating less. However, the magnitude of this effect
depended on whether the confederate was thin or obese. When she
took a small portion, participants took more when she was obese
than when she was thin. However, when she took a large portion,
people ate more when she was thin than when she was obese. Courtesy of Simon Fraser University/Journal of Consumer Research
Brent McFerran, Darren W. Dahl, Gavan J. Fitzsimons, and Andrea C. Morales, “I’ll Have What She’s Having: Effects of Social Influence and Body Type on the Food Choices of
Others,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (April 2010): 915–929.
the form of higher prices (about 40 percent of the losses can be attributed to employ-
ees rather than shoppers). A comprehensive retail study found that the most fre-
quently stolen products are tobacco, athletic shoes, logo and brand-name apparel,
designer jeans, and undergarments. It is estimated that, in Canada, about $4 billion
is lost per year to shrinkage, which is equivalent to an average loss of $10.8 million
per shopping day!53
The large majority of shoplifting is not done by professional thieves or people
who genuinely need the stolen items.54 About three-quarters of those caught are
middle- or high-income people who shoplift for the thrill of it or as a substitute
for affection. It is common among adolescents. Research evidence indicates that
teen shoplifting is influenced by factors such as having friends who shoplift. It is
also more likely to occur if the adolescent does not believe this behaviour is
morally wrong.54
Adbusters, a not-for-profit magazine based

in Vancouver, promotes a specific form of
anticonsumption with its “Buy Nothing Day.”
It has recently been promoting “Buy Nothing
Christmas.”
Courtesy of Adbusters Media Foundation
Still another growing form of fraud is the abuse of exchange and return
policies. A number of big companies, including GUESS and Staples, are using
software that lets them track a shopper’s track record of bringing items back. They
are trying to crack down on “serial wardrobers” who buy an outfit, wear it once,
and return it; customers who change price tags on items and then return one item
for the higher amount; and shoppers who use fake or old receipts when making a
return. The retail industry loses about $16 billion a year to these and other forms of
fraudulent behaviour. Retail analysts estimate that about 9 percent of all returns
are fraudulent.56
A ntic o n s u mpti o n
Some types of destructive consumer behaviour can be thought of as anticonsumption,
which involves rebelling against the idea of consumption itself. Anticonsumption
can range from product tampering, in which innocent consumers are hurt or killed, to
graffiti on buildings and subways, to simply boycotting a particular brand. Anticon-
sumption can also take the form of political protest, in which activists alter or destroy
billboards and other advertisements that promote what they feel are unhealthy or
unethical acts. In one notable example of anticonsumption, consumers boycotted the
Abercrombie & Fitch clothing brand after CEO Mike Jeffries commented that it was an
exclusionary brand–only for “cool, good-looking people.” In response, a grassroots
movement emerged, encouraging consumers to donate their Abercrombie clothes for
homeless people to wear. The #Fitchthehomeless campaign has over 8 million views
on YouTube.
How Do We Find Out about Consumers? CO 7
The Role of Consumer Research

As noted above, marketers often wish to find out about consumers’ attitudes, opinions,
behaviours, and preferences because by understanding the consumer, the marketer is
best able to appeal to relevant needs. To this end, marketers often engage in various
forms of consumer (marketing) research. Two ways this can be done are by collecting
primary data and by collecting secondary data. When the data is collected by the
researcher specifically for the research question at hand, this is called primary
research. However, sometimes the marketer can find the information needed by going
to a preexisting source of information collected for another purpose. When the
researcher uses data collected by another entity to answer a new research question,
this is called secondary research. For example, as noted above, when the Government
of Canada collects statistical information regarding its citizens, marketers may use this
information to provide insights about the consumer in ways that inform marketing
strategy (www.statcan.gc.ca).
Primary Research
A number of options are available to marketers and consumer researchers who
want to collect primary data regarding consumers. As we will see, common tech-
niques include surveys, focus groups, interviews, observational research, qualita-
tive methods, and experiments. One of the goals of primary research is to uncover
consumer insights. The term consumer insight refers to more than just observing
what consumers are doing; it involves probing deeper to understand the underly-
ing motivations for a given behaviour. For example, a consumer insight would
not just describe the types of consumers drinking Tim Hortons coffee, but would
also describe why they drink the coffee. What conscious and unconscious motives
do they have for drinking this particular brand? Does it reflect their underlying
values or identity in some way? Armed with this information, marketers can better
appeal to consumers’ needs.57
Su rve y Re s e a r c h
One common method of data collection is using surveys. A survey is a method of
data collection in which the respondents self-report answers to a set of questions
posed by the researcher. The most common forms of surveys include written
surveys, online surveys, and phone surveys. Surveys can encompass a variety of
types of questions, including those calling for open-ended responses, those
requiring fill-in-the-blanks, and those using rating scales. As with any data
collection technique, surveys have pros and cons. This research method usually
allows researchers to collect data from a lot of people within a relatively short
period of time, but may not allow consumers to provide as rich and detailed
responses as other research methods.
Fo cus G ro ups
Because of some of the limitations of the survey method, researchers sometimes turn to
focus group research. Focus groups usually involve small group sessions with approxi-
mately six to twelve consumer participants. The session is guided by a moderator who
leads a group discussion involving a product, concept, or marketing message. Focus
groups are often used when a new idea or product is being tested, or the researchers
want to generate new ideas for what strategic direction to take next. As you might
guess, one benefit of focus groups is that they tend to elicit more rich, detailed, and nar-
rative feedback from consumers. One drawback, however, is that social influence can
play a role, dampening the expression of consumers’ true individual attitudes (see
Chapter 11 for a discussion of some of these effects).
Int e rvi ews

One other research technique is to utilize in-depth interviews. Like focus groups,
interviews involve direct contact with the consumer. In contrast to focus groups, this
approach involves a one-on-one interaction with an interviewer and respondent.
Interviews allow the researcher to collect rich, in-depth data, but minimize any
impacts of group factors influencing consumer response. Interviews can be particu-
larly useful if the topic is sensitive, embarrassing, or polarizing in some way. The
downside of interviews is that the research process can take much longer and is much
more expensive if each consumer is being asked questions one at a time.
Ob s e rvatio n al Resear ch
Another technique commonly employed by marketers is observational research. In
this type of research consumer behaviours are directly observed, in either a natural
context (e.g., at the mall) or a controlled setting (e.g., a lab that observes how children
play with new toy products). One drawback of surveys, focus groups, and interviews
is that they all involve the consumers themselves reporting on their attitudes, behav-
iours, or experiences. One issue with this is that consumers may not always express
the truth, perhaps because they wish to present themselves positively to the researcher,
because they don’t recall everything accurately, or because they are not consciously
aware of all the factors influencing their behaviours. Observation has the benefit of
directly tracking and measuring real behaviours.
One specific type of observation involves ethnographic research, in which
researchers observe and record how consumers behave in real-world contexts, often to
understand the meanings consumers ascribe to different consumption experiences.
Sometimes the researcher goes as far as to immerse him- or herself in the consumption
setting, observing people in context over long periods. A famous example of this
approach is Intuit’s “Follow Me Home” program, in which the researchers asked pur-
chasers of Intuit’s software products if they could follow them home to observe how
they interacted with and used the software.
A final type of observational research is centred in technological forms of behav-
ioural observation. Scanner technology and clickstream data gathering are two exam-
ples of this type of observation method. Stores such as Shoppers Drug Mart utilize
membership cards to observe consumer purchases in an effort to build large databases
Marketing that track their customers’ needs and spending habits. As a result, Shoppers can offer
Insight information, products, and services that are more relevant to its customers. Google
analytics is an example of an observation research system that tracks consumer behav-
One qualitative method that can help marketers iour on websites and provides the using organization with information on clickthrough
uncover true insight into the underlying motiva- behaviour and length of time spent on specific webpages.
tions of their consumers is called the Zaltman
Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), devel- Qu a l itativ e Resear ch
oped by Gerald Zaltman, Professor Emeritus at Researchers also can use other measures to get at more subjective aspects of con-
Harvard Business School. The technique is said sumer behaviours and experiences. One such technique is storytelling, in which
to uncover consumers’ conscious and uncon-
consumers are asked to tell researchers about their experience with the product.
scious motivations by examining their meta-
Another technique is role-playing, in which consumers are asked to put themselves
phorical associations. The ZMET usually asks
in a particular role (e.g., “Imagine you are a mother of an active family”) and act out
participants to collect a set of visual images
how they would respond to a particular marketing stimulus (e.g., a mechanized vac-
that represent their thoughts and feelings about
uum that does the cleaning for you). Other avenues for gathering information include
the focal topic, for example a particular brand.
asking consumers to provide photos or pictures in ways that represent their con-
Each subsequent step in the ZMET process asks
the respondents to look at their images in a dif- sumption experiences or to keep a diary that tracks responses and behaviours over a
ferent way, leading to deeper insights into the period of time. Believe it or not, when seeking ideas for a new line of deodorant,
consumer’s mind. Take a look at what Zaltman Unilever asked female consumers to keep an “armpit diary,” tracking their shaving
says about the technique at www.youtube.com/ habits and deodorant usage over time. It turned out that the women reported con-
watch?v=NQzYclR8ufM. cerns with the condition of their underarm skin, and a new moisturizing line of
deodorant was born.58 All of these are examples of what is called qualitative research,
because they tend to tap into the more subjective, experiential, and narrative aspects
of the consumption experience.
When marketers want to collect qualitative data regarding consumers’ responses
to marketing stimuli and they believe consumers will have trouble in providing
accurate, unbiased responses, they use projective techniques. These involve the
presentation of an ambiguous, unstructured object, activity, or person that a respon-
dent is asked to interpret or explain. For example, if marketers wanted to test poten-
tial brand names, they might ask consumers to report, as quickly as possible what
words come to mind when they see a particular target word. The goal here is to
choose words congruent with brand image and to not trigger negative consumer
reactions. Other projective techniques can involve picture interpretation (i.e., con-
sumers are asked to describe what they see in a visual image) and sentence comple-
tion tasks (e.g., “All golfers are ______”). Such techniques are used when the
marketer wants consumers’ subjective reactions to things like brand names, colours,
and advertising images.
Exp e ri me nta l Res e a r ch

A final research technique involves conducting experiments, which are used when
the researcher wants to make cause-and-effect claims. For example, if the marketer
has a hunch that positive consumer responses to a brand of beer are due to the
newly designed label and not other factors such as the taste, brand name, or con-
sumers’ moods, an experiment might be an effective strategy to determine if this is
the case. In an experiment, the researcher uses random assignment to put partici-
pants into groups or experimental conditions. This means each person has an equal
chance of ending up in any of the experimental conditions. And, if random assign-
ment to conditions (i.e., a “no label” condition, an “old label” condition, and a “new
label” condition) is done properly, each group should not differ on important factors
(e.g., the average age, gender breakdown, self-esteem levels, beer-drinking habits,
etc. should be similar in all three groups) before the experimental “treatment”
is given.
The researcher then holds everything constant across the different experimental
conditions—they are all treated the same by the experimenter, they view the beer
product in the same shaped bottle, they all sample one ounce of the product served at
the same temperature, etc. The only difference is the key manipulation of the causal
factor the researcher wants to examine. In our example, one group might view a beer
bottle with no label, one group would view the bottle with the old label, and one
group would view the bottle with the new label. If the experimenter ensures that the
different experimental conditions start out being similar in nature (via random assign-
ment) and keeps everything constant across the groups, except for the administered
experimental manipulation (i.e., no label, old label, new label), then any differences
across the groups can be attributed to the manipulation. In an experiment, the variable
that the researcher manipulates (label type) is called the independent variable. The
variable that the researcher measures (in this case, taste evaluations) is called the
dependent variable.
Taking It from Here:

The Plan of the Book
This book covers many facets of consumer behaviour, and many of the research
perspectives briefly described in this chapter will be highlighted in later chapters.
The plan of the book is simple: It goes from micro to macro. Think of the book as a
sort of photograph album of consumer behaviour. Each chapter provides a “snapshot”
of consumers, but the lens used to take each picture gets successively wider.
FIGURE 1–2
The Wheel of Consumer Behaviour
Chapter 2 Perception
Chapter 3 Learning and Memory
Chapter 1 An Introduction to Chapter 4 Motivation and Affect
Consumer Behaviour Chapter 5 The Self
Chapter 6 Personality, Lifestyles, and
Values
CONSUMER
BEHAVIOUR
Chapter 11 Group Influence and Social Media

Chapter 12 Income, Social Class, and Family
Structure Chapter 7 Attitudes
Chapter 13 Subcultures Chapter 8 Attitude Change and Interactive
Chapter 14 Cultural Influences on Consumer Communications
Behaviour Chapter 9 Individual How Consumers Form
Chapter 15 The Creation and Diffusion of Culture and Modify Their Attitudes, as
well as Decision Making
Chapter 10 Buying and Disposing
The book begins with issues related to the individual consumer and expands its
focus until it eventually considers the behaviours of large groups of people in their
social settings. The topics to be covered correspond to the wheel of consumer behav-
iour presented in Figure 1–2.
Section 1, “Consumers in the Marketplace,” provides an overview of how consumers
influence marketing, and how marketers influence consumers in the marketplace.
Section 2, “Consumers as Individuals,” considers the consumer at his or her most
micro level. It examines how the individual receives information from his or her imme-
diate environment and how this material is learned, stored in memory. In addition, it
examines how internal consumer characteristics such as motivation, the self-concept,
personality and values can drive consumer behaviour.
Section 3, “Consumers as Decision Makers,” explores how consumers form and
modify attitudes, as well as how consumers use the information they have acquired to
form attitudes to make decisions about consumption activities.
Section 4, “Consumers in Their Social and Cultural Settings,” further expands the
focus by considering how the consumer functions as a part of a larger social structure. This
structure includes the influence of different social groups to which the consumer belongs
and with which he or she identifies, including social class, ethnic groups, and age groups.
In addition, this section will look at consumers in their broader cultural contexts.
MyMarketingLab Study, practise, and explore real business situations with these helpful resources:
• Interactive Lesson Presentations: Work through interactive presentations and assessments to test your knowledge
of business concepts.
• Study Plan: Check your understanding of chapter concepts with self-study quizzes.
• Dynamic Study Modules: Work through adaptive study modules on your computer, tablet, or mobile device.
• Simulations: Practise decision-making in simulated business environments.
Chapter Summary
Consumer behaviour is a process. understanding of both public policy issues (e.g., ethical
marketing practices) and the dynamics of popular culture.
• Consumer behaviour is the study of the processes involved
when individuals or groups select, purchase, and use or • The Web has transformed the way consumers interact with
dispose of products, services, ideas, or experiences to sat- companies and with each other. Online commerce allows
isfy needs and desires. us to locate obscure products from around the world, and
consumption communities provide forums for people to
• A consumer may purchase, use, and dispose of a product,
share opinions and product recommendations. The bene-
but these functions may also be performed by different
fits are accompanied by potential problems, including the
people.
loss of privacy and the deterioration of traditional social
arketers need to understand the wants and needs of dif-
M interactions as people spend more time online.
ferent consumer segments.
• Consumer behaviour can also have a “dark side,” which
• Market segmentation is an important aspect of consumer
includes outcomes such as addictive consumption, com-
behaviour. Consumers can be segmented along many
pulsive consumption, and illegal activities.
dimensions, including product usage, demographics (the
objective aspects of a population, such as age and gender),
Marketers look for consumer behaviour insights through a
and psychographics (psychological and lifestyle character-
variety of research methods.
istics). The importance of relationship marketing means
that marketers are much more attuned to the wants and • Secondary research refers to research that has been con-
needs of different consumer groups over the long term. This ducted by another party and can be applied to the
is especially important as people are empowered to con- research question at hand. Primary research is research
struct their own consumer space—accessing product infor- that is conducted specifically to address the research
mation where and when they want it and initiating contact question at hand.
with companies online instead of passively receiving mar- • While the majority of consumer research has tradition-
keting communications. In addition, consumers may be ally been conducted using surveys, a number of other
thought of as role players who need different products to research methodologies are being used by marketers
help them play their various parts. that seek consumer insight. Focus groups, in-depth
interviews, observation, qualitative methods, and experi-
Consumer behaviour is related to other issues in our lives.
mental approaches represent additional research meth-
• Marketing activities exert an enormous impact on ods that can be utilized to understand consumer
individuals. Consumer behaviour is relevant to our behaviour.
Key Terms
80/20 Rule p. 4 Culture jamming p. 17 Popular culture p. 9
Anticonsumption p. 22 Culture of participation p. 12 Primary research p. 23
Asynchronous interactions p. 11 Database marketing p. 7 Projective techniques p. 25
Big data p. 8 Demographics p. 4 Psychographics p. 5
B2C commerce p. 11 Dependent variable p. 25 Random assignment p. 25
Business ethics p. 13 Diary p. 24 Relationship marketing p. 7
C2C commerce p. 11 Ethnographic research p. 24 Role-playing p. 24
Cause-related marketing p. 17 Exchange p. 3 Secondary research p. 23
Compulsive consumption p. 20 Experiments p. 25 Shrinkage p. 20
Consumer addiction p. 19 Focus groups p. 23 Social marketing p. 17
Consumer behaviour p. 3 Green marketing p. 17 Social media p. 11
Consumer insights p. 23 Horizontal revolution p. 11 Storytelling p. 24
Consumer-generated content p. 9 Independent variable p. 25 Survey p. 23
Consumption communities p. 2 Interviews p. 24 Synchronous interactions p. 11
Corporate giving p. 17 Marketing segmentation p. 4 Transformative Consumer
Corporate Social Observational research p. 24 Research (TCR) p. 18
Responsibility p. 17 Photos or pictures p. 24 U-commerce p. 10
28 S E CT I ON I Consumers in the Marketplace
Review Questions
1. Provide a definition of consumer behaviour. 9. What is meant by the term global consumer culture?
2. Explain what is meant by the phrase “consumer behav- 10. Provide two examples of important legislation that relate
iour is a process.” to Canadian consumers.
3. What are demographics? Give three examples of demo- 11. Define social marketing, and give an example of this
graphic characteristics. technique.
4. Define market segmentation. 12. Define consumer addiction and give two examples.
5. What do we mean by an exchange? 13. What is shrinkage, and why is it a problem?

14. Define anticonsumption, and provide two examples of it.
6. What is popular culture, and how does this concept
relate to marketing and consumer behaviour? 15. What is the difference between primary and secondary
research approaches? What does the term consumer
7. The chapter states that “people often buy products not
insight mean?
for what they do but for what they mean.” Explain the
meaning of this statement and provide an example. 16. Describe the different types of observation approaches
used by consumer behaviour researchers.
8. Describe two types of relationships a consumer can have
with a product. 17. When would you want to use experimental research methods?
Consumer Behaviour Challenge
Discuss bonds, supporting your argument with examples from

your list of products used by the group.
1. A company introduced a teddy bear for Valentine’s Day
called “Crazy for You.” This toy aroused the ire of mental 4. Although demographic information on large numbers of
health advocates because a straitjacket restrains the consumers is used in many marketing contexts, some
cuddly bear’s paws and the stuffed animal comes with people believe that the sale of data on customers’
institutional commitment papers. Supporters of the com- incomes, buying habits, and so on constitutes an inva-
pany’s decision to keep selling the bear say opponents sion of privacy and should be stopped. Comment on this
are too “politically correct.”59 What do you think? issue from both a consumer’s and a marketer’s point
of view.
2. Not-for-profit organizations routinely rely on generous
5. List the three stages in the consumption process.
corporate donations, and it’s common to name facilities
Describe the issues that you considered in each of these
after benefactors. The Nationwide Children’s Hospital
stages when you made a recent important purchase.
in Ohio is no exception; its name recognizes the Nation-
wide insurance company’s $50 million donation. Now 6. What aspects of consumer behaviour are likely to be of
the hospital is adding the Abercrombie & Fitch Emer- interest to a financial planner? To a university adminis-
gency Department and Trauma Center, and there is also trator? To a graphic arts designer? To a social worker in a
the Limited Too & Justice Main Lobby. Abercrombie & government agency? To a nursing instructor?
Fitch is notorious for alluring young people with its pro- 7. A book bemoans the new wave of consumer-generated
vocative advertising. The Campaign for a Commercial- content, labelling it “the cult of the amateur.” It com-
Free Childhood opposes this partnership. The group’s pares the social networking phenomenon to the old
director commented that “Abercrombie & Fitch is really story about the monkeys: If you put an infinite number
among the worst of corporate predators. A company of monkeys in a room with an infinite number of type-
with such cynical disregard for children’s well-being writers, eventually they will (by hitting keys randomly)
shouldn’t be able to claim the mantle of healing. . . . reproduce all the major works of literature. In other
And, personally, I find it very concerning that they words, the large majority of user-generated content is at
named their hospital after an insurance company.” 60 about the same level, and the future of professionally
What do you think? Does this cross an ethical line, or produced, quality work is in doubt. Do you agree or dis-
does it matter where the money comes from so long as agree with this assertion?61
the end result is beneficial? 8. Do marketers have the ability to control our desires or the
3. Name some products or services that are widely used by power to create needs? Is this situation changing as the
your social group. State whether you agree or disagree Internet creates new ways to interact with companies? If
with the notion that these products help to form group so, how?
9. An entrepreneur made international news when he set up insurer is testing a program called Pay as You Drive. Vol-
a website to auction off the egg cells of fashion models unteers will get a device the size of an iPhone installed
to the highest bidder (minimum bid: $15 000). The site in their cars. The gadget will use global positioning sat-
was targeted to people who wanted to have very attractive ellite technology to track where the car goes, constantly
babies because they believed this would maximize their sending information back to the insurance company.
children’s chances of succeeding in our society. Is the Cars that spend more time in safer areas will qualify for
buying and selling of humans just another example of bigger discounts.62 Of course, the downside to these
consumer behaviour at work? Do you agree that this ser- efforts is that the insurance companies may be able to
vice is simply a more efficient way to maximize the collect data on where you have driven, how long you
chance of having happy, successful children? Should stayed in one location, and so on. Conduct a poll of 10
this kind of marketing activity be allowed? Would you sell drivers of various ages where you describe these pro-
your eggs or sperm on a website? grams and ask respondents if they would participate to
10. Red Bull announced it will be adding a line of enhanced receive a discount on their insurance premiums. What
waters to its existing line of energy drinks. What research reasons do they give for and against the idea? Do you
methods could you use to test consumer reactions to this find any differences in attitudes based on demographic
new brand extension? characteristics such as age or gender?
12. While you’re talking to car owners, probe to see what
Experiential Exercises relationship (if any) they have with their vehicles. Do
these feelings correspond to the types of consumer/prod-
11. To what degree will consumers trade lower prices for less uct attachments we discussed in this chapter? How are
privacy? Car owners can now let insurance companies these relationships manifested? (Hint: See if any of the
monitor their driving using a new technology in exchange respondents have nicknames for their cars, or if they
for lower rates. Customers who sign up for Progressive’s “decorate” them with personal items.)
TripSense program get a device the size of a Tic Tac box
13. Conduct your own observational research. Choose a service
to plug into their cars. The device will track speed and
provider or retail store (think Starbucks) and observe cus-
how many kilometres are driven at what times of day.
tomers’ natural behaviours. What insights can you draw
Every few months, customers unplug the device from the
from observing customers in a natural setting? Did you
car, plug it into a computer, download the data, and
observe anything that might give you insight into how to
send it to the company. Depending on results, discounts
improve customer experience?
will range from 5 to 25 percent. In Great Britain, a major
Case Study: Marketing in Practice
Know Your Limit attitudes toward both the company and the gaming products it
The career management centre at the Sprott School of Busi- provided the public.
ness at Carlton University had just posted the listing of stu-
dents who had received an internship interview opportunity Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation
with the Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation (OLG), and The OLG is an agency created by the Government of Ontario
Kirk Kristofferson was thrilled to see his name on the list. Fin- that is responsible for 24 gaming sites and sales of lottery prod-
ishing off his third year of study in the Marketing option, Kirk ucts at over 10 000 retail locations across the province. Its
was eager to get some real-world experience, and the OLG central mission is to make life better for people across Ontario.
had seemed like a reasonable place to apply. Kirk knew that This is accomplished in a number of ways. Foremost, the gam-
he would have to put some time in to prepare effectively for ing activities of the OLG produce revenues that go directly to the
the interview. He needed to do research on the organization, government and nonprofit organizations and are used to sup-
gaming itself, and the specifics of the internship opportunity— port health care, sports and recreation, and cultural programs.
an analyst position in the responsible gaming division of the Further, OLG operations generate substantial employment
organization. Kirk wasn’t really a gambler and had rarely and economic benefits in the host communities where their
played the lottery, bet on sports, or visited a casino. In fact, he operations are located. Finally, the OLG provides a distinct
was a bit unclear on where he stood with respect to the notion form of entertainment that certain segments of the population
of government-sponsored gaming. Kirk knew that gambling enjoy and find value in. Importantly, since 1975, lotteries and
was a morally sensitive topic to some people, and he realized casinos have generated more than $28 billion for the benefit of
his research for this opportunity would help him define his the citizens of Ontario.
The OLG was the product of the merger of lottery and prevention of problem gaming, and helps players make
casino operations in the province in the year 2000. Since that informed decisions when playing.
point in time, the corporation has managed and developed a
number of products and brands that broadly cover all aspects Interview Preparation
of gaming in the province. Lottery brands include traditional
Kirk was intrigued after reviewing the history, background, and
brands (e.g., Lotto Max, Lotto 6/49, and Ontario 49), instant
current operations of the OLG. He hadn’t realized how big an
scratch-and-win tickets, specialty games (e.g., Keno), and
operation it managed, and how central the company had
sports betting (e.g., Pro-Line and Pro-Picks). Casinos (e.g.,
become to the revenue model of the provincial government.
Brantford, Great Blue Heron Casino) and slot operations at 14
The organization would certainly provide a great experience
racetracks across the province represent the other central
over the summer, and exposure to all aspects of the business
aspect of OLG business. The OLG has identified four priorities
function. However, Kirk couldn’t quite resolve the uncomfort-
that underlie the management goals of the organization: public
able feelings he had about working in an industry that created
trust (facilitating trust through integrity of their operations),
significant problems for a specific segment of the population.
player experience (providing entertaining gaming), partnership
He did admire the efforts the OLG had made with respect to
(being active partners in the communities where they operate),
responsible gaming, but he knew that this effort didn’t com-
and profits (returning significant dividends to support public
pletely resolve the problems gambling created. Further, he
initiatives).
wondered if the company was truly sincere in its efforts. He
had read reports online that casinos didn’t really enforce the
Know Your Limit; Play within It outlined regulations and policies concerning underage players
Though the OLG is a Crown corporation controlled by the and those with addiction problems.
Government of Ontario, it hasn’t escaped strong criticism What was the real story on responsible gaming? Kirk
from interest groups concerned with the negative impacts imagined he should ask questions in the interview regarding
that gaming can create for individuals and communities. the success and failures of the company in this regard. He
Indeed, critics of legalized gambling generally denounce wondered if working directly in that business unit would
gaming for causing harm to society. Harm here is typically alleviate his fears, or if it would only magnify his concerns.
discussed in terms of the regressive nature of gaming as an Preparing for the interview had certainly raised Kirk’s aware-
implicit tax on those lower in socioeconomic status, the fos- ness and curiosity with respect to the OLG and its role in the
tering of illegal activities that gambling provides, such as the community.
potential for fraud and money laundering, and, perhaps most 1. What types of questions would you ask the OLG if you
concerning, the societal toll that problem gamblers can take were interviewing for an internship? Would it make a dif-
on families and their communities (e.g., divorce, bankruptcy, ference to you if the internship was in casino operations or
lost productivity). in responsible gaming? Why?
Given these concerns, the OLG is strongly committed to 2. Some argue that gambling is a dark consumer behaviour
finding the appropriate balance between profitability and due to the negative impact of this behaviour on some seg-
social responsibility. Specific values of the organization centre ments of the population. Do you agree or disagree? Why?
on integrity, respect, and accountability, and through the
“Know Your Limit, Play within It” initiative, the organization 3. Whose responsibility is it to regulate gambling behaviours?
makes an effort to ensure that players understand how the The consumer? The government? Somebody else?
games work and recognize their own gambling behaviours. 4. Provincial governments across Canada have become
For those with possible gambling problems, the OLG tries to dependent on gaming revenues to fund government pro-
ensure that players know where and when to get help. Work- grams. Do you see this as problematic? Why? What
ing in partnership with government and independent agen- responsibilities does government have in mitigating the
cies, the corporation provides information and tools in the negative outcomes that surround gaming?
No te s
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C HAPTER
2
Perception
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand the difference between sensation and 5 Understand that subliminal advertising is a

perception. controversial—but largely ineffective—way to
persuade consumers.
2 Understand that perception is a three-stage process

that translates raw stimuli into meaning. 6 Understand that a variety of factors can influence

what stimuli consumers will pay attention to.
3 Understand that marketers can appeal to each of the

sensory systems in a variety of ways. 7 Understand that we interpret the stimuli to which we

do pay attention according to learned patterns and
4 Understand how the concept of a sensory threshold expectations.

is important for marketing communication.
Introduction
Whether it’s the taste of President’s Choice Decadent Chocolate Chunk Cookies, the sight of
a Tom Ford perfume ad, or the sound of the music group Maroon 5, we live in a world
overflowing with sensations. Wherever we turn, we are bombarded by a symphony of
colours, sounds, and odours. Some of the “notes” in this symphony, such as the loud bark-
ing of a dog, the shades of the evening sky, or the heady smell of a rose bush, occur natu-
rally. Others come from people: The person sitting next to you in class might sport tinted
blond hair, bright pink pants, and a vanilla-chocolate scent.
Marketers certainly contribute to this commotion. Consumers are never far from adver-
tisements, product packages, radio and TV commercials, or billboards that clamour for
their attention. Each of us copes with this bombardment by paying attention to some stim-
uli and tuning out others. And the messages to which we do choose to pay attention often
wind up differing from what the sponsors intended, as we each put our “spin” on things by
taking away meanings consistent with our own unique experiences, biases, and desires.
This chapter focuses on the process of perception, in which sensations are absorbed by the
consumer and used to interpret the surrounding world.
Sensation is the immediate response of our sensory receptors (those in our eyes, ears, CO 1
nose, mouth, and skin) to such basic stimuli as light, colour, and sound. Perception is the
process by which these sensations are selected, organized, and interpreted. The study of
perception focuses on what we add to or take away from these raw sensations as we choose
which to notice and then go about assigning meaning to them.
Most marketers would agree that, oftentimes, perception can be more influential than
sensation in determining consumer preferences. Coke and Pepsi, for example, are almost
identical in chemical composition, and blind taste tests consistently show that most con-
sumers don’t have the sensory ability to tell the difference between a cold glass of Coke
34 S E C T I O N I I Consumers as Individuals
and a cold glass of Pepsi.1 Below a certain temperature, all we can detect is the cold,
the sugar, and the sensation of the bubbles on our tongues. Thus, based on sensation
alone, it is difficult to distinguish the two brands of cola. Anecdotally, however, most
of us have a very strong preference for one brand of cola over the other. This is where
perception comes into play.
One “neuromarketing” study,2 using brain-scanning (fMRI) technology, found
that when no brand name was presented prior to tasting cola beverages (i.e., consum-
ers relied only on sensation), the reward centres of the brain lit up and Coke and Pepsi
were equally preferred. But, when explicitly told the brand name before drinking,
more consumers preferred Coca-Cola, and an entirely different part of the brain lit
up—the medial prefrontal cortex. This is the area of the brain responsible for thinking
and judging. Culturally learned meanings about the brand influenced consumers’ ulti-
mate perceptions of Coca-Cola.
Thus, based on sensation alone, consumers might equally prefer Pepsi and Coke.
However, our ultimate preferences are also shaped by our perceptions—how we orga-
nize, interpret, and form associations about the brand.
CO 2 Sensory Systems
Like computers, people undergo stages of information processing in which stimuli are
input and stored. Unlike computers, however, consumers do not passively process
whatever information happens to be present. Only a very small number of the stimuli
in our environment are ever noticed. Of these, an even smaller number are attended to,
and even these might not be processed objectively. The meaning of the stimulus is
interpreted by the individual, who is influenced by his or her unique biases, needs,
and experiences. As shown in Figure 2–1, three stages—exposure, attention, and inter-
pretation—make up the process of perception. Before considering each of these stages,
let’s step back and consider the sensory systems that provide sensations to us in the
first place.
External stimuli, or sensory inputs, can be received on a number of channels. We
may see a billboard, hear a jingle, feel the softness of a cashmere sweater, taste a new
flavour of ice cream, or smell a leather jacket. The inputs picked up by our five senses
constitute the raw data that generate many types of responses. For example, sensory
data emanating from the external environment (hearing a song on iTunes) can gener-
ate internal sensory experiences when the song triggers a young man’s memory of his
first dance and brings to mind the smell of his date’s perfume or the feel of her hair on
his cheek.
FIGURE 2–1
An Overview of the Perceptual Process
SENSORY SENSORY
STIMULI RECEPTORS
• Sights Eyes
• Sounds Ears
• Smells Nose Exposure Attention Interpretation
• Tastes Mouth
• Textures Skin
Expectations
C H A P T E R 2 Perception 35
Sensory Marketing: Harnessing

Perception for a Competitive
Advantage
Guests at Omni Hotels are in for a host of luxurious experiences. When they visit the
hotel chain’s website to reserve a room, they will hear the sound of soft chimes play-
ing. On entering the lobby they’ll be hit with the scent of lemongrass and green tea and
view elaborate floral displays. In their rooms they will find eucalyptus bath salts and
Sensation Bars—mini-bars stocked with items such as mojito-flavoured jelly beans
and miniature Zen gardens. In a joint promotion with Starbucks, guests find small,
scented stickers on the front pages of their free copies of USA Today—a blackberry
aroma suggests they start their day at the hotel with a cup of Starbucks coffee “paired
with a fresh muffin.”3
Welcome to the new era of sensory marketing, in which companies pay extra
attention to the impact of sensation on our product experiences. From hotels to
carmakers to brewers, companies recognize that our senses help us decide which
products appeal to us—and which ones stand out from a host of similar offerings in
the marketplace. In one example of this, the Boeing 787: Dreamliner caters to a
multi-sensory experience by giving customers a more spacious experience, using
more natural lighting, ensuring a smoother ride, maintaining optimum cabin
humidity and pressure, and reducing noise by 60 percent. The results are such that
the Dreamliner has been known to counteract the experience of jet lag! In this section
we’ll take a closer look at how some smart marketers use our sensory systems to
create a competitive advantage.
Sight CO 3
Sure, Apple’s products usually work pretty well—but that’s not why many people buy
them. Sleek styling and simple, compact features telegraph an aura of modernity,
sophistication, and just plain “cool.” Marketers rely heavily on visual elements in
advertising, store design, and packaging. They communicate meanings on the visual
channel through a product’s colour, size, and styling.
This ad for a luxury car emphasizes the

contribution made by all of our senses to
the evaluation of a driving experience. In
addition to the five channels of sight, sound,
touch, smell, and taste, the ad mentions the
“sixth sense” of intuition in its treatment of
the “power of perception.”
© 1993 by Lexus, a division of Toyota Motor Sales, USA,
Inc., used by permission. © Harry Vamos
Method used visually pleasing aesthetic

product innovations to shake up the stale
household cleaners market.
© Method Products
H ow P e r c e ptio n C an B e “Co lour ed ”

Colours influence our emotions directly. Evidence suggests that some colours
(particularly red) create feelings of arousal and stimulate appetite, and others (such
as blue) are more relaxing. Products presented against a backdrop of blue in
advertisements are better liked than those shown with a red background, and cross-
cultural research indicates a consistent preference for blue as consumers’ favourite
colour whether they live in Canada or Hong Kong.4 People who complete tasks
when the words or images are displayed on red backgrounds perform better when
they have to remember details, but when blue backgrounds are used they excel at
tasks that require an imaginative response. Olympic athletes who wear red uniforms
are more likely to defeat competitors in blue uniforms, and men rate women who
wear red as more attractive than those who wear blue. In one study, interior
designers created bars decorated primarily in red, yellow, or blue and invited
people to choose one to hang out in. More people chose the yellow and red rooms,
and these guests were more social and active—and ate more. But partygoers in the
blue room stayed longer.5
Colours are rich in symbolic value and cultural meanings. For example, red repre-
sents good luck to the Chinese and is often the main colour in their celebrations. Such
powerful cultural meanings make colour a central aspect of many marketing strategies.
Some reactions to colour come from learned associations—in Western countries black
is the colour of mourning, while in some Eastern countries, notably Japan, white plays
this role. In addition, the colour black is associated with power and may even have an
impact on people who wear it. Teams in the National Hockey League who wear black
uniforms are among the most aggressive; they consistently rank near the top of the
league in penalties during the season.6
We know that perceptions of a colour depend on both its physical wavelength
and how the mind responds to that stimulus. Yellow, which is in the middle of
wavelengths detectable by the human eye, is the brightest colour and attracts
attention. The Yellow Pages were made yellow to heighten the attention level of
bored telephone operators.7 Further, some reactions to colour are due to biological
Renova first differentiated itself from com-

petitors by introducing black-coloured toilet
paper that conveyed an air of sophistication
and exclusivity. Now the company has added
multiple colours to its offerings.
Courtesy of Renova SA
differences. Women tend to be drawn to brighter tones and are more sensitive to
subtle shadings and patterns, because they see colour better than men do; men are
16 times more likely to be colour-blind than women. Age also influences our
response to colour. As we get older our eyes mature and our vision takes on a yellow
cast. Colours look duller to older people, so they prefer white and other bright tones.
This helps to explain why mature consumers are much more likely to choose a
white car; Lexus, which sells heavily in this market, makes 60 percent of its vehicles
in white.
The choice of colour is frequently a key issue in package design. These choices
used to be made casually. Today, however, colour is a serious business, and many
companies realize that their colour choices can exert a big influence on consumers’
assumptions about what is inside the package. When introducing a white cheese as a
“sister product” to an existing blue Castello cheese, a Danish company launched it in
a red package under the name of Castello Bianco. The red package was chosen to pro-
vide maximum visibility on store shelves. Although taste tests were very positive,
sales were disappointing. A subsequent analysis of consumer interpretations showed
that the red packaging and the name gave consumers the wrong impression about the
product type and its degree of sweetness. Danish consumers had trouble associating
the colour red with white cheese. Also, the name Bianco connoted a sweetness that
was incompatible with the actual taste of the product. It was relaunched in a white
package and given the name White Castello. Almost immediately sales more than dou-
bled.8 Table 2-1 lists other colour associations, along with how marketers use them.
Some colour combinations come to be associated so strongly with a corporation
that they become known as the company’s trade dress, and the company may even be
granted exclusive use of these colours. Think of Tiffany and Co. and a distinct shade of
blue comes to mind, one that is trademarked by the company. As a rule, however,
trade-dress protection is granted only when consumers might be confused about what
they are buying because of similar colouration of a competitor’s packages.9 Cadbury
Canada overhauled its packaging, adding its signature purple colour and logo to all its
brands. Survey results showed that while consumers know Crème Eggs and Caramilk
bars as Cadbury brands, people did not associate Crispy Crunch, Crunchie, and Mr. Big
with Cadbury. Therefore, rebranding was necessary to associate all brands through the
signature purple colour.10
TABLE 2–1
Marketing Applications of Colours

Colour Associations Marketing Applications
Yellow Optimistic and youthful Used to grab window shoppers’ attention

Red Energy Often seen in clearance sales
Blue Trust and security Banks
Green Wealth/Serenity Used to create relaxation in stores
Orange Aggressive Call to action: subscribe, buy or sell
Black Powerful and sleek Luxury products
Purple Soothing Beauty or anti-aging products
Source: Adapted from Leo Widrich, “Why Is Facebook Blue? The Science Behind Colors in Marketing,” buffersocial (April 25, 2013), https://blog.
bufferapp.com/the-science-of-colors-in-marketing-why-is-facebook-blue, accessed February 23, 2015.
H ow Y o ur Ey es Mak e Yo u E at Mo r e
Our eyes play tricks on us, and these perceptions can have caloric consequences.11
When pouring or eating foods from larger boxes, the size of the box implicitly suggests
that it’s appropriate or “acceptable” to eat more—and we do! One study gave a number
of moviegoers free medium-size or large-size popcorn buckets and revealed that those
eating out of the large-size buckets ate 45 percent more popcorn.12 Even when 14-day-
old popcorn was used, people still ate 32 percent more from the large-size buckets
even though they said they hated the popcorn.13 The same thing happens at parties.
MBA students at a Super Bowl party were offered Chex Mix either from huge gallon-
size bowls or from twice as many half-gallon bowls. Those dishing from the gallon-
bowls ate 53 percent more.14
These visual illusions also influence how much we pour and drink. Take drinking
glasses, for example. When we pour into a glass, we tend to focus on the height of the
liquid we are pouring and not the width.15 If we are given two glasses that both hold
24 ounces, for instance, we will tend to pour over 30 percent more into the shorter,
wider glass than the taller glass, because we focus on the height and don’t account for
the width. Even the pros get tricked by this illusion. When 48 bartenders were asked to
pour a “shot” of alcohol into either a wide tumbler or a tall highball glass, they poured
27 percent more gin, whisky, and vodka in the wide glasses than in the tall ones.16
While 100-calorie snack packs have been

very popular among consumers, packages
that allow for smaller serving sizes can
sometimes, ironically, encourage consumers
to eat more.
AP Photo/M. Spencer Green
Visual cues in packaging can also impact consumption in other ways. Take the
trend of using smaller snack packs and 100-calorie serving sizes in the marketplace.
Although intuition tells consumers that smaller packages should help them to eat less,17
when multiple small packages are available consumers often eat much more of the prod-
uct.18 In fact, it is those consumers who are most concerned with dieting and their
appearance who eat the most snack foods when they are presented in small packages.
Researchers find that this is because these consumers assume the small packages will do
the job of controlling their food intake for them, so they give up their own control of
watching what they eat and often end up eating more than one package!19
Our eyes continue to trick us even when it comes to variety. When we see an
assortment of foods, for example at Thanksgiving dinner or an all-you-can-eat buffet,
this abundance suggests it’s appropriate to eat more. College students who are given
bowls of M&Ms that have ten colours of M&Ms will eat 26 percent more than those
given the same-size bowls with seven colours—even though all M&Ms taste the same.
Also, students given six different flavours of jellybeans took and ate 85 percent more
when they were mixed up than when they were neatly organized by flavour.20
The bottom line: When it comes to how much we eat and drink, our eyes often
have more to say than our stomachs.21
Smell
We’ve all heard of the “Axe Effect,” since we’ve been bombarded with commercials
showing women chasing men who use Unilever’s personal-care brand. Can it possibly
be for real? A British researcher reported that women rated men who used Lynx
deodorant (Axe’s British counterpart) as more attractive than men who used a “pla-
cebo” deodorant with no fragrance. Before you run out to the store, guys, keep in mind
that the women didn’t actually meet the men face to face; they watched 15-second
videos of the men describing themselves. The men in the videos were instructed not to
bathe for 48 hours, and those who used the unfragranced deodorant to hide their
“scent” rated themselves lower in self-confidence than did the Lynx users. A Unilever
consumer scientist explains, “Deodorant is supposed to make you feel good about
yourself and give you confidence in the mating game, which is what Axe says.”
Important note: The Axe Effect worked only for women who watched the videos
with no sound—those who actually heard the men talk didn’t show a preference,
which supports the idea that self-confidence is translated into body language, which
in turn is translated into attractiveness. As one of the researchers joked, “One way you
could look at it is that the Axe Effect works as long as you’re very quiet.”22
Odours can stir emotions or create a calming feeling. They can evoke memories or
relieve stress. Some of our responses to scents result from early associations that call
up good or bad feelings, which explains why businesses are exploring connections
between smell, memory, and mood. It has been suggested that ambient scent can influ-
ence not only moods, but consumer cognitions as well.23 Researchers have found that
pleasant scents can increase recall of brand names,24 particularly when the scent is
combined with a visual image.25
We process fragrance cues in the limbic system, the most primitive part of the
brain and the place where we experience immediate emotions. One study even found
that the scent of fresh cinnamon buns induced sexual arousal in a sample of male stu-
dents!26 In another study, women sniffed T-shirts that men had worn for two days and
reported which ones they preferred. The women were most attracted to the odour of
men who are genetically similar to themselves, though not too similar. The researchers
claimed the findings were evidence that we are “wired” to select compatible mates,
but not those so similar as to cause inbreeding problems.27
Researchers have found that the sense of smell can also lead to different behav-
ioural reactions to stimuli. One study found that consumers who viewed ads for either
flowers or chocolate and who also were exposed to congruent (i.e., flowery or choco-
latey, respectively) odours spent more time processing the product information and
The “Got Milk?” campaign harnessed the

power of smell by releasing the scent of
chocolate chip cookies at bus shelters.
AP Photo/Jeff Chiu
were more likely to try different alternatives within the relevant product category.28
Other researchers have discovered that “clean” scents such as citrus-scented Windex
can lead people to engage in morally “virtuous” acts such as reciprocating a favour or
being willing to volunteer for a worthy cause.29
As scientists continue to discover the powerful effects of smell on behaviour, mar-
keters are coming up with ingenious ways to exploit these connections. Ad companies
spend about $80 million per year on scent marketing; the Scent Marketing Institute
estimates that number will reach more than $500 million by 2016.30 Marketers have
leveraged the potential power of smell by using such strategies as microencapsulating
scents in direct mail communications31 and introducing scratch-and-sniff advertise-
ments in newspapers.32 Playing with scents can be a tricky business, however. For
example, the “Got Milk?” campaign got creative by releasing the scent of chocolate
chip cookies in tandem with its ads on bus shelters. However, the marketers were
forced to pull the scents in response to complaints by various social-interest groups:
groups trying to ban all public scents, anti-obesity organizations, diabetes organiza-
tions, and advocates for the homeless who argued that the smell would leave these
people hungry and unable to purchase food.33 There is also evidence that certain
smells may be more effective when targeted toward one of the sexes. A vanilla smell
diffused into a women’s clothing store and a spicy, honey smell diffused into a men’s
clothing store almost doubled sales. When the scents were reversed, sales fell to levels
below what they were when no scent was infused.34
Hearing
Sounds can impact consumer behaviour in a variety of ways. Consumers buy millions of
dollars’ worth of sound recordings every year, advertising jingles maintain brand aware-
ness, and stores and restaurants often play particular types of background music to cre-
ate desired moods.35 In one example of using sound, BMW has begun to use an “audio
watermark” at the end of its TV and radio ads around the world. The company wants to
establish what the brand sounds like “so all of its messages end with a melody . . . under-
scored by two distinctive bass tones that form the sound logo’s melodic and rhythmic
basis.” BMW claims this sound signature represents “sheer driving pleasure.”36
Music and other sounds affect people’s feelings and behaviours. Some marketers
who come up with brand names pay attention to sound symbolism, the process by
which the way a word sounds influences our assumptions about what it describes and
its attributes, such as size.37 For example, consumers are more likely to recognize
The advertisement reads: “To applaud the

22 athletes of Team EDF for their perfor-
mance in 2010, close and reopen these two
pages several times very quickly.” This print
ad does a creative job of using sound to
connect with consumers.
Courtesy of Havas Worldwide Paris
brand names that begin with a hard consonant, like a K (Kellogg’s) or P (Pepsi).38 By
decomposing brand names into individual sounds called phonemes, one study showed Consumers
in Focus
how even these cues affect consumer evaluations and convey unique meanings about
inherent properties of the product. For instance, consumers infer that brands contain-
ing the vowel sound of short [i] weigh less than brands containing the vowel sound of
Consumers respond positively to leisure activi-
[a].39 Other research shows that brand names with repetition in their phonetic struc-
ties that allow for a full sensory experience. In
ture (think clothing brand “Bebe” and “Jelly Belly” candies) produce positive affect
some specially equipped movie theatres, view-
when spoken aloud, leading to increased preference for the brand.40 ers of films like Pirates of the Caribbean and
Marvel Superheroes: 4D won’t just watch the
action, they will feel the actors’ movements in
Touch
their seats. Their chairs will pitch forward,
Common observation tells us that tactile stimulation is an important sensory channel. backward, and side to side, and they will expe-
Moods are relaxed or stimulated on the basis of sensations of the skin, whether from a rience freefall when a character leaps off a
luxurious massage or from the bite of a winter wind. Touch has even been shown to be cliff.
a factor in sales interactions. In one study, diners who were touched by servers gave
bigger tips, and food demonstrators in a supermarket who lightly touched customers
had better luck getting shoppers to try a new snack product and to redeem coupons
for the brand.41 On the other hand, an accidental touch from a stranger (especially a
male) leads to more negative evaluations of products a shopper encounters in a
store.42 Another study found that participants who simply touched an item (an inex-
pensive coffee mug) for 30 seconds or less created a greater level of attachment to the
product that boosted what they were willing to pay for it.43 This was proposed to be
caused by an endowment effect. Endowment usually occurs when consumers ascribe
more value to something simply because they own it. Simply touching and engaging
with the product also increases endowment effects. Indeed, the power of touch even
translates to online shopping, where touchscreens create a stronger feeling of psycho-
logical ownership compared to products consumers explore using a touchpad or a
mouse.44
Haptic (touch) senses appear to moderate the relationship between product experi-
ence and judgment confidence, confirming the common-sense notion that we’re more
sure about what we perceive when we can touch it. (Of course, this is a major problem
for those who sell products online.)45 These researchers found that individuals who
scored high on a “Need for Touch” (NFT) scale were especially influenced by this
The classic contoured Coca-Cola bottle

attests to the power of touch. The bottle was
originally designed so that people could
identify it by touch alone.
© Rufus Stone/Alamy
dimension. Those with a high need for touch responded positively to such statements
as the following:
• When walking through stores, I can’t help touching all kinds of products.
• Touching products can be fun.
• I feel more comfortable purchasing a product after physically examining it.46
One study found that product judgments by individuals who do not normally pos-
sess a compulsion to touch products (low autotelics) are influenced by the “feel” of a
package, while those who do have a compulsion to touch items (high autotelics) do
not rely on this cue to infer a product’s quality. Subjects were each given a glass of
water in a flimsy cup that also holds a straw. Half of the subjects were told to hold the
cup and drink from the straw, while the other half were told to leave the cup on the
desk and drink from the straw. Participants who had been identified as high autotelics
rated the water the same, regardless of whether or not they touched the cup. However,
low autotelics rated the water as worse if they had the opportunity to touch the cup
while drinking from it.47 How can we explain this finding? Presumably, those who
like to touch have learned over time that “you can’t judge a book by its cover.”
The Japanese take this idea of touch a step further when they practise what they
call Kansei engineering, a philosophy that translates customers’ feelings into design
elements. In one application of this practice, the designers of the Mazda Miata focused
on young drivers who saw the car as an extension of their bodies, a sensation they call
the “horse and rider as one.” After extensive research, the company discovered that
making the stick shift exactly 9.5 centimetres long conveys the optimal feeling of
sportiness and control.48
Taste
Jones Soda: Marketing & Consumer Our taste receptors obviously contribute to our experience of many products, and
Behavior people form strong preferences for certain flavours.
As I See It
Life is experienced serially, and wines). This is called a primacy effect in terms of consumers’ per-
consumers often make choices ceptions and subsequent choices. However, consumers tend to pre-
Courtesy of Antonia Mantonakis, BSc, MA, PhD
between options—wines, cars, fer the last option when sampling longer sequence lengths (e.g.,
houses—that they consider one when sampling four or five wines). This reflects a recency effect in
at a time in sequence. When a terms of consumer perceptions and choices.
consumer is sampling food at But the results of this study are more complex. We also
Costco, sampling wine at a win- looked at whether the preference pattern for early and late items
ery, or simply picking a favou- occurs for consumers of all levels of expertise. Would we find this
rite contestant to vote for on a pattern of results if the consumers were experts? We expected
reality television show, does the that people who were more knowledgeable about the choice
order in which the consumer options would try harder than less sophisticated judges to dis-
Dr. Antonia Mantonakis tastes, smells, or hears the criminate between them. Because of this, the more “expert”
Brock University options influence which one is judges would show the strongest bias for options late in the
selected as the favourite? sequence, even without knowing how many options would be
We tried to answer this question in a recent study.1 One group sampled.2 The results confirmed that the more “expert” judges
of participants sampled two wines and then chose their favourite. were more biased to choose the last option.
Another group sampled three wines before choosing a favourite, Whether you’re a winemaker hoping to discover which position
another sampled four, and another sampled five. In fact, unknown in a tasting sequence gives your product the greatest advantage, or
to the participants, all the wine samples were the same wine from a realtor deciding how to present homes in a strategically planned
the same bottle (no participants picked up on this). This ensured order, it is a good idea to showcase what you want to sell first. The
that any differences in preference could be attributed to the wines’ first option sampled automatically becomes the favourite. However,
positions in the sequence and not to some other factor, such as the as more options are sampled, the likelihood increases that a later
taste of the wine. The results revealed that when a consumer sam- option will “beat” the first, and this is especially the case for knowl-
ples a sequence of options, the first option has an advantage, espe- edgeable consumers. As a result, it’s best to showcase what you
cially for short sequence lengths (e.g., when sampling two or three want to sell last if there are many options to choose from.
1 Antonia Mantonakis, Pauline Rodero, Isabelle Lesschaeve, and Reid Hastie, “Order in Choice: Effects of Serial Position on Preferences,” Psychological Science 20(11)
(2009): 1309–1312.
2Antonia Mantonakis, Matthew Philp, Isabelle Lesschaeve, and Reid Hastie, “Consumer Evaluation and Decision Process When Engaging in a Sequential Sampling Scenario,”
Academy of Wine Business Research International Conference (2011, June), Bordeaux, France.
Specialized companies called “flavour houses” keep busy trying to develop new
tastes to please the changing palates of consumers. And scientists are right behind
them, developing new devices to test these flavours. Alpha MOS sells a sophisticated
Welch’s gets creative by incorporating

the actual taste of the product into this
advertisement.
Courtesy of Welch Foods, Inc.
electronic tongue for tasting, and is working on what the company’s executives call
an electronic mouth, complete with artificial saliva, to chew food and dissect its
flavour. Coca-Cola and PepsiCo use the tongue to test the quality of corn syrups, while
Bristol-Myers Squibb Company and Roche use the device to develop medicines that
don’t taste bitter.49
Changes in our culture also determine the tastes we find desirable. For example,
consumers’ greater appreciation of different ethnic dishes has contributed to
increased desires for spicy foods, so the quest for the ultimate pepper sauce is a hot
taste trend. The “heat” of peppers is measured in units called Scovilles. In 1912,
Wilbur Scoville asked a five-person panel to see how much sugar water it would take
to eliminate the hotness of a pepper. How’s this for a hot tip: It takes 7497 litres of
sweetened water to neutralize a teaspoon of Da’ Bomb, which claims to be the hottest
sauce ever made.50
Marketers have also discovered various ways to influence consumers’ perceptions
of the taste of the product itself. For example, a subtle cue such as the colour of a prod-
uct (e.g., a darker versus more natural colour of orange juice) can influence percep-
tions of the actual taste of the product, even when the true taste of the product is
exactly the same!51 Other work finds that advertisements that refer to more than one of
the senses (“Stimulate Your Senses”) lead to more positive taste perceptions than
advertisements simply referring to taste alone (“Long Lasting Flavour”).52
Exposure
Exposure occurs when a stimulus comes within the range of the individual’s sensory
receptors, so that he or she has the potential to notice it. We are capable of noticing
stimuli that we are exposed to for even a very short time—if we choose to do so. Before
we consider what people may choose not to perceive, let’s consider what they are
capable of perceiving.
When marketers need to decrease the size of

a product, they often test to ensure that the
changes are not perceptible by the average
consumer (i.e., they ensure that the changes
are below the JND).
Smneedham/Getty Images
Sensory Thresholds CO 4
If you have ever blown a dog whistle and watched pets respond to a sound you cannot
hear, you know that there are some stimuli people simply are not capable of perceiv-
ing. And, of course, some people are better able to pick up sensory information than
others. The science that focuses on how the physical environment is integrated into
our personal, subjective world is known as psychophysics.
When we define the lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be registered on a sen-
sory channel, we speak of a threshold for that receptor. The absolute threshold refers
to the minimum amount of stimulation that can be detected on a sensory channel. The
sound emitted by a dog whistle is too high to be detected by human ears, so this stimu-
lus is beyond our auditory absolute threshold. The absolute threshold is an important
consideration in designing marketing stimuli. A billboard might have the most enter-
taining copy ever written, but this genius is wasted if the print is too small for passing
motorists to see from the highway.
The differential threshold refers to the ability of a sensory system to detect
changes in a stimulus or differences between two stimuli. The minimum change in a
stimulus that can be detected is also known as the JND (just noticeable difference).
The issue of when and if a change will be noticed by consumers is relevant to
many marketing situations. Sometimes a marketer may want to ensure that a change is
noticed, such as when merchandise is offered at a discount. In other situations, the
fact that a change has been made is downplayed, as in the case of price increases or
when a product’s size is decreased.
A consumer’s ability to detect a difference between two stimuli is relative. A
whispered conversation that might be unintelligible on a noisy street can suddenly
become public and embarrassing knowledge in a quiet library. It is the relative dif-
ference between the decibel level of the conversation and its surroundings, rather
than the loudness of the conversation itself, that determines whether the stimulus
will register.
In the nineteenth century a psychophysicist named Ernst Weber found that the
amount of change necessary to be noticed is systematically related to the original
intensity of the stimulus. The stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the change must
be for it to be noticed. This relationship is known as Weber’s law and is expressed in
the following equation:
Consider how Weber’s law works with respect to a product that has had its price
decreased for a special sale. A rule of thumb used by some retailers is that a markdown
should be at least 20 percent to make an impact on shoppers. If so, a pair of socks that
retails for $10 should be put on sale for $8 (a $2 discount). However, a sports coat sell-
ing for $100 would not benefit from a mere $2 discount; it would have to be marked
down to $80 to achieve the same impact.
The main point of Weber’s law is that it is the ratios, not the absolute differ-
ences, that are important in describing the least perceptible differences in sensory
discrimination. The differential threshold varies not only with consumers’ sensitiv-
Marketing ity and type of stimuli, but also with the absolute intensity of the stimuli being com-
Insight pared. The use of Weber’s law in selling goods is important. Manufacturers and
brand managers endeavour to determine the relevant just noticeable difference for
Some companies try to camouflage price their products for two reasons: first, so that reductions in product size, increases in
increases by shrinking the size of packages product price, or changes in packaging are not readily discernible to the public; and
instead of charging more. Sometimes market- second, so that product improvements are perceived by the public. Unfortunately,
ers use code words to announce a change: They most of the time companies are looking to give you less, below your JND. The pack-
may label the smaller packages as “greener” age on the store shelf may register the same to your brain, but the amount inside the
because there is less plastic or cardboard in package has gone down. This is how companies tend to pass on their rising costs to
a smaller box, more “portable” when they customers. Not only are cereal boxes slimmed down, but consumers are dealt more
squeeze products into little carry bags, or air in their chip bag, fewer sheets of paper towel on the roll, thinner garbage bags,
“healthier” because smaller amounts translate
and even smaller squares of toilet paper.53 Even Coca-Cola has reduced the size of its
into fewer calories.
355-millilitre can by 7 percent to 330 millilitres in the Hong Kong market to save on
For example, Kraft brought out “Fresh
the cost of aluminum.54
Stacks” packages for its Nabisco Premium
Weber’s law, ironically, is a challenge to green marketers who try to reduce the
saltines and Honey Maid graham crackers.
sizes of packages when they produce concentrated (and more Earth-friendly) versions
Each holds about 15 percent fewer crackers
than the standard boxes for the same price.
of their products. Makers of laundry detergent brands have to convince their custom-
But Kraft notes that, since the new packages ers to pay the same price for about half the detergent. Also, because of pressure from
include more sleeves of crackers, they are powerful retailers such as Walmart that want to fit more bottles on their shelves, the
more portable—and adds that as an added size of detergent bottles is shrinking significantly. Procter & Gamble, Unilever, and
benefit the smaller boxes supply crackers that Henkel all maintain that their new, concentrated versions will allow people to wash
will be more fresh when you get around to eat- the same number of loads with half the detergent. One perceptual trick they’re using to
ing them. In another example, companies try to convince consumers of this is the redesign of the bottle cap: Both P&G and
such as Lays often decrease the number of Church & Dwight use a cap with a broader base and shorter sides to persuade consum-
potato chips in a bag to increase profits.56 ers that they need a smaller amount.55
A packaging expert noted that typically,
when a country comes out of a recession, com-
panies respond with a new, “jumbo” size that
Subliminal Perception CO 5
is even more expensive per gram. Then the pro- The topic of subliminal perception, the perception of stimuli below the level of con-
cess begins again. “It’s a continuous cycle, sumer consciousness, has captivated the public for more than 50 years, despite the
where at some point the smallest package fact that there is virtually no proof that it has any effect on consumer behaviour.
offered becomes so small that perhaps they’re In fact, most examples of subliminal perception that have been “discovered” are not
phased out and replaced by the medium-size subliminal at all; they are quite visible. Remember, if you can see it or hear it, it is not
package, which has been shrunk down.”57 subliminal, because the stimulus is above the level needed for conscious awareness!
Nonetheless, the continuing controversy about subliminal persuasion has been impor-
tant in shaping the public’s beliefs about advertising and the ability of marketers to
manipulate consumers against their will.
The public’s fear of unconscious manipulation began with a widely popularized
experiment that was performed in a New Jersey drive-in movie theatre in September
1957. During a showing of the movie Picnic, a firm called the Subliminal Projection
Company inserted messages that said “Drink Coca-Cola” and “Eat Popcorn” for 1/3000
second every five seconds. This rate was too fast for viewers to be aware that they had
seen the images. Supposedly, sales of popcorn increased by almost 20 percent and
consumption of Coke by almost 60 percent. These claims created an uproar as journal-
ists and social critics expressed fears that social scientists would team up with adver-
tisers to invade privacy and control consumers against their will. As one magazine put
it at the time, consumers’ minds had been “broken and entered.”58 This experiment
was never replicated, and the executive responsible for the test later admitted that he
had made up the results.59
Subliminal messages can supposedly be sent on both visual and aural channels.
Embeds are tiny figures that are inserted into magazine advertising by using high-
speed photography or airbrushing.
In addition to these subliminal visual messages, many consumers and marketers
seem to be fascinated by the possible effects of messages hidden on sound recordings.
An attempt to capitalize on subliminal auditory perception techniques is found in the
This beer ad pokes fun at the myth of

subliminal advertising.
© 2005. Molson USA, LLC
market for self-help cassettes. These tapes, which typically feature the sound of waves
crashing or some other natural setting, supposedly contain subliminal messages to help
the listener stop smoking, lose weight, gain confidence, and so on. However, there is
little evidence that any subliminal stimuli transmitted on the auditory channel can bring
about desired changes in behaviour.60 In a major study conducted to obtain a definitive
answer on the effect of subliminal persuasion, groups of people were recruited to a
double-blind weight-loss experiment involving tapes with subaudible messages. One
group had real weight-loss messages in their tapes, while the other just listened to the
ocean. After many weeks of listening to the tapes, there were no differences in weight
loss between the two groups.61 Consumers
Clearly, there are better ways to get our attention. Let’s see how.
in Focus
Are you a “media snacker”? A recent study found
that consumers in their twenties switch media
Attention CO 6 venues about 27 times per nonworking hour—
the equivalent of more than 13 times during a
As you sit in a lecture, you might find your mind wandering. One minute you are con-
standard half-hour TV show. As a Unilever mar-
centrating on the instructor’s words, and the next you catch yourself daydreaming
keting executive put it, “If you have consumers
about the upcoming weekend. Suddenly, you tune back in as you hear your name
who are snacking on short amounts of time with
being spoken. Fortunately, it’s a false alarm—the professor has called on another stu-
different types of media channels, we have to
dent who has the same first name. But she’s got your attention now! think about how to communicate in short,
Attention refers to the extent to which the brain’s processing activity is devoted ‘snack-like’ bits of messaging.”62 That means
to a particular stimulus. As you know from sitting through both interesting and “less the fight for your attention—or what some mar-
interesting” lectures, this allocation can vary depending on the characteristics of keters refer to as an “eyeball economy”—gets
both the stimulus (the lecture itself) and the recipient (you with your mental state at tougher every day.
the time).
Although we live in an information society, it’s possible to have too much of a

good thing. Consumers are often in a state of sensory overload; that is, they are exposed
to far more information than they are able or willing to process. In our society, much
of this bombardment comes from commercial sources, and the competition for our
attention is increasing steadily. The average adult is exposed to about 3500 pieces of
advertising information every single day—up from about 560 a day 30 years ago. Many
younger people in particular have developed the ability to multitask, or process infor-
mation from more than one medium at a time as they attend to their smartphones, TV,
instant messages, and so on.63 One study observed 400 people for a day and found that
96 percent of them were multitasking about a third of the time they were using media.64
Marketing researchers are struggling to understand this new condition, trying to figure
out how to reach people doing many things at once.
One potential response to anti-smoking ads

such as this might be perceptual defence on
the part of smokers. This happens when
people block out the marketing message if it
is threatening in some way.
Courtesy of the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2013 Tips From Former Smokers campaign.
RECORD YOUR
VOICE FOR LOVED
ONES WHILE
YOU STILL CAN.
Terrie, Age 52
North Carolina
Smoking causes immediate damage to your body.

For Terrie, it gave her throat cancer. You can quit.
For free help, call 1-800-QUIT-NOW.
www.cdc.gov/tips
#CDCTips
As we’ll also see in later chapters, marketers are constantly searching for ways
to break through the clutter and grab people’s attention. For example, marketers are
coming up with innovative ways to get consumers’ attention in ways that go viral
(i.e., the marketing message gets passed along from consumer to consumer). In one
example, the video “First Kiss,” which showed pairs of strangers kissing for the first
time, had 95 million views on YouTube. The quirky and unexpected nature of the
video led to its going “viral.” However, the brand behind the video, Wren, later came
under fire when it came to light that the video featured actors rather than just every-
day people.65
Marketers are also using techniques such as guerrilla marketing to get noticed.
This involves using communications that are unexpected and unconventional in ways
that target consumers in unexpected places.
However, the brain’s capacity to process information is limited, and consumers
are able to pay attention only to certain stimuli. The process of perceptual selectivity
means that people attend to only a small portion of the stimuli to which they are
exposed. Consumers practise a form of psychological economy, picking and choosing
among stimuli to avoid being overwhelmed. How do they choose? Both personal and
stimulus factors help.
Personal Selection Factors

Experience, which is the result of acquiring stimulation, is one factor that determines
how much exposure to a particular stimulus a person accepts. Perceptual filters based
on consumers’ past experiences influence what they decide to process.
Perceptual vigilance is a factor in selective exposure. Consumers are more likely
to be aware of stimuli that relate to their current needs. These needs may be conscious
or unconscious. A consumer who rarely notices car ads will become very much aware
of them when he or she is in the market for a new car. A bus shelter ad for a fast-food
restaurant that would otherwise go unnoticed becomes relevant when one waits to
catch the bus close to dinner time.
The flip side of perceptual vigilance is perceptual defence. This means that
people see what they want to see—and don’t see what they don’t want to see. If a
stimulus is threatening to us in some way, we may not process it or we may distort
its meaning so that it is more acceptable. For example, a heavy smoker may block
Converse uses elements such as novelty and

size to grab the consumer’s attention.
Wolfram Steinberg/picture-alliance/dpa/AP Images
Calgary Zoo’s “There’s No Substitute” cam-

paign took advantage of both novelty, by
using humorous and unexpected imagery, THERE’S NO SUBSTITUTE
and size by putting ads on large billboards. FOR THE ZOO.
Courtesy of the Calgary Zoo
out images of cancer-scarred lungs because these vivid reminders hit a bit too close
to home.
Another factor affecting exposure is adaptation—that is, the degree to which con-
sumers continue to notice a stimulus over time. The process of adaptation occurs
when consumers no longer pay attention to a stimulus because it is so familiar. Almost
like drug addiction, a consumer can become “habituated” and require increasingly
stronger “doses” of a stimulus for it to continue to be noticed. For example, a con-
sumer en route to work might read a billboard message when it is first installed, but
after a few days it becomes part of the passing scenery.
Generally, several factors can lead to adaptation:
• Intensity: Consumers become habituated to less-intense stimuli (soft sounds or
dim colours) because such stimuli have less of a sensory impact.
• Duration: Stimuli that require relatively lengthy exposure to be processed tend to
be habituated to because they require a long attention span.
• Discrimination: Simple stimuli tend to be habituated to because they do not
require attention to detail.
• Exposure: People tend to habituate to frequently encountered stimuli as the rate of
exposure increases.
• Relevance: People tend to habituate to stimuli that are irrelevant or unimportant
because they fail to attract attention.
Stimulus Selection Factors

In addition to the receiver’s “mindset,” characteristics of the stimulus itself play an
important role in determining what gets noticed and what gets ignored.66 These fac-
tors need to be understood by marketers who can apply them to their messages and
packages to boost their chances of cutting through the clutter and commanding
attention.
In general, stimuli that differ from others around them are more likely to be
noticed (remember Weber’s law). This contrast can be created in several ways:
• Size: The size of the stimulus itself in contrast to the competition helps to deter-
mine whether it will command attention. Readership of a magazine ad increases
in proportion to the size of the ad.
• Colour: As we’ve seen, colour is a powerful way to draw attention to a product
or to give it a distinct identity. For example, Black & Decker has a line of tools
called DeWalt targeting the residential construction industry. The line is
coloured yellow and black, instead of grey, which makes them stand out against
other “dull” tools.67
• Position: Not surprisingly, stimuli that are in places where we’re more likely to
look stand a better chance of being noticed. That’s why the competition among
suppliers to have their products displayed at eye level in stores is so heated. In
magazines, ads that are placed toward the front of the issue, preferably on the
right-hand side, also win out in the race to get readers’ attention.68
Position is also key in online advertising. Sophisticated eye-tracking studies
clearly show that most search engine users view only a very limited number of
search results. When the typical shopper looks at a search page, her eye travels
across the top of the search result, returns to the left of the screen, and then travels
down to the last item shown on the screen without scrolling. Search engine
marketers call this space on the screen where we are virtually guaranteed to view
listings the golden triangle.
• Novelty: Communications that use novel stimuli or appear in unexpected places
tend to grab our attention. These locations include the backs of shopping carts,
public washrooms, and even on other consumers themselves. An example of
novelty attracting consumers’ attention is Naked Grape wine produced by Vincor.
Point-of-sale and advertising taglines say “It takes confidence to go unoaked.”
Sales have soared for this wine.69
Interpretation CO 7
Interpretation refers to the meanings that people assign to sensory stimuli. Just as
people differ in terms of the stimuli they perceive, the eventual assignment of mean-
ings to these stimuli varies as well. Two people can see or hear the same event, but
their interpretations of it can be like night and day depending on what they had
expected the stimulus to be.
In one study, three-to-five-year-old kids who ate McDonald’s french fries served in
a McDonald’s bag overwhelmingly thought they tasted better than those who ate the
same fries out of a plain white bag. Even carrots tasted better when they came out of a
McDonald’s bag—more than half the kids preferred them to the same carrots served in
a plain package!70
In another example of how our expectations can impact our evaluations, one
study altered beer drinkers’ taste preferences simply by telling them different informa-
tion about a specific brew’s ingredients. The researcher offered bar patrons free beer if
they would participate in a taste test. Participants tasted two beers each, one a regular
draft of Budweiser or Samuel Adams and the other the same beer with a few drops of
balsamic vinegar added. Although most beer aficionados would guess that vinegar
makes the drink taste bad, 60 percent of the respondents who did not know which
beer contained the vinegar actually preferred the doctored version to the regular one!
But when tasters knew in advance which beer had vinegar in it before they took a
swig, only one-third preferred that version.71
Consumers assign meaning to stimuli based on the schema, or set of beliefs, to
which the stimulus is assigned. A schema provides a cognitive framework that
helps organize and interpret information that surrounds a particular stimulus, such
as a brand for example. A brand name can communicate expectations about product
attributes and can colour consumers’ perceptions of product performance by acti-
vating a relevant schema. For example, when the consumer hears the brand name
“Nike,” various concepts and associations may come to mind such as “athletic,”
“trendy,” and “empowering.” Identifying and evoking the correct schema is crucial
to many marketing decisions, because this determines what criteria will be used to
evaluate the product, package, or message. Nike has worked hard to distance itself
from a negative schema by separating itself from concepts such as “sweatshop
labour” (see, e.g., http://nikeinc.com), something for which it received negative
media attention in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In another example, Extra-
Strength Maalox Whip Antacid flopped even though a spray can is a pretty effective
way to deliver the product. But to consumers, aerosol whips mean dessert toppings,
not medication.72 In this case, the schema for aerosol containers could not accom-
Consumers modate such incongruent information. On the other hand, when menu items in a
in Focus college cafeteria were given descriptive labels (e.g., “Traditional Cajun Red Beans
with Rice” versus “Red Beans with Rice,” and “Satin Chocolate Pudding” versus
One factor that can influence consumers’ over- “Chocolate Pudding”) so that diners had more information about each option and
all perceptions in the context of eating is the were able to better categorize them, sales increased by more than 25 percent. 73
degree to which they focus on multiple sensory Thus, the effective positioning of products can often create more positive associa-
inputs as they select and eat their food. Recent tions for consumers.
research finds that when consumers vividly
engage in multisensory imagery (i.e., focusing
on multiple sensations such as the taste, Stimulus Organization
smell, and feel of food), not only do they select People do not perceive a single stimulus in isolation; they tend to view it in terms
smaller portion sizes, but they also anticipate
of relationships with other events, sensations, or images. When Nabisco intro-
and report that they experience more enjoy-
duced a version of Teddy Grahams (a children’s product) for adults, restrained
ment. This has interesting implications because
packaging colours were used to reinforce the idea that the new product was for
encouraging a broader range of sensory enjoy-
grownups, but sales were disappointing. The box was then changed to a bright yel-
ment can not only lead consumers to eat less
low to convey the idea that this was a fun snack, and buyers’ more positive asso-
(which has important ramifications for con-
sumer health) and to interpret the experience
ciation between a bright primary colour and taste led adults to start buying the
as being more enjoyable (which has ramifica- cookies.75
tions for consumer well-being), but it also Our brains tend to relate incoming sensations to others already in memory on
leads to an increased willingness to pay more the basis of some fundamental organizational principles. These principles derive
for their selected options.74 from work in Gestalt psychology, a school of thought maintaining that people derive
meaning from the totality of a set of stimuli rather than from any individual stimulus.
The principle of closure is at play in the

World Wildlife Fund logo.
© WWF
FIGURE 2–2
Principles of Stimulus Organization Derived from Gestalt Psychology
PRINCIPLE OF CLOSURE PRINCIPLE OF SIMILARITY PRINCIPLE OF FIGURE-GROUND
The German word gestalt means, roughly, “whole,” “pattern,” or “configuration,” a

perspective best summarized by the saying “The whole is greater than the sum of its
parts.” A piecemeal perspective that analyzes each component of the stimulus
separately will be unable to capture the total effect. The importance of a gestalt is
underscored when consumers’ interpretations of stimuli are affected by aesthetic,
symbolic, or sensory qualities. The gestalt perspective provides several principles
relating to the way stimuli are organized. Three of these principles, or perceptual
tendencies, are illustrated in Figure 2–2.
The gestalt principle of closure implies that consumers tend to perceive an
incomplete picture as complete. That is, we tend to fill in the blanks on the basis of
our prior experience. This principle explains why most of us have no trouble filling
in the blanks in an incomplete message or reading a neon sign even if one or two of
its letters are burned out. The principle of closure is also at work when we hear
This logo for the Pittsburgh Zoo is a clever

application of the figure–ground principle.
Courtesy of the Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium
only part of a jingle or theme. Using the principle of closure in marketing strategies
encourages audience participation, which increases the chance that people will
attend to the message. Research shows that, if marketers want to encourage brand
recall, they should omit an element of the advertisement that is directly linked to
the brand itself.76
The principle of similarity tells us that consumers tend to group together objects
that share similar physical characteristics; that is, they group like items into sets to
form an integrated whole. Green Giant relied on this principle when the company
redesigned the packaging for its line of frozen vegetables. It created a “sea-of-green”
look to unify all of its different offerings.
Another important gestalt concept is the figure–ground principle, in which one
part of a stimulus will dominate (the figure) while other parts recede into the back-
ground. This concept is easy to understand if one thinks of a photograph with a
clear and sharply focused object (the figure) in the centre. The figure is dominant,
and the eye goes straight to it. The parts of the configuration that will be perceived
as figure or ground can vary, depending on the individual consumer as well as other
factors. Similarly, in marketing messages that use the figure–ground principle, a
stimulus can be made the focal point of the message or merely the context that sur-
rounds the focus.
Perceptual Positioning
As we’ve seen, a product stimulus is often interpreted in light of what we already
know about a product category and the characteristics of existing brands. Percep-
tions of a brand comprise both its functional attributes (its features, price, etc.) and
its symbolic attributes (its image and what we think it says about us when we use
it). We’ll look more closely at issues such as brand image in later chapters, but for
now it’s important to keep in mind that our evaluation of a product is typically the
result of what it means rather than what it does. This meaning, as perceived by
consumers, constitutes the product’s market position—and it may have more to do
with our expectations of product performance as communicated by its colour,
packaging, or styling than with the product itself. How does a marketer determine
Subaru opts for a unique position strategy

aimed at dog lovers.
Image courtesy of Subaru of America. Photographer
Shawn Michienzi, © 2011. Photography by Shawn
Michienzi.
where a product actually stands in the minds of consumers? One technique is to

ask them what attributes are important to them and how they feel competitors rate
on these attributes.
A positioning strategy—or the way the marketer wants the brand to be viewed in
the eyes of the consumer—is a fundamental part of a company’s marketing efforts as it
uses elements of the marketing mix (product design, price, distribution, and marketing
communications) to influence the consumer’s interpretation of the brand’s meaning.
Indeed, brands go to great lengths to position themselves as distinct from competitors
on attributes consumers care about. For example, although most automobile compa-
nies tend to position themselves on attributes such as speed, styling, or safety, Subaru
took a unique approach with its “Dog Tested” campaign, targeted at dog owners. The
campaign featured amusing spots of dogs driving around in a Subaru in ways that
surely appealed to dog lovers.
One issue for marketers is how to reposition their brand in a way that updates the
brand’s image for an evolving market. In one example of this, when Estée Lauder
started to be seen as an “older” brand, it hired Kendall Jenner as the face of the brand.
Not only does she give the brand a younger feel, but she also brings with her a large
following of social media fans.
Po s i tionin g D im e n s io n s
There are many dimensions that can be used to establish a brand’s position in the
marketplace.77 These include the following:
• Price leadership: Lancôme cosmetics are sold in upscale beauty shops for a higher
price, while L’Oréal (which owns Lancôme, by the way) products are available for
much lower prices in lower-end stores.
• Attributes: Bounty paper towels are “the quicker picker upper.”
• Product class: The Porsche Boxter is a sporty convertible.
• Occasions: Kit Kat is positioned as a snack to have when it is time to “Have a Break.”
• Users: Wiser’s positions its Canadian whisky as a drink for men.
• Design: Apple products like the iPad and iPhone are renowned for their inno-
vative design.
Chapter Summary
Perception is a three-stage process that translates raw Products and commercial messages often appeal to our
stimuli into meaning. senses, but many of them will not succeed.
• Perception is the process by which physical sensations • Marketing stimuli have important sensory qualities. We
such as sights, sounds, and smells are selected, orga- rely on colours, odours, sounds, tastes, and the “feel” of
nized, and interpreted. The eventual interpretation of a products when evaluating them. Not all sensations make
stimulus allows it to be assigned meaning. their way successfully through the perceptual process,
56 S E CT I ON I I Consumers as Individuals
though. Many stimuli compete for our attention and the occurs when too many marketing-related messages com-
majority are not noticed or accurately comprehended. pete for attention.
People have different thresholds of perception. A stimu- • Controversy has been sparked by so-called subliminal per-
lus must be presented at a certain level of intensity before suasion and related techniques, by which people are
it can be detected by an individual’s sensory receptors. In exposed to visual and audio messages below the threshold
addition, a consumer’s ability to detect whether two stim- of perception. Although evidence of subliminal persua-
uli are different (the differential threshold) is an impor- sion’s effectiveness is virtually nonexistent, many consum-
tant issue in many marketing contexts, such as changing ers continue to believe that advertisers use this technique.
a package design, altering the size of a product, or reduc-
ing its price. The stimuli we do pay attention to are interpreted according
• In recent years, the sensory experiences we get from prod- to learned patterns and expectations.
ucts and services have become even more important when • A stimulus that is attended to is not perceived in isola-
choosing among competing options. Consumers increas- tion; it is classified and organized according to principles
ingly want to buy things that will give them hedonic value of perceptual organization. These principles are guided by
in addition to functional value. a gestalt, or overall pattern. Specific grouping principles
include closure, similarity, and figure–ground relation-
Facilitating effective consumer perception is a central goal
ships. The final step in the process of perception is inter-
for marketers.
pretation. Symbols help us make sense of the world by
• Factors that determine which stimuli get perceived are providing us with an interpretation of a stimulus that is
the amount of exposure to the stimulus, how much atten- often shared by others. The degree to which the symbol-
tion it generates, and how it is interpreted. In an increas- ism is consistent with our previous experience affects the
ingly crowded stimulus environment, advertising clutter meaning we assign to related objects.
Key Terms
Absolute threshold p. 45 Golden triangle p. 51 Reposition p. 55
Adaptation p. 50 Interpretation p. 51 Schema p. 51
Attention p. 47 JND (just noticeable difference) p. 45 Sensation p. 33
Contrast p. 50 Kansei engineering p. 42 Sensory marketing p. 35
Differential threshold p. 45 Perception p. 33 Sound symbolism p. 40
Embeds p. 46 Perceptual selectivity p. 49 Subliminal perception p. 46
Endowment effect p. 41 Positioning strategy p. 55 Trade dress p. 37
Exposure p. 44 Principle of closure p. 53 Weber’s law p. 45
Figure–ground principle p. 54 Principle of similarity p. 54
Gestalt psychology p. 52 Psychophysics p. 45
Review Questions
1. What is the difference between sensation and percep- 6. “Consumers practise a form of ‘psychological economy.’”
tion? How are these constructs related? What does this mean?
2. Does the size of a package influence how much of the 7. Describe two factors that can lead to stimulus adaptation.
contents we eat? How? 8. Define a “schema” and provide an example of how this
3. How does the sense of touch influence consumers’ reac- concept is relevant to marketing.
tions to products? 9. “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Explain
4. Identify and describe the three stages of perception. this statement.
5. What is the difference between an absolute threshold 10. What is a positioning strategy? What are some ways mar-
and a differential threshold? keters can position their products?
Discuss current offerings? What (if any) gender differences did

you detect regarding both the relevant dimensions used
1. Many studies have shown that our sensory detection
by raters and the placement of specific brands along
abilities decline as we grow older. Discuss the implica-
these dimensions?
tions of the absolute threshold for marketers attempting
to appeal to seniors. 5. Using magazines archived in the library, track the pack-
aging of a specific brand over time. Find an example of
2. Do you agree that online retailers are at a disadvantage
gradual changes in package design that may have been
with respect to sensory marketing? How can online busi-
below the JND.
nesses meet the sensory needs of the consumer?
6. Visit a set of websites for one type of product (e.g., per-
3. Do you believe that marketers have the right to use any
sonal computers, perfumes, laundry detergents, or ath-
or all public spaces to deliver product messages? Where
letic shoes) and analyze the colours and other design
would you draw the line in terms of places and products
principles employed. Which sites “work” and which
that should be restricted?
don’t? Why?
7. Look through a current magazine and select one ad that
Experiential Exercises captures your attention over the others. Give the reasons
4. Interview three to five male and three to five female why.
friends regarding their perceptions of both men’s and 8. Find ads that use the techniques of contrast and nov-
women’s fragrances. Construct a perceptual map for elty. Give your opinion of the effectiveness of each ad
each set of products. Based on your map of perfumes, and whether the technique is likely to be appropriate for
do you see any areas that are not adequately served by the consumers targeted by the ad.
Managing Consumer Perceptions at Nature’s Path that everyone in the organization understood and followed.
Arjan Stephens, vice-president of marketing at Nature’s Path, The goal of the company was to create great-tasting, healthy,
an organic cereal manufacturer, sat at his desk flipping through certified organic food products that the marketplace would
the sales results of the last quarter. He wondered if the recent embrace. Fiercely independent, the company resisted a
changes to the package design that the company had intro- number of buyout offers from larger companies over the years,
duced to the market earlier this year had influenced the sales and proudly maintained a family culture in an organization that
numbers. Did the new package designs address the percep- emphasized the importance of humanity and responsibility to
tion problems with Nature’s Path packaging that consumer the world around us.
research had revealed? The company offers 150 different products under the
Nature’s Path, EnviroKidz, and Optimum branding umbrellas.
Importantly, Nature’s Path was the first cereal company to
The Company achieve certified organic status and has successfully posi-
Over the past decade, Nature’s Path, an independently owned tioned itself in the marketplace accordingly, such that it has
and family-run Canadian company (www.naturespath.com), become the leading organic cereal brand in North America.
has become one of the leading manufacturers of organic With a strong base of hot and cold cereals, the company now
cereal in North America. Founder Arran Stephens (Arjan’s also offers granola bars, waffles, bread, pastries, and other
father) had pursued a passion for food since the 1970s that assorted food products. As the company has grown it has built
had seen him develop restaurant, retail, and manufacturing manufacturing facilities in Wisconsin, Washington, and British
ventures focusing on bringing healthy food choices to the Columbia and added 2240 acres of cooperative farmland in
public. Underlying this mission was a central value critical to Saskatchewan to its operation. Nature’s Path has seen double-
Arran and the company he would build—namely, a digit percentage growth over most of the past decade and does
commitment to sustainability and the environment. “Always over $300 million annually in sales across North America in
leave the earth better than you found it” was a guiding principle retail outlets ranging from Choices to Walmart.
The Problem To better capture consumer attention, enable effective cus-

The amazing growth experienced by the company presented a tomer search, and cultivate more accurate perceptions of its
number of challenges to the organization. A specific concern products, Nature’s Path launched its new product packaging in
that surfaced in the past couple of years was the numerous the 2013–14 sales cycle. Building on Nature’s Path’s brand
visual identities attached to the growing portfolio of brands. While equity and strong sense of tradition, the new packaging retained
the original logo and packaging adopted by Nature’s Path was the original company logo while better aligning all packaging
true to the founding spirit of the company (colour selection and colour, format, and design elements across products. Indeed,
imagery that communicated the centrality of family and environ- Arjan had asked that the original brand logo be retained as loyal
ment), the growth in the number of branded products presented customers recognized its meaning and importance. The com-
challenges in communicating unique brand identities. Indeed, munications company freshened its look and ensured it was
consumer research showed that a large segment of consumers applied appropriately. Bigger changes were seen in the rest of
were confused by both the multiple variations in packaging and the packaging decisions. Everything from the package materials
the lack of congruency in the labelling. One respondent indi- and sizing to the support colours were evolved to produce a
cated that Nature’s Path products represented a “dog’s break- coherent and effective brand portfolio. Importantly, the commu-
fast” of colours, images, and text. nications company made choices that reflected the brand
Further, research showed an apparent disconnect between essence of the company, such as deeper colour tones that were
consumer taste perceptions inspired by the visual packaging natural and earthy, and smaller package sizes to reduce waste.
and the true taste of the product. Consumer test sampling efforts Have the changes met with success? Arjan was excited
by the company consistently revealed that consumers were sur- to see how the market would respond to the new look of
prised and delighted by how good the products tasted. The Nature’s Path.
expectation created by the packaging was that the cereal would 1. Using information from the case, provide an example that
taste like “twigs and bark.” More generally, it seemed that the highlights the difference between sensation and perception.
original packaging provided a lack of understanding about how
2. Why did Nature’s Path elect to make changes to its original
the company met the taste and consumption needs of the con-
packaging? Was it correct to make changes in a way that
sumer compared to the competition.
targets consumers’ perceptions or consumers’ sensations?
Why or why not?
The Solution
To respond to this issue, Arjan had hired an international com- 3. Paying particular attention to the visual elements of brand-
munications company to produce new packaging. Competitors ing, including logos, colour, package design, and so on, do
Kashi (owned by Kellogg’s) and Cascadian Farms (owned by you feel that the packaging changes the company made
General Mills) had both strengthened their positions in the will be successful? Why or why not?
marketplace recently, with branding and packaging that 4. What are some potential alternative courses of action for
offered a clear visual identity to the consumer. Kashi, for exam- Nature’s Path? As a marketing consultant, what other
ple, pursued a clean white look with a green masthead and actions that might influence consumer perceptions would
grain imagery. Nature’s Path needed to respond! you recommend to Arjan?
Used with permission of Nature’s Path Foods ® 2015
No tes
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3
C H A P T E R 3 Learning and Memory 61
C HAPTER
Learning and Memory
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand why it is important to know how 5 Understand that we can learn about products by

consumers learn about products and services. observing others’ behaviour.
2 Understand that conditioning results in learning. 6 Understand how the memory process works.

3 Understand that learned associations with brands 7 Understand that marketers use various measures

generalize to other products, and know why this is to assess our memories about brands, products,
important to marketers. and ads.
4 Understand that there is a difference between

classical and instrumental conditioning, and that
both processes help consumers learn about
products.
The Learning Process CO 1
The proliferation of Internet usage has changed how consumers learn and retain informa-
tion. For example, consumers can now use search tools to learn about and easily compare
information via sites such as Yelp, Trip Advisor, and Amazon.ca. Google and other search
engines have changed the way we learn and process information, putting vast sources of
data just a few clicks away. In addition, platforms such as Instagram, Flickr, and Facebook
make it increasingly easy to curate our memories through the photos we save and share
with others. However, the Internet may also have a downside for consumer learning and
memory. Research shows that this ease of access to online information may influence the
way our memories function. In particular, researchers have found that when people have
access to search engines, they remember fewer facts and less information because they
know they can rely on “search” as a readily available shortcut.1 This chapter examines the
processes by which consumers go about learning and remembering information.
The development of vivid memories is relevant to the study of how brand attitudes are
formed. Marketers realize that developing long-standing, learned connections between prod-
ucts and memorable experiences is a potent way to build and keep brand loyalty. In this
chapter, we’ll also explore how learned associations among feelings, events, and products—
and the memories they evoke—are an important aspect of consumer behaviour.
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behaviour that is caused by
experience. This experience does not have to affect the learner directly; we can learn
vicariously by observing events that affect others.2 We also learn even when we are not
trying. Consumers recognize many brand names and can hum many product jingles, even
for product categories they themselves do not use. This casual, unintentional acquisition
of knowledge is known as incidental learning.
Learning is an ongoing process. Our knowledge about the world is constantly being
revised as we are exposed to new stimuli and receive ongoing feedback that allows us to
modify behaviour in other similar situations at a later time. The concept of learning cov-
ers a lot of ground, ranging from a consumer’s simple association between a stimulus
such as a product logo (Sprite) and the concept of a “refreshing soft drink” to a complex
series of cognitive activities (writing an essay on learning for a consumer behaviour
exam). Psychologists who study learning have advanced several theories to explain the
learning process. These theories range from those focusing on simple stimulus–response
connections (behavioural theories) to perspectives that regard consumers as complex
problem solvers who learn abstract rules and concepts by observing others (cognitive
theories). Understanding these theories is important to marketers as well since basic
learning principles are at the heart of many consumer purchase decisions.
Behavioural Learning Theories

Behavioural learning theories assume that learning takes place as the result of responses
to external events, as opposed to internal thought processes. Psychologists who sub-
scribe to this viewpoint do not focus on internal cognitive processes. Instead, they
approach the mind as a “black box” that cannot be directly investigated and emphasize
the observable aspects of behaviour. These observable aspects consist of things that go
into the box (the stimuli or events perceived from the outside world) and things that
come out of the box (the responses or reactions to these stimuli). Take, for example, a
McDonald’s Big Mac as the stimulus and salivating in reaction to this as a response.
This view is represented by two major approaches to behavioural learning: classi-
cal conditioning and instrumental conditioning. Consumers respond to brand names,
scents, jingles, and other marketing stimuli on the basis of the learned associations or
connections they have formed over time. Similarly, people also learn that actions they
take result in rewards and punishments, and this feedback influences the way they
will respond in similar situations in the future. Consumers who receive compliments
on a product choice will be more likely to buy that brand again (i.e., a form of positive
reinforcement), while those who get food poisoning at a new restaurant will not likely
eat there in the future (i.e., a form of punishment).
CO 2 Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a response is paired
with another stimulus that initially does not elicit a response on its own. Over time this
second stimulus causes a similar response because it is associated with the first
stimulus. This phenomenon was first demonstrated in dogs by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist doing research on digestion in animals, and is shown in Figure 3–1.
Pavlov induced classically conditioned learning by pairing a neutral stimulus (a bell)
with a stimulus known to cause a salivation response in dogs (he squirted dried meat
FIGURE 3–1
Diagram of the Classical Conditioning Process
DURING CONDITIONING AFTER CONDITIONING
Stimuli Responses Stimulus Response
Bell Alerts the Dog Bell

(paired with)
Meat Powder Salivation Salivation
powder into their mouths). The powder was an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), because it
was naturally capable of causing the response. Over time, the bell became a conditioned
stimulus (CS); it did not initially cause salivation, but the dogs learned to associate the
bell with the meat powder and began to salivate at the sound of the bell only. The drooling,
caused by a sound now linked to feeding time, was a conditioned response (CR).
This basic form of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov applies primar-
ily to responses controlled by the autonomic (e.g., salivation) and nervous (e.g., eye-
blink) systems. That is, it focuses on visual and olfactory cues that induce physiological
responses such as hunger, thirst, or sexual arousal. When these cues are consistently
paired with conditioned stimuli, such as brand names, consumers may learn to feel
hungry, thirsty, or aroused when later exposed to the brand cues.
Classical conditioning effects can also emerge when a product that is originally
neutral (e.g., a conditioned stimulus) is paired over time with a product that produces
an emotion-inducing response (i.e., an unconditioned stimulus). In one study, for exam-
ple, participants viewed pens paired with either pleasant or unpleasant mood-inducing
music; they were much more likely to later select the pen that appeared with pleasant
music.3 Researchers have shown that classical conditioning effects can be triggered by
unconditioned stimuli such as the Star Wars theme song or pleasant pictures paired
with conditioned stimuli such as geometric shapes, colas, and toothpaste.4
Associative Learning
Classical conditioning is a form of associative learning in which consumers learn
associations between stimuli in a rather simple fashion without more complex pro-
cesses such as memory or cognition taking place.5 Associative learning can occur for
more complex reactions to stimuli as well. Even a credit card becomes a conditioned
cue that triggers greater spending, especially since it is a stimulus present only in situ-
ations in which consumers are spending money. Over time, people may make associa-
tions between credit cards and the ability to make larger purchases; and consequently
have been found to leave larger tips than they do when using cash.6 Small wonder that
American Express reminds us, “Don’t leave home without it.”
R e p etition
Associative learning effects are more likely to occur after a conditioned stimulus and
an unconditioned stimulus have been paired a number of times.7 Repeated exposures
increase the strength of stimulus–response associations and prevent the decay of these
Many classic advertising campaigns consist

of product slogans that have been repeated
so many times that they are etched in
consumers’ minds. Sleep Country’s slogan is
well known, and consumers can finish the
tune once they hear the beginning of the
jingle “Why buy a mattress . . .”
Courtesy of Sleep Country Canada. www.sleepcountry.ca
associations in memory. Research indicates that the interval between exposures may
Marketing influence the effectiveness of this strategy as well as the type of medium used to com-
Insight municate the stimulus–response associations; the most effective repetition strategy
seems to be a combination of spaced exposures that alternate in terms of media that
How often should an advertiser repeat ads it are more and less involving, such as TV advertising complemented by print media.8
places on websites? Research indicates the Many classic advertising campaigns consist of product slogans that have been repeated
answer depends on whether the ad relates to so many times they are etched in consumers’ minds.
the site’s content, and whether there are also Associative learning will not occur or will take longer if the paired stimuli are
competing ads present on the site. The study only occasionally presented with each other. One result of this lack of association
found support for the general idea that repeti- may be extinction, which happens when the effects of prior conditioning are reduced
tive ad messages resulted in higher recall and and finally disappear. This can occur, for example, when a product is overexposed in
interest in learning more about the advertised the marketplace, or forms new associations such that the brand is no longer consis-
product (in this case, a laptop). However,
tently paired with the original stimulus. For example, Coach has done an excellent
repeating the same ad was primarily effective
job of pairing its brand with high-end, luxury imagery. When Nicole “Snookie”
when competitors also showed ads on the site.
Polizzi from MTV’s Jersey Shore began to become well known for always being pho-
Otherwise it was better to vary the ad mes-
tographed with her Coach purse, Coach became worried that its former luxury-brand
sages for the laptop (presumably because
association might wear off. The news media reported that Coach had carefully
people tuned out the ad if it appeared repeat-
edly). And these ads were more effective when
orchestrated a change in her behaviour. By sending her its competition’s (Gucci’s)
they appeared on a site where the content products, Coach hoped to decrease the undesirable associations of Snookie being
related to the advertised product.9 seen using its brand!
S t imul us G en eralizatio n
CO 3 Stimulus generalization refers to the tendency of stimuli similar to a CS to evoke sim-
ilar conditioned responses.10 For example, Pavlov noticed in subsequent studies that
his dogs would sometimes salivate when they heard noises that only resembled the
sound of a bell (e.g., keys jangling). People react to other similar stimuli in much the
same way as they respond to an original stimulus. A drugstore’s bottle of private-brand
mouthwash deliberately packaged to resemble Listerine mouthwash may evoke a sim-
ilar response among consumers who assume that this “me-too” product shares other
characteristics of the original.
Indeed, consumers in one study on shampoo brands tended to rate those with simi-
lar packages as also being similar in quality and performance.11 This “piggybacking”
strategy can cut both ways: When the quality of the me-too product turns out to be lower
than that of the original brand, consumers may exhibit even more positive feelings
toward the original; however, if the quality of the two competitors is perceived to be
about equal, consumers may conclude the price premium they are paying for the original
is not worth it.12 In addition, consumers’ learned associations with a large corporation
can influence what they believe about its products. The company’s overall reputation
has been shown to have a particularly strong impact on brand evaluations. To a lesser
extent the same is also true of the company’s reputation for social responsibility.13
S t imul us D i scr imin atio n

Stimulus discrimination occurs when a stimulus similar to a CS is not followed by a
UCS. In these situations reactions are weakened and will soon disappear. Part of the
learning process involves learning to respond to some stimuli but not to other similar
stimuli. Manufacturers of well-established brands commonly encourage consumers to
discriminate by urging them not to buy “cheap imitations” because the results will not
be what they expect.
In a recent twist on this principle, some companies are using a strategy called
masked branding, which deliberately hides a product’s true origin. For example, think
of the Dove brand, which does an excellent job of evoking associations around posi-
tive self-esteem and body image for women. Dove is owned by Unilever, a company
that also has the brand Axe in its portfolio. The set of associations that have been cre-
ated around the Axe brand relate to unrealistic body image expectations and the objec-
tification of women. As such, Dove would prefer to downplay its true origin, which is
associated with the Axe brand.
Marketing Applications of Conditioning

Many marketing strategies focus on the establishment of associations between stimuli
and responses. Behavioural learning principles apply to many consumer phenomena,
ranging from the creation of a distinctive brand image to the perceived link between a
product and an underlying need.
These conditioned associations are crucial to many marketing strategies that rely
on the creation and perpetuation of positive brand equity, in which a brand has strong
positive associations in a consumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a
result.14 As we will see in the following chapters, a product with brand equity holds a
tremendous advantage in the marketplace.
R e p etition
One advertising researcher argued that scheduling more than three exposures is a
waste. The first exposure creates awareness of the product, the second exposure dem-
onstrates its relevance to the consumer, and the third exposure serves as a reminder of
the product’s benefits.15 However, even this bare-bones approach implies that repeti-
tion is needed to ensure that the consumer is actually exposed to (and processes)
The “Got Milk?” campaign avoids advertis-

ing wearout by repeatedly creating positive
associations with the product, but varying
the execution of the advertisements.
MilkPEP
the ad at least three times. As we saw in the last chapter, this exposure is by no means
Marketing guaranteed since people often tune out or distort many marketing communications.
Insight Marketers attempting to condition a particular association must ensure that the con-
sumers they have targeted will be exposed to the stimulus a sufficient number of times
The choice of a great brand name is so impor- to make it “stick.”
tant that companies often hire specialists, On the other hand, it is possible to have too much of a good thing. Consumers can
called naming consultants, to come up with a become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they no longer pay
winning selection. These experts often try to attention to it. This problem, known as advertising wearout, can be alleviated by vary-
find semantic associations that click because ing the way in which the basic message is presented. For example, the marketer can
they evoke some desirable connection. That maintain the themes and associations conveyed by an advertising message, while
strategy brought us names such as Qualcomm varying the actual execution of the message itself. A good example of this is the “Got
(“quality” and “communications”), Verizon Milk?” campaign, which pairs unconditioned stimuli (attractive celebrities) with the
(“horizon,” as in forward-looking), and Intel
product (which presumably leads to the unconditioned response of positive affect),
(“intelligent” and “electronics”). The name
but varies the actual celebrities used to avoid consumers getting bored or blocking out
“Viagra” rhymes with “Niagara,” the famous
the marketing message. Another example of this is TELUS’s “The Future Is Friendly”
waterfall. People associate water with both
campaign, which involves different message executions around cute animals to repre-
sexuality and life, and Niagara Falls is a honey-
sent the brand.
moon mecca. Philip Morris has renamed itself
Altria Group to convey its expansion beyond
cigarettes into packaged foods and brewing.18 C o nd it io n ing Pro duct Asso ciatio ns
Appropriate semantic combinations are Advertisements often pair a product with a positive stimulus to create a desirable
getting harder to find, so some consultants are association. Various aspects of a marketing message, such as music, humour, or imag-
trying to appeal to consumers’ more basic ery, can affect conditioning.
instincts by focusing on links between the raw Importantly, the order in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned
sounds of vowels and consonants (called stimulus are presented can affect the likelihood that learning will occur. Generally
phonemes) and emotional responses. To get at speaking, the conditioned stimulus should be presented prior to the unconditioned
these associations, researchers usually give stimulus. That is, it is more effective to present a soft drink (CS) first and then follow
subjects pairs of nonsense names that differ in with the sound of a jingle (UCS). The technique of backward conditioning, such as
only a single phoneme, such as Paressa and playing a jingle (the USC) first and then showing the soft drink (the CS), is generally
Taressa, where the phonemes that differ are p not effective.16
and t, and ask which word sounds faster, more
Just as product associations can be formed, they can also be extinguished. Because
daring, nicer, and so on. They have found that
of the danger of extinction, a classical conditioning strategy may not be as effective for
sounds that come to a full stop (p, b, t, and d )
products that are frequently encountered, since there is no guarantee they will be con-
connote slowness, while f, v, s, and z are fast.
sistently accompanied by the CS. A bottle of Pepsi paired with the refreshing sound of
The words “Prozac” and “Amazon” convey a
a carbonated beverage being poured over ice may seem like a good example of condi-
sense of speed (of recovery or of delivery). When
naming consultants were asked to label a new
tioning. Unfortunately, the product would also be seen in many other contexts in
handheld personal digital assistant (PDA), they which this sound was absent, reducing the effectiveness of the conditioning strategy.
first thought of “StrawBerry,” because the little By the same reasoning, a novel tune should be chosen over a popular one to pair with
keyboard buttons resembled seeds. They liked a product, since the popular song might also be heard in many situations in which the
the “berry” part of the name because they product is not present.17
knew that people associated the letter b with
reliability, and a berry communicated smallness A p p l ic at io ns o f Stim ulus G en eralizatio n
compared to other PDAs. But a linguist pointed The process of stimulus generalization is often central to branding and packaging deci-
out that “straw” is a slow syllable, and the sions that attempt to capitalize on consumers’ positive associations with an existing
product needed to have a fast connotation. brand or company name. The marketing value of an admired stimulus is clearly dem-
Voilà! The BlackBerry was born.19 onstrated at universities with winning sports teams, where loyal fans snap up mer-
chandise, from clothing to bathroom accessories, emblazoned with the school’s name.
This business did not even exist 40 years ago, when schools were reluctant to com-
mercialize their images. Today, it’s a different story. Many university administrators
Companies Making Fun of Themselves crave the revenue they receive from sales of products that range from sweatshirts to
drink coasters. Strategies based on stimulus generalization include the following:
• Family branding, in which a variety of products capitalize on the reputation of a
company name. Companies such as Google, Virgin, Campbell, Heinz, and General
Electric rely on their positive corporate images to sell different product lines.
• Product-line extensions, in which related products are added to an established
brand. Dole, which is associated with fruit, was able to introduce refrigerated
juices and juice bars, while Sun-Maid went from raisins to raisin bread. Mean-
while, Procter & Gamble is cleaning up with its Mr. Clean brand of liquid cleanser,
aggressively putting the name on products such as Mr. Clean Magic Eraser, for
removing crayon marks from walls and scuff marks from chair rails, and Mr. Clean
AutoDry, for leaving a freshly washed car spot-free without hand drying.20
• Licensing, in which well-known names are “rented” by others. This strategy is
increasing in popularity as marketers try to link their products and services with
well-established brands. In response to declining print media sales, Playboy has
entered into many licensing deals with various product categories, including
wine, fragrance, and fashion.21 Maxim magazine, on the other hand, has been crit-
icized for licensing products ranging from men’s hair dye to bedsheets
• Look-alike packaging, in which distinctive packaging designs create strong asso-
ciations with a particular brand. This link is often exploited by makers of generic
or private-label brands that wish to communicate a quality image by putting their
products in similar packages. Imitating the look of an existing successful brand is
common in today’s crowded marketplace. However, one study found that a nega-
tive experience with an imitator brand increased evaluations of the original brand.
A positive experience with the imitator had the opposite effect of decreasing eval-
uations of the original brand.22 Another study found that consumers tend to react
positively to “copycat brands” as long as the imitator doesn’t make grandiose
claims that it can’t fulfil.23
Of course, this strategy can make a lot of work for lawyers if the copycat brand
gets too close to the original. Marketers of distinctive brands work hard to protect their Cops Hold Purse Parties to Catch Alleged
designs and logos, and every year companies file numerous lawsuits that hinge on the Criminals
issue of “consumer confusion”—how likely it is that one company’s logo, product
design, or package is similar enough to another’s that the typical shopper would mis-
take one for the other. For example, Levi Strauss has sued almost 100 other apparel
manufacturers that it claims have borrowed its trademark pocket design or the distinc-
tive tab sewn into its garments’ vertical seams.24
Companies with a well-established brand image try to encourage stimulus discrimi-
nation when they promote the unique attributes of their brand. One big issue arises
when fake products masquerade as the real thing. The International AntiCounterfeiting
Coalition, an industry group that combats piracy, estimates that trademark counterfeit-
ing robs legitimate brand owners of $250 billion annually.25 As you might imagine,
companies like Louis Vuitton go to great lengths to educate their consumers about
the unique attributes of an original product and how to differentiate a true LV from
an impostor.
Instrumental Conditioning CO 4
Instrumental conditioning, also known as operant conditioning, occurs as the indi-

vidual learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and to avoid
behaviours that yield negative outcomes. This learning process is most closely associ-
ated with psychologist B.F. Skinner, who demonstrated the effects of instrumental
conditioning by teaching animals to dance, play Ping Pong, and so on by systemati-
cally rewarding them for desired behaviours.26
Under classical conditioning, people respond involuntarily and fairly simply,
often on the basis of very automatic responses. Under instrumental conditioning, peo-
ple perform more complex behaviours and associate these behaviours with either
rewards or punishments. The desired behaviour may be learned over a period of time,
as intermediate actions are rewarded in a process called shaping. Shaping occurs
when consumers are rewarded for successive steps taken toward the desired response.
For example, the owner of a new store might award samples to shoppers just for com-
ing into the store in a way that encourages trial, then provide consumers with coupons
that stimulate low-involvement purchases, then reward consumers for signing up for a
Tim Hortons rewards customers through its

“Roll Up the Rim to Win” campaign. This is
a form of positive reinforcement, which
serves to increase the chances consumers
will perform the behaviour (buying products)
again in the future.
All Tim Hortons trademarks referenced herein
are owned by Tim Hortons. Used with
permission.
rewards program, and then finally reward them again when they come into the store
and buy something more substantial.
Also, classical conditioning involves the close pairing of two stimuli. Instrumen-
tal learning occurs as a result of a reward or punishment received following the desired
behaviour and takes place over a period in which a variety of other behaviours are
attempted and abandoned because they are not reinforced. A good way to remember
the difference is to keep in mind that in instrumental learning the response is per-
formed because it is instrumental to gaining a reward or avoiding a punishment. Over
Marketing time, consumers come to choose products that make them feel good or satisfy some
Insight social need and to associate with people who reward them.
Instrumental learning occurs in one of three ways. When the environment pro-
Marketers are increasingly taking advantage of vides positive reinforcement in the form of a reward, the response is strengthened and
the principles of operant conditioning. Aherk! appropriate behaviour is learned. For example, a woman who gets compliments after
helps people reach their objectives by engaging wearing a certain brand of perfume will learn that using this product has the desired
in a bit of self-blackmail: You post a goal and a effect, and she will be more likely to keep buying the product. Similarly, a user who
deadline on the site. You also post an embar- gets a large number of “likes” on his Facebook status for posting humorous content
rassing photo of yourself (they call it “the will be increasingly likely to do so again. Negative reinforcement also strengthens
bomb”). When the deadline hits, your Facebook responses so that appropriate behaviour is learned. Negative reinforcement removes
friends vote on whether you achieved your goal. something negative in a way that increases a desired response. For example, when the
If the vote is negative, boom!—up goes your retailer offers to pay the tax for the consumer, it is removing a negative stimulus (the
photo for all to see. This is an example of using
tax) in a way that encourages the desired behaviour—making a purchase today!
punishment to encourage the consumer to
In contrast to reinforcement strategies that are used when marketers want to
reach a desired goal. Other apps that dole out
increase a particular behaviour, punishment is used to decrease an undesired
a dose of punishment include the GymPact,
behaviour. Punishment occurs when a response is followed by an unpleasant event.
where missed workouts (tracked via smart-
For example, being ridiculed by friends for wearing an offensive cologne or having the
phone) cost the user real money, and Write or
heel of your shoe rip off after buying a cheap pair would both be examples of
Die, a cure for writer’s block that unwrites the
words on your laptop if you sit too long without punishment in the consumer context. We learn not to repeat these behaviours.
adding more. Finally there’s the Virtual Fridge In terms of positive and negative reinforcement, when a positive outcome is no
Lock—it attaches to your refrigerator and longer received, extinction of the behaviour is likely to occur and the learned stimulus–
posts to your Facebook timeline every time you response connection will not be maintained (as when a woman no longer receives
open the door.27 compliments on her perfume). Thus, either positive or negative reinforcement
strengthens the future link between a response and an outcome because of the pleasant
FIGURE 3–2
Four Types of Learning Outcomes
EVENT
CONDITION APPLIED CONDITION REMOVED
POSITIVE EXTINCTION
REINFORCEMENT Effect: Removal of
Effect: Positive event positive event weakens
strengthens responses, responses, which are
which are then followed no longer followed by
POSITIVE by positive outcome positive outcome
BEHAVIOUR Learning Process: Learning Process:
Consumer learns to Consumer learns that
perform responses responses no longer
that produce positive produce positive
outcome outcome
Str
Co ength n s
nne en ake ion
ctio We nnect
ns Co
BEHAVIOUR
PUNISHMENT NEGATIVE
Effect: Negative event REINFORCEMENT
weakens responses, Effect: Removal of
which are then followed negative event
by negative outcome strengthens responses,
NEGATIVE Learning Process: which allows avoidance
BEHAVIOUR Consumer learns not of negative outcome
to perform responses Learning Process:
leading to punishment Consumer learns to
perform responses that
allow him or her to
avoid negative
outcome
experience. This tie is weakened under conditions of both punishment and extinction
because of the unpleasant experience. The relationships among these four conditions
are easier to understand by referring to Figure 3–2.
Four Types of Learning Schedules

An important factor in operant conditioning is the set of rules by which appropriate
reinforcements are given for a behaviour. The issue of what is the most effective rein-
forcement schedule to use is important to marketers, because it relates to the amount
of effort and resources they must devote to rewarding consumers to condition desired
behaviours. Two general ways in which consumers are reinforced for desired behav-
iours are ratio schedules and interval schedules. Ratio schedules reinforce the learner
based on the number of responses that have been completed. For example, rewarding
the consumer with a free gift after 10 purchases is an example of a ratio reinforcement
schedule. Interval schedules, on the other hand, reinforce the learner after a certain
amount of time passes since the appropriate response. For example, you might be
rewarded once a year by your bank for being a valued customer.
Drawing on this, several schedules are possible:
1. Fixed-ratio reinforcement: Reinforcement occurs only after a fixed number of
responses. For example, consumers might keep buying at the same store to earn a
prize, knowing that after they make 14 purchases, they get their fifteenth purchase
for free.
2. Variable-ratio reinforcement: The behaviour of a person is reinforced after a cer-

tain number of responses, but he or she does not know how many responses are
required. People in such situations tend to respond at very high and steady rates,
and this type of behaviour is very difficult to extinguish. An example of this is the
Tim Hortons “Roll Up the Rim to Win” campaign. Consumers’ chances of winning
are based on a behaviour (buying a cup of coffee), but consumers aren’t certain
how many times they have to engage in the behaviour before they get the reward—
anything from a free doughnut to a Toyota Camry Hybrid.
3. Fixed-interval reinforcement: After a specified time period has passed, the first
response that is made brings the reward. Under such conditions, people tend to
respond slowly right after being reinforced, but their responses speed up as the
time for the next reinforcement looms. For example, consumers may crowd into a
store for the last day of its seasonal sale and not reappear until the next sale.
4. Variable-interval reinforcement: The time that must pass before reinforcement is
delivered varies around some average. Since the person does not know exactly
when to expect the reinforcement, responses must be performed at a consistent
rate. Take, for example, a loyalty club member at a spa who gets mailed a coupon
for a free facial once every eight to ten months.
Applications of Instrumental Conditioning

Principles
Principles of instrumental conditioning are at work when a consumer is rewarded or
punished for a purchase decision. For example, consumers who are rewarded in
online marketplaces with discounts, bonus products, or even involving content are
more likely to return again. Marketers often use shaping by gradually reinforcing
consumers for taking appropriate actions. For example, a car dealer might encourage
a reluctant buyer just to sit in a floor model, then suggest a test drive, and then try to
close the deal. In a particularly ingenious example of shaping, Toyota Canada
encourages consumers to take its vehicles for a weekend—a fairly big step in the
shaping process.
Fre q ue n cy M ark etin g

A popular technique known as frequency marketing reinforces the behaviour of reg-
ular purchasers by giving them prizes with values that increase along with the
amount purchased. This operant learning strategy was pioneered by the airline
industry, which introduced “frequent flyer” programs in the early 1980s to reward
loyal customers.
Frequent-buyer programs are not just about consumers earning free trips and
merchandise. Retailers can use related databases to refine everything from their
merchandise mix to their marketing strategy on the basis of their detailed knowledge
of consumers and their purchases. Costs are lowered by the ability to design focused
and personalized marketing communications to the prime customer, customer
retention programs are more effective, product launches and redesigns are more likely
to be successful, and blunders are prevented.
G a mif ic atio n
One fast-growing tactic used by companies that capitalizes on operant conditioning
principles is called gamification.28 Many organizations are going to the next level in
terms of consumer engagement by borrowing from basic principles of game mechanics
to motivate consumers across a broad spectrum of behaviours. Indeed, one survey
showed that over 70 percent of Forbes Global 2000 companies planned to use some
form of gamification in their marketing and consumer retention strategies.29
Gamification capitalizes on the desire for people to achieve increasing levels of
mastery at tasks. Gamification can take different forms: It can involve awarding points,
achievement badges, or levels; filling a progress bar; or showing the performance of

the self and others on leader boards. Here are some examples of marketers’ use of
gamification:
Store and brand loyalty. Foursquare gives people virtual badges when they check
in at a local café or restaurant. Some of them check in as often as they can to compete
for the honour of being named “mayor” of the location.
Social marketing. Recyclebank rewards consumers for doing everyday things that
are sustainable. Users can earn points for working through questions and answers
related to sustainability, by purchasing greener products, or by pledging to engage in
various green behaviours. Consumers can then trade in their points for deals at more
than 3000 local and national businesses.
Employee performance. Some restaurants use a software platform called Muse to
rank the performances of servers on a leader board, rewarding the top performers with
the most lucrative shifts.
Cognitive Learning Theory

In contrast to behavioural theories of learning, cognitive learning theory stresses the
importance of internal mental processes. This perspective views people as problem
solvers who actively use information from the world around them to master their envi-
ronment. Supporters of this viewpoint also stress the role of creativity and insight
during the learning process.
An Ocean Spray commercial for diet cranberry juice illustrates how marketers can
harness their knowledge of cognitive learning theories to tweak marketing messages.
The spot features two men, in the role of cranberry growers, standing knee-deep in a
bog. A group of women who are exercising joins them. Originally the ad depicted the
women having a party, but a cognitive scientist who worked on the campaign nixed
that idea; she argued that the exercise class would send the diet message more quickly
whereas the party scene would confuse viewers who would spend too much time try-
ing to figure out why the group was celebrating. This extra cognitive activity would
distract from the ad’s message. And, contrary to the standard advertising practice of
mentioning the product as early as possible, she decided that the main characters
The Shoppers Optimum loyalty program

from Shoppers Drug Mart is an example of
frequency marketing.
Courtesy of Shoppers Drug Mart
should wait a few seconds before mentioning the new diet product. She reasoned that
viewers would need a few more seconds to process the images, because of the addi-
tional action in the ad (the exercising). In a test of which ads get remembered best, this
new version scored in the top 10 percent.30
Is Learning Conscious or Not?

A lot of controversy surrounds the issue of whether or when people are aware of their
learning processes. While behavioural learning theorists emphasize the routine, auto-
matic nature of conditioning, proponents of cognitive learning argue that even these
simple effects are based on cognitive factors; that is, expectations are created that a
stimulus will be followed by a response (the formation of expectations requires mental
activity). According to this school of thought, conditioning occurs because individuals
develop conscious hypotheses and then act on them.
On the one hand, there is some evidence for the existence of unconscious pro-
cedural knowledge. People apparently do process at least some information in an
automatic, passive way, which is a condition that has been termed mindless-
ness.31 When we meet someone new or encounter a new product, for example, we
have a tendency to respond to the stimulus in terms of existing categories rather
than taking the trouble to formulate different ones. Our reactions are activated by
a trigger feature—some stimulus that cues us toward a particular pattern. For
example, men in one study rated a car in an ad as superior on a variety of charac-
teristics if a seductive woman (the trigger feature) was present, despite the fact
that the men did not believe the woman’s presence actually had an influence on
their evaluations.32
Another study also illustrates this process. Undergraduates who were on their
way to participate in a psychology experiment “accidentally” encountered a labora-
tory assistant who was laden with textbooks, a clipboard, papers, and a cup of hot or
iced coffee and who asked for help with the cup. Guess what? The students who held
a cup of iced coffee rated a hypothetical person they later read about as much colder,
less social, and more selfish than did those who had helped out by holding a cup of
hot coffee. Other researchers report similar findings: People tidy up more thoroughly
when there’s a faint aroma of cleaning liquid in the air, and they act more competi-
tively if there’s a briefcase in the room. In each case, they change their behaviour with-
out being aware of doing so.33 Indeed, the bestselling book titled Blink: The Power of
Thinking without Thinking argues that we often make snap judgments that result in
decisions superior to those we think about a lot, because we rely on our “adaptive
unconscious” to guide us.34
CO 5 Observational Learning
Observational learning occurs when people watch the actions of others and note
the reinforcements they receive for their behaviours; learning occurs as a result
of vicarious rather than direct experience. Importantly, while behavioural learn-
ing theories propose that individuals must directly experience the stimuli that
influence their behaviours, cognitive learning theories can account for vicarious
learning effects. This type of learning is a complex cognitive process; people store
these observations in memory as they accumulate knowledge, perhaps using this
information at a later point to guide their own behaviours. This process of imitat-
ing the behaviour of others is called modelling. For example, a woman shopping
for a new kind of perfume may remember the reactions a friend received upon
wearing a certain brand several months earlier, and she may base her purchase on
her friend’s experiences.
FIGURE 3–3
Components of Observational Learning
PRODUCTION
ATTENTION RETENTION MOTIVATION
PROCESSES
The consumer The consumer A situation arises
The consumer
focuses on a retains this wherein the behaviour
has the ability
model’s behaviour in is useful to the
to perform the
behaviour. memory. consumer.
behaviour.
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
The consumer acquires and
performs the behaviour
demonstrated earlier by a model.
The modelling process is a powerful form of learning, and people’s tendencies to

imitate others’ behaviours can have negative effects. Of particular concern is the
potential of TV shows and movies to teach violence to children. Children may be
exposed to new methods of aggression by models (e.g., cartoon heroes) in the shows
they watch. At some later point the child may imitate these behaviours when he or she
becomes angry.
A classic study demonstrates the effect of modelling on children’s actions. Kids
who watched an adult stomp on, knock down, and otherwise torture a large inflated
“Bobo doll” repeated these behaviours when later left alone in a room with the doll;
children who did not witness these acts did not.35
For observational learning in the form of modelling to occur, four conditions must
be met (which are summarized in Figure 3–3):36
1. The consumer’s attention must be directed toward the appropriate model whom,
for reasons of attractiveness, competence, status, or similarity, it is desirable to
emulate.
2. The consumer must remember what the model says or does.
3. The consumer must convert this information into actions.
4. The consumer must be motivated to perform these actions.
Applications of Cognitive Learning Principles

Consumers’ ability to learn vicariously by observing how the behaviour of others is
reinforced makes the lives of marketers much easier. Because people do not have to be
reinforced directly for their actions, marketers do not necessarily have to reward or
punish them for purchase behaviours. Instead, they can show what happens to models
who use or do not use their products, in the knowledge that consumers will often be
motivated to imitate these actions at a later time. For example, a perfume commercial
may depict a woman surrounded by a throng of admirers who are providing her with
positive reinforcement for using the product.
Consumers’ evaluations of the people they model go beyond simple stimulus–
response connections. For example, a celebrity’s image often provokes more than a
simple reflexive response of good or bad;37 it is a complex combination of many attri-
butes. In general, the degree to which a model will be emulated depends on his or her
social attractiveness. Attractiveness can be based upon several components, including
physical appearance, expertise, or similarity to the evaluator.
Facebook appeals to consumers by allowing

them to share and recall their special
memories.
JUSTIN SULLIVAN/Getty Images
CO 6 The Role of Memory in Learning

Memory involves a process of acquiring information and storing it over time so
that it will be available when needed. Contemporary approaches to the study of
memory employ an information-processing approach. They assume that the mind
is in some ways like a computer: Data are input, processed, and output for later use
in revised form. In the encoding stage, information is entered in a way the system
will recognize. In the storage stage, this knowledge is integrated with what
is already in memory and “warehoused” until needed. During retrieval, the
mind accesses the desired information. 38 The memory process is summarized in
Figure 3–4.
Many of our experiences are locked inside our heads and may surface years
later if prompted by the right cues. Marketers rely on consumers to retain informa-
tion they have learned about products and services, trusting that they will later
apply it when they decide to buy. During the consumer decision-making process,
this internal memory is combined with external memory—which includes all of
the product details on packages, in shopping lists, and through other marketing
stimuli—to permit brand alternatives to be identified and evaluated.39 The grocery
shopping list is a good example of a powerful external memory aid. When consum-
ers use shopping lists, they buy approximately 80 percent of the items on the list,
and the likelihood of a particular list item being purchased is higher if the person
who wrote the list also participates in the shopping trip. Marketers also found
that the likelihood of purchasing a list item increased with household size and is
FIGURE 3–4
The Memory Process
ENCODING STORAGE RETRIEVAL

EXTERNAL Information is Information is Information stored
INPUTS placed in retained in in memory is
memory. memory. found as needed.
marginally greater during holiday periods. This means that if marketers can induce
a consumer to plan to buy an item in advance of shopping, the probability of the Marketing
item being purchased is high.
Research supports the idea that marketers can distort a consumer’s recall of a
Insight
product experience. What we think we “know” about products can be influenced Brand names that use metaphors help trigger
by advertising messages to which we are exposed after using the products. This stories in our minds, and research suggests
postexperience advertising is more likely to alter actual memories when it is very this strategy results in higher consumer evalu-
similar to or activates memories about the actual experience. For example, ations compared to brand names composed of
advertising can make a remembered product experience more favourable than it meaningless letters or numbers. One study
actually was. reported that consumers rated cell phones from
Samsung and LG more positively after they
were the first in the industry to break the prac-
Encoding of Information for Later Retrieval tice of naming the phones with combinations
of letters and numbers—LG’s phones sport
The way information is encoded helps to determine how it will be represented in names such as Chocolate, Shine, Vu, Voyager,
memory. Encoding involves linking new information to existing knowledge in order to Dare, and Decoy, while Samsung started things
make the new information more meaningful. In general, incoming data that are associ- off with the BlackJack, UpStage, FlipShot, and
ated with other information already in memory stand a better chance of being retained. Juke and later added the Access, Instinct, and
For example, brand names that are linked to physical characteristics41 of a product Glyde. During the same period these companies
category (Coffee-mate creamer or Sani-Flush toilet bowl cleaner) or that are easy to increased market share in this category. Com-
visualize (Tide detergent or Jaguar cars) tend to be more easily retained in memory pared to other phone brands, consumers rated
than more abstract brand names.42 these models as modern, creative, engaging,
However, memory for brand names may interact with one’s involvement in the original, cool, and easy to remember.40
product class. Low-involvement products, such as household cleaners, seem to benefit
from descriptive names by being easier to remember. There is no evidence that descrip-
tive names for high-involvement products, such as automobiles, are remembered any
better than non-descriptive names.43
T yp es of M e a n in g
A consumer may process a stimulus simply in terms of its sensory meaning, such as
its colour or shape. When this occurs the meaning may be activated when the person
sees a picture of the stimulus. We may experience a sense of familiarity upon seeing an
ad for a new snack food we tasted recently, for example. In many cases, though, mean-
ings are encoded at a more abstract level. Semantic meaning refers to symbolic asso-
ciations, such as the idea that rich people drink champagne.
Pe rs ona l Re l e va n c e
Episodic memories are memories for events that are personally relevant. 44 As a
result, a person’s motivation to retain these memories will likely be strong. Cou-
ples often have a song that reminds them of their first date or their wedding. Often
an important and compelling episodic event, such as one’s wedding, will lead to
memories that are quite vivid and unique, and are sometimes called flashbulb
memories.
One method of conveying product information is through a narrative or a
story. Much of the social information that an individual acquires is represented in
memory this way. Therefore, using this method in product advertising can be an
effective marketing technique. Narratives persuade people to construct a mental
representation of the information they are viewing. Pictures aid in this construc-
tion and allow for a more developed and detailed mental representation.45 Recent
research supports the idea that brands are more likely to be positively evaluated
and purchased when they connect to a consumer through a narrative.46 For exam-
ple, Chanel created a narrative short film around a love story starring model Gisele
Bündchen. The story made the film very memorable: It was viewed over 7 million
times on YouTube!
As I See It
Consumers confront a daily to the high-involvement condition (making a truth rating). Again,
barrage of marketing informa- familiarity with the claims helped explain these results.
tion from an increasing num- However, the familiarity of a claim had much less (although
ber of sources in a growing still significant) influence on participants’ beliefs under high
variety of contexts. The num- involvement. High-involvement processing leads to greater elab-
Courtesy of Dr. Scott Hawkins
ber, pacing, placement, and oration, which in turn leads to greater familiarity of the claim.
complexity of the messages High-involvement processing also produces more evaluative pro-
can quickly overwhelm con- cessing, which may limit the effects of familiarity. Thus, repeti-
sumers’ abilities to process tion of marketing messages can have a particularly strong impact
them. In addition, consumers on consumer beliefs under low involvement because consumers
tend to view many marketing are likely to rely on the familiarity associated with the claims to
Dr. Scott Hawkins Rotman School of claims as irrelevant to their assess their validity.
Management, University of Toronto current goals or of trivial In another study, my colleague and I tested this interpreta-
value. This suggests that con- tion by attempting to increase memory for the claims without
sumers process many promotional messages with minimal levels also encouraging evaluative processing, which increases the
of involvement. accessibility of relevant prior knowledge. Repetition-induced
Herbert Krugman was one of the first to argue that the high- belief was strongest when subjects engaged in a processing task
involvement persuasion model, which portrays advertising as a (rote rehearsal) that increased familiarity without increasing
means to overcome resistant attitudes, might not always offer the evaluative processing of the information. It is interesting to note
most appropriate criteria for gauging advertising effectiveness.1 that marketers routinely use mnemonic devices such as rote rep-
He argued that information processed under high involvement can etition (“How do you spell relief? R-O-L-A-I-D-S”) and jingles (“I
raise consumer defences, whereas information processed under wish I were an Oscar Mayer wiener”) to increase rehearsal with-
low involvement can have powerful effects on consumers’ beliefs out inducing evaluative processing.
because their passive acceptance of messages can (perhaps The power of simple repetition to build brand knowledge,
without their awareness) alter the way they think about products especially when consumers are relatively uninvolved in process-
and brands (i.e., incidentally learned information can influence ing those messages, seems especially important in a media envi-
consumers as much as, or even more than, intentionally learned ronment that continues to become more cluttered. In a later
information). study, my colleagues and I examined how greater levels of claim
In a series of studies, my colleague and I examined how repetition and the relationships among claims can influence
participants’ level of involvement during initial exposure to mar- belief.3 We found that increasing the number of repetitions of a
keting claims influenced what they learned and what they subse- claim continues to increase belief in that claim, but the greatest
quently came to believe.2 Participants rated consumer trivia impact occurs with the first exposure (i.e., there is some wearout
statements (e.g., “Antihistamines have no effect on the common of repetition). In addition, we found that by varying the claims
cold”) as more true when they had been exposed to those state- slightly (so that there were multiple claims about related product
ments earlier than when they had not (repetition-induced belief). features that all implied a common benefit), we could increase
It appeared that the repetition-induced belief resulted from the belief that a product had a general benefit simply by exposing
increased familiarity with the previously exposed claims. That is, participants to more of the related feature claims. Marketers
repetition increased the familiarity of claims, and familiar claims often use “variations-on-a-theme advertising” that exposes
were judged to be more valid than unfamiliar ones. Moreover, consumers to multiple executions of the same brand benefit,
when participants processed the information during initial expo- which will not only help keep consumers interested but may also
sure in a less involved way (making a comprehension rating), the contribute to greater belief in the brand’s benefit compared to
effect of repetition on belief became more pronounced relative simple repetition of the same advertising execution.
1 Herbert E. Krugman, “The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning without Involvement,” Public Opinion Quarterly 29 (Fall 1965): 349–356.
2 Scott A. Hawkins and Stephen J. Hoch, “Low-Involvement Learning: Memory without Evaluation,” Journal of Consumer Research 19 (September 1992): 212–225.
3Scott A. Hawkins, Stephen J. Hoch, and Joan Meyers-Levy, “Low-Involvement Learning: Repetition and Coherence in Familiarity and Belief,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology 11 (2001): 1–11.
Memory Systems
According to the information-processing perspective, there are three distinct memory
systems: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
Each plays a role in processing information. The interrelationships of these memory
systems are summarized in Figure 3–5.
FIGURE 3–5
Relationships among Memory Systems
SENSORY MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY LONG-TERM MEMORY

Temporary storage of Brief storage of information Relatively permanent
sensory information currently being used storage of information
Capacity: High Capacity: Limited Capacity: Unlimited
Duration: Less than 1 second Duration: Less than 20 Duration: Long or permanent
(vision) or a few seconds
seconds (hearing)
ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL
ATTENTION
Information subjected to
Information that passes
elaborative rehearsal or deep
through an attentional gate is
processing (e.g., its meaning
transferred to short-term
is considered) is transferred
memory.
to long-term memory.
Sensory memory permits storage of the information we receive from our senses.
This storage is very temporary; it lasts a couple of seconds at most. For example, a
person might be walking past a doughnut shop and get a quick, enticing whiff of some-
thing baking inside. While this sensation would last for only a few seconds, it would
be sufficient to allow the person to determine whether he or she should investigate
further. If the information is retained for further processing, it passes through an atten-
tional gate and is transferred to short-term memory.
Short-term memory also stores information for a limited period of time, and its
capacity is limited. As with the RAM in a computer, this system can be regarded as work-
ing memory; it holds the information we are currently processing. Verbal input may be
stored acoustically (in terms of how it sounds) or semantically (in terms of its meaning).47
The information is stored by combining small pieces into larger ones in a process
known as chunking. A chunk is a configuration that is familiar to the person and can
be manipulated as a unit. For example, a brand name can be a chunk that summarizes
a great deal of detailed information about the brand.
Initially it was believed that STM was capable of processing between five and nine
chunks of information at a time, and for this reason phone numbers were designed to
have seven digits.48 It now appears that three to four chunks is the optimum size for effi-
cient retrieval (10-digit phone numbers can be remembered because the individual digits
are chunked, so we may remember a three-digit exchange as one piece of information).49
Long-term memory is the system that allows us to retain information for a long
period of time. For information to enter into long-term memory from short-term mem-
ory, elaborative rehearsal is required. This process involves thinking about the mean-
ing of a stimulus and relating it to other information already in memory. Marketers
sometimes assist in the process by devising catchy slogans or jingles that consumers
repeat on their own.
Storing Information in Memory

Relationships among the types of memory are a source of some controversy. The tradi-
tional perspective, known as multiple-store, assumes that STM and LTM are separate sys-
tems. More recent research has moved away from the distinction between the two types of
memory, instead emphasizing the interdependence of the systems. This work argues that,
depending on the nature of the processing task, different levels of processing occur that
activate some aspects of memory rather than others. These approaches are called activa-
tion models of memory.50 The more effort it takes to process information (so-called deep
processing), the more likely it is that information will be placed in long-term memory.
Ass o c iat ive N etw ork Model s

Consumers Associative network models propose that an incoming piece of information is stored
in Focus in an associative network containing many bits of related information organized
according to some set of relationships. The consumer has organized systems of con-
Social networks like Facebook have revolution- cepts relating to brands, stores, manufacturers, etc. Associative network models
ized how people store and share memories. assume that it is the associations that form in consumers’ minds that lead to learning
However, at least some users are starting to about brands and products. For example, the more times a brand name (e.g., Volvo)
feel that maybe these platforms do it a bit too becomes associated with a trait or benefit (e.g., safety) in memory, the stronger the link
well: They don’t necessarily want others (espe- between the brand and the benefit becomes,53 particularly if the brand and the benefit
cially employers, parents, and other authority are uniquely associated.54
figures) to know about all of their “awesome” These storage units, known as knowledge structures, can be thought of as com-
experiences. Incidentally, 75 percent of recruit- plex spiderwebs filled with pieces of data. Information is placed into nodes, which
ers report conducting online research about job
are connected by associative links within these structures. Pieces of information
candidates, and many use social media sites
seen as similar or associated in some way are chunked together under some more
like Facebook and Instagram to get informa-
abstract category. New, incoming information is interpreted to be consistent with
tion.51 As a result, a number of platforms,
the structure already in place.55 According to the hierarchical processing model, a
including Wickr and Vidburs, allow photos,
message—an ad, for instance—is processed in a bottom-up fashion: Processing
messages, or videos to be viewed for a few sec-
begins at a very basic level and is subject to increasingly complex processing oper-
onds before they vanish into cyberspace. The
biggest hit is Snapchat, which posts and then ations that require greater cognitive capacity. If processing at one level fails to
destroys more than 60 million photos or mes- evoke the next level, processing of the ad is terminated and capacity is allocated to
sages every day—already a tenth of the activ- other tasks.56
ity that occurs on the much bigger Facebook Links form between nodes as an associative network is developed. For example, a
platform. One of Snapchat’s founders explained consumer might have a network for “perfumes.” Each node represents a concept
the thinking behind the app: “It became clear related to the category. This node can be an attribute, a specific brand, a celebrity iden-
how awful social media is. There is real value tified with a perfume, or even a related product. A network for perfumes might include
in sharing moments that don’t live forever.”52 concepts such as the names Chanel, Obsession, and Calvin Klein, as well as attributes
such as sexy and elegant.
When asked to list perfumes, the consumer would recall only those brands con-
tained in the appropriate category. This group constitutes that person’s evoked set
(something we discuss in greater detail in Chapter 9). The task of a new entrant that
wants to position itself as a category member (e.g., a new luxury perfume) is to provide
cues that facilitate its placement in the appropriate category. A sample network for
perfumes is shown in Figure 3–6.
FIGURE 3–6
An Associative Network for Perfumes
PERFUMES
Young
Colognes Sensual Floral

Girlfriend by
Justin Bieber
Tom Ford Victoria’s Obsession Elegant Nina by

Secret by CK Nina Ricci
sexy Chanel Playful
Rich
Mercedes
The term spreading activation refers to the notion that the activation of concepts
can spread between different nodes in the associative network. As one node is acti-
vated, other nodes associated with it also begin to be triggered.
Meaning thus spreads across the network, bringing related concepts to mind.
These related concepts could include competing brands and relevant attributes that
are used to form attitudes toward the brand.
L e ve ls of K now l e dge
Knowledge is coded at different levels of abstraction and complexity. Meaning concepts
are individual nodes (e.g., elegant). These may be combined into a larger unit, called a
proposition (also known as a belief ). A proposition links two nodes together to form a
more complex meaning, which can serve as a single chunk of information. For example,
a proposition might be that “Titleist is a golf ball brand used by professionals.”
Propositions are, in turn, integrated to produce a complex unit known as a
schema. As was noted in Chapter 2, a schema is a cognitive framework that is devel-
oped through experience. Information consistent with an existing schema is encoded
more readily.57 The ability to move up and down among levels of abstraction greatly
increases processing flexibility and efficiency. For this reason, young children, who do
not yet have well-developed schemas, are not able to make as efficient use of purchase
information as older children.58
One type of schema that is relevant to consumer behaviour is a script—a sequence
of procedures that is expected by an individual. For example, consumers learn service
scripts that guide expectations and purchasing behaviour in business settings. Con-
sumers learn to expect a certain sequence of events and may become uncomfortable if
the service departs from the script. A service script for your visit to the dentist might
include events such as the following: (1) driving to the dentist, (2) reading old maga-
zines in the waiting room, (3) hearing your name called and sitting in the dentist’s
chair, (4) having the hygienist put a funny substance on your teeth, (5) having the
dentist examine your teeth, and so on. This desire to follow a script helps explain why
such service innovations as self-serve checkouts at grocery stores initially met with
resistance by some consumers who had trouble adapting to a new sequence of events.
Analogical Learning
One implication of the notion of these cognitive structures that exist in memory is that
it helps to explain ways marketers can help consumers learn new information, some-
thing that marketers often care about when introducing new and innovative prod-
ucts.59 One way consumers can learn about new products and features is through
analogical learning. If the marketer wants to inform or educate the consumer about a
new product, the marketer might do so by drawing an analogy (i.e., highlighting simi-
larities) between the new product and an existing product.
In analogical learning, the existing product is called the base (as it is the original
source of knowledge) and the new product is called the target (as this is what the
existing knowledge will be transferred to). Analogical learning occurs because the
consumer can easily integrate existing knowledge from the base into the formation of
the new knowledge structure (e.g., the schema for the target) regarding the new prod-
uct.60 For example, when Listerine first introduced its new Fresh Burst Breath Strips,
which dissolve on the tongue and freshen breath, it compared the new product to a
well-established and familiar existing product—Listerine Mouthwash—to highlight
the ability of the new product to freshen breath.
Analogical learning can take one of two forms. First, it may occur at the level of
attributes, which are identifiable features or properties of the product. In the example
of the Listerine breath strips, realizing that a previous product and the new product
both come in distinctive green packaging would be an example of attribute-based
learning. Second, analogical learning can occur at the level of relations. Relations refer
to how the product relates to a desired outcome. In the example above, realizing that
This ad from BC Hydro (British Columbia’s

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to help consumers understand how little
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Ad Agency: DDB Canada/Vancouver B.C., Photography:
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Why doesn’t Wasting poWer seem as ridiculous?

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both mouthwash and the fresh strips can serve to freshen breath highlights a relational
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tures, novices tend to think about products more in terms of attributes. For example, a
professional golfer will learn about a new innovative golfing product by relating its
performance (e.g., swing speed) to previous clubs that he or she has used. In contrast,
a novice golfer would be more likely to understand a new innovative golf product by
comparing its physical attributes (e.g., size of club head) to golf clubs that he or she
had previously seen.
Retrieving Information for Purchase Decisions

Retrieval is the process of accessing information from long-term memory. As evi-
denced by the popularity of the TV show Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?, people
have a vast quantity of information stored in their heads that is not necessarily avail-
able on demand. Although most of the information entered into long-term memory
does not go away, it may be difficult or impossible to retrieve unless the appropriate
cues are present.
Fa c t o rs I n fluen cin g R etrieval

Some differences in retrieval ability are physiological. Older adults consistently display
inferior recall ability for current items, such as prescription information, though events
that happened to them when they were younger may be recalled with great clarity.62
Other factors are situational, relating to the environment in which the message is
delivered. Not surprisingly, recall is enhanced when the consumer pays more atten-
tion to the message in the first place. Some evidence indicates that information about
a pioneering brand (the first brand to enter a market) is more easily retrieved from
memory than follower brands because the product’s introduction is likely to be dis-
tinctive and, for the time being, no competitors divert the consumer’s attention.63 In
addition, in the case of low-involvement products, descriptive brand names are more
likely to be recalled than those that do not provide adequate cues about what the prod-
uct is.64
The viewing environment of a marketing message can also affect recall. For exam-
ple, commercials shown during baseball games yield the lowest recall scores among
sports programs because the activity is stop-and-go rather than continuous. Unlike
hockey or basketball, the pacing of baseball gives many opportunities for attention to
wander, even during play. Similarly, General Electric found that its commercials fare
better in TV shows with continuous activity, such as stories or dramas, compared with
variety shows or talk shows punctuated by a series of acts.65 Finally, a large-scale
analysis of TV commercials found that commercials shown first in a series of ads are
recalled better than those shown last.66
Recent research on postexperience advertising effects underscores how powerful
marketing communications can be in shaping our daily experiences. Language and
imagery from ads we have seen recently can become confused with our own experien-
tial memories so that we may come to believe that what we saw in advertising actually
was our own experience with products. One study showed that when consumers were
exposed to advertising after they had directly experienced a product, the ad altered
their recollections of the experience.67
FAMILIARITY AND RECALL As a general rule, prior familiarity with an item enhances
its recall. Indeed, this is one of the basic goals of marketers who are trying to create
and maintain awareness of their products. The more experience a consumer has with
a product, the better use that person is able to make of product information.68
However, there is a possible fly in the ointment. As noted earlier in this chapter,
some evidence indicates that extreme familiarity can result in inferior learning and
recall. When consumers are highly familiar with a brand or an advertisement, they
may attend to fewer attributes because they do not believe that any additional effort
will yield a gain in knowledge.69 For example, when consumers are exposed to the
technique of radio replay, in which the audio track from a TV ad is replayed on the
radio, they do very little critical, evaluative processing and instead mentally replay
the video portion of the ad.70
Marketing
Insight
SALIENCE AND RECALL The salience of a brand refers to its prominence or level of activa-
One factor that can influence recall and liking
tion in memory. As noted in Chapter 2, stimuli that stand out in contrast to their envi-
of an advertisement is the context in which it
ronment are more likely to command attention, which in turn increases the likelihood
is viewed. Nielsen (the company that measures
that they will be recalled. Almost any technique that increases the novelty of a stimulus
who watches which media) reports that viewers
also improves recall (a result known as the von Restorff effect).73 This effect explains
who enjoy a program are more likely to respond
why unusual advertising or distinctive packaging tends to facilitate brand recall.74
positively to an embedded commercial and to
Introducing a surprise element into a marketing message (such as the acronym
say they want to buy the advertised product.
FCUK, which stands for French Connection, United Kingdom) can be particularly effec- Nielsen studied the responses of 10 000 people
tive in aiding recall even if the stimulus is not relevant to the factual information being across 50 shows and 200 brands. Viewers are
presented.75 In addition, so-called mystery ads, in which the brand is not identified almost one-third more likely to remember
until the end of the ad, are more effective at building associations in memory between brands whose products are placed in shows
the product category and that brand—especially in the case of relatively unknown they enjoy. The impact of this factor varies
brands.76 And the intensity and type of emotions we experience at the time also affect across show format; it’s weaker in sitcoms but
the way we recall the event later. We recall mixed emotions (those with positive and much stronger in “lifestyle programs” such as
negative components) differently from unipolar emotions (those that are either wholly Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. 71 It also
positive or wholly negative). The latter become even more polarized over time, so that helps when the marketer’s message is consis-
we recall good things as even better than they were and bad things as even worse.77 tent with the theme or events in the program—
and it’s even better when the advertised
PICTORIAL VERSUS VERBAL CUES Is a picture worth a thousand words? There is product actually makes a reference to the
some evidence for the superiority of visual memory over verbal memory, but this show. Such ads are referred to as hybrid ads.72
advantage is unclear because it is more difficult to measure recall of pictures.78
However, the available data indicate that information presented in picture form is
more likely to be recognized later.79 Certainly visual aspects of an ad are more likely
to grab a consumer’s attention. In fact, eye-movement studies indicate that about
90 percent of viewers look at the dominant picture in an ad before they bother to
view the copy.80
Although pictorial ads may enhance recall, they do not necessarily improve com-
prehension. One study found that TV news items presented with illustrations (still
pictures) as a backdrop result in improved recall for details of the news story, even
though understanding of the story’s content does not improve.81
Fa c t o rs I n fluen cin g Fo rgettin g

Marketers obviously hope that consumers will not forget about their products. How-
ever, in a poll of more than 13 000 adults, more than half were unable to remember any
specific ad they had seen, heard, or read in the last 30 days.82 Forgetting is obviously
a problem for marketers.
Early memory theorists assumed that memories fade because of the simple pas-
sage of time. In a process of decay, the structural changes in the brain produced by
learning simply go away. Forgetting also occurs because of interference; as additional
information is learned, it displaces earlier information.
Stimulus–response associations will be forgotten if consumers subsequently
learn new responses to the same or similar stimuli in a process known as retroac-
tive interference. On the other hand, prior learning can interfere with new learn-
ing, a process called proactive interference. Since pieces of information are stored
in memory as nodes that are connected to one another by links, a meaning con-
cept that is connected by a larger number of links is more likely to be retrieved.
But, as new responses are learned, a stimulus loses its effectiveness in retrieving
the old response.83
These interference effects help to explain problems in remembering brand infor-
mation. Consumers tend to organize attribute information by brand.84 Additional attri-
bute information regarding a brand or similar brands may limit a person’s ability to
recall old brand information. Recall may also be inhibited if the brand name com-
prises frequently used words. These words cue competing associations and result in
less retention of brand information.85
In one study, brand evaluations deteriorated more rapidly when ads for the brand
appeared with messages for other brands in the same category than when the ad was
shown with ads for 12 dissimilar products.86 By increasing the salience of a brand,
marketers can impair the recall of other brands.87 However, calling a competitor by
name can result in poorer recall for one’s own brand.88
Products as Memory Markers

Products and ads can themselves serve as powerful retrieval cues. Indeed, the
three types of possessions most valued by consumers are furniture, visual art, and
photos. The most common explanation for this attachment is the ability of these
things to call forth memories of the past.89 Studies find that valued possessions can
evoke thoughts about people and prior events on several dimensions, including
friends and loved ones, sensory experiences, and memories of breaking away from
parents or former partners.90 In fact, researchers are just beginning to probe the
effects of autobiographical memories on buying behaviour. These memories appear
to be one way that advertisements create emotional responses. Ads that succeed in
getting us to think about our own past also appear to get us to like these ads more—
especially if the link between the nostalgia experience and the brand is strong.91
Products are particularly important as life-markers when our sense of the past is
threatened, as when a consumer’s current identity is challenged because of some
change in role caused by divorce, moving, graduation, and so on. 92 Our
Fossil plays on consumers’ positive, nos-

talgic memories.
Reprinted with permission from Fossil Group, Inc.
possessions often have mnemonic qualities that serve as a form of external memory
by prompting consumers to retrieve episodic memories. For example, family pho-
tography allows consumers to create their own retrieval cues, with the 11 billion
amateur photos taken annually forming a kind of external memory bank for our
culture.
Th e Ma r ke tin g P o we r o f N os ta l gia
Nostalgia has been described as a bittersweet emotion, in which the past is viewed
with both sadness and longing. References to “the good old days” are increasingly
common as advertisers call up memories of distant youth—feelings they hope will
translate to what they’re selling today. A stimulus can sometimes evoke a weakened
response much later, an effect known as spontaneous recovery. This reestablished
connection may explain consumers’ powerful nostalgic reactions to songs, pictures, or
brands they have not been exposed to in many years.
Not only can nostalgic products connect consumers to their own memories of the
past, but they can also resonate with younger consumers. As a PepsiCo marketing
executive explained, “Retro is very cool with 20-somethings, because it ties in with
their desire for simpler, cleaner, more authentic lives. Many of them are engaged in
identity self-creation through their Facebook pages, Instagram, Twitter, and other
social media, and they see nostalgia as a way to differentiate themselves.” This is why
programs such as the Pepsi “Throwback” campaign (which featured retro cans and
old-fashioned style Pepsi sweetened with beet sugar rather than cane sugar) can be so
successful.93
A retro brand is an updated version of a brand from a prior historical period.
These products trigger nostalgia, and researchers find that they often inspire con-
sumers to think back to an era where (at least in our memories) life was more stable,
simple, or even utopian; they let us “look back through rose-coloured glasses.” 94
Recent research suggests that consumer preferences for nostalgic brands are related
to a need to belong and that consumption of nostalgic products can resolve belong-
ingness needs.95 One example of a retro success story is the “Old Spice Guy” cam-
paign that went viral and revived a men’s deodorant brand that is more than 70
years old.
M e mory a n d A est hetic Preferen ces

Marketing We like ads and products that remind us of our past; prior experiences also determine
Insight what we like now. The nostalgia index indicates that people’s tastes in such products
as movies and clothing are influenced by what was popular during certain critical
The head office for Fluevog Shoes, a world- periods of their youth. For example, liking a specific song appears to be related to how
famous, fashion-forward shoe store, is located old a person was when that song was popular. On average, songs that were popular
in Vancouver. Fluevog stores are also found in
when an individual was 23.5 years old are the most likely to be favoured; favourite
Boston, San Francisco, Seattle, Toronto, and New
movie stars and fashion models are usually those who were popular when that indi-
York. Fluevog’s success illustrates the power of
vidual was 26 and 33 years old, respectively; and men, but not women, also show
applying learning theories effectively. The store
evidence of nostalgic attachment to cars from their youth.96
name, for example, is just difficult (and interest-
ing) enough to pronounce to be easy to remem-
ber. (John Fluevog’s family name was adopted Measuring Memory for Marketing Stimuli CO 7
from the Norwegian village from which they emi-
grated to Canada.) They sell memorable (i.e., fun Because advertisers pay so much money to place their messages in front of consumers,
and imaginative) styles, with names such as they are naturally concerned about whether people will actually remember these mes-
Lounge Lizards, Swingers, Wok n Roll, Angels, sages at a later point in time. It seems that they have good reason to be concerned. In
Demerol (yes, it’s a nurse’s Fluevog), and Granny one study, fewer than 40 percent of TV viewers made positive links between commer-
Glamour, to a primarily youthful market (aged cial messages and the corresponding products, only 65 percent noticed the brand
18 to 50 years, 60 percent female). name in a commercial, and only 38 percent recognized a connection to an important
Fluevog carries the strategy of being dis- point.98 Even more sadly, only 7 percent of TV viewers can recall the product or com-
tinctive through to store decor and marketing pany featured in the most recent TV commercial they watched.
communications. Each store is designed to fit
with its neighbourhood and the previous life of
Re c o gn it io n Versus R ecall
that neighbourhood. The Toronto store retained
some fixtures and furnishings from its diner One indicator of good advertising is, of course, the impression it makes on consum-
days, while the San Francisco store is reminis- ers. But how can this impact be defined and measured? Two basic measures of impact
cent of a smoking parlour with overstuffed are recognition and recall. In the typical recognition test, subjects are shown ads one
couches. Fluevog stays away from runway at a time and asked whether they have seen them before. In contrast, free-recall tests
placements and conventional promotions, opt- ask consumers to think independently of what they have seen, without being
ing for wacky ads, pocket-sized catalogues, prompted for this information first; obviously, this task requires greater effort on the
in-store fashion shows and sample sales, part of respondents.
angels moulded on shoe soles, and poetry Under some conditions these two memory measures tend to yield the same results,
enclosures in shoes. The company’s website especially when the researchers try to keep the viewers’ interest in the ads constant.99
(www.fluevog.com) attracts about 2 million Generally, though, recognition scores tend to be more reliable and do not decay over
visits every month.97 time the way recall scores do.100 Recognition scores are almost always better than
recall scores, because recognition is a simpler process and more retrieval cues are
available to the consumer.
Both types of retrieval play important roles in purchase decisions. Recall tends to
be more important in situations in which consumers do not have product data at their
disposal, and so they must rely on memory to generate this information.101 On the
other hand, recognition is more likely to be an important factor in a store where con-
sumers are confronted with thousands of product options and information (i.e., where
external memory is abundantly available) and where the task may simply be to recog-
nize a familiar package. Unfortunately, package recognition and familiarity can have a
negative consequence in that warning labels may be ignored, since their existence is
taken for granted and not really noticed.102
Prob l e ms with Memo ry Mea sures

Although the measurement of an ad’s memorability is important, the ability of existing
measures to accurately assess these dimensions has been criticized for several reasons.
RESPONSE BIASES Results obtained from a measuring instrument are not necessarily
caused by what is being measured, but rather by something else about the instrument
or the respondent. This form of contamination is called a response bias. For example,
people tend to give “yes” responses to questions, regardless of what is asked. In addi-
tion, consumers are often eager to be “good subjects” by pleasing the experimenter.
They will try to give the responses they think the experimenter is looking for. In some
studies, the claimed recognition of bogus ads (ads that have not been seen before) is
almost as high as the recognition rate of real ads.103
MEMORY LAPSES People are also prone to unintentionally forgetting information.

Typical problems include omitting (the leaving out of facts), averaging (the tendency
to “normalize” things and not report extreme cases), and telescoping (the inaccurate
recall of time).104 These distortions call into question the accuracy of various product
usage databases that rely on consumers to recall their purchases and consumption of
food and household items. In one study, for example, people were asked to describe
what portion of various foods—small, medium, or large—they ate in a normal meal.
However, different definitions of medium were used (e.g., 3/4 cup versus 1-1/2 cups).
Regardless of the measurement specified, about the same number of people claimed
they normally ate medium portions.105
MEMORY FOR FACTS VERSUS FEELINGS Although techniques are being developed to
increase the accuracy of memory scores, these improvements do not address the more
fundamental issue of whether recall is necessary for advertising to have an effect. In
particular, some critics argue that these measures do not adequately tap the impact of
“feeling” ads, where the objective is to arouse strong emotions rather than to convey
concrete product benefits. Many ad campaigns, including those for Hallmark, Tim
Hortons, and Bell, use this approach. An effective strategy relies on a long-term buildup
of feeling rather than on a one-shot attempt to convince consumers to buy the product.106
Also, it is not clear that recall translates into preference. We may recall the ben-
efits touted in an ad but not believe them. Or the ad may be memorable because it is
obnoxious, and the product becomes one we “love to hate.” The bottom line is that
while recall is important, especially for creating brand awareness, it is not necessar-
ily sufficient to alter consumer preferences. To accomplish this, marketers need
more sophisticated attitude-change strategies. These issues will be discussed in
Chapters 7 and 8.
Chapter Summary
It’s important for marketers to understand how consumers response (an unconditioned stimulus) is paired with
learn about products and services. another stimulus that does not initially elicit this response.
Over multiple pairings, the second stimulus (the condi-
• Learning is a change in behaviour that is caused by expe-
tioned stimulus) comes to elicit the response as well.
rience. Learning can occur through simple associations
between a stimulus and a response or via a complex series Learned associations can generalize to other things, which
of cognitive activities. is important to marketers.
• This response can also extend to other, similar stimuli in
Conditioning results in learning.
a process known as stimulus generalization. This process
• Behavioural learning theories assume that learning occurs is the basis for such marketing strategies as licensing and
as a result of responses to external events. Classical con- family branding, in which a consumer’s positive associa-
ditioning occurs when a stimulus that naturally elicits a tions with a product are transferred to other contexts.
86 SEC T ION II Consumers as Individuals
There is a difference between classical and instrumental retaining and processing information from the outside
conditioning. world.
• Operant or instrumental conditioning occurs as the per- Our knowledge of individual products is influenced by other
son learns to perform behaviours that produce positive products we associate with them.
outcomes and avoid those that result in negative out-
comes. While classical conditioning involves the pair- • Information is not stored in isolation; it is incorporated
ing of two stimuli, instrumental learning occurs when into knowledge structures where it is associated with
reinforcement or punishment is delivered following a other related data. The location of product information in
response to a stimulus. Positive reinforcement occurs associative networks and the level of abstraction at which
when a desired response is followed by the presentation it is coded help to determine when and how this informa-
of a positive stimulus, while negative reinforcement tion will be activated at a later time. Some factors that
occurs when a desired response is followed by the influence the likelihood of retrieval include the level of
removal of a negative stimulus. Punishment, on the familiarity with an item, its salience (or prominence) in
other hand, occurs when a response is followed by an memory, and whether the information was presented in
unpleasant stimulus. Extinction of the behaviour will pictorial or written form.
occur if reinforcement is no longer received.
Products help us to retrieve memories from our past.
Observation of others’ behaviour can result in learning. • Products also play a role as memory markers; they are
• Cognitive learning occurs as the result of mental pro- used by consumers to retrieve memories about past expe-
cesses. For example, observational learning takes place riences (autobiographical memories) and are often valued
when the consumer performs a behaviour as a result of for their ability to do so. This function also contributes to
seeing someone else performing it and being rewarded the use of nostalgia in marketing strategies.
for it.
Marketers measure our memories about products and ads.
Memory systems work.
• Memory of product information can be measured through
• Memory refers to the storage of learned information. either recognition or recall techniques. Consumers are
The way information is encoded when it is perceived more likely to recognize an advertisement if it is presented
determines how it will be stored in memory. The mem- to them than to recall one without having any cues.
ory systems known as sensory memory, short-term However, neither recognition nor recall automatically or
memory, and long-term memory each play a role in reliably translates into product purchases.
Key Terms
Activation models of memory p. 77 Extinction p. 64 Response bias p. 84
Advertising wearout p. 66 Frequency marketing p. 70 Retrieval p. 74
Analogical learning p. 79 Gamification p. 70 Retro brand p. 83
Associative learning p. 63 Hybrid ads p. 81 Salience p. 81
Attributes p. 79 Instrumental conditioning p. 67 Schema p. 79
Base p. 79 Interference p. 82 Script p. 79
Behavioural learning theories p. 62 Knowledge structures p. 78 Sensory memory p. 77
Brand equity p. 65 Learning p. 61 Shaping p. 67
Chunking p. 77 Long-term memory p. 77 Short-term memory p. 77
Classical conditioning p. 62 Masked branding p. 64 Spreading activation p. 79
Cognitive learning theory p. 71 Memory p. 73 Stimulus discrimination p. 64
Conditioned response (CR) p. 63 Negative reinforcement p. 68 Stimulus generalization p. 64
Conditioned stimulus (CS) p. 63 Nostalgia p. 83 Storage p. 74
Decay p. 63 Observational learning p. 72 Target p. 79
Elaborative rehearsal p. 77 Positive reinforcement p. 68 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) p. 63
Encoding p. 74 Punishment p. 68 Unipolar emotions p. 81
Evoked set p. 78 Relations p. 79 von Restorff effect p. 81
CHA P T ER 3 Learning and Memory 87
Review Questions
1. What is the difference between an unconditioned stimu- 11. List three types of memory and explain how they work
lus and a conditioned stimulus? together.
2. How can marketers use repetition to increase the likeli- 12. How is associative memory like a spiderweb?
hood that consumers will learn about their brand? 13. How does the likelihood that a person will be willing to
3. Why is it not necessarily a good idea to advertise a prod- use self-serve checkout at a grocery store relate to a
uct in a commercial in which a really popular song is schema?
playing in the background? 14. Why does a pioneering brand have a memory advantage
4. What is the difference between classical conditioning over follower brands?
and instrumental conditioning?
15. If a consumer is familiar with a product, seeing an ad for
5. How do different types of reinforcement enhance learn- it can work both ways by either enhancing or diminishing
ing? How does the strategy of frequency marketing relate recall. Why?
to conditioning?
16. How does learning new information make it more likely
6. What is the major difference between behavioural and that we’ll forget things we’ve already learned?
cognitive theories of learning?
17. Define nostalgia, and explain why it’s such a widely used
7. Name the three stages of information processing. advertising strategy.
8. What is external memory, and why is it important to mar- 18. Name the two basic measures of memory, and describe
keters? how they differ from each other.
9. Give an example of an episodic memory. 19. List three problems with measures of memory in the field
10. Why do phone numbers have seven digits? of advertising.
Discuss Experiential Exercises
1. In his 2005 book Blink: The Power of Thinking without 3. Devise a “product jingle memory test.” Compile a list
Thinking, Malcolm Gladwell argues that hallowed mar- of brands that are or have been associated with memo-
keting research techniques such as focus groups are rable jingles, such as Oscar Mayer, Sleep Country, or
ineffective. According to Gladwell, we usually react to Alka-Seltzer. Read this list to friends and see how
products quickly and without much conscious thought, many jingles are remembered. You may be surprised at
so it’s better to simply solicit consumers’ first impres- the level of recall.
sions rather than getting them to think at length about 4. Identify some important characteristics of a product
why they buy. What’s your position on this issue? with a well-known brand name. On the basis of these
2. Some diehard fans were not pleased when the Rolling attributes, generate a list of possible brand extension or
Stones sold the tune “Start Me Up” for about $4 million licensing opportunities. Include some that would most
to Microsoft, which wanted the classic song to promote likely not be accepted by consumers.
its Windows 95 launch. The Beach Boys sold “Good Vibra- 5. A physician borrowed a page from product marketers
tions” to Cadbury Schweppes for its Sunkist soft drink, when she asked for their advice to help persuade peo-
and Bob Dylan sold “The Times They Are A-Changin” to ple in the developing world to wash their hands habitu-
Coopers & Lybrand (now PricewaterhouseCoopers).107 ally with soap. Diseases and disorders caused by dirty
Other rock legends have refused to play the commercial hands—such as diarrhea—kill a child somewhere in
game, including Bruce Springsteen, The Grateful Dead, the world about every 15 seconds, and about half of
Led Zeppelin, Fleetwood Mac, R.E.M., and U2. According those deaths could be prevented with the regular use of
to U2’s manager, “Rock ‘n’ roll is the last vestige of inde- soap. The project adapted techniques that major mar-
pendence. It is undignified to put that creative effort and keters use to encourage habitual product usage of
hard work to the disposal of a soft drink or beer or car.”108 items such as skin moisturizers, disinfecting wipes, air
What’s your take on this issue? How do you react when fresheners, water purifiers, toothpaste, or vitamins. For
one of your favourite songs turns up in a commercial? Is example, beer commercials often depict a group of
this use of nostalgia an effective way to market a product? guys together because research shows that being with a
Why or why not? group of friends tends to trigger habitual drinking! The
researchers found that when people in Ghana experi- eople who washed their hands with soap.109 How can
p
enced a feeling of disgust it was a cue to wash their other organizations that work to improve public health,
hands. However, as in many developing countries, toi- the environment, or other social issues harness our
lets are actually a symbol of cleanliness because they knowledge about consumer learning and habitual
have replaced pit latrines. So an advertising campaign behaviour to create or reenergize positive habits?
included messages that reminded people of the germs 6. Collect some pictures of “classic” products that have
they could still pick up even in modern bathrooms— high nostalgic value. Show these pictures to consumers
mothers and children walked out of restrooms with a and allow them to free associate. Analyze the types of
glowing purple pigment on their hands that contami- memories that they evoke and think about how a mar-
nated everything they touched. These images in turn keter might employ these associations in a product’s
triggered the habit of handwashing, and the project promotional strategy.
resulted in a significant increase in the number of
A&W: The Evolution of a Brand with the loyal customer base that had been cultivated over
the past two decades. The initial performance of the new
campaign looked good, but Paul wondered how he could
maintain the nostalgia consumers felt toward the brand
while still exciting them about the new commitment A&W
had toward a healthy product.
History
Roy Allen and Frank Wright founded A&W in California in
1922. The first Canadian A&W restaurant opened in Winnipeg
in 1956. The Canadian restaurants were part of the American
chain until 1972, when they were sold to Unilever. As part
of this transaction, the Canadian A&W brand agreed to limit
its operations to the Canadian market. Unilever managed
the brand until a buyout by the senior management group
was executed in 1995. Currently, the organization is publicly
held and trades on the Toronto stock exchange. There are
over 800 restaurant locations across Canada, with plans to
open 20 to 30 new locations every year. A&W is the second
largest burger chain in Canada, trailing only McDonald’s in
the market.
The initial format of the drive-in restaurant was phased
out in the early 1980s, with the last drive-in restaurant clos-
®trade-mark of A&W Trade Marks Limited Partnership
ing in 1999 in Langley, British Columbia. The drive-in for-
mat was replaced with a more modern pastel-coloured
fast-food outlet that included healthier options. In the early
Paul Hollands, president and CEO of A&W restaurants, 1980s, A&W Canada aggressively pursued shopping mall
Canada, was encouraged by the report he had just received locations while still opening some standalone operations.
on the new advertising campaign that had launched across Today A&Ws are still commonly found in Canadian malls of
the country in the past quarter. This campaign represented various sizes.
a significant shift from the nostalgia-based strategy A&W In its early years, A&W Canada developed a number of
had been pursuing over the past decade, and Paul realized strong brand identities that were effectively used in its market-
that the new strategy carried some risks. A&W had built a ing efforts. For example, in 1975 the company launched a
strong relationship with its customers over the years, and he campaign starring an orange-clad mascot, the Great Root
was concerned that this new strategy, which focused on the Bear. The success of this effort became a long-running cam-
health and quality of the A&W product, might not resonate paign that featured the beloved bear accompanied by a tuba
with the brand. In one commercial, a husband and wife

return to the restaurant on a date, and when he honks the
horn while parking, she responds, “Oh, they don’t do that
anymore.” To her surprise, the restaurant manager
approaches the car with a burger order. Promotions also
focused on nostalgia. An initiative entitled “Cruisin’ the
Dub” invited vintage car owners with vehicles from the 50s
and 60s to meet at A&W locations.
The New Initiative

A new advertising initiative was launched in summer 2014. At
the centre of the campaign was A&W Canada’s commitment to
healthy ingredients. Specifically, the campaign indicated to
consumers that all beef used in A&W burger products was
both hormone- and steroid-free. The campaign advertised
that A&W was the first and only national burger restaurant in
Canada to be able to make this claim. Its burgers are free of
additives, fillers, or preservatives—they are 100 percent pure
beef. Subsequent to this initial messaging, the campaign fur-
®trade-mark of A&W Trade Marks Limited Partnership
ther highlighted the quality of A&W Canada’s chicken and egg
products as well.
The changes in this advertising approach emerged from
jingle. The famous tuba jingle was played by famed Vancouver a company rethink in late 2013, as A&W strategized on how
jazz, classical, and session trombonist Sharman King. The to attract younger customers. A&W products had always
mascot was so successful that he was eventually adopted as rated high among consumers on taste and quality, and given
the mascot of the American A&W chain as well. that consumers were showing more concern for ingredient
quality in fast food, it only made sense to pursue a campaign
The Importance of Nostalgia centred around this issue. Younger consumers are specifi-
It was this rich heritage of brand imagery that led the orga- cally concerned about ingredients, how their food is sourced,
nization to take a more retro approach to its advertising and whether it is genetically modified (GMO), and if it is organi-
product mix in the 1990s. Former menu items, such as the cally raised. Quite simply, consumers are demanding health-
Burger Family, were re-introduced, and marketing became ier and more responsible options. The new advertising
targeted toward the baby boomer generation (i.e., the cohort initiative hoped to leverage this trend while still maintaining
of consumers in Canada born between 1947 and 1966). In the history and the traditional c ustomer base that had
fact, it was this target segment that inspired A&W to focus enabled the company to grow.
on nostalgia for the simpler pleasures of days gone by. Indeed, Paul was mindful of the balance he needed to
Although innovation was still important to the organization, achieve as he moved the company forward. He wondered what
new products and approaches centred on classic burgers the positive reaction to the new advertising campaign would
rather than food fads of the day. Paul himself had been mean over the long term. How should the company proceed?
quoted as saying, “We’re a classic heritage brand—a heri- To what extent should the organization embrace this new stra-
tage brand is built around simple ideas that are powerful tegic path while retaining the elements of nostalgi that had
regardless of the age.” been so successful in the past?
At this point, the restaurants were also redesigned. The 1. Historically, why has the nostalgia tactic been so success-
exterior features were cast in bright orange and yellow reminis- ful for A&W? What benefit does nostalgia provide for the
cent of the 1950s. The interior was decorated with memora- consumer?
bilia, including pictures and news clippings associated with
2. What should A&W do now, given the early evidence of
this time period. Existing restaurants were renovated to match
success of the new advertising initiative? How likely is it
the new style. In-store promotion focused on a product mix
that the healthy ingredient trend will continue? Why?
that replicated earlier days. Frosty glass mugs, teen burgers,
and root-beer floats were once again part of the consumption 3. Where does nostalgia fit into the new initiative? What
experience. emphasis would you suggest the company gives to nostal-
Advertising also focused on the baby boomer, with tele- gia moving forward?
vision commercials that featured actors from the boomer 4. What other elements of learning and memory might A&W
age cohort reliving experiences and memories associated incorporate into its future initiatives?
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97. Louise Aird, “Sole Man,” Blitz on the Business of Media Communications in BC 10 107. Thomas F. Jones, “Our Musical Heritage Is Being Raided,” San Francisco Examiner
(May/June 1999): 1, 4, 5; Virginia Leeming, “San Francisco Is Latest Fluevog (May 23, 1997).
Shoe-in,” Vancouver Sun (October 21, 1997): C5. 108. Kevin Goldman, “A Few Rockers Refuse to Turn Tunes into Ads,” The New York Times
98. “Only 38% of TV Audience Links Brands with Ads,” Marketing News (January 6, (August 25, 1995): B1.
1984): 10. 109. Charles Duhigg, “Warning: Habits May Be Good for You,” The New York Times on the
99. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alvin J. Silk, “Recall, Recognition, and the Measurement of Web (July 13, 2008), www.NewYorkTimes.Com/2008/07/13/Business/13habit.html,
Memory for Print Advertisements,” Marketing Science 2(2) (1983): 95–134. accessed July 17, 2008.
C HA P T ER
4
Motivation and Affect
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that it is important for marketers to 5 Understand that the way we evaluate and choose a

recognize that products can satisfy a range of product depends on our degree of involvement with
consumer needs. the product, the marketing message, and/or the
purchase situation.
2 Understand that there are different theories that can

be used to predict what will motivate consumers. 6 Understand that consumers can experience different

types of affective responses, which can influence
3 Understand that consumers can experience different consumption behaviours.

types of motivational conflicts that can impact their
purchase decisions. 7 Understand that marketers can tap into various

discrete emotions to influence consumer responses.
4 Understand that Maslow’s hierarchy outlines how

various levels of needs can motivate consumers.
Introduction
Fitness trackers like the FitBit Force, Jawbone Up, and Nike+ Fuelband are rapidly increas-
ing in popularity, and experts say this trend will continue in the coming years. What is the
driving force behind this trend? These devices capitalize on consumers’ health and fitness
goals in a way that makes their progress concrete and easy to track. As we will see, goals
that can be measured or tracked in some way are easier to achieve. While this example
relates to the consumer’s conscious motivation to reach a particular goal, motivations can
also operate outside the consumer’s consciousness.
To understand motivation is to understand why consumers do what they do. Why do
some people choose to bungee-jump off a bridge or go whitewater rafting in the Yukon,
while others spend their leisure time playing chess or gardening? We do everything for a
reason, whether to quench a thirst, to kill boredom, or to attain some deep spiritual experi-
ence. Marketing students are taught from day one that the goal of marketing is to satisfy
consumers’ needs. However, this insight is useless unless we can discover what those
needs are and why they exist.
The Motivation Process CO 1

Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do. It occurs when
a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy. Once a need has been activated,
a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate
the need.
A want is a manifestation of a need. This ad

from Singapore reminds us that consumer
society tempts us with wants.
Courtesy of M&C Saatchi (S) Pte Ltd, Creative Director:
Terence Tan, Photographer: Jimmy Fok
This need may be utilitarian (a desire to achieve some functional or practical ben-
efit, as when a person requires a pair of durable sneakers), or it may be hedonic (an
experiential need involving emotional responses). For example, the Tourism Las Vegas
tagline “What happens in Vegas stays in Vegas” highlights positioning in a way that
appeals to hedonic motives. The desired end state is the consumer’s goal. Marketers
try to create products and services that will provide the desired benefits and permit
the consumer to reduce this tension.
Whether the need is utilitarian or hedonic, a discrepancy exists between the con-
sumer’s present state and some ideal state. This gulf creates a state of tension. The
magnitude of this tension determines the urgency the consumer feels to reduce the
tension. This degree of arousal is called a drive. A basic need can be satisfied any
number of ways, and the specific path a person chooses is influenced by his or her
unique set of experiences and by the values instilled by the culture in which the per-
son has been raised.
These personal and cultural factors combine to create a want, which is one mani-
festation of a need. For example, hunger is a basic need that must be satisfied by all;
the lack of food creates a tension state that can be reduced by the intake of such prod-
ucts as cheeseburgers, Oreo cookies, raw fish, or bean sprouts. The specific route to
hunger reduction is culturally determined.
Once the goal is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation recedes (for the
time being). Motivation can be described in terms of its strength, or the pull it exerts
on the consumer, and its direction, or the particular way the consumer attempts to
reduce motivational tension.
Motivational Strength
The degree to which a person is willing to expend energy to reach one goal as opposed
to another reflects his or her underlying motivation to attain that goal. Many theories
have been advanced to explain why people behave the way they do. Most share the
basic idea that people have some finite amount of energy that must be directed toward
certain goals. Two basic theoretical categories that account for motivational strength
are drive theories and expectancy theories.
C H A P T E R 4 Motivation and Affect 95
Drive Theory CO 2
Drive theory focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal
(such as your stomach grumbling during a morning class). We are motivated to reduce
the tension caused by this physiological arousal. Tension reduction has been proposed
as a basic mechanism governing human behaviour.
In marketing, tension refers to the unpleasant state that exists if a person’s con-
sumption needs are not fulfilled. People may be grumpy if they haven’t eaten. This
state (of hunger, for example) activates goal-oriented behaviour that attempts to reduce
or eliminate this unpleasant state and return to a balanced one, called homeostasis.
Those behaviours that are successful in reducing the drive by eliminating the
underlying need are strengthened and tend to be repeated. (This aspect of the learning
process was discussed in Chapter 3.) Your motivation to leave class early to grab a
snack would be greater if you hadn’t eaten in 24 hours than if you had eaten only two
hours earlier. If you did sneak out and had indigestion after, say, wolfing down a pack-
age of chips, this behaviour would be less likely to be repeated the next time you
wanted a snack. A person’s degree of motivation, then, depends on the distance
between his or her present state and the goal.
Drive theory, however, runs into difficulties when it tries to explain some facets of
human behaviour that run counter to its predictions. People often do things that
increase a drive state rather than decrease it. For example, people may delay gratifica-
tion. If you know you are going out for a lavish dinner, you might decide to forgo a
snack earlier in the day even though you are hungry at that time.
Expectancy Theory
Most current explanations of motivation focus on cognitive factors rather than only
biological ones to understand what drives behaviour. Expectancy theory suggests that
behaviour is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes—positive
incentives—rather than pushed from within. We choose one product over another
because we expect this choice to have more positive consequences for us. Under expec-
tancy theory, positive incentives could include things like money or even social status.
Motivational Direction
Motives have direction as well as strength. They are goal-oriented in that specific
objectives are desired to satisfy a need. Most goals can be reached by a number of
routes, and the objective of marketers is to convince consumers that the alternative
they offer provides the best chance to attain the goal. For example, a consumer who
decides that he needs a pair of jeans to help him reach his goal of being accepted by
others or of projecting an appropriate image can choose among Diesel, True Religion,
GUESS, 7 For All Mankind, and many other alternatives, each of which promises to
deliver certain benefits.
Needs versus Wants

The specific way a need is satisfied depends on the individual’s unique history and
learning experiences and his or her cultural environment. The particular form of con-
sumption used to satisfy a need is termed a want. For example, two classmates may
feel their stomachs rumbling during a lunchtime lecture. If neither person has eaten
since the night before, the strength of their respective needs (hunger) would be about
the same. However, the way each person goes about satisfying this need might be quite
different. The first person may be a health-conscious individual who fantasizes about
gulping down vegetable tofu stir-fry, while the second person may be equally excited
by the prospect of a greasy cheeseburger and fries.
Magnum brand of ice cream encourages

consumers to satisfy their wants.
Newscast/Alamy
Types of Needs
People are born with a need for certain elements necessary to maintain life, such as
food, water, air, and shelter. These are called biogenic needs. People have many other
needs, however, that are not innate. Psychogenic needs are acquired in the process of
becoming a member of a culture. These include the need for status, power, affiliation,
and so on. Psychogenic needs reflect the priorities of a culture, and their effect on
behaviour will vary in different environments.
Consumers can also be motivated to satisfy either utilitarian or hedonic needs.
The satisfaction of utilitarian needs implies that consumers will emphasize the objec-
tive, tangible attributes of products, such as kilometres per litre of gas in a car; the
amount of fat, calories, and protein in a cheeseburger; or the durability of a pair of
jeans. Hedonic needs are subjective and experiential, leading consumers to rely on a
product because it meets their needs for excitement, self-confidence, or fantasy, per-
haps to escape the mundane or routine aspects of life.1 Of course, consumers may be
motivated to purchase a product because it provides both types of benefits. For exam-
ple, a Louis Vuitton handbag may be bought because of the luxurious image it portrays
and because it can carry items needed when out and about.
CO 3 Motivational Conflicts
A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative. A positively val-
ued goal is one toward which consumers direct their behaviour; they are motivated to
approach the goal and will seek out products that will be instrumental in attaining it.
However, not all behaviour is motivated by the desire to approach a goal. As we saw in
Chapter 3, sometimes consumers are motivated to avoid a negative outcome. They will
structure their purchases or consumption activities to reduce the chances of attaining
this end result. For example, many consumers work hard to avoid rejection, an avoid-
ance goal. They will stay away from products that they associate with social disap-
proval. Products such as deodorants and mouthwash frequently rely upon consumers’
avoidance motivation by depicting the onerous social consequences of underarm
odour or bad breath.
Because a purchase decision may involve more than one source of motivation,
consumers often find themselves in situations in which different motives conflict with
Snickers humorously reminds us that the

biogenic need of hunger must be fulfilled
or else there can be unfortunate
consequences!
SNICKERS® is a registered trademark of Mars,
Incorporated. The SNICKERS® advertisement and
trademark are used with permission of Mars,
Incorporated.
one another. Since marketers are attempting to satisfy consumers’ needs, they can also
help by providing possible solutions to these dilemmas. As shown in Figure 4–1, three
general types of conflict can occur: approach–approach, approach–avoidance, and
avoidance–avoidance.
Ap p roa c h– A p p ro a c h C on f l ict
In an approach–approach conflict, a person must choose between two desirable alter-
natives. A student might be torn between going home for the holidays or going on a ski
trip with friends. Or she might have to choose between two different concerts because
she only has enough money to attend one of them.
FIGURE 4–1
Three Types of Motivational Conflict
Approach–Approach
Approach–Avoidance
Avoidance–Avoidance
The theory of cognitive dissonance is based on the premise that people have a
need for consistency in their lives and that a state of tension is created when beliefs or
behaviours conflict with one another. The conflict that arises when choosing between
two alternatives may be resolved through a process of cognitive dissonance reduction
in which people are motivated to reduce this inconsistency (or dissonance) and thus
eliminate unpleasant tension.2
Post-decision dissonance can arise when the consumer must make a choice between
two products, both of which possess good and bad qualities. By choosing one product and
not the other, the person gets the bad qualities of the chosen product and loses out on the
good qualities of the unchosen one. This loss creates an unpleasant, dissonant state that
the person is motivated to reduce. One way this dissonance can be resolved is by the con-
sumer convincing himself after the fact that choices he made were smart ones by finding
additional reasons to support the alternatives he chose, or perhaps by “discovering” flaws
with the options he did not choose. Marketers often attempt to reduce approach—approach
conflicts by highlighting the superiority of their brand. Take, for example, the long-running
“Mac versus PC” campaign: Apple did an excellent job of highlighting the unique positive
attributes of its brand, while depicting the downsides of competing products.
A p p r oa c h –Avo id an ce Co n flict
Many of the products and services we desire have negative consequences attached to
them as well as positive consequences. We may feel guilty or ostentatious when buy-
ing a status-laden product such as a luxury fur coat or feel like a glutton when contem-
plating a bag of potato chips. When we desire a goal but wish to avoid it at the same
time, an approach–avoidance conflict exists.
Some solutions to these conflicts include the proliferation of fake furs, which
eliminate guilt about harming animals while still allowing you to make a fashion
statement, and the success of diet foods, such as the Weight Watchers brands, which
promise good food without the calories. Indeed, the development of hybrid vehicles
is one attempt to resolve approach–avoidance conflicts; the consumer can still have a
By offering consumers the great taste of

fudge brownies (approach), while reducing
the amount of fat (avoid), Breyers is able to
resolve an approach–avoid conflict for con-
sumers.
Reproduced with kind permission of Unilever PLC and
group companies
new car while reducing the negative impact on the environment. Many marketers try
to overcome guilt by convincing consumers that they are deserving of luxuries (such
as when L’Oréal cosmetics reminds the consumer “Because you’re worth it”).
Avo i da nc e – Avoid a n c e C o n f l ic t
Sometimes consumers find themselves caught “between a rock and a hard place”:
They face a choice between two undesirable alternatives. A person may be faced with
the option of either throwing more money into an old car or buying a new one. Market-
ers frequently address this conflict through messages that stress the unforeseen bene-
fits of choosing one option (emphasizing special credit plans to ease the pain of
new-car payments, for example).
Classifying Consumer Needs

Much research has been done on classifying human needs. On the one hand, some
psychologists have tried to define a universal inventory of needs that could be traced
systematically to explain virtually all behaviour. One such effort, developed by Henry
Murray, delineates a set of psychogenic needs that (sometimes in combination) result
in specific behaviours. These needs, shown in Figure 4–2, include such dimensions as
autonomy (being independent), defendence (defending the self against criticism), and
play (engaging in pleasurable activities).3
Murray’s need structure serves as the basis for a number of widely used personal-
ity tests, such as the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Edwards Personal
Preference Schedule (EPPS). In the TAT, test subjects are shown four to six ambiguous
pictures and asked to write answers to four directing questions about the pictures.
These questions are: (1) What is happening? (2) What has led to this situation? (3)
What is being thought? (4) What will happen? The subject is allowed four minutes of
writing time to answer these questions for each story. Each answer is then content-
analyzed for references to certain needs and scored whenever that need is mentioned.
The theory behind the test is that people will freely project their own subcon-
scious needs onto the ambiguous picture. By getting their responses to the picture, you
are really getting at the person’s true needs for achievement or affiliation or whatever
other needs may dominate. Murray believed that everyone has the same basic set of
needs but that individuals differ in how they prioritize them.
Sp e c ific Ne e d s a n d Bu y in g Be h av io ur
Other motivational approaches have focused on specific needs and their ramifications
for behaviour. For example, individuals with a high need for achievement strongly
value personal accomplishment.4 They put a premium on products and services that
signify success because these consumption items provide feedback about the realization
of their goals. These consumers are good prospects for products that provide evidence of
their achievements. One study of working women found that those who were high in
FIGURE 4–2
Types of Needs, as Defined by Murray
Biogenic Psychogenic
Food Dominance Autonomy Assistance

Water Superiority Affiliation Change
Air Emotional Stability Analysis Endurance
Sleep Achievement Dependence Aggression
Sex Compliance Self-Depreciation Defendence
Shelter Order Exhibition Play
achievement motivation were more likely to choose clothing they considered business-
like and less likely to be interested in apparel that accentuated their femininity.5 Other
important needs that are relevant to consumer behaviour include the following:
• Need for affiliation (to be in the company of other people):6 This need is relevant
to products and services that alleviate loneliness and that are consumed among
groups of people at places such as athletic venues, bars, and shopping malls.
• Need for power (to control one’s environment):7 Many products and services,
ranging from “souped-up” muscle cars to hotels, restaurants, and resorts, promise
to respond to the customer’s every whim, allowing consumers to feel that they
have mastery over their surroundings.
• Need for uniqueness (to assert one’s individual identity):8 This need is satisfied by
products that pledge to accentuate a consumer’s distinctive qualities. For exam-
ple, Rocketcases is a Vancouver company that allows you to personalize your cell
phone case to suit your unique personality.
CO 4 Masl o w ’s Hier ar ch y o f Need s

One influential approach to motivation was proposed by the psychologist Abraham
Maslow. Maslow’s approach is a general one originally developed to understand per-
sonal growth and the attainment of “peak experiences.”9 Maslow formulated a hierar-
chy of biogenic and psychogenic needs in which levels of motives are specified. A
hierarchical approach implies that the order of development is fixed—that is, a certain
level must be attained before the next, higher one is activated. This universal approach
to motivation has been adopted by marketers because it (indirectly) specifies certain
types of product benefits that people might be looking for, depending on the different
stages in their development and/or their environmental conditions.
These levels are summarized in Figure 4–3. At each level, different priorities exist
in terms of the product benefits a consumer is looking for. Ideally, an individual pro-
gresses up the hierarchy until his or her dominant motivation is a focus on “ultimate”
goals, such as justice and beauty. Unfortunately, this state is difficult to achieve (at
least on a regular basis); most of us have to be satisfied with occasional glimpses of
peak experiences.
FIGURE 4–3 722'4.'8'.0''&5
Levels of Needs in the Maslow

Hierarchy
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Volvo strongly positions its brand on the

need for safety.
Courtesy of Volvo do Brasil
Marketing
Insight
Social needs are met by seeking warm and satisfying human relationships. Although Maslow’s hierarchy outlines needs at a
When the social needs are more or less satisfied, the esteem or ego needs emerge. relatively general level, this can be a starting
Inwardly directed ego needs reflect an individual’s need for self-acceptance, self- point for marketers in terms of developing seg-
esteem, achievement, and success. Outwardly directed ego needs include the needs mentation and positioning strategies. For exam-
for prestige, reputation, status, and recognition from others. Most people spend most ple, people purchasing cosmetics, grooming
of their lives trying to fill their ego needs and never move on to the fifth level of self- products, and plastic surgery are likely looking
actualization. This need refers to individuals’ desire to fulfil their own potential, to to fulfil esteem or ego needs, while those looking
become everything they are capable of becoming, so that they are completely satis- to purchase a home security system are likely
fied with their lives. motivated to fulfil safety needs. Marketers who
In summary, Maslow’s need hierarchy predicts that higher-order needs will are able to position products in ways that appeal
become the driving force behind human behaviour as the consumer’s lower-level needs to the specific needs of the target market are
are satisfied. The theory says, in effect, that satisfaction does not motivate behaviour; likely to be successful. In one example, the
dissatisfaction does. It is important to note that lower needs are never totally satisfied Canadian Army uses taglines that appeal to
but are ongoing. We do not need to satisfy one need totally before the next level of need higher-order needs such as self-actualization.
motivates our behaviour. Sometimes certain behaviours satisfy two needs at once. For One study found that the majority of participants
example, a Mercedes might satisfy the safety need and the ego need for prestige. preferred statements such as “Be All You Can
Although Maslow’s theory is interesting and applicable to marketing, it has not Be” and “Accelerate Your Life,” and that those
gone without criticism. There is no measurement tool for researchers to test the need who are high in the motivators of esteem, self-
actualization, and autonomy find these types of
hierarchy empirically. Also, they cannot measure precisely how well satisfied one
taglines most appealing. Thus, positioning
need is before the next-higher need becomes operational. Another problem with tak-
strategies that resonate with relevant consumer
ing Maslow’s hierarchy too literally is that its assumptions may be particular to West-
needs are most likely to be successful.10
ern culture. People of other cultures may question the order of the levels as specified.
For most Canadians, the biogenic or physi-
Many Asian cultures operate on the premise that the welfare of the group (belonging-
ological needs are regularly and easily satis-
ness needs) is more highly valued than the needs of the individual (esteem needs).
fied. Thus, the higher-level needs are usually
The point is that this hierarchy is widely applied in marketing because it dominant. Safety and security become the next
reminds us that consumers may have different need priorities at different times and driving force of behaviour. These needs are
stages of their lives—not because it exactly specifies a consumer’s progression up concerned with much more than physical
the ladder of needs. safety. They include order, stability, routine,
familiarity, and certainty—the knowledge, for
Motivation and Goal Fulfillment example, that you will eat dinner not only today
and tomorrow, but also far into the future.
People often set goals that are related to consumption.11 Many consumers set goals to lose Safety needs are met by RRSPs, social welfare
weight, to consume less energy, or to exercise more often. Consumers are more likely to programs, and insurance policies.
achieve such aims when they set goals that are SMART (Specific, Measurable, Attainable,
Relevant, and Time-bound). The goal needs to be Specific in that it is easier to achieve a
Consumers clearly specified goal than a more general one. The goal needs to be Measurable, which
its in Focus means there need to be concrete criteria by which goal attainment can be assessed. The
goal needs to be somewhat challenging, but also Attainable, meaning realistic. The goal
Theories such as Maslow’s hierarchy cannot should also be Relevant, something important to the goal setter. And finally, the goal
account for all of consumers’ needs and moti- needs to be Time-bound, which refers to the notion that the goal should have a targeted
vations. For example, while belonging needs time point for completion.13
can account for some behaviours on social In a unique marketing strategy, Nike created its Nike+ platform and began sell-
media such as finding a friend on Facebook or ing compatible Fuelbands—sport watches that provide an online platform for con-
following someone on Twitter, social media sumers to directly track their goal progress and set specific goals, such as “run
activities may serve other needs as well. Why, farther,” “burn calories,” or “run faster.” The social aspect of the online platform can
for example, are consumers addicted to apps also prove very motivating by allowing consumers to challenge others, provide feed-
such as Instagram and Pinterest? Obviously back, and get encouragement as they set new goals. Importantly, this innovation has
these platforms, which allow us to share pho- helped consumers set and track goals in ways that are specific and measurable.
tos and visual images with others, serve to There has been a proliferation of smartphone apps aimed at tracking fitness and
connect people and allow them to project a weight management goals, and it is notable that the most popular ones do a nice job
particular image to others. One additional pos- of replicating the SMART goal-setting formula, along with other elements that allow
sibility is that the act of depicting one’s life consumers to compete with others and motivate themselves.14
digitally can confirm and enhance one’s experi-
What happens when consumers get closer to attaining a particular goal? Intuition
ence, as well as allow for aesthetic apprecia-
might suggest that they would work harder as the end goal gets within reach. However,
tion and creativity.12
consumers who subjectively feel as if they’re closer to attaining a goal such as weight
loss are ironically more likely to change course and pursue an alternative goal such as
enjoyment. Interestingly, this may lead to actions that are incongruent with the origi-
nal goal. In one study, consumers who felt they were closer to attaining their
Steve Nash Fitness World and Sports Club

encourages consumer goal attainment with
motivational messaging.
Courtesy of Steve Nash Fitness World & Sports Club
Running Room sets up training programs

that motivate individuals by using social
support and setting specific and measurable
goals. Consumers are more likely to be
successful when they set these types of
goals.
Courtesy of the Running Room
weight-loss goal were subsequently more likely to choose a chocolate bar over an
apple!15 Goal progress does not have to be real, and can simply be perceived to have
strong effects on behaviour. For example, the mere presence of a healthy option on a
fast-food menu can fulfil nutrition-related goals, and in turn, provide consumers with
a “licence” to indulge.16 That is, simply having a healthy option like a salad or apple
slices on the menu can lead consumers to end up choosing a less than healthy option
for their meal.
One question that has puzzled consumer researchers is whether the motivation to
attain goals is always conscious, or if sometimes this can occur below the threshold of
awareness.17 The evidence seems to suggest that sometimes the motive to attain a goal
can be activated in consumption contexts without the consumer even being aware of
it. For example, exposing consumers to the Apple brand name enhances motivations
to be different and unique as compared to exposure to the IBM brand name, while
exposure to the Disney brand name resulted in consumers being more honest than
exposure to the E! brand name. These were incidental effects of brand exposure that
consumers were not aware of.18
Incidental brand exposure, such as seeing an

advertisement or a product, can activate con-
sumer goals. The Apple brand can activate
the motivation to be unique and different.
Photo by Steve White
Consumer Involvement CO 5
Marketing
Insight A consumer’s motivation to attain a goal influences his or her desire to expend the
effort necessary to attain the products or services believed to be instrumental in satis-
As we saw in Chapter 3, gamification is a red- fying that objective. However, not everyone is motivated to the same extent; that is,
hot marketing strategy today; it refers to the one person might be convinced that he or she can’t live without the latest style or
application of gaming principles to non-gaming modern convenience, while another is only marginally interested in these items.
contexts. Gamification is also a very effective Involvement can be defined as “a person’s perceived relevance of the object based on
means of enhancing consumer involvement, their inherent needs, values and interests.”19 The word object is used in the generic
especially for activities that can benefit from a sense and refers to a product (or brand), an advertisement, or a purchase situation.
bit of motivation. In one example, when the Consumers can find involvement in all these “objects.”
researchers wanted to promote financial liter- Since involvement is a motivational construct, it can be triggered by one or more
acy, they created the Money Smart program.21 It of the different antecedents shown in Figure 4–4. The antecedents can be something
is designed to look like a board game similar to about the person, something about the object, or something about the situation. On the
Monopoly, and it challenges players to learn
right side of Figure 4–4 are the results or consequences of being involved with the
financial skills such as setting up a bank
object. When consumers are intent on doing what they can to satisfy a need, they will
account, paying bills on time, and avoiding
be motivated to pay attention to and process any information felt to be relevant to
identity theft. The game attracted over 40 000
achieving their goals.
users in a year. In another example, when a uni-
Involvement can be viewed as the motivation to process information.20 To the
versity wanted to ramp up undergraduates’
interest in corporate finance, it did so by placing
degree that there is a perceived link between a consumer’s needs, goals, or values and
students, à la Harry Potter, into one of four product knowledge, the consumer will be motivated to pay attention to product
“houses” for the year, each with its own name information. When relevant knowledge is activated in memory, a motivational state
and shield. Students could earn points for
attending optional lectures and other finance-
FIGURE 4–4
related activities. The winning team at the end
of the year received a party with the dean, and Conceptualizing Involvement
also a “house cup,” just like in the movie.22
CONCEPTUALIZING INVOLVEMENT
Possible Results of
Antecedents of Involvement Involvement
Person Factors
— needs elicitation of counter-
— importance arguments to ads
— interest
— values effectiveness of ad
to induce purchase
Object or Involvement
Stimulus Factors relative importance
— differentiation of the product class
of alternatives
with advertisements
— source of perceived differences
communication in product attributes
— content of
communication with products
preference for a
particular brand
Situational Factors
— purchase/use with purchase
— occasion decisions influence of price
on brand choice
amount of information
search
Involvement = f (Person, Situation, Object) time spent deliberating

The level of involvement may be influenced by alternatives
one or more of these three factors. Interactions
among person, situation, and object factors are type of decision rule
likely to occur. used in choice
Source: J.L. Zaichkowsky, “Conceptualizing Involvement,” Journal of Advertising 15(2) (1986): 2–14. © Taylor & Francis. Used with permission.
is created that drives behaviour (e.g., shopping). As involvement with a product

increases, people devote more attention to ads related to the product, exert more cog-
nitive effort to understand these ads, and focus their attention more on the product-
related information in them.23
Levels of Involvement: From Inertia to Passion

The type of information processing that will occur thus depends upon the consumer’s
level of involvement. It can range from simple processing, in which only the basic
features of a message are considered, all the way to elaboration, in which the incoming
information is linked to preexisting knowledge systems.24
A person’s degree of involvement can be conceived as a continuum, ranging from
absolute lack of interest in a marketing stimulus at one end to obsession at the other.
Consumption at the low end of involvement is characterized by inertia, where deci-
sions are made out of habit because the consumer lacks the motivation to consider
alternatives. At the high end of involvement we can expect to find the type of passion-
ate intensity reserved for people and objects that carry great meaning to the individual.
When consumers are truly involved with a product, an ad, or a website, they enter
what has been called a flow state. This state is the Holy Grail of Web designers who
want to create sites that are so entrancing the consumer loses all track of time as he or
she becomes engrossed in the site’s contents. Flow is an optimal experience character-
ized by the following:
• A sense of playfulness
• A feeling of being in control
• Concentration and highly focused attention
• Mental enjoyment of the activity for its own sake
• A distorted sense of time
• A match between the challenge at hand and one’s skills25
A more sophisticated view of involvement recognizes that besides the level of

involvement there may be a type of involvement. A person may be emotionally or
affectively involved with an object (such as an advertisement), or rationally or cogni-
tively involved with a product or purchase situation, and so on. The advertising
industry has long held this view and advocates different types of advertising strategies
depending on the level and type of involvement. This is shown in Figure 4–5.
FIGURE 4–5
Foote, Cone, and Belding's Involvement and Product Typology
6;2'1(+081.8'/'06
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*KIJ r%CT r,GYGNNGT[

.GXGN r0GYRTQFWEVU r/QVQTE[ENGU
QH /GFKCRTKPVQPNKPGKPHQTOCVKQPDCUGF /GFKC68XKFGQKOCIGDCUGF
+PXQNXGOGPV
.QY r)TQWPFDGGH r%CPF[
r*QWUGJQNFENGCPUGTU r.KSWQT
/GFKCUGE+&U215TGOKPFGT /GFKC215CVVGPVKQPITCDDKPI
Source: Adapted from Richard Vaughn, “How Advertising Works: A Planning Model,” Journal of Advertising Research 20 (October 1980): 31. See also
Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, “The Emotional Side of Product Involvement,” in Advances in Consumer Research 14, eds. Paul Anderson and
Melanie Wallendorf (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research): 32–35.
The Many Faces of Involvement

As previously defined, involvement can take many forms. Involvement can be cogni-
Nike
tive, as when a student is motivated to learn all she can about the latest specs of the
new iPad release, or emotional, as when the thought of a new Armani suit gives a
clothes horse goosebumps.26 To complicate matters further, advertisements, such as
those produced for Nike or Adidas, may themselves be involving for some reason
(because they make us laugh or cry or inspire us to work harder). It seems that involve-
ment is a fuzzy concept, because it overlaps and means different things to different
people. Indeed, the consensus is that there are actually three broad types of involve-
ment—that relate to the product, to the message, and to the situation.27
P r o duc t In vo lvem en t
Product involvement is related to a consumer’s level of interest in a particular prod-
uct. Many sales promotions are designed to increase this type of involvement. Perhaps
the most powerful way to enhance product involvement is to invite consumers to play
a role in designing or personalizing what they buy. Mass customization is the custom-
ization and personalization of products and services for individual customers at a
mass production price.28 Improved manufacturing techniques in many industries are
allowing companies to produce made-to-order products for many customers at a time.
This strategy applies to a wide range of products and services, from news websites
that allow readers to choose which categories of information they want to see, to com-
puters you can configure to your specification, to blue jeans you can buy that have a
right leg that’s one inch shorter than the left leg to fit an asymmetrical body (this is
more common than you think). Mars introduced personalized M&M’s to encourage
consumers to bond with its chocolates. At www.mymms.com you can upload a photo
and order a batch of M&M’s with a face and personal message printed on the candy
shell. Nike allows consumers to design their own running shoes on NikeID.com. Lexus
sponsored a project with Time Inc. and American Express Publishing (AEP) to produce
a customized magazine. Consumers can choose content from a set of magazines such
as Time, Sports Illustrated, and Food & Wine, then receive their personalized magazine
either in print, online, or via RSS feeds on their cell phones.29
Messa g e - Respo nse In vo lvemen t

Message-response involvement refers to how the medium through which the message
is communicated can increase consumer involvement. One example of this is to create
spectacles or performances, in which the message is itself a form of entertainment. In
the early days of radio and television, ads literally were performances—show hosts
integrated marketing messages into the episodes. Today live advertising is making a
comeback, as marketers try harder and harder to captivate jaded consumers. For exam-
ple, the infamous T-mobile “flash mob” in London’s busy Liverpool Street station fea-
tured a spontaneous-yet-choreographed dance routine by a massive cast of dancers.
More recent techniques include guerrilla marketing, in which marketers use low-cost,
unconventional marketing tactics to gain consumers’ attention and involvement.
These can range from events like flash mobs to using novel and unexpected ways of
displaying information to consumers.
Marketers are also increasing message-response involvement by connecting with
consumers about real-time events on social media, a tactic referred to as real-time
marketing. For example, during a power outage in the middle of the 2013 Super Bowl,
Oreo cleverly (and very quickly) crafted a visual and tweeted “You can still dunk in
the dark,” a move that got it considerable media attention and over 16 000 retweets
from consumers.30
The quest to heighten message involvement is also fuelling the rapid growth of
interactive mobile marketing, in which consumers participate in real-time promotional
campaigns via their cell phones. One form of this approach is SMS marketing, in which
Science World in Vancouver uses unexpected

marketing stimuli to increase message-
response involvement.
Courtesy of TELUS World of Science/ReThink
Communications
retailers and brands offer discount coupons to customers in an effort to engage them. Mobile
users like text messaging, and 95 percent of all texts get opened within five minutes, which
is faster than email and social media updates.
Pu r c hase S ituat ion I n v o lv em e n t

Purchase situation involvement refers to differences that may occur when buying the same
object for different contexts. Here the person may perceive a great deal of social risk or
none at all. What people think when they consume the product for themselves, or when
they know others will consume the product they buy, is not always obvious or intuitive.
For example, when you want to impress someone, you might try to buy a brand or product
with a certain image that you think reflects good taste. When you have to buy a gift for
someone in an obligatory situation, such as a wedding gift for a cousin you do not really
like, you might not care what image the gift portrays, or you might actually pick something
cheap that reflects your desire to distance yourself.31 Again, some smart retailers are wak-
ing up to the value of increasing purchase situation involvement by appealing to hedonic
shoppers who are looking to be entertained or otherwise engaged in addition to simply
“buying stuff.”32
Segmenting by Involvement Levels

A measurement approach that segments involvement by levels allows consumer research-
ers to capture the diversity of the involvement construct, and it also allows for involve-
ment to be used as a basis for market segmentation. For example, a yogurt manufacturer
might find that even though its product is low in sign value for one group of consum-
ers, it is highly related to the self-concept of another market segment, such as health-
food enthusiasts or avid dieters. The company could then adapt its strategy to account
for the motivation of different segments to process information about the product.
One study looked at the roles of affective versus cognitive involvement and of
level of involvement (high versus low) in promoting Canadian universities. The
researchers found that students with a high level of cognitive involvement conducted
an intense search for information about universities, while those students who had a
low level of cognitive involvement and were affectively involved made their univer-
sity choice mainly on the basis of emotional factors.33
Strategies to Increase Involvement

Although consumers differ in their levels of involvement with respect to a product
message, marketers do not have to just sit back and hope for the best. By being aware
of some basic factors that increase or decrease attention, they can take steps to increase
the likelihood that product information will get through. The marketer can enhance
the consumer’s motivation to process relevant information fairly easily by using one or
more of the following techniques:34
• Appeal to consumers’ hedonic needs. For example, ads with sensory appeal gen-
erate higher levels of attention and involvement.
Big Rock does an excellent job of encourag-

ing high-quality consumer-generated ads.
Courtesy of Big Rock Brewery
• Use novel stimuli, such as unusual cinematography, sudden silences, or unex-

pected movements in commercials. Marketing
• Use prominent stimuli, such as loud music and fast action, to capture attention in Insight
commercials. In print formats, larger ads increase attention. Also, viewers look
longer at coloured pictures than at those in black and white. When we have the opportunity to personalize a
product, our involvement increases because
• Include celebrity endorsers to generate higher interest in commercials. This strat- the item reflects our unique preferences. But
egy will be discussed in Chapter 8. how about when we build the product our-
• Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoing relationship with them. selves? Researchers term this the IKEA effect.
Aside from these guidelines, perhaps the best way to boost consumers’ involve- Self-made (or at least assembled) products,
ment with the marketing messages they see and hear is to allow them to be involved including furniture, Lego, and even origami,
in the marketing process. One example is crowdsourcing, in which the marketer enhance the value we attach to them because
our own labour is involved.36 Of course, there
enlists a larger group of consumers to assist in some aspect of the marketing process.
may also be that unsettling feeling when you
For example, the Lay’s “Do Me a Flavour” contest asks consumers to submit ideas on
finish assembling a bookcase and there’s still
new, innovative flavours of potato chips (think Jalapeño Mac and Cheese) and then
one part left over . . .
asks other consumers to vote on the winner. The winning flavour is then put into
production. As we’ve already seen, another example of this is consumer-generated
content, in which consumers produce their own commercials for their favourite
brands. For example, Big Rock Brewery, based in Alberta, has an event called the
Eddies, in which consumers submit their own executions of print and video ads.
This practice creates a high degree of message-response involvement (also called
advertising involvement), which refers to the consumer’s interest in processing mar-
keting communications.35
Affect CO 6
Types of Affective Responses

Affect refers to the experience of emotionally laden states, which can range from
evaluations, to moods, to full-blown emotions. Evaluations involve valenced (i.e.,
positive or negative) reactions to events and objects, that are not accompanied by high
levels of arousal. For example, when a consumer evaluates a movie as being positive
or negative, this involves some degree of affect accompanied by low levels of arousal.
Moods involve temporary positive or negative affective states accompanied by
moderate levels of arousal. Moods tend to be diffuse and are not necessarily linked to
a particular affect-arousing event. Emotions (happiness, anger, fear, etc.), in contrast to
moods, tend to be more intense and are often related to a specific triggering event.
Marketers use affective states in many ways. First, positive moods and emotions
are often highlighted as a product benefit. Take, for example, Viagra’s marketing cam-
paign that uses humour and music to convey the positive affective quality of the prod-
uct. Certainly, some product categories, such as fragrances, alcohol, tobacco, and
caffeinated beverages, are consumed for their mood-altering qualities. Marketers will Consumers
also sometimes highlight the avoidance of negative affect as a product attribute; for
example, lottery corporations might ask consumers to consider how they would feel if in Focus
they hadn’t played the extra bonus draw.
The next time you’re feeling down and you think
Another way negative moods are sometimes utilized is by activating a negative
about cheering yourself by checking your
mood on the part of the consumer (e.g., by showing a picture of starving children in
Facebook page, think again: Researchers report
Africa), and then giving the consumer a means by which to make him- or herself feel
that the longer people stay on Facebook, the
better—by donating to the cause. Helping others as a means of resolving one’s own
worse they feel. Apparently this activity makes
negative moods has been referred to as negative state relief.37 One other way consum- you feel as though you’re wasting your life.
ers can repair negative moods is by purchasing and consuming mood-enhancing prod- People say that compared to browsing the
ucts such as chocolate. Internet (or perhaps studying!), Facebook
Another way marketers capitalize on affect is through mood congruency effects. checking is less meaningful or useful. This
Mood congruency is the notion that our judgments are often consistent with our judgment in turns leads to bad feelings.38
existing mood states. For example, consumers judge the very same products (cars,
Coca-Cola’s “Open Happiness” campaign is

an excellent example of highlighting positive
affect–inducing properties as a product
benefit.
Richard Drew/AP Photo/CP Images
TVs, etc.) more positively when in a positive as opposed to a negative mood.39 This
is why advertisers may attempt to have ads placed after humorous television pro-
gramming40 or endeavour to create uplifting ads.41 This is also why retailers often
employ mood-enhancing stimuli, such as pleasing background music, friendly staff,
and spatial aesthetics.42 If the retailer can create a positive mood on the part of con-
sumers, hopefully consumers will evaluate the merchandise more positively too!
This advertisement uses sad imagery to

evoke negative moods on the part of
consumers. Consumers are likely to donate
to the cause to repair such negative moods.
Courtesy of The United Way of Greater Toronto
Mood congruency effects are not inevitable, however. Researchers find that moods
are often used as a source of information when evaluating an object.43 That is, the
consumer says to herself, “If I feel happy, I must like this camera I’m considering
buying.” But if the consumer realizes that her positive mood is due to some other
source, such as the upbeat music playing in the background, and not to the camera
itself, mood is less likely to bias her judgments.44 Moods are most likely to be influen-
tial when they are considered relevant to the particular purchase decision.45
How Social Media Taps into Our Emotions

Social media platforms can also play on affect. We may share particularly good or bad
feelings on Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat, or even resort to emoji and emoticons
such as ☺ in texts or emails to convey how we feel.
In fact, it’s so common for people to express their moods and also their emotional
reactions to products that these posts can be a treasure trove for marketers who want
to learn more about how their offerings make people feel. Sentiment analysis
(sometimes called opinion mining) is a process that scours the social media universe
to collect and analyze the words people use when they describe a specific product or
company. When people feel a particular way, they are likely to choose certain words
that tend to relate to the emotion. From these words, the researcher will create a
As I See It
Think of brand names such features/services for the phone, particularly when the extra fea-
as Hubba Bubba, Tutti Frutti, tures are hedonic (e.g., downloadable iTunes, personalized ring
Jelly Belly, KitKat, Bits & tones) rather than utilitarian (e.g., extended warranty and
Bites, Lululemon, and Tostitos. increased internal memory). Furthermore, the affect triggered by
Courtesy of Monica Popa
Now say these names out loud! the name of a service establishment such as a restaurant influ-
If you found yourself giggling ences consumers’ choice of menu items. For example, if con-
afterward, don’t worry: It’s nor- sumers go to a restaurant called “Rantifanti” (as against a
mal. What you have just experi- restaurant called “Rantifumte”), they are more likely to select
enced is the positive affect from the menu an indulgent dessert (e.g., chocolate cake) than
Monica Popa University of generated by words that con- a healthy product (e.g., fruit salad). These findings have impor-
Saskatchewan tain sound repetition in their tant implications for manufacturers in naming their brands and
linguistic structure. Brands designing their product portfolio, for retailers deciding which
with linguistic devices of repetition (e.g., alliteration and rhyme) in brands and products to sell, and for managers training their
their names have a way of putting a smile on our face. Their posi- sales force to cross-sell or up-sell. For instance, salespeople are
tive impact on our emotions is particularly strong if we hear or say more likely to succeed in cross-selling hedonic products when
the brand names out loud, as opposed to merely seeing these consumers experience positive affect (as a result of hearing
names written on a page. brand names with sound repetition or as a result of other pleas-
My colleagues and I explored in a series of experiments ant stimuli such as background music or enjoyable pictures).
what happens when consumers experience positive feelings as a In a related stream of research, I currently explore how
result of exposure to brand names containing sound repetition.1 social interaction impacts consumers’ feelings and in turn, their
We found that positive affect prompts consumers to have higher behaviour. The motivation for this research direction is my fasci-
evaluations of these brands and to choose them over brands that nation with emotions, and my continuous quest to understand
do not have sound repetition in their names. Our studies also reveal the interplay between affect and cognitions in guiding consump-
that positive feelings have consequences beyond the focal brands. tion decisions. The sweeping effects of positive affect never
For example, positive affect not only prompts consumers to prefer cease to amaze me. At the end of the day, little things that make
a mobile phone named “Shonoshon” to one named “Shonufam,” us smile or have a good laugh can often work wonders in market-
but also increases consumers’ likelihood of buying add-on ing and in life.
1 Jennifer Argo, Monica Popa, and Malcolm Smith, “The Sound of Brands,” Journal of Marketing 74(4) (2010): 97–109.
word-phrase dictionary (sometimes called a library) to code the data. A computer

program will then scan social media text to identify whether the words in the
dictionary appear.
Consider this example. A review on Epinions, a product review site, included
the statement, “The Canon PowerShot A540 camera had good aperture and excellent
resolution.” A sentiment analysis would extract the entities of interest from the sen-
tence, identifying the product as the Canon PowerShot A540 and the relevant dimen-
sions as aperture and resolution. The sentiment would then be extracted for each
dimension; the sentiment for aperture is good while that for resolution is excellent.
Text mining software would collect these reactions and combine them with others to
paint a picture of how people are talking about the product. There are several senti-
ment analysis programs that do similar things; one called ToneCheck even reports on
the emotions it detects in people’s emails.46
CO 7 Discrete Emotions
Consumer researchers have become increasingly interested in investigating the
importance of specific emotions in the consumption environment. While the gen-
eral notion of positive and negative emotion does have importance in understand-
ing consumer behaviour, the examination of specific emotional reactions during
consumption episodes can provide additional insight. For example, envy and
embarrassment are both negative emotions, but consumers who experience these
emotions while out on a shopping trip are likely to have very different reactions to
the shopping event.
Hap p in e ss
Happiness is a mental state of well-being characterized by positive emotions.
Researchers have understandably long been interested in what it is that truly makes
people happy. Material goods, it seems, are not the secret to happiness. The higher
The Moodagent app generates a music

playlist based on the user’s mood.
Copyright Syntonetic Media Solutions A/S, 2015
people score on materialism scales, the less happy they seem to be.47 In one study
respondents were asked to think of either a material purchase (defined as a pur-
chase made with the primary intention of acquiring a material possession) or an
experiential purchase (defined as a purchase made with the primary intention of
acquiring a life experience), which were matched for price. 48 The authors found Marketing
that experiential purchases brought respondents more happiness than did material
purchases. This is because experiential purchases are more open to positive reinter-
Insight
pretations, are a more meaningful part of one’s identity, and contribute more to suc- You are watching a horror flick and just so hap-
cessful social relationships. pen to be eating a bag of a new brand of candy.
Other research also finds that how we spend our money can influence happiness. What impact would the unrelated emotion of
For example, people report increased levels of happiness when they spend money on fear have on how you feel about the candy
others, as opposed to on themselves.49 Finally, one possibility is that the key to hap- brand? Although, intuitively, one might predict
piness does not involve money at all; it involves time. Cassie Mogilner, a professor at that this would lead to negative brand evalua-
the Wharton School of Business, suggests that thinking about time, rather than tions, researchers have found that this is not
necessarily the case. In particular, they discov-
money, influences how effectively people pursue personal happiness goals.50 This is
ered that fear led to a desire for affiliation and
because encouraging people to think about time motivates them to spend more time
that people felt more connected to the brand
with family and friends and less time working. Thinking about money, on the other
when they experienced fear. The authors pro-
hand, induces people to socialize less and work more. It turns out that the secret to
pose that, in the absence of the social support
happiness might be fostering social connections with the people who are important
of other people, the brand itself can fulfil the
to us!
interpersonal psychological need for affiliation.
What makes us happy can also vary throughout the lifespan. That is, the meaning This work suggests that marketers don’t have
of happiness is not fixed and can shift as people get older. Whereas younger people are to avoid social media, movies, and video
more likely to associate happiness with excitement, older people are more likely to games that might incidentally create fear and
associate happiness with feelings of calm and peacefulness.51 It has been suggested could instead use such contexts to try to create
that this is due to increased feelings of connectedness to others and to the present a sense of attachment to the brand.52
moment as one ages.
This advertisement from Mercedes-Benz

highlights an affective benefit of the product.
Courtesy of Mercedes-Benz Canada Inc.
Converts gasoline to adrenaline.

With its bold, dynamic AMG styling, the all-new 2012 SLK 350 instantly attracts attention.
And with our dynamic handling package and 302 horsepower at your disposal, the ride is as
exhilarating as its look. For ultimate closed-top cruising, raise the power retractable vario-roof
and witness MAGIC SKY CONTROL – our innovative panoramic sunroof that adjusts from
tinted to clear at the touch of a button. Visit mercedes-benz.ca/slk
© 2011 Mercedes-Benz Canada Inc.
[Dealer Name], [Dealer Address], [Dealer Telephone Number], [Dealer Website]
!"#$%&%$'()(*+,-./001112 2+3(,322111,4*(1'!
Envy
Envy is a negative emotion associated with the desire to reduce the gap between one-
self and someone who is superior on some dimension.53 As the phrase “keeping up
with the Joneses” suggests, consumers often experience envy. It has been suggested
that two distinct types can emerge. Benign envy occurs when the individual believes
that the superior other deserves his or her status. Researchers find that when con-
sumers experience benign envy over a product (e.g., the newest model of the iPhone),
they are willing to pay more for it.54 Malicious envy occurs when the consumer
believes that the superior other does not deserve his or her status. In this case, con-
sumers do not desire the focal product (iPhone), but are instead willing to pay more
for a different product in the same category (a Samsung phone). Feelings of mali-
cious envy have also been shown to produce negative attitudes and actions toward
the envied other. In these instances, envy can result in negative word of mouth, and
even acts of sabotage.
Gu ilt
Guilt is defined as “an individual’s unpleasant emotional state associated with possi-
ble objections to his or her actions, inaction, circumstances, or intentions.”55 Guilt is
often activated in contexts where marketers want consumers to engage in prosocial
behaviours, such as charitable giving. Marketing communications that activate a sense
of guilt on the part of the consumer, or “guilt appeals,” can be particularly compelling
when other people are present, because this activates a sense of consumer social
responsibility.56 However, extreme guilt appeals can sometimes backfire, and it can be
more effective to activate guilt more subtly. For example, the context itself—simply
presenting a green, environmentally friendly option alongside a non-green one—can
give rise to a sense of anticipatory guilt on the part of the consumer. That is, consum-
ers worry about how guilty they might feel in the future if they were to choose the
alternative, non-green option.57 The authors of this study found that subtler forms of
guilt induction were more effective than explicit guilt appeals in encouraging consum-
ers to select green products.
Consumer guilt can be activated in retail settings, too. One field study found that
when a consumer fails to make a purchase, this can lead to a guilt response when he or
Consumers she feels a sense of social connectedness with a salesperson.58 In such situations, con-
in Focus sumers not only feel guilt, but are also likely to engage in reparative actions. For exam-
ple, they might decide to make their lack of purchase up to the salesperson the next
Purchasing fitness-tracking wearable technol- time around.
ogy; learning a new language; choosing a per-
formance enhancing sport drink; meeting a Embar r assmen t
financial planner. All of these consumption
Embarrassment is a social emotion driven by a concern for what others are thinking
decisions reflect the goal to become better in
about us. It typically occurs when unwanted events communicate undesired infor-
domains that are important to the self. Recent
mation about oneself to others. To be embarrassed, one must be aware of, and care
research suggests that the negative emotion of
guilt activates self-improvement motives,
about, the evaluating social audience, whether real or imagined.59 Embarrassment
which can lead consumers to be more likely to in the consumer context most often arises when socially sensitive products are pur-
choose products that are aimed at improving chased. For example, condoms, adult diapers, tampons, hair-lice shampoo, and
the self. What was interesting was that guilt pornography can be embarrassing products for some consumers.60 The feeling
experienced in one domain (for example, guilt exists here because the purchase of these items involves exposure of personal infor-
over not donating blood) was shown to “spill mation to a social audience. Interestingly, research has shown that familiarity with
over” into other domains (for example, leading a product (e.g., previous purchase) can reduce the embarrassment a consumer feels
consumers to choose an energy drink that was in a shopping environment.61 Consumers have also been shown to adopt strategies
positioned on the basis of its ability to improve to alleviate embarrassment in such circumstances. For example, they might attempt
mental performance). Notably, only guilt had to hide an embarrassing product among others in the shopping basket, or they might
this motivational abilility to spur a desire for choose a cashier who looks “more friendly” when paying. Embarrassment can also
self-improvement; sadness, shame, and arise between consumers when a social custom or norm is violated. For example,
embarrassment did not.62 when one is out on a dinner date, rejection of one’s credit card can be a very embar-
rassing experience.
Chapter Summary
It’s important for marketers to recognize that products can The way we evaluate and choose a product depends on our
satisfy a range of consumer needs. degree of involvement with the product, the marketing
message, and/or the purchase situation.
• Marketers try to satisfy consumer needs, but the reasons
any product is purchased can vary widely. The identifica- • Product involvement can range from very low, in which pur-
tion of consumer motives is an important step in ensuring chase decisions are made by inertia, to very high, in which
that the appropriate needs will be met by a product. Tradi- consumers form very strong bonds with what they buy. In
tional approaches to consumer behaviour have focused on addition to considering the degree to which consumers are
the abilities of products to satisfy rational needs (utilitarian involved with a product, marketing strategists need to
motives), but hedonic motives (such as the need for explo- assess the extent of involvement with marketing messages
ration or fun) also play a role in many purchase decisions. and with the purchase situation.
• As demonstrated by Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, the
The way we interpret, evaluate, and choose products can
same product can satisfy different needs depending on
also depend on our current affective state.
the consumer’s state at the time (i.e., whether basic phys-
iological needs have already been satisfied). In addition to • Discrete emotions such as happiness, envy, guilt, and embar-
his or her objective situation, the consumer’s degree of rassment can influence a variety of consumer outcomes.
involvement with the product must also be considered.
Key Terms
Affect p. 109 Guerrilla marketing p. 106 Mood congruency p. 109
Crowdsourcing p. 109 Guilt p. 114 Motivation p. 93
Drive p. 94 Happiness p. 112 Negative state relief p. 109
Embarrassment p. 114 Homeostasis p. 95 Real-time marketing p. 106
Emotions p. 109 IKEA effect p. 109 Sentiment analysis p. 111
Envy p. 114 Inertia p. 105 Theory of cognitive dissonance p. 98
Evaluations p. 109 Interactive mobile marketing p. 106 Want p. 95
Expectancy theory p. 95 Involvement p. 104 Word-phrase dictionary p. 112
Flow state p. 105 Mass customization p. 106
Goal p. 94 Moods p. 109
Review Questions
1. What is motivation, and how is this idea relevant to mar- 5. Name the levels in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and give an
keting? example of a marketing appeal that’s focused at each level.
2. Describe three types of motivational conflicts, citing an 6. What is consumer involvement? How does this concept
example of each from current marketing campaigns. relate to motivation?
3. Explain the difference between a need and a want. 7. Why would marketers want their customers to enter into
4. What is cognitive dissonance? a flow state when shopping for their products?
8. List three types of consumer involvement, giving an 12. What is mood congruency, and how can it be applied in
example of each. an advertising context?
9. What are some strategies marketers can use to increase 13. Name two discrete emotions, and explain how they have
consumers’ involvement with their products? relevance in a consumption context.
10. What is the difference between mood and emotion? 14. What strategies can consumers pursue to avoid embarrass-
11. How can emotion be used as information when making a ment?
purchase?
Discuss embarrassment associated with buying condoms. Do

you think this is an effective approach? Why or why not?
1. Some consumers dislike ads that show starving children
in Africa because these ads make them feel negative emo-
tions such as sadness and guilt. What are your feelings Experiential Exercises
about this type of promotional strategy? Is it manipulative 5. Devise separate promotional strategies for an article of
to play on consumers’ emotional reactions in this context? clothing, each of which stresses one of the levels of
2. “High involvement is just a fancy term for expensive.” Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Do you agree? Why or why not? 6. Describe how a man’s level of involvement with his car
3. Which of the needs in Maslow’s hierarchy do you sat- would affect how he is influenced by different marketing
isfy when you participate in social networks such as stimuli. How might you design a strategy for a line of car bat-
Facebook and Twitter? How could these sites add new teries for a segment of low-involvement consumers, and how
features to help you satisfy these needs? would this strategy differ from your attempts to reach a seg-
4. Social marketing campaigns have encouraged the nor- ment of men who are very involved in working on their cars?
malization of condom purchase in an effort to reduce 7. Interview members of a celebrity fan club. Describe
the infection rate of sexually transmitted diseases. As their level of involvement with the “product” and devise
part of this strategy, they have tried to reduce the some marketing opportunities to reach this group.
PlentyofFish (POF) end goal of developing a friendship, a romantic relationship, or a

Thomas Allard was looking forward to reporting the most recent sexual encounter. Services that facilitate online dating typically
numbers to the innovation team at PlentyofFish (POF). Under provide unmoderated matchmaking by allowing individuals (i.e.,
direction from Markus Frind, founder and CEO of the company, clients) to share personal information (e.g., gender, religion,
the innovation team had introduced a number of fundamental occupation, personal interests, body type) in an open market-
changes to the world’s largest online dating website. Thomas knew place. By providing personal information, the service enables
it was important to evolve the product, something that Frind had the client to build a profile in its system and search the service’s
done continually since launching the company in 2003. In doing database for other client profiles that would be of potential inter-
so, the company had met the challenge of new business models est. Some online services provide guidance to clients on which
entering the online dating marketplace, a hyper-competitive envi- profiles in the system would be the best match for their stated
ronment among entrenched players, and of the continually evolv- interests. For example, Match.com utilizes client responses to
ing consumer, who was looking for the next big thing in dating the Myers-Briggs personality test to help align clients into suc-
services. Importantly, innovation at the company centred on two cessful matches. Other online dating companies specialize in
things: motivating the current customer base to stay active in their building a client base based on specific interests or client back-
utilization of the website, and providing motivation to new custom- ground. For example, Jdate.com is targeted to members of the
ers to give the online dating service an initial trial. Jewish community, Shaadi.com to those with an Indian ethnic
background, and Ashley Madison to married individuals who
are looking for extra-marital relationships.
Online Dating The five largest online dating companies (in order of the size
Online dating is a personal introduction system where individu- of their client base) are POF, Match.com, OKCupid, Zoosk, and
als can present themselves to others over the Internet with an E-Harmony. Interestingly, each of these services has pursued a
different business model in building its success. Where some of action between clients. These brands focused specifically on the
these dating services charge a monthly fee for services, others sexual “hook-up” opportunity this technology could facilitate
provide free registration and garner revenue from advertising. and directly played down the notion of a dating relationship that
Importantly, while the business models may differ, these sites all might surface from immediate client interaction.
enable clients to access their services through personal comput- This new approach to technology application posed a
ers, tablets, or smartphones. Further, most sites in the industry potential challenge to the POF business model. Should the
allow members to upload photos or videos of themselves, and company follow these new upstart competitors and build more
some enable webcasts, online chat, and message boards. potential in this area of business? Interestingly, in response to
this new trend, Frind asked the innovation team to implement
PlentyofFish several changes to the website with a directive to focus specifi-
cally on meaningful relationships. Reporting that less than
PlentyofFish (POF) is the world’s largest online dating service
1 percent of the client base was utilizing the dating service for
with over 90 million registered users and more than 55 000
intimate encounters, Frind believed that the strongest opportu-
signups every day in 2014. Based in Canada, the company is
nity would be found in sharpening the product offering to cli-
the largest online dating service in the United States, United
ents who wanted authentic interactions with other clients.
Kingdom, Australia, Brazil, and Canada. With 66 full-time
Changes to the website include the removal of the inti-
employees, POF claims to facilitate over 10 million conversations
mate encounters option and deleting first contact between cli-
every day and over 1 million relationships every year.
ents that contained sexual references. The ability of male
As the founder of the company, Markus Frind identified the
users to attach images to messages was removed. Further, the
potential for a free option in the growing market for online dating
ability to contact other clients of age differences greater than
in 2003, and he was able to successfully build a business model
14 years was hindered by direct messaging from Frind that
that generated revenue through advertising and optional pre-
warned against the effort. In essence, Frind decided to block
mium services. This approach, known as a freemium business
behaviours that he felt were counter to his clients finding real
model, gave basic services to the client for free and offered an
relationships on the website.
upgraded membership where the client could see when his or
But was this the right path in motivating current clients to
her profile was viewed and whether messages were read or
stay loyal and new clients to try the service? Thomas Allard was
deleted. Since its inception, POF had been at the forefront of
excited by the preliminary data he had gathered to answer this
new approaches and tactics applicable to the online dating mar-
question and was eager to share it with the innovation team.
ket. As one example, in 2009 POF launched a contest with Lady
Indeed, the company received more than 150 000 thank-you
Gaga allowing single clients to go with another POF client to
messages from male and female clients within 12 hours of
meet the singer during her concert tour. POF has also appeared
receiving notification of the website changes.
in numerous music videos of artists, ranging from Kesha and
Akon to Natasha Bedingfield, in an effort to leverage positive 1. What do those who utilize online dating services want?
celebrity associations in building the brand. On the technology What consumer needs do these services meet? At what
front, POF was one of the first companies to launch mobile apps levels of Maslow’s hierarchy would you place the need(s)
for its services in 2010 for iPhone and Android. By 2014 the relevant in the context of online dating services?
company indicated that it could attribute 85 percent of its traffic 2. What is an effective approach to building an online dating
to mobile, with the number continuing to grow. service? What challenges do companies face in building a
successful business model?
Current Challenge and Opportunity 3. What do you think of Frind’s chosen strategy as POF faces
Over the past few years, new entrants to the online dating s ervice new competition? Will this succeed or fail given the
marketplace have begun focusing on opportunities provided by changes in the marketplace? Why?
the shift to mobile devices. Companies like Tinder and Grinder 4. Imagine you are building a start-up Internet dating ser-
capitalized on the ability of mobile to provide real-time informa- vice. What would you do? How would you motivate con-
tion on client geographic location and thus enable instant inter- sumers to try your service?
Note s
1. Russell W. Belk, Guliz Ger, and Søren Askegaard, “The Fire of Desire: A Multisited ed. (New York: Wiley, 1970); James U. McNeal and Stephen W. McDaniel, “An Analysis
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2. Leon Festinger, A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford, CA: University Press, 1957). 4. David C. McClelland, Studies in Motivation (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955).
3. Paul T. Costa and Robert R. McCrae, “From Catalog to Classification: Murray’s Needs 5. Mary Kay Ericksen and M. Joseph Sirgy, “Achievement Motivation and Clothing
and the Five-Factor Model,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55(2) Preferences of White-Collar Working Women,” in The Psychology of Fashion, ed.
(1988): 258–265; Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Personality, 2nd Michael R. Solomon (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1985): 357–369.
6. Stanley Schachter, The Psychology of Affiliation (Stanford, CA: Stanford University 29. Neeraj Arora et al., “Putting One-to-One Marketing to Work: Personalization,
Press, 1959). Customization, and Choice,” Marketing Letters (2008): 305–321; Mike Beirne, “Mars
7. Eugene M. Fodor and Terry Smith, “The Power Motive as an Influence on Group Gives M&M’s a Face,” Brandweek, www.brandweek.com/Bw/News/Recent_Display.
Decision Making,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42 (1982): 178–185. Jsp?Vnu_Content_Id=1003807134, accessed May 28, 2009; Edward C. Baig,
“Technology Allows You to Be a Part of History in Obama Book,” USA Today, www.
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(New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1980). accessed May 21, 2009; Karl Greenberg, “Lexus Backs First Consumer-Customized
9. Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality, 2nd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1970). Magazine,” Marketing Daily (March 18, 2009), www.mediapost.com, accessed
10. Silvia A. Miller, M. Suzanne Clinton, and John P. Camey, “The Relationship of August 19, 2012.
Motivators, Needs, and Involvement Factors to Preferences for Military Slogans,” 30. Gian Lavecchia, “Oreo’s ‘Dunk in the Dark’ Strategy and the Future of Real-Time
Journal of Advertising Research 47(1) (March 2007). Marketing,” Fast Company (April 18, 2013), www.fastcompany.com/3008486/oreos-
11. Richard P. Bagozzi and U. Dholakia, “Goal Setting and Goal Striving in Consumer dunk-dark-strategy-and-future-real-time-marketing.
Behavior,” Journal of Marketing 63 (1999): 19–32. 31. For more information on the involvement construct, see “Special Issue on
12. Karen Rosenberg, “Everyone’s Lives, in Pictures,” The New York Times (April 21, Involvement,” Psychology and Marketing 10(4) (July/August 1993).
2012), www.nytimes.com/2012/04/22/sunday-review/everyones-lives-in- 32. Mark J. Arnold and Kristy E. Reynolds, “Hedonic Shopping Motivations,” Journal of
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13. G.T. Doran, “There’s a S.M.A.R.T. Way to Write Management’s Goals and Objectives,” 33. Carmen W. Cullen and Scott J. Edgett, “The Role of Involvement in Promoting
Management Review 70(11) (1981): 35–36. Canadian Universities,” Journal of Promotion Management 1(2) (1991): 57–71.
14. Stephanie Pappas, “Best Fitness Apps for 2015,” livescience (December 23, 2014), 34. Deborah J. MacInnis, Christine Moorman, and Bernard J. Jaworski, “Enhancing and
www.livescience.com/49241-best-fitness-apps.html. Measuring Consumers’ Motivation, Opportunity, and Ability to Process Brand
15. A. Fishbach and R. Dhar, “Goals as Excuses or Guides: The Liberating Effect of Information from Ads,” Journal of Marketing 55 (October 1991): 332–353.
Perceived Goal Progress on Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research 32 (December 35. Rajeev Batra and Michael L. Ray, “Operationalizing Involvement as Depth and
2005): 370–377. Quality of Cognitive Responses,” in Advances in Consumer Research 10, eds. Alice
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Fulfillment: When the Mere Presence of a Healthy Option Leads to an Ironically 1983): 309–313.
Indulgent Decision,” Journal of Consumer Research 36 (October 2009): 380–393. 36. Michael I. Norton, Daniel Mochon, and Dan Ariely, “The IKEA Effect: When Labor
17. Tanya Chartrand, Joel Huber, Baba Shiv, and Robin J. Tanner, “Nonconscious Goals Leads to Love,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 22(3) (2012): 453–460.
and Consumer Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research 35(2) (2008): 189–201. 37. Robert B. Cialdini and Douglas T. Kenrick, “Altruism as Hedonism: A Social
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Different,’” Journal of Consumer Research 35 (2008): 21–35. 38. Rebecca Hiscott, “Why You Feel Terrible after Spending Too Much Time on Facebook,”
19. Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, “Measuring the Involvement Construct in Marketing,” The Huffington Post (July 17, 2014), www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/07/17/
Journal of Consumer Research 12 (December 1985): 341–352. facebook-study_n_5595890.html.
20. The literature offers numerous approaches to the construct of involvement. See 39. A.M. Isen, T.E. Shalker, M. Clark,, and L. Karp, “Affect, Accessibility of Material in
also Peter H. Bloch, “Involvement beyond the Purchase Process: Conceptual Issues Memory, and Behavior: A Cognitive Loop?” Journal of Personality and Social
and Empirical Investigation,” in Advances in Consumer Research 8, ed. Kent Psychology 36 (1978): 1–12.
Monroe (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1981): 61–65; George S. 40. M.E. Goldberg and G.J. Gorn, “Happy and Sad TV Programs: How They Affect
Day, Buyer Attitudes and Brand Choice Behavior (Chicago: Free Press, 1970); Reactions to Commercials,” Journal of Consumer Research 14 (1987): 387–403.
Michael J. Houston and Michael L. Rothschild, “Conceptual and Methodological
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Perspectives on Involvement,” in Research Frontiers in Marketing: Dialogues
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and Directions, ed. S.C. Jain (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1978):
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184–187; John L. Lastovicka and David Gardner, “Components of Involvement,”
Advertising,” Journal of Consumer Research 14 (1987): 404–420.
in Attitude Research Plays for High Stakes, eds. John C. Maloney and Bernard
Silverman (Chicago: American Marketing Association, 1979): 53–73; Andrew 42. J.I. Alpert and M.I. Alpert, “Music Influences on Mood and Purchase Intentions,”
Mitchell, “Involvement: A Potentially Important Mediator of Consumer Behavior,” in Psychology and Marketing 7: 109–133; G.C. Bruner, “Music, Mood, and Marketing,”
Advances in Consumer Research 6, ed. William L. Wilkie (Provo, UT: Association for Journal of Marketing 54: 94–104.
Consumer Research, 1979): 191–196. 43. N. Schwarz and G.L. Clore, “Feelings and Phenomenal Experiences,” in Social
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www.wired.com/2013/06/advance-to-go-winning-with-gamification. York: Guilford Press, 1996): 433–465.
22. Natalie Kitroeff, “Syracuse University Turns to Harry Potter to Motivate Business 44. G.J. Gorn, M.E. Goldberg, and K. Basu, “Mood, Awareness, and Product Evaluation,”
Students,” Bloomburg Business (September 12, 2014), www.bloomberg.com/bw/ Journal of Consumer Psychology 2 (1993): 237–256.
articles/2014-09-12/syracuse-university-uses-a-harry-potter-game-to-motivateb- 45. M.T. Pham, “Representativeness, Relevance, and the Use of Feelings in Decision
schoolers. Making,” Journal of Consumer Research 25 (1998): 144–159; Katherine White and
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Comprehension Processes,” Journal of Consumer Research 15 (September 1988): Role of Mood-Acknowledgment and Perceived Appropriateness of Using Moods,”
210–224. Journal of Consumer Psychology 19(3) (2009): 526–536.
24. Anthony G. Greenwald and Clark Leavitt, “Audience Involvement in Advertising: Four 46. Tracy Tuten and Michael R. Solomon, Social Media Marketing (Upper Saddle River,
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Harper Collins, 1991); Donna L. Hoffman and Thomas P. Novak, “Marketing in http://mashable.com/2011/01/20/lymbix/?utm_source=feedburner&utm_
Hypermedia Computer-Mediated Environments: Conceptual Foundations,” Journal of medium=email&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Mashable+%28Mashable%29,
Marketing 60(3) (July 1996): 50–68. accessed April 29, 2011.
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Advances in Consumer Research 14, eds. Paul Anderson and Melanie Wallendorf Consumer Research 14 (1985): 113–127; M.L. Richins and S. Dawson, “A Consumer
(Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research): 32–35. Values Orientation for Materialism and Its Measurement: Scale Development and
Validation,” Journal of Consumer Research 19 (1992): 303–316.
27. For a discussion of interrelationships between situational and enduring involvement,
see Marsha L. Richins, Peter H. Bloch, and Edward F. McQuarrie, “How Enduring and 48. Leaf Van Boven and Thomas Gilovich, “To Do or to Have? That Is the Question,”
Situational Involvement Combine to Create Involvement Responses,” Journal of Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85(6): 1193–1202.
Consumer Psychology 1(2) (1992): 143–153. 49. Elizabeth Dunn, Lara B. Aknin, and Michael I. Norton, “Spending Money on Others
28. Joseph B. Pine II and James H. Gilmore, Markets of One: Creating Customer-Unique Promotes Happiness,” Science (319) (2008): 1687–1688.
Value through Mass Customization (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 2000), 50. Cassie Mogilner, “The Pursuit of Happiness: Time, Money, and Social Connection,”
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51. Cassie Mogilner, Sepandar D. Kamvar, and Jennifer Aaker, “The Shifting 57. John Peloza, Jingzhi Shang, and Katherine White, “Green and Guilt Free: The Role of
Meaning of Happiness,” Social Psychological and Personality Science (July 2, Guilt in Determining the Effectiveness of Environmental Advertising Appeals,” in press.
2011): 395–402. 58. Darren W. Dahl, Heather Honea, and Rajesh V. Manchanda, “Three R’s of
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Consumer Research 41(1) (2014): 152–168. Consumer Psychology 15(4) (2005): 307–315.
53. Richard H. Smith and Sung Hee, “Comprehending Envy,” Psychological Bulletin 59. Loraine Lau-Gesk and Aimee Drolet, “The Publicly Self-Consciousness Consumer: Prepared
133(1) (2007): 46–64. to Be Embarrassed,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 18(2) (2008): 127–136.
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Approach,” Psychological Bulletin 115 (1994): 243–267. Consumer Purchase: The Roles of Social Presence and Purchase Familiarity,” Journal
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Mediating Effect of Responsibility,” Psychology & Marketing 23(12) (2006): 62. Thomas Allard and Katherine White, “Cross-Domain Effects of Guilt on Desire for
1035–1054. Self-Improvement Products,” Journal of Consumer Research 42(3), 401–419.
5
C HAPT E R
The Self
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that the self-concept strongly influences 5 Understand that the way we think about our bodies

consumer behaviour. (and the way our culture tells us we should think) is
a key component of self-esteem.
2 Understand how marketing communications can

influence consumer self-esteem. 6 Understand that our desire to live up to cultural

expectations of appearance can be harmful.
3 Understand that products often play a key role in

defining the self-concept. 7 Understand that every culture dictates certain types

of body decoration or mutilation.
4 Understand that society’s expectations of

masculinity and femininity help to determine the
products we buy to meet these expectations.
Perspectives on the Self

Many products, from cars to cologne, are bought because people are trying to highlight or
downplay some aspect of the self. This chapter focuses on the self. We’ll consider how con-
sumers’ feelings about themselves shape their consumption practices, particularly as they
strive to fulfil their society’s expectations about how males and females should look and act.
Does the Self Exist?

Social networking platforms such as Twitter and Facebook enable everyone to focus on
him- or herself and share mundane or scintillating details about their lives with anyone
who’s interested. Although it seems natural to think about each consumer as having a self,
this concept is actually a relatively new way of regarding people and their relationships
with society. The idea that every human life is unique rather than a part of a group devel-
oped only in late medieval times (between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries). The notion
that the self is an object to be pampered is even more recent. In addition, the emphasis on
the unique nature of the self is much greater in Western societies.1 Many Eastern cultures
instead stress the importance of a collective self, in which the person’s identity is derived
in large measure from his or her social group.
Both Eastern and Western cultures see the self as divided into an inner, private self
and an outer, public self. But where these conceptions of self differ is in terms of which
part is seen as the “real you”: Western culture tends to subscribe to an independent inter-
pretation of the self, which emphasizes the inherent separateness of each individual; non-
Western cultures, in contrast, tend to focus on an interdependent self, whereby a person’s
identity is largely defined by the relationships he or she has with others.2
C H A P T E R 5 The Self 121
Self-Concept CO 1
The self-concept refers to the beliefs a person holds about his or her own attributes Fashion: Consumption and Identity
and how he or she evaluates these qualities. Although one’s overall self-concept may
be positive, there are certainly parts of the self that are evaluated more positively
than others.
The self-concept is a very complex structure. It comprises many attributes, some of
Consumers
which are given greater emphasis in determining overall self-attitude. Attributes of in Focus
self-concept can be described along such dimensions as their content (e.g., facial attrac-
tiveness versus mental aptitude), positivity or negativity (e.g., self-esteem), intensity, The phenomenon of “vanity sizing” is directly
stability over time, and accuracy (e.g., the degree to which one’s self-assessment correlated to consumers’ self-esteem. On average,
individuals in Western societies have increased
responds to reality).3 As will be seen later in this chapter, consumers’ self-assessments
in body size, and one interesting consequence is
can be quite distorted, especially with regard to their physical appearance.
that the sizing of clothing has kept pace. For
While the self-concept can be somewhat stable over time and situations, situational
example, what was once a size 12 is now labelled
factors can influence how we feel about ourselves. For example, television commercials
a size 8 at some clothing retailers.6 Clothing
can evoke unfavourable stereotypes about women, which can actually lead females to
retailers are simply trying to ensure that when
experience stereotype threat. Stereotype threat refers to the anxiety consumers consumers try on clothing items, a label showing
feel when they fear they might act in a way that confirms the group stereotype—for an increased size doesn’t threaten their self-
example, the stereotype that women are not as good as men at math. Stereotype threat esteem (causing the loss of a sale). Vanity sizing
actually leads women to perform worse on math-related tests and make them less is a simple way to appeal to consumers’ vanity
inclined to pursue careers that have a strong math component.4 Such threats can occur by having them think they are thin and small.
in retail contexts, too. When a female needs to take her car to a mechanic she may feel Some have asked how low sizes can go. After
a sense of stereotype threat that leads to decreased purchase intentions when the XXXS, what is next?
service provider is male.5
Se lf- Es te e m CO 2
Self-esteem refers to the positivity of your attitude toward yourself. People with low
self-esteem do not expect to perform very well, and they will try to avoid embarrass-
ment, failure, or rejection. In contrast, people with high self-esteem expect to be suc-
cessful, will take more risks, and are more willing to be the centre of attention. 7
Self-esteem is often related to acceptance by others. As you probably remember from
your own experience, high school students who hang out in high-status “crowds”
seem to have higher self-esteem than their classmates.8
L’Oréal reaffirms women’s self-esteem

with the slogan “You’re Worth It” and by
reminding them that a wide range of ages
and ethnicities can be beautiful.
© The Advertising Archives/Alamy
Marketing communications can influence a consumer’s level of self-esteem.

Exposure to ads can trigger a process of social comparison, wherein the person tries
to evaluate his or her self by comparing it with other people’s selves and those of
media images. This form of comparison appears to be a basic human motive, and
many marketers have tapped into this need by supplying idealized images of happy,
attractive people who just happen to be using their products. One study illustrates
this process of social comparison. It showed that female college students do tend to
compare their physical appearance to that of models who appear in advertising.
Furthermore, the study participants who were exposed to beautiful women in
advertisements afterward expressed lowered satisfaction with their own appear-
ance as compared with other participants who did not view ads with models. 9
Another study demonstrated that young women’s perceptions of their body shapes
and sizes can be altered after they are exposed to as little as 30 minutes of TV pro-
gramming.10 Similar findings have been reported for young men. 11 This process
even operates when we decide how much to eat: One study found that people who
were served food by a server who was either fat or thin choose different portion
sizes.12
Re a l a n d Id eal Selves
When a consumer compares some aspect of him- or herself to an ideal, this judg-
ment influences self-esteem. A consumer might ask, “Am I as attractive as I would
like to be?” “Do I make as much money as I should?” and so on. The ideal self is a
person’s conception of how he or she would like to be, while the actual self is our
more realistic appraisal of the qualities we do and don’t have. We choose some
products because we think they are consistent with our actual self, while we buy
others to help us reach an ideal standard. We also often engage in a process of
impression management where we work hard to “manage” what others think of us;
we strategically choose clothing and other products that will present us to others in
a good light.13
The ideal self is partly moulded by elements of the consumer’s culture, such as
aspirational figures or people depicted in advertising, that serve as models of
achievement or appearance.14 Products may be purchased because they are believed
to be instrumental in helping the consumer achieve the goal of emulating these
Marketing models.
Insight
A word to the wise: Corporate recruiters often
complain about students who show up for job Multiple Selves
interviews in sloppy or revealing clothing— In a way, each consumer is really a number of different people. We have as many
these applicants failed to “read the memo” selves as we have different social roles. Depending on the situation, we act differently,
about which role they’re expected to play in pro- use different products and services, and even vary in terms of how much we like our-
fessional settings! Opportunities for impression selves. A person may require a different set of products to play a number of desired
management abound, and this includes how
roles. One may choose to consume beer with close friends but opt for a sophisticated
you act at business dinners or networking
Chardonnay when in business company. Each of us plays many roles, and each role
events. Indeed, researchers found evidence of
has its own script, props, and costumes.16
an imbibing idiot bias: Even when they are not
The self might be thought of as having different components or role identities,
actually impaired, people who simply hold an
with only some of these being active at any given time. Some identities (husband,
alcoholic beverage are perceived to be less
boss, or student) are more central to the self than others, but others (stamp collector,
intelligent than those who do not. Researchers
found that job candidates who ordered wine dancer, or advocate for the homeless) may be dominant in specific situations. Strategi-
during an interview held over dinner were cally, this means that a marketer may want to take steps to ensure that the appropriate
viewed as less intelligent and less hireable than role identity is active before pitching products needed to play that particular role. One
candidates who ordered soda. Ironically, the job obvious way to do this is to place advertising messages in contexts where people are
candidates themselves believed that ordering likely to be well aware of that role identity—for example, by promoting fitness and
wine rather than soda helped them to appear energy products at a marathon.
more intelligent.15 If one of the aspects of the consumer’s identity gets temporarily viewed in a nega-
tive light, this can have interesting implications for consumer behaviour. In one study,
for example, participants learned negative information about their gender identity or
neutral information about their gender identity. Participants who were low in collec-
tive self-esteem for gender, who didn’t strongly value and identify with their gender,
were less likely to choose a product linked to their gender (e.g., Cosmopolitan maga-
zine for females versus Us magazine) in response to this gender identity threat. Those
who were high in collective self-esteem maintained their preferences for gender-linked
products, regardless of whether their gender identity was viewed negatively.17
Sym b oic I nte ra ct io n i s m

If every person potentially has many social selves, how does each develop, and how
do we decide which self to “activate” at any point in time? The sociological tradition
of symbolic interactionism stresses that relationships with other people play a large
part in forming the self.18 This perspective maintains that people exist in a symbolic
environment, and that the meaning attached to any situation or object is determined
by the interpretation of the symbols. As members of society, we learn to agree on
shared meanings. Thus, we “know” that a red light means stop and that the “golden
arches” mean fast food. That’s important to understand in consumer behaviour,
because it implies that our possessions play a key role as we evaluate ourselves and
decide “who we are.”19
The process of imagining others’ reactions to us is known as the looking-glass self.20
According to this view, a process of reflexive evaluation occurs when an individual
attempts to define the self, and it operates as a sort of psychological sonar: We take read-
ings of our own identity by “bouncing” signals off others and trying to project the
impression they have of us. The looking-glass image we receive will differ depending on
whose views we are considering. In symbolic interactionist terms, we negotiate these
meanings over time. Essentially, we continually ask ourselves, “Who am I in this situa-
tion?” Those around us greatly influence how we answer this query because we also ask,
“Who do other people think I am?” We tend to pattern our behaviour on the perceived
expectations of others in a form of self-fulfilling prophecy. When we act the way we
assume others expect us to act, we often confirm these perceptions.
Many fashion apps allow consumers to get feedback on the image of the self they
convey to others. For example, WeStyle (www.westyleapp.com) allows individuals to
get advice on their outfits from users.
This Italian ad reminds us of the power of

self-consciousness: “The world is looking
at you.”
Model: Heine van Wyk, Photographer BOUDEWIJN SMIT/
DOC ARTIST MGMT
Self-Consciousness
Have you ever walked into a class in the middle of a lecture? If you were convinced
that all eyes were on you as you awkwardly searched for a seat, you can understand
the feeling of self-consciousness. In contrast, consumers sometimes behave with
little self-consciousness. For example, people might do things in a stadium, during
a riot, or at a party that they would never do if they were highly conscious of their
behaviour.21
Of course, certain cues in the environment—like walking in front of a mirror—
are likely to promote self-consciousness. That feeling in turn may influence behav-
iour. For example, one pair of researchers is looking at whether grocery shoppers
who push a cart with an attached mirror will buy more produce and healthy foods
because their heightened self-consciousness makes them more weight conscious.22
Some people seem, in general, to be more sensitive to the image they communicate
to others, although we all know people who act as if they’re oblivious to the impres-
sion they are making! A heightened concern about the nature of one’s public
“image” also results in more concern about the social appropriateness of products
and consumption activities.
Consumers who score high on a scale of public self-consciousness are also more
interested in clothing and tend to be heavier users of cosmetics.23 A similar measure
is self-monitoring. High self-monitors are more attuned to how they present them-
selves in their social environments, and their product choices are influenced by their
estimates of how these items will be perceived by others.24 Self-monitoring is
assessed by the extent of a consumer’s agreement with such statements as “I guess I
put on a show to impress or entertain others” or “I would probably make a good
actor.”25
One trend that is perhaps driven by highly self-conscious individuals is that of
the “selfie.” A selfie, or a picture a user takes of him- or herself on a smartphone
(whether or not it’s attached to a “selfie stick”), is a common form of communication,
especially for Millennials. There are more than 35 million selfies posted on Instagram
alone. Add in the growing practice of posting streaming video of yourself on platforms
like Periscope, Camio, and Meerkat and you’ve got a major cultural phenomenon. The
average Millennial checks his or her smartphone 43 times per day, and 83 percent of
Millennials report that they sleep with their smartphones every night.26 Here’s the
irony: Research shows that while people believe taking pictures during an event
enhances their enjoyment, the opposite is true. There is a tendency to become preoc-
cupied with documenting the moment—and the more pictures people take, the less
they say they enjoy the actual experience.27
Consumption and Self-Concept

It is easy to see how the consumption of products and services contributes to the defi-
nition of the self. For an actor to play a role convincingly, he or she needs the correct
props, stage setting, and so on. Consumers learn that different roles are accompanied
by constellations of products and activities that help to define these roles.28 Some
“props” are so important to the roles we play that they can be viewed as a part of the
extended self.
CO 3 Products that Shape the Self: You Are What You Consume
Recall that the reflected self helps to shape self-concept, which implies that peo-
ple see themselves as they imagine others see them. Since what others see includes
a person’s clothing, jewellery, furniture, car, and so on, it stands to reason that
these products also help to determine the perceived self. The products a consumer
owns place him or her into a social role, which helps to answer the question,
“Who am I now?”
People use an individual’s consumption behaviours to help them make judgments

about who that person is. In addition to considering a person’s clothes, grooming hab-
its, and so on, we make inferences about personality based on a person’s choice of
leisure activities (squash versus bowling), food preferences (vegetarians versus “steak
and potatoes” people), cars, home decorating choices, and so on. People who are
shown pictures of someone’s living room, for example, are able to make surprisingly
accurate guesses about that consumer’s personality.29 And just as a consumer’s use of
products influences others’ perceptions, the same products can help to determine his
or her own self-concept and social identity.30
Using consumption information to define the self is especially important when
an identity is yet to be adequately formed, as occurs when a consumer plays a new or
unfamiliar role. Symbolic self-completion theory predicts that people who have an
incomplete self-definition tend to complete this identity by acquiring and displaying
symbols associated with it.31 Adolescent boys, for example, might use “macho” prod-
ucts such as cars and cigarettes to bolster their developing masculinity; these prod-
ucts are a sort of “social crutch” during periods of uncertainty. A related concept is
compensatory consumption, which means that when consumers are threatened or
lacking on a particular dimension, they may consume in ways that allow them to
cope with this threat. For example, when a consumer’s sense of power is threatened,
he or she might compensate by selecting a good that can signal status to others.32
The contribution of possessions to self-identity is perhaps most apparent when
these treasured objects are lost or stolen. One of the first acts performed by
institutions that want to repress individuality and encourage group identity, such
as in prisons or convents, is to confiscate personal possessions. 33 Victims of
burglaries and natural disasters commonly report feelings of alienation, depression,
or being “violated.” Burglary victims exhibit a diminished sense of community and
fewer feelings of privacy and take less pride in their houses’ appearance than do
their neighbours.34
The dramatic impact of the loss of possessions is highlighted by studying post-
disaster conditions in which consumers may literally have lost almost everything but
the clothes on their backs during a fire, an ice storm, a flood, or an earthquake. Some
people are reluctant to undergo the process of recreating their identities by acquiring
new possessions. Interviews with disaster victims reveal that some are reluctant to
invest the self in new possessions and so become more detached about what they buy.
This comment from a woman in her fifties is representative of this attitude: “I had so
much love tied up in my things. I can’t go through that kind of loss again. What I’m
buying now won’t be as important to me.”35
Self–Product Congruence
Because many consumption activities are related to self-definition, it is not surprising
to learn that consumers demonstrate consistency between their values and attitudes
and the things they buy.36 Self-image congruence models predict that products will be
chosen when their attributes match some aspect of the self.37
Research largely supports the idea of congruence between product usage and self-
image. One of the earliest studies to examine this process found that car owners’ rat-
ings of themselves tended to match their perceptions of their cars: Pontiac drivers saw
themselves as more active and flashy than did Volkswagen drivers.38 One study found
that observers were able to match photos of male and female drivers to pictures of the
cars they drove almost 70 percent of the time.39 Researchers also report congruity
between consumers and their most preferred brands of beer, soap, toothpaste, and
cigarettes relative to their least preferred brands, as well as between consumers’ self-
images and their favourite stores.40 Some specific attributes useful to describe matches
between consumers and products include rugged/delicate, excitable/calm, rational/
emotional, and formal/informal.41
In a compelling example of leveraging

“self-congruence,” Coca-Cola’s “Share a
Coke” campaign personalized bottles of
Coke products so that they were a perfect fit
for the consumer to drink or share with
friends.
Courtesy of The Coca-Cola Company
Consumers
in Focus Congruence models assume a process of cognitive matching between product
attributes and the consumer’s self-image.42 Over time, we tend to form relationships
To what extent do the products we buy influence
with products that resemble the bonds we create with other people: These include
how we define ourselves? Social scientists who
love, unrequited love (we yearn for it but can’t have it), respect, and perhaps even
study relationships between thoughts and
fear or hate (“Why is my computer out to get me?”).43 Researchers even report that
behaviours increasingly talk about the theory of
after a “breakup” with a brand, people tend to develop strong negative feelings and
“embodied cognition.” A simple way to explain
will go to great lengths to discredit it, including bad-mouthing and even vandalism.44
this perspective is that “states of the body
modify states of the mind.”46 One of the most
Research that included fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) brain wave
powerful examples is the idea that our body measurements showed that when a person has a close relationship with a brand, it
language actually changes how we see our- activates the insula, a brain area responsible for urging, addiction, loss aversion, and
selves. In the most widely viewed TED talk ever, interpersonal love.45
a social psychologist discusses how power pos-
ing (standing in a confident way even if you
don’t feel confident) affects brain activity—
The Extended Self
again, the self-fulfilling prophecy at work.47 Many of the props and settings consumers use to define their social roles become, in a
The embodied cognition approach is con- sense, a part of their selves. Those external objects that we consider a part of us make
sistent with consumer behaviour research that up the extended self. In some cultures, people literally incorporate objects into the
demonstrates how changes in self-concept can self—that is, they lick new possessions, take the names of conquered enemies (or, in
arise from usage of brands that convey differ- some cases, eat them), or bury the dead with their possessions.49
ent meanings. In one study, researchers asked We don’t usually go that far, but many people do cherish possessions as if they
respondents to wear a lab coat, which people were a part of them. Consider shoes. One study found that people commonly view
associate with attentiveness and precise work.
their shoes as magical emblems of self, Cinderella-like vehicles for self-transforma-
The researchers found that subjects who wore
tion. On the basis of data collected from consumers, the study concluded that women
the lab coat displayed enhanced performance
tend to be more attuned to the symbolic implications of shoes than men. A common
on tasks that required them to pay close atten-
theme that emerged was that a pair of shoes obtained when younger—whether a first
tion. But they also introduced a twist: When
pair of leather shoes, a first pair of high heels, or a first pair of cowboy boots—had a
respondents were told the garment was in fact
a painter’s coat rather than a doctor’s lab coat,
big impact even later in life. These experiences were similar to those that occur in
the effects went away! In other words, the sym- such well-known fairy tales and stories as The Wizard of Oz (Dorothy’s red shoes),
bolic meaning of the clothing influenced sub- Hans Christian Andersen’s The Red Shoes (Karen’s magical shoes), and Cinderella
sequent behaviours. The researchers called (her glass slippers).50
this effect “enclothed cognition.”48 In addition to shoes, of course, many material objects, ranging from personal pos-
sessions and pets to national monuments or landmarks, help to form a consumer’s
Our pets often become a part of our

extended selves. This Brazilian pet-food ad
plays on the popular belief that over time
pets and their owners start to resemble each
other.
Courtesy of Mars, Incorporated and its affiliates c/o
Almap/BBDO Communicacaoes Ltda. CESAR® is a
trademark of Mars, Incorporated and its affiliates
identity. Just about everyone can name a valued possession that has a lot of the self
“wrapped up” in it, whether it is a beloved photograph, a trophy, an old shirt, a car, or
a cat. Indeed, it is often possible to construct a pretty accurate “biography” of someone
just by cataloguing the items on display in his or her bedroom or office.
In one study on the extended self, people were given a list of items that ranged
from electronic equipment, facial tissues, and TV programs to parents, body parts, and
favourite clothes. They were asked to rate each in terms of its closeness to the self.
Objects were more likely to be considered a part of the extended self if “psychic energy”
was invested in them by expending effort to obtain them or because they were person-
alized and kept for a long time.51 Another study illustrates that the product/self doesn’t
have to be that strong to influence a consumer’s self-concept. In one experiment,
researchers approached women in a shopping mall and gave them one of two shopping
bags to walk around with for an hour. Women who received a bag from Victoria’s Secret
later reported to the researchers that they felt more sensual and glamorous. In another
experiment, MBA students were asked to take notes for six weeks using a pen embossed
with the MIT logo; they reported feeling smarter at the end of the term.52
Consumers define themselves by referring to four levels of the extended self.
These range from very personal objects to places and things that allow people to feel as
if they are rooted in their environments.53
1. Individual level: Consumers include many of their personal possessions in self-
definition. These products can include jewellery, cars, clothing, and so on. The
saying “you are what you wear” reflects the belief that one’s things are a part of
who one is.
2. Family level: This part of the extended self includes a consumer’s residence and
the furnishings in it. The house can be thought of as a symbolic body for the fam-
ily and is often a central aspect of identity.
3. Community level: It is common for consumers to describe themselves in terms of
the neighbourhood or town from which they come. For farm families or residents
with close ties to a community, this sense of belonging is particularly important.
4. Group level: Our attachments to certain social groups can also be considered a
part of self. A consumer may feel that landmarks, monuments, or sports teams are
a part of the extended self.
Advertising often reflects society’s attitudes

regarding how men should regard women
and vice versa.
Courtesy of Betsy Fisher
The Digital Self

We’ve already talked about impression management, but our wired world takes this
process to a new level.54 Today we have access to “post-production” tools to engi-
neer our identities. These free or inexpensive applications allow virtually anyone
to dramatically modify his or her digital self at will as they strategically “modify”
the profile photos they post on Facebook or the descriptions they share on dating
sites. As well, many of us create additional identities in the form of avatars in vir-
tual worlds like Second Life and in MMOGs (massive multiplayer online games)
like World of Warcraft, League of Legends, and Halo. Americans alone spend about
$1.6 billion per year to buy virtual goods just for their avatars. Our physical bodies
continue to merge with our digital environments—we’re moving from “you are
what you wear” to “you are what you post.” We also take pieces of these digital
identities back with us to the physical world. Respondents in one study placed
more value on digital items that reflected their physical identities, such as digital
photos and written communications.55
Wearable Computing
Get ready for the invasion of wearable computing. Whether through devices we wear
on our wrist like the Apple Watch, on our face like Google Glass, or woven into our
clothing, increasingly our digital interactions will become attached to our bodies—and
perhaps even inserted into our bodies as companies offer ways to implant computer
chips into our wrists. There are obvious privacy concerns as these products pick up
steam, but advocates argue that they offer numerous benefits. Attachable computers
will be cheaper, will provide greater accuracy because sensors are closer to our bodies,
and will be more convenient because we won’t have to carry around additional hard-
ware.56 Numerous wearables with big health implications are already available or
under development:57
• Sensing for sleep disorders by tracking breath, heart rate, and motion
• Detecting possible Alzheimer’s onset by monitoring a person’s gait via a GPS
embedded in his or her shoes
• Tracking ingestion of medication via sensors activated by stomach fluid

• Measuring blood sugar via a contact lens with a chip that can track activity in a
patient’s tears
• Assessing the impact of blows to a football player’s head via sensors inserted in
his helmet
Gender Roles CO 4
Gender identity is a very important component of a consumer’s self-concept. People
often conform to their culture’s expectations about what those of their gender should
do. Of course, these guidelines change over time, and they can differ radically across
societies. It’s unclear to what extent gender differences are innate versus culturally
shaped, but they’re certainly evident in many consumption decisions!
Consider the differences market researchers have observed when comparing the
food preferences of men and women. Women eat more fruit. Men are more likely to eat
meat; as one food writer put it, “Boy food doesn’t grow. It is hunted or killed.” Men are
more likely to eat Frosted Flakes or Corn Pops, while women prefer multigrain cereals.
Men are big root-beer drinkers; women account for the bulk of bottled-water sales.
And the genders differ sharply in the quantities of food they eat. When researchers at
Hershey’s discovered that women eat smaller amounts of candy, the company created
a white chocolate confection called Hugs, one of the most successful food introduc-
tions of all time. By contrast, men are more likely to take their food and drink in larger
servings.58
G e nd e r D iffe re n c e s in S oci a l iz at io n
Marketers tend to reinforce cultural expectations regarding the “correct” way for boys
and girls, and men and women, to look and act. Many societies expect males to pursue
agentic goals, which stress self-assertion and mastery. However, they teach females to
value communal goals, such as affiliation and building harmonious relations.59
Every society creates a set of expectations regarding the behaviours appropriate
for men and women and finds ways to communicate these priorities. For example, an
activity such as gift shopping is widely regarded as “women’s work.”60 This training
begins very young; even children’s stories reinforce gender roles. One analysis
showed that, although stereotypical depictions have decreased over time, female
characters in children’s books are still far more likely to take on nurturing roles, such
as baking and gift-giving. The adult who prepares the birthday celebration in stories
is virtually always the mother; often no adult male is present at all. And when he is
present, the male figure in these stories is often cast in the role of a miraculous pro-
vider of gifts.61
Although Lego had historically been a product that resonated with boys, Lego’s
recent research uncovered that girls and boys play with Lego differently. Boys tended
to create a project, such as a castle, and play with it on the outside. Girls tended to
role-play on the inside of what they created.62 Girls loved the details of the Lego and
created narratives around themes of family and community. In response to these
insights, Lego introduced the very successful Lego Friends line, which has pieces that
appeal to girls’ desire to create a story around the toys. The line doubled sales expecta-
tions in 2012, the year it launched.63
Research indicates that our brains are “wired” to react differently to males and
females. A study that used brain-scanning technology showed photos of women wear-
ing bikinis to a group of heterosexual male college students and tracked which areas of
their brains lit up. The activated areas were the same as those that get aroused when
males handle tools. In a follow-up study, men tended to associate bikini-clad women
with first-person action verbs such as I “push,” “handle,” and “grab” instead of the
third-person forms such as she “pushes,” “handles,” and “grabs.” On the other hand,
Verizon’s “Inspire Her Mind” campaign tries

to overcome the stereotype that females are
not as good as males at the STEM disciplines
(science, technology, engineering, and math).
The campaign was inspired by research
showing that, between childhood and adult-
hood, there is a significant decline in the
number of women interested in these fields.
Courtesy of Verizon
when they saw photos of fully clothed women they reverted to the third-person forms,
which implied that they perceived these women as being in control of their own
actions. Female participants who responded to both sets of pictures did not display
this difference.64
G e n d e r v ersus Sexual Id en tity

Gender-role identity is a state of mind as well as body. A person’s biological gender
(i.e., male or female) does not totally determine whether he or she will exhibit sex-
typed traits, or characteristics stereotypically associated with one gender or the other.
A consumer’s subjective feelings about his or her sexuality are crucial as well.65 Unlike
maleness and femaleness, masculinity and femininity are not biological characteris-
tics. A behaviour considered masculine in one culture might not be viewed as such in
another. For example, the norm that males should be “strong” and repress tender feel-
ings, and that male friends avoid touching each other (except in “safe” situations, such
as on the football field), is not universal.
At the same time, new evidence is emerging about the effects of biology on con-
sumer behaviour. Neuroendocrinological science focuses on the potential role of hor-
monal influences on preferences for different kinds of products or people.66 Much of
this work is based on evolutionary logic that underscores how people are “wired”
from birth to seek out mates who are most likely to produce optimal offspring who
will be more likely to survive in a competitive environment. For example, evidence
suggests that women who are at peak fertility (near ovulation in their monthly men-
strual cycle) are attracted to men who display evidence of higher levels of testosterone
(male hormone) and are more interested in attending social gatherings (presumably to
increase their chances of locating a suitable mate). One set of experiments showed that
at peak fertility women (nonconsciously) chose products that enhanced their appear-
ance by wearing sexy rather than conservative clothing. The researchers claim, this is
due to a desire to attract men’s attention away from attractive rivals. Another set of
studies found that ovulating women are more likely to prefer variety in product choice;
the authors report that this variety seeking relates to a desire to be exposed to new men
during this time.67
Se x- Ty p e d P ro d uc t s
Many products are also sex-typed. They take on masculine or feminine attributes, and
consumers often associate them with one gender or another.68 The sex-typing of prod-
ucts is often created or perpetuated by marketers (e.g., Princess telephones, boys’ and
girls’ bicycles, and Huggies colour-coded diapers). FisherGirl is reeling in female fish-
ing enthusiasts with the colour pink, which represents the fighting power of women
against breast cancer. The company designed a line of fishing rods and accessories
just for women, with lighter reels and a smaller handle than typical rods. The com-
pany also donates a portion of sales to the Breast Cancer Foundation.69 However, sex-
typed products can sometimes fail. In one humorous example, Ellen DeGeneres
mocked Bic “Pens for Her” for being sexist and offering no real functional benefit to
women. This created negative publicity for the brand, and the clip garnered over 6
million views on YouTube.70
Androgyny
Masculinity and femininity are not opposite ends of the same dimension. Androgyny
refers to the possession of both masculine and feminine traits.71 Researchers make a
distinction between gender-typed people, who are stereotypically masculine or femi-
nine, and androgynous people, whose mixture of characteristics allows them to function
well in a variety of social situations.
Differences in gender-role orientation can influence responses to marketing stim-
uli, at least under some circumstances.72 For example, research evidence indicates
that females are more likely to undergo elaborate processing of message content, so
they tend to be more sensitive to specific pieces of information when forming a judg-
ment, while males are more influenced by overall themes.73 In addition, women with
a relatively strong masculine component in their gender-role identity prefer ad por-
trayals that include non-traditional women.74 Some research indicates that gender-
typed people are more sensitive to the gender-role depictions of characters in
Consumers often pay more for a product that

has been altered to appeal to a particular
gender (think pink razors!). This ad from
Dollar Shave Club suggests that consumers
should make their selections based on prod-
uct performance, not on irrelevant attributes
used to appeal to gender.
Courtesy of Dollar Shave Club
advertising, although women appear to be more sensitive to gender-role relationships

than men.
In one study, participants read two versions of a beer advertisement, one couched
in masculine terms and the other in feminine ones. The masculine version contained
phrases such as “X beer has the strong, aggressive flavour that really asserts itself with
good food and good company,” while the feminine version made claims such as
“Brewed with tender care, X beer is a full-bodied beer that goes down smooth and
gentle.” People who rated themselves as highly masculine or highly feminine pre-
ferred the version that was described in masculine or feminine terms.75 Sex-typed
people in general are more concerned with ensuring that their behaviour is consistent
with their culture’s definition of gender-appropriateness.
Researchers have developed a scale to identify “non-traditional males” (NTMs)
who exhibit stereotypical female tendencies. The scale includes statements such as
these:
• I enjoy looking through fashion magazines.
• In our family, I take care of the chequebook and pay the bills. (Reverse-scored)
• I am concerned about getting enough calcium in my diet.
• I am good at fixing mechanical things. (Reverse-scored)
Not too surprisingly, strong differences emerged between men who were ori-
ented along traditional gender-role lines and those who had a non-traditional orien-
tation. Asked how they would like to be seen by others, NTMs were more likely than
TMs to say that they would like to be considered stylish, sophisticated, up to date,
and trendsetting. They were also more likely to say that they would like to be seen as
sensitive, spiritual, affectionate, organized, and thrifty, and less likely to say they
would like to be seen as “outdoorsy.”76
Androgyny can open new markets if marketers can expand the reach of their tar-
get audience. Some companies that sell exclusively to one gender, therefore, may
decide to test the waters with the other sex when they promote gender-bending prod-
ucts, traditionally sex-typed items adapted to the opposite gender. Here are some
recent gender-benders:77
• Rubbermaid introduced a line of grooming tools specifically for men, including
tweezers and clippers. As a manager explained, “Most men don’t want to go to what
we call the ‘pink aisle’ of the store to get tweezers and clippers that are made for
women. They want products that look masculine and are made for their specific
grooming needs.”
• Old Spice has long been known as the brand Dad kept in his medicine cabinet, but
young women who like the scent and the relatively low price are tuning into the
deodorant as well. This resurgence is a bit ironic, since the first product the com-
pany introduced in 1937 was a women’s fragrance.
• Febreze is an odour-neutralizing line of products that Procter & Gamble markets
to women for housecleaning. However, P&G finds that a lot of men spray Febreze
on their clothes to delay doing laundry. And in Vietnam, where the product is
called Ambi Pur, men who ride motor scooters use it as a deodorizing spray for
their helmets.
Female Roles
In the 1949 movie Adam’s Rib, Katharine Hepburn played a stylish and competent
lawyer. This was one of the first films to show that a woman can have a successful
career and still be happily married. Today the evolution of a new managerial class of
women has forced marketers to change their traditional assumptions about women as
they target this growing market.
Younger women’s views of themselves are quite different from those of their
mothers and grandmothers, who fought the good fight for feminism 40 to 50 years ago.
To some extent they may take for granted certain rights that older generations of
women had to fight for. After all, they have grown up with female role models who are
strong leaders, they participate to a much greater degree in organized sports, and they
spend a lot of time on the Internet, where factors such as gender, race, and social status
tend to disappear.
Announcing the death of traditional role stereotypes is premature, however.
This is certainly true in traditional Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, where
women are required to be completely covered in public and are not allowed to
work as salespeople in stores open to the public (even if the store sells female
intimate apparel).78
And, like other fashion phenomena that we’ll talk about in Chapter 15, a wave in
one direction may set off a ripple in another. We can clearly see this in the messages
girls have been getting from the media for the last several years: It’s cool to be slutty.
Role models such as Miley Cyrus and Nikki Minaj convey standards about how far
preteens and teens should go in broadcasting their sexuality. Since these messages
seem to go over the top (at least in the eyes of some concerned parents), we are starting
to see early signs of a backlash. The young female stars of the popular TLC show 19
Kids and Counting openly discuss and promote their more conservative dress styles,
while more conventionally “sexy” teen brands such as Abercrombie & Fitch are begin- Consumers
in Focus
ning to lose sales.
Male Roles One interesting way male roles have been

changing in recent years is in the evolution of
Although the traditional conception of the ideal male as a tough, aggressive, muscular
the role of dads. To understand the modern-day
man who enjoys “manly” sports and activities is not dead, society’s definition of the experience of being a dad, The Sound Research
male role is evolving. Like women, men receive mixed messages about how they are (thesoundhq.com) gave dads in three cities
supposed to behave and feel. It’s more common these days to see men holding babies flipcams and asked them to give an insider
or being involved in meaningful relationships with women or with male friends in look at their journey. Insights from the study
advertisements. revealed that contemporary fathers have dif-
In a display of “what’s sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander,” men are con- ferent priorities. Being a dad and spending
cerned as never before with their appearance. Men spend over $8 billion on grooming time with their children is very important to
products globally each year. Skin cleansers, moisturizers, sunscreens, depilatories, them, and they don’t feel they deserve any spe-
and body sprays are available, largely from European companies, especially for men. cial attention for it, either. These dads consider
L’Oréal Paris reports that men’s skincare products are now its fastest-growing it just a part of being a good parent. Some of
sector. In Europe, 24 percent of men younger than age 30 use skincare products—and the key insights the researchers found were as
80 percent of young Korean men do. Norelco reported a 24 percent rise in facial-hair follows:
grooming products in 2008. Mintel also reports big growth, especially in products 1. Males view being a dad as a defining at-
with anti-aging and exfoliating ingredients. And even some cosmetics products, such tribute of being a “man.” Modern fathers
as foundation and eyeliner, are catching on in some segments, though men aren’t strive to be active contributors to their chil-
comfortable owning up to using them. In fact, one British makeup product looks like dren’s lives, and most approach parent-
a ballpoint pen so that men can apply it secretly at the office.79 hood as a fluid partnership.
Clearly, our cultural definition of masculinity is evolving as men try to redefine 2. There is no one-size-fits-all dad. Every
sex roles while they stay in a “safety zone” of acceptable behaviours bounded by dan- story is unique. There’s no such thing as a
ger zones of sloppiness at one extreme and effeminate behaviour at the other. For “modern dad” archetype.
example, a man may decide that it’s okay to use a moisturizer but draw the line at an 3. Being the financial provider is just one
eye cream that he considers too feminine.80 Some cultural observers report the emer- aspect of being a father. Almost all felt
gence of “retrosexuals”—men who want to emphasize their old-school masculinity by their own fathers were emotionally distant,
getting plastic surgery to create a more rugged look that includes hairier chests and and as a result they strive to provide more
beards, squarer chins, and more angular jawlines.81 emotional support and be more present for
their own kids.
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) Of note, marketers who often traditionally
target moms are catching on to this trend. For
Consumers
example, 2015 Super Bowl ads, including those
The proportion of the population that belongs to the category of LGBT consumers is for Toyota and Dove, featured dads in this new
difficult to determine, and efforts to measure this group have been controversial.82 light.83
According to Statistics Canada, the number of reported same-sex couples in Canada
This Australian ad for Toyota rejects the

metrosexual image of men in favour of a
more masculine image.
Courtesy Toyota Motor Corporation Australia
rose 42.4 percent from 2006 to 2011. The total number of same-sex couples in 2011
was 64 575, and it is likely that the true number in Canada is actually much higher.
One study of readers of gay publications found that, compared to heterosexuals,
these readers are almost 12 times more likely to hold professional jobs, twice as likely
to own a vacation home, and eight times more likely to own a notebook computer.84
Additional findings underscore the potential desirability of this segment for marketers:
Individuals who identify as being gay are twice as likely as heterosexuals to have
attended graduate school, are more concerned about physical fitness and self-
improvement, experience more stress in their daily lives, and are much more likely to
be self-employed. The trend of appealing to same-sex couples has been increasing,
with brands such as Gap, JCrew, and even Tiffany portraying same-sex couples in
their marketing communications.85
Tiffany’s use of a same-sex couple in its

TIFFANY.COM
advertising received a positive reception on

|
©T&CO. 2015 800 843 3269
social media. WILL YOU PROMISE TO NEVER STOP COMPLETING MY
SENTENCES OR SINGING OFF-KEY, WHICH I’M AFRAID YOU
Courtesy Tiffany & Co. Photography: Peter Lindbergh DO OFTEN? AND WILL YOU LET TODAY BE THE FIRST
SENTENCE OF ONE LONG STORY THAT NEVER, EVER ENDS?
WILL YOU?
As I See It
Brand consumption can be stigmatized subculture, it may earn brand loyalty among these
a potent expression of iden- consumers. Various brands such as Levi’s, Absolut Vodka, The
tity for gay men and other Body Shop, and Calvin Klein have earned this brand loyalty over
ethnic, political, or racial the years by marketing to gay consumers and demonstrating a
subcultures and communi- fit with internalized, identity-related values or associations,
ties. As complex, meaning- such as freedom from homophobia and the right to love whom-
ful symbols, brands may ever one pleases.
acquire unique associations But legitimacy, or the moral fit with communities’ values,
when they advertise and is always in flux. In Canada, lesbians and gay men have gained
market to these consumers. all of the rights and responsibilities heterosexual individuals
For example, in the 1990s, and couples have, including the legal right to marry persons of
Levi Strauss & Company, the same sex. This political development inevitably has
which had marketed to gay implications for the commercial sphere. Assuming that same-
Dr. Steve Kates Simon Fraser University men for years, cancelled a sex marriage shows a moral fit (or legitimacy) with the values
Courtesy of Dr. Steve Kates lucrative contract with the of the majority of Canadians (and several opinion polls
Boy Scouts of America have indicated this is so), gay men may come to expect that
when the Boy Scouts would not allow gay men to volunteer as Scout all brands should be “gay-friendly,” cancelling out any unique
masters. This action earned Levi’s the status of “brand hero” competitive advantage a particular brand may have enjoyed
among gay men. However, Coors in the 1970s fired gay and lesbian over the years. For example, Absolut Vodka has marketed
employees, earning it the dubious honour of “brand villain,” moti- to gay men for about 30 years, but in the Canadian market,
vating many gay men and gay bars to boycott the brand. where all companies are required to grant gay men, lesbians,
These examples of brand consumption among gay men and same-sex couples the same rights and protections as
demonstrate that certain brands achieve “legitimacy”—moral fit heterosexuals, can Absolut maintain its traditional advantage?
with values and beliefs—among gay consumers. If a brand It might enjoy continued brand loyalty because of its unique
shows a fit or congruency with the key beliefs, traditions, values, history and innovative advertising, but how long will this
and goals associated with a market segment, community, or endure?1
1 Steven M. Kates, “The Dynamics of Brand Legitimacy: An Interpretive Study in the Gay Men’s Community,” Journal of Consumer Research 31 (September 2004): 455–464.
Body Image CO 5
A person’s physical appearance is a large part of his or her self-concept. Body image
refers to a consumer’s subjective evaluation of his or her physical self. This image is
not necessarily accurate. A man might think of himself as being more muscular than
he really is, or a woman might feel she appears fatter than is the case. In fact, it is not
uncommon to find marketing strategies that exploit consumers’ tendencies to distort
their body images by preying on insecurities about appearance, thereby creating a gap
between the real and ideal physical self and, consequently, the desire to purchase
products and services to narrow that gap. Indeed, the popularity of boudoir photo
shoots, which often involve a makeover and which give people a pictorial record of
their pinup potential, can be traced to the fantasies of everyday people to be super-
models—at least for an hour or two.
Body Cathexis
A person’s feelings about his or her body can be described in terms of body cathexis.
Cathexis refers to the emotional significance of some object or idea to a person, and
some parts of the body are more central to self-concept than others. One study found
that young adults were the most satisfied with their hair and eyes and had the least
positive feelings about their waists. These feelings were also related to usage of
grooming products. Consumers who were more satisfied with their bodies were more
Consumers frequent users of such “preening” products as hair conditioner, blow dryers, cologne,
facial bronzer, tooth polish, and pumice soap.87
in Focus
One matchmaking app that is very focused on Ideals of Beauty
physical appearance is Tinder. Tinder connects
people through the use of their social network BeautifulPeople.com is an online dating site that allows only attractive people to join
of friends and acquaintances on Facebook. (you have to have your photo approved by members). It’s expanding its service to
Based on an algorithm, Tinder shows the user employers who want to hire “good-looking staff.” One of the site’s managers explains,
potential matches and then allows the user to “Attractive people tend to make a better first impression on clients, win more business
anonymously like or reject these potential and earn more.”88 He might be right: One study reported that, on average, a worker
matches by swiping or tapping. If two users who was among the bottom one-seventh in looks, as assessed by randomly chosen
“like” each other, it results in a “match,” and observers, earned 10 to 15 percent less per year than a similar worker whose looks
Tinder allows them to chat. Apparently, this were assessed in the top one-third—a lifetime difference, in a typical case, of about
can be somewhat addictive: There are $230 000. Who says “beauty is only skin deep”?89 This “beautiful is good stereotype”
50 million active users on Tinder, who check applies in other domains as well. In one study researchers collected teaching evalua-
their accounts 11 times per day and spend an tions for 463 university courses taught by 94 faculty members along with some addi-
average of 90 minutes daily on the app. tional characteristics of the instructors, such as sex and race and whether they were on
However, the app has been heavily criticized for tenure track. They asked a panel of undergrads to rate photos of the professors in terms
being “shallow” and focusing too much on of their physical attractiveness. Guess what? Good-looking professors got significantly
external appearances.86
higher scores—and this effect was even more pronounced for male professors than for
females. Fortunately, your consumer behaviour professor is no doubt near the top of
the scale.90
A person’s satisfaction with the physical image he or she presents to others is
affected by how closely that image corresponds to the image valued by his or her cul-
ture. An ideal of beauty is a particular model, or exemplar, of appearance. Female
ideals of beauty include physical features (large lips or small lips, big breasts or small
breasts) as well as such aspects as clothing styles, cosmetics, hairstyles, skin tone (pale
versus tan), and body type (petite, athletic, or voluptuous).
Is B e a ut y U n iversal?
Research indicates that preferences for some physical features over others are “wired
in” genetically and that these reactions tend to be the same among people around the
world. When researchers show babies as young as five hours old pictures of faces
that adults have rated as beautiful and not so beautiful, they report that the infants
spend more time looking at the attractive faces. 91 Specifically, people appear to
favour features associated with good health and youth, attributes linked to reproduc-
tive ability and strength. These characteristics include large eyes, high cheekbones,
and a narrow jaw.
Another cue apparently used across ethnic and cultural groups to signal sexual
desirability is whether the person’s features are balanced. In one study, men and
women with greater facial symmetry started having sex three to four years earlier
than people whose facial features were lopsided! Men are also more likely to use a
woman’s body shape as a sexual cue, and it has been theorized that this is because
feminine curves provide evidence of reproductive potential. During puberty, a typi-
cal female gains almost 35 pounds of “reproductive fat” around her hips and thighs
that supply the approximately 80 000 extra calories needed for pregnancy. Most fer-
tile women have waist–hip ratios of 0.6 to 0.8, an hourglass shape that also happens
to be the one men rank highest in attractiveness.92 Other positively valued female
characteristics include a higher-than-average forehead, fuller lips, a shorter jaw, and a
smaller chin and nose. Women, on the other hand, favour men with a heavy lower
face (an indication of high concentration of androgens that create strength), a promi-
nent brow, and those who are of slightly-above-average height. Women prefer men
with more feminine facial features, but when they are ovulating they prefer more
masculine ones.93
Of course, the way these faces are “packaged” still varies enormously, and that’s
where marketers come in: Advertising and other forms of mass media play a significant
role in determining which forms of beauty are considered desirable at any point in
time. An ideal of beauty functions as a sort of cultural yardstick. Consumers compare
themselves to some standard (often advocated by fashion media) and are typically
dissatisfied with their appearance.
Id e a ls of B e au t y o v e r T im e
In retrospect, periods of history tend to be characterized by a specific “look” or ideal of
beauty. For example, in sharp contrast to today’s emphasis on health and vigour, in the
early nineteenth century it was fashionable to appear delicate to the point of looking
ill. The poet Keats described the ideal woman of that time as “a milk white lamb that
bleats for man’s protection.”
In much of the nineteenth century the desirable waistline for American women
was 18 inches (45 centimetres), a circumference that required the use of corsets
pulled so tight that they routinely caused headaches, fainting spells, and possibly
even the uterine and spinal disorders common among women of the time. Although
modern women are not quite as “straightlaced,” many still endure such indignities as
high heels, body waxing, eye lifts, and liposuction. In addition to the millions spent
on cosmetics, clothing, health clubs, and fashion magazines, these practices remind
us that the desire to conform to current standards of beauty—right or wrong—is alive
and well.
The ideal body type of Western women has changed radically over time, and these
changes have resulted in a realignment of sexual dimorphic markers—those aspects of
the body that distinguish between the sexes. For example, using heights and weights
from winners of the Miss America pageant, nutrition experts concluded that many
This advertisement from Fruit of the Loom

reaffirms women’s self-esteem and suggests
that different sizes can be beautiful.
Courtesy of Fruit of the Loom, Inc.; Bella Pearl Agency;
Model Lydia Fixel; Agent Vincent Gomez
beauty queens are in the undernourished range. In the 1920s, contestants had a body
mass index (BMI) in the range now considered normal—20 to 25. Since then an
increasing number of winners have had BMIs under 18.5, which is the World Health
Organization’s standard for undernutrition.94
Similarly, a study of almost 50 years of Playboy centrefolds shows that the women
have become less shapely and more androgynous since Marilyn Monroe graced the first
edition with a voluptuous hourglass figure of 37–23–36. However, a magazine spokes-
person comments, “As time has gone on and women have become more athletic, more
in the business world and more inclined to put themselves through fitness regimes,
their bodies have changed, and we reflect that as well. But I would think that no one
with eyes to see would consider Playmates to be androgynous.”95 Fair enough. Indeed,
a recent reexamination of centrefold data for the years 1979 to 1999 shows that the
trend toward increasing thinness seems to have stabilized and actually may have begun
to reverse. Still, although the women shown in the magazine became somewhat heavier
over the 21-year period the researchers reviewed, the Playmates remain markedly
below weights that medical experts consider normal for their age group.96 Ironically,
when researchers ask women to predict how men will rate women of different body
shapes, women choose thinner figures than do men. In other words, they think men
prefer skinny fashion model types, when in fact the shapes men choose come closer to
“real” women.97
To d ay ’s I d eals o f F emale Beau ty

Of course, the pendulum is always moving, as cultural changes modify the ideals of
beauty that are dominant at one point in time. In late 2014 Kim Kardashian suppos-
edly “broke the Internet” when many thousands of people clicked on a link to see a
revealing photo of her large (and allegedly Photoshop-enhanced) backside on the
cover of Paper magazine.98 A hit music video by Jennifer Lopez and Iggy Azalea
called “Booty” helped to drive the trend toward, shall we say, a more pronounced
female silhouette.
It’s not surprising that standards are changing, because the typical woman’s body
is no longer as “petite” as it used to be. The most commonly purchased dress today is
Dove’s classic “Real Beauty” campaign did

an excellent job of attempting to redefine
Western ideals of beauty.
Dove/PA Wire URN:8069588 (Press Association via AP
Images)
a size 14; it was a size 8 in 1985! The size and shape of the “average” North American
consumer today is dramatically different from what it was 60 years ago; essentially,
the fashion industry is selling clothing to super-thin women who don’t exist (at least
not many of them do).
One campaign that has noted these changing trends is Dove’s well-known
“Campaign for Real Beauty,” which features advertising showing women with
imperfect bodies in their underwear. Unilever initiated the campaign after its research
showed that many women didn’t believe its products worked because the women
shown using them were so unrealistic.99 When the company asked 3200 women
around the world to describe their looks, most summed themselves up as “average”
or “natural.” Only 2 percent called themselves “beautiful.”
Ma le I de a ls o f B e a u t y
We also distinguish among ideals of beauty for men in terms of facial features,
musculature, and facial hair. In fact, one national survey that asked both men and
women to comment on male aspects of appearance found that the dominant stan-
dard of beauty for men is a strongly masculine, muscled body, though women tend
to prefer men with less muscle mass than men themselves strive to attain.100
Advertisers appear to have the males’ ideal in mind—a recent study of men appear-
ing in advertisements found that most sport the strong and muscular physique of
the male stereotype.101
Yet menswear designers and fashion magazines are starting to choose male
models who look more like “regular” guys as they try to broaden the industry’s
appeal to the mass market. Until recently most male models have been either
super-thin or boyish-looking, or overly muscular. Now, with more men than ever
doing their own clothes shopping, some designers see an opportunity to cater to
men who want to dress fashionably but who are turned off by the edgy looks they
see in magazines.
It is becoming increasingly the case that

men as well as women are concerned with
body image, something that some say is
fuelled by advertising images.
Amanda Edwards/Getty Images for Coty Prestige
CO 6 Working on the Body

Because many consumers are motivated to match up to some ideal of appearance, they
often go to great lengths to change aspects of their physical selves. From cosmetics to plas-
tic surgery, tanning salons to diet drinks, a multitude of products and services are directed
toward altering or maintaining aspects of the physical self to present a more desirable
appearance. It is difficult to overstate the importance of the physical self-concept (and the
desire by consumers to improve their appearance) to many marketing activities.
Ha ir a n d th e Self
Grant McCracken has provided a complete analysis of how our hair forms the basis for
the presentation of self-image and how it can be used as a tool to transform or change
one’s image.103 Haircuts are a regular part of the consumption process. Many people,
especially men, adhere to a four-week schedule for the grooming ritual. However,
much of McCracken’s discussion focuses on women, as he found men to be much
vainer about their hair and more reluctant to discuss the topic. This may be because,
genetically, men are more prone to lose their hair. To compensate for this male phe-
nomenon, male folklore such as “Baldness is a sign of virility” has evolved. Men are
also secretive about dyeing their hair. It’s obvious that they do it, but it is not a hot
topic on the golf course.
The preference for long or short hair is reflective of the social situation. Long flow-
ing hair is said to very sexy and maybe even dangerous. Short hair is said to be “boy-
ish” or a signal that a woman is simplifying her life. Men are said to find the “pixie”
cut unthreatening and attractive. But they seem to draw the line at women shaving
their heads completely, a style said to portray a tough, hostile, provocative image.
Whenever we want to transform our image, we change our hair along with our
clothes. With changes in age, lifestyle, careers, and even partners comes an inevitable
change in colour or style of hair.
Fat t is m
As reflected in the expression “You can never be too rich or too thin,” our society
has an obsession with weight. The pressure to be slim is continually reinforced,
both by advertising and by peers. Indeed, fattism is deeply ingrained in our cul-
ture: As early as nursery school age, children prefer drawings of peers in wheel-
chairs, on crutches, or with facial disfigurements to those of fat children. One
Consumers survey of girls aged 12 to 19 reported that 55 percent said they see ads “all the
in Focus time” that make them want to go on a diet.104 One advertising controversy testifies
to our thinness mania: It was bad enough when Pepsi unveiled its new “skinny”
At least 400 websites attract young people with diet soda can. When the company paired the launch with Fashion Week—the huge
the terms ana and mia, nicknames for anorexia promotion for an industry that celebrates skinny models (some of whom have died
and bulimia. These “communities” offer tips on from anorexia)—the National Eating Disorders Association protested and Pepsi had
crash dieting, bingeing, vomiting, and hiding
to apologize. The organization also persuaded Apple to shut down an ad campaign
weight loss from concerned parents. Group
because it was built around the message “You can never be too thin or too power-
dieting is a growing problem as consumers visit
ful.”105
blog rings devoted to excessive weight loss. In
How realistic are these appearance standards? Fashion dolls, such as the ubiqui-
one typical post, a woman confessed to eating
tous Barbie, reinforce an unnatural ideal of thinness. The dimensions of these dolls
“one cracker, one strawberry and a little bit of
soup” in a 24-hour period, whereas another
are, when extrapolated to average female body sizes, unnaturally long and thin.106 If
recounted a lunch of a slice of mango and a the traditional Barbie doll were a real woman, her dimensions would be 38-18-34! In
stick of gum. These sites, often adorned with 1998, Mattel conducted “plastic surgery” on Barbie to give her a less pronounced bust
photos of ultra-thin celebrities and slogans and slimmer hips, but she is still not exactly dumpy.107 One response to the criticism
such as “Diet Coke Is Life,” appeal to followers of Barbie’s unrealistic body proportions is the Lammily Doll, which was created to
of an underground movement called pro-ana represent a more realistic body image.108
(pro-anorexia) who sometimes identify them- The desire to be thin has had a big impact on consumers’ lifestyles and eating
selves in public when they wear red bracelets.102 habits. A number of companies specifically target the weight-conscious: Weight
Watchers International, the largest weight-loss company, developed a program called
Quick Success that recognizes the new lifestyles of busy working women. The pro-
gram includes eating guidelines for working lunches and cocktail parties.109
Bo d y I ma g e D is t ort io n s
In less than a two-month time span, four young Brazilian women died in widely pub-
licized cases of anorexia, which sparked an international debate about body image and
eating disorders. The first to die was a 21-year-old model who stood 5 feet, 8 inches
tall but weighed slightly more than 80 pounds when she collapsed at a fashion shoot
in Japan. In Spain, the government imposed a controversial ban on extremely thin
models as measured by their BMI (a formula that takes into account both height and
weight). It requires a BMI greater than 17.4 for female models younger than 18, or 18.5
for models older than 18. For a 5-foot, 9-inch model older than 18, that translates to a
weight requirement of 126 pounds. Unilever, in turn, banned the use of so-called “size
0” models in its ads for products ranging from Lux shower gel and Sunsilk shampoo to
Slim-Fast diet drinks.110
Although many people perceive a strong link between self-esteem and appear-
ance, some consumers unfortunately exaggerate this connection even more and make
great sacrifices to attain what they consider to be a desirable body image. Women tend
to be taught to a greater degree than men that the quality of their bodies reflects their
self-worth, so it is not surprising that most major distortions of body image occur
among females.
Men’s opinions do not tend to differ in ratings of their current figure, their ideal
figure, and the figure they think is most attractive to women. In contrast, women rate
both the figure they think is most attractive to men and their ideal figure as much thin-
ner than their actual figure.111 In one survey, two-thirds of university women admitted
that they resorted to unhealthy behaviour to control their weight. Advertising mes-
sages that convey an image of slimness help to reinforce these activities by arousing
insecurities about weight.112
A distorted body image has been linked to the rise of eating disorders. People
with anorexia always see themselves as fat and virtually starve themselves in the
quest for thinness. This condition often results in bulimia, which involves two stages.
First, binge eating occurs (usually in private), where more than 5000 calories may be
consumed at one time. The binge is then followed by induced vomiting, abuse of
laxatives, fasting, and/or overly strenuous exercise—a “purging” process that reas-
serts a sense of control. Most eating disorders are found in white, upper-middle-class
teenaged and university-aged girls. Victims often have brothers or fathers who are
hypercritical of their weight, and these disorders are also associated with a history of
sexual abuse.113
Eating disorders have also been documented in men. They are common among
male athletes, such as jockeys and boxers, and male models, who must also conform to
various weight requirements.114 In general, though, most men who have distorted
body images consider themselves to be too light rather than too heavy: Society has
taught them that they must be muscular to be masculine. Men are more likely than
women to express their insecurities about their bodies by becoming addicted to exer-
cise. In fact, striking similarities have been found between male compulsive runners
and female anorexics. These include a commitment to diet and exercise as a central
part of one’s identity and susceptibility to body-image distortions.115
As with women, media images and products encourage men to attain an unrealis-
tic physique; as we’ve seen in the steroid scandals plaguing major-league sports, pro-
fessional athletes certainly are not immune to this pressure. Consider, for example,
that if the dimensions of the original GI Joe action figure were projected onto a real
5-foot, 10-inch man, he would have a 32-inch waist, a 44-inch chest, and 12-inch
biceps. Or how about the same exercise for the Batman action figure: If this superhero
came to life, he would boast a 30-inch waist, 57-inch chest, and 27-inch biceps.116
Holy steroids, Batman!
C o sme t ic Sur gery

There is no longer as much psychological stigma associated with having cosmetic sur-
gery; it is commonplace and accepted among many segments of consumers.117 In fact,
men now account for as much as 20 percent of plastic surgery patients. Popular opera-
tions for men include the implantation of silicon pectoral muscles (for the chest) and
calf implants to fill out “chicken legs.”118 Canada comes in at number 15 worldwide
for numbers of individuals opting for plastic surgery, with the most popular being
breast augmentation.119
Some women feel that larger breasts will increase their allure and so undergo
breast-augmentation procedures. The importance of breast size to self-concept resulted
in an interesting and successful marketing strategy undertaken by an underwear com-
pany. While conducting focus groups on bras, an analyst noted that small-chested
women typically reacted with hostility when discussing the subject. They uncon-
sciously covered their chests with their arms as they spoke, and they felt that their
needs were ignored by the fashion industry. To meet this overlooked need, the com-
pany introduced a line of A-cup bras called “A-OK” and depicted wearers in a positive
light. A new market segment was born.
CO 7 Bo d y D e c o r atio n an d Mu tilatio n
The body is adorned or altered in some way in every culture. Decorating the self serves
a number of purposes:120
• To separate group members from non-members: The Chinook Indians of North

America pressed the head of a newborn between two boards for a year, perma-
nently altering its shape. In our society teens go out of their way to adopt distinc-
tive hair and clothing styles that will separate them from adults.
• To place the individual in the social organization: Many cultures engage in
puberty rites wherein a boy symbolically becomes a man. Young men in Ghana
paint their bodies with white stripes to resemble skeletons, symbolizing the death
of their child status. In Western culture, this rite may involve some form of mild
Marketing self-mutilation or engagement in dangerous activities.
Insight • To place the person in a gender category: The Tchikrin Indians of South America
As more people jump on the tattoo bandwagon, insert a string of beads in a boy’s lip to enlarge it. Western women wear lipstick to
it’s inevitable that some of them will regret this enhance femininity. At the turn of the twentieth century, small lips were fashion-
decision later (perhaps when they wake up in the able because they represented women’s submissive role at that time.121 Today, big
morning!). Tattoo-removal centres with names red lips are provocative and indicate an aggressive sexuality. Some women,
such as Dr. Tattoff, Tat2BeGone, and Tattoo MD including a number of famous actresses and models, receive collagen injections or
are capitalizing on the need to deal with so- lip inserts to create large, pouting lips.122
called “tattoo regret.” One industry member • To enhance gender-role identification: The modern use of high heels, which podi-
estimates that as many as 100 000 consumers
atrists agree are a prime cause of knee and hip problems, backaches, and fatigue,
undergo tattoo removal every year. Unfortu-
can be compared with the traditional Asian practice of foot binding to enhance
nately, at least for now, it’s a lot more compli-
femininity. As one doctor observed, “When [women] get home, they can’t get
cated to remove a tattoo than to put one on. A
their high-heeled shoes off fast enough. But every doctor in the world could yell
design that cost several hundred dollars to apply
from now until Doomsday, and women would still wear them.”123
might require several thousand dollars and
many laser sessions to remove. A special laser • To provide a sense of security: Consumers often wear lucky charms, amulets, rab-
device shatters tattoo pigment into particles bits’ feet, and so on to protect them from the “evil eye.”
that the body’s lymphatic system clears. Full • To indicate desired social conduct: The Suya of South America wear ear orna-
removal takes an average of eight treatments, ments to emphasize the importance placed in their culture on listening and obedi-
spaced at least a month apart, using different ence. In Western society, some gay men wear an earring in the left or right ear to
lasers for different-coloured inks.124 And not all signal what role (submissive or dominant) they prefer in a relationship.
tattoo removal goes smoothly, since every per-
son’s skin reacts differently to lasers. One model • To indicate high status or rank: The Hidatsa Indians of North America wear
reports that the tattoo cost her $20, but getting feather ornaments that indicate how many people they have killed. In our society,
rid of the scar cost her $20 000.125 some people wear glasses with clear lenses, even though they do not have eye
problems, to enhance their perceived status.
Tatto os a nd B o dy P ie rc in g
Tattoos—both temporary and permanent—are a popular form of body adornment. This
body art can be used to communicate aspects of the self to onlookers and may serve
some of the same functions that other kinds of body painting do in primitive cultures.
Tattoos (from the Tahitian ta-tu) have deep roots in folk art. Until recently, the images
were crude, consisting primarily of either death symbols (such as a skull), animals
(especially panthers, eagles, and snakes), pinup women, or military designs. More cur-
rent influences include science fiction themes, Japanese symbolism, and tribal designs.
A tattoo may be viewed as a fairly risk-free way of expressing an adventurous side
of the self. One recent trend is for middle-aged women to get one to commemorate a
milestone, such as a big birthday, a divorce, or becoming an “empty nester.” So now
these skin designs are more of a fashion statement than a declaration of rebellion—in
fact, a Harris Poll reported that one-third of consumers aged 25–29 and one-quarter of
those aged 30–39 have tattoos. And, consistently with our discussion above, when we
compare respondents who sport a tattoo to those who don’t, the latter are more likely
to think that people who have one are deviant and rebellious. On the other hand, one-
third of those who do have a tattoo say that it makes them feel sexier.126
Decorating the body with various kinds of metallic inserts has evolved from a prac-
tice associated with some fringe groups and natives in developing countries to become
a popular fashion statement. Piercing can and is being done on any part of the body.
More than a million websites are related to the practice. This popularity is not pleasing
to hardcore piercing fans, who view the practice as a sensual consciousness-raising
ritual and are concerned that people now do it simply because it’s trendy. As one cus-
tomer waiting for a nipple piercing remarked, “If your piercing doesn’t mean anything,
then it’s just like buying a pair of platform shoes.”127
Chapter Summary
The self-concept is strongly related to consumer behaviour. can also be viewed as part of the self. Valued objects,
cars, homes, and even attachments to sports teams or
• Consumers’ self-concepts are reflections of their attitudes
national monuments are used to define the self when
toward themselves. Whether these attitudes are positive these are incorporated into the extended self.
or negative, they will help to guide many purchase deci-
sions; products can be used to bolster self-esteem or to Gender-role identity is different from gender, and society’s
“reward” the self. expectations of masculinity and femininity help to determine
the products we buy.
Products often play a pivotal role in defining the self-concept.
• A person’s gender-role identity is a major component of
• Many product choices are dictated by the consumer’s per- self-definition. Conceptions about masculinity and femi-
ception of a similarity between his or her personality and ninity, largely shaped by society, guide the acquisition of
the attributes of a product. The symbolic interactionist “sex-typed” products and services.
perspective on the self states that each of us actually has • Advertising and other media play an important role in
many selves, and a different set of products is required as socializing consumers to be male and female. Although
props to play each role. Many things other than the body traditional women’s roles have often been perpetuated in
144 SECTION II Consumers as Individuals
advertising depictions, this situation is changing somewhat. example is found in eating disorders, wherein women in
The media do not always portray men accurately, either. particular become obsessed with thinness.
The way we think about our bodies (and the way our culture Every culture dictates certain types of body decoration and/
tells us we should think about them) is a key component of or mutilation that help to identify its members.
self-esteem.
• Many consumer activities involve manipulating the body,
• A person’s conception of his or her body also provides whether through dieting, cosmetic surgery, or tattooing.
feedback to self-image. A culture communicates certain • Body decoration and/or mutilation may serve such func-
ideals of beauty, and consumers go to great lengths to tions as separating group members from non-members, or
attain these. marking the individual’s status or rank within a social orga-
• Sometimes these activities are carried to an extreme nization or within a gender category (e.g., homosexual),
when people try too hard to live up to cultural ideals. One or even providing a sense of security or good luck.
Key Terms
Actual self p. 122 Fattism p. 140 Self-fulfilling prophecy p. 123
Agentic goals p. 129 Gender-bending products p. 132 Selfie p. 124
Androgyny p. 131 Group dieting p. 140 Self-image congruence models p. 125
Body cathexis p. 135 Ideal of beauty p. 136 Sex-typed traits p. 130
Body image p. 135 Ideal self p. 122 Symbolic interactionism p. 123
Communal goals p. 129 Imbibing idiot bias p. 122 Symbolic self-completion theory p. 125
Compensatory consumption p. 125 Impression management p. 122 Wearable computing p. 128
Digital self p. 128 Looking-glass self p. 123
Extended self p. 126 Self-concept p. 121
Review Questions
1. How do Eastern and Western cultures tend to differ in 7. Define the extended self, and provide three examples.
terms of how people think about the self? 8. What is the difference between agentic and communal
2. List three dimensions by which we can describe the self- goals?
concept. 9. Is masculinity/femininity a biological distinction? Why or
3. Compare and contrast the real versus the ideal self. List why not?
three products for which each type of self is likely to be 10. Give two examples of sex-typed products.
used as a reference point when a purchase is considered.
11. What is body cathexis?
4. What does “the looking-glass self” mean?
12. Have ideals of beauty in Canada changed over the last
5. How might the “digital self” differ from a consumer’s 50 years? If so, how?
self-concept in the real world, and why is this difference
13. What is fattism?
potentially important to marketers?
14. How did tattoos originate?
6. How do feelings about the self influence the specific
brands people buy?
Discuss morality. These critics argue that the definition of obe-

sity has often arbitrarily shifted throughout history.
1. How prevalent is the Western ideal of beauty among Indeed, back in a time when many of the most trou-
your peers? How do you see this ideal evolving now (if bling illnesses were wasting diseases such as tubercu-
at all)? losis, being slightly overweight was associated with
2. Some historians and social critics say that our obses- good health (and in some parts of the world, it still is).
sion with thinness is based less on science than on Plumpness used to be associated with affluence and
CH A P TER 5 The Self 145
the aristocracy (King Louis XIV of France padded his Experiential Exercises
body to look more imposing), while today it is associ-
9. Watch a number of ads on TV or YouTube featuring men
ated with the poor and their supposedly bad eating
and women. Try to imagine the characters with reversed
habits.128 What do you think?
roles (i.e., the male parts played by women and vice
3. Should fast-food restaurants be liable if customers sue versa). Can you see any differences in assumptions about
them for contributing to their obesity? gender-typed behaviour?
4. How might the creation of a self-conscious state be 10. Construct a “consumption biography” of a friend or a
related to consumers who are trying on clothing in dress- family member. Make a list of or photograph his or her
ing rooms? Does the act of preening in front of a mirror favourite possessions and see whether you or others can
change the dynamics by which people evaluate their describe this person’s personality just from the informa-
product choices? Why? tion provided by this catalogue.
5. Is it ethical for marketers to encourage infatuation with 11. Interview victims of burglaries or people who have lost
the self? personal property in floods, ice storms, or other natural
6. Some consumer advocates have protested against the disasters. How do they go about reconstructing their pos-
use of super-thin models in advertising, claiming that sessions, and what effect does the loss appear to have on
these women encourage others to starve themselves to them?
attain the “waif” look. Other critics respond that the 12. Locate additional examples of self-esteem advertising
media’s power to shape behaviour has been overesti- and evaluate the probable effectiveness of these appeals.
mated and that it is insulting to people to assume that Is it true that “Flattery gets you everywhere”?
they are unable to separate fantasy from reality. What do
Many advertisers routinely purchase stock photography
you think?
when they need an image of a certain kind of person to
7. Does sex sell? There’s certainly enough of it around, include in an ad. Many photos of women reflect common
whether in print ads, in TV commercials, or on web- stereotypes, ranging from the crisp businesswoman who
sites. Perhaps the appropriate question is not does wears a suit and glasses and holds a briefcase to the smil-
sex sell, but should sex sell. What are your feelings ing mother who pours milk into cereal bowls for her kids
about the blatant use of sex to sell products? Do you at breakfast. Sheryl Sandberg, a Facebook executive who
think this tactic works better when selling to men is an advocate for women in business, started an organi-
than to women? Does exposure to unbelievably attrac- zation called Lean In to promote leadership. Lean In has
tive men and women models only make the rest of us partnered with Getty Images, one of the biggest stock
“normal” folks unhappy and insecure? Under what photography companies in the world, to offer an image
conditions (if any) should sex be used as a marketing collection that represents women differently. 130 The new
strategy? collection depicts women as surgeons, painters, bakers,
8. Some activists object to Axe’s male-focused market- soldiers, and hunters. There are girls riding skateboards
ing; they claim that its commercials demean women. and women lifting weights. Look through a sample of cur-
On the other hand, Dove’s campaign has been rent magazines and collect images of women. To what
applauded because it promotes a healthy body image extent do they represent a range of roles? Categorize
for girls. Guess what? Both Axe and Dove are owned these images according to the type of product advertised
by Unilever. Is it hypocritical for a big company to and the situation the photo depicts (e.g., multitasking
sponsor positive messages about women in one of its woman holding a table and a baby, happy homemaker,
divisions while it sends a different message in etc.). Based upon what you find, what messages do media
another?129 give us about gender roles today?
International Fashions Expands shaw Nanavaty, owner and president of the company, won-
The management team at International Fashions was thrilled dered how he could leverage this positive outcome to build on
with the outcomes of its participation in the latest Vancouver the momentum the company was experiencing. He wondered
Fashion Week. The collections it featured from its two flagship if he could use this reaction to help his newly launched brands,
brands—Kersh and Press—had generally received a positive Kershies, Kersh81nineteen, and Nanavatee. The new brands
reaction from fashion critics and writers and, more importantly, were targeted to younger demographics—children, teens, and
the collections had been warmly received by the public. Ker- young adults. How could he best capitalize on the two stronger
brands in building these new product lines? What type of com- Kersh wanted to evoke. Her look was girl-next-door and brought a
munication, design, and imagery would best capture the imag- bubbly, carefree, natural feel to the company.
ination of the new segments? Coupled with this imagery was a renewed dedication to
fresh design and smarter promotion efforts. The company
International Fashions hired designers new to the business who brought innovation
and creativity to the fore. Promotion centred on leveraging
International Fashions is a Canadian company with a world-
Emma Hansen at trade shows in Las Vegas and New York, the
wide reach. Founded in 1981 by clothiers Max Fugman and
development of look books, the creation of websites for the
Kershaw Nanavaty, it has grown into a significant operation
respective brands, and a commitment to feature the brands in
that employs over 60 in-house staff, including administration,
Vogue magazine on an annual basis.
design, marketing, and distribution functions. The company
These efforts met with strong success. The growth for both
works with sales representatives in Canada, all major U.S.
brands was significant, and the reaction of the critical market
markets, Australia, and throughout Europe. The established
was strongly positive. The brands received editorial attention
client base throughout these global markets comprises both
from fashion magazines ranging from ELLE to Canadian Living.
independent and major retailers.
The end consumer embraced the renewed positioning, which
In the early days of the company, the central focus was on
translated into increased partnerships with retailers and a stron-
the distribution and manufacturing of private-label garments
ger bottom line. Capitalizing on this success, the company inte-
for a variety of Canadian retailers, including Mark’s, Cotton
grated marketing, design, and sales to enable consensus on
Ginny, and the Bay. This strong foundation meant that Interna-
brand growth and evolution. New faces for both brands were
tional Fashions could launch a portfolio of independently
brought in, and in each instance the notion of West Coast atti-
designed fashion lines that would enable the company to
tude was maintained. Models who captured a carefree, fun-
become a full-fledged fashion house. Indeed, in 1996 the
loving, natural look were embraced. The brands avoided looks
company launched four lines targeting men’s and women’s
that were overdone or European in nature. In fact, the visual
markets. Ignite and Legends were positioned in the men’s mar-
imagery focused on natural beauty: Shoots were conducted in
ket, and Kersh and Press were targeted to women. Over time,
outdoor locations such as Grouse Mountain, beaches at Tsaw-
however, the company made the strategic decision to focus all
wassen, and horse ranches in the B.C. interior.
its energy on the two women’s lines.
Expanding the Portfolio: Decisions

Kersh and Press
The amazing success of Kersh and Press provided an impetus
The two women’s labels were defined as contemporary
to expand the brand portfolio. In 2013–14, Kershaw intro-
brands that represented a West Coast, relaxed style. Kersh
duced three additional lines called Kershies, Kersh18nineteen,
was originally positioned as a young contemporary brand
and Nanavatee—all extensions of the Kersh label. Each of
with a relatively broad target market ranging from late teens
these new brands sought to capitalize on the equity of the par-
to middle age. The brand identity was centred in a carefree,
ent brand to resonate with new target audiences. The initial
fun look. It had a brand personality that didn’t take itself seri-
reaction was mixed, forcing Kersh to wonder if the imagery and
ously, yet maintained a sense of hipness and attitude. The
design he had built into his parent brands effectively trans-
Press brand focused on the more mature consumer—the
ferred to these fledgling efforts. Did the use of natural-looking
logical choice when a woman had grown out of the Kersh
models have application in younger markets? Further, how did
label. As such, the demographic for this brand skewed
parents view fashion brands that featured child models? What
slightly older; while Press still carried a contemporary West
was the impact on child consumers when faced with a brand
Coast attitude, it provided more sophistication.
that carried such a strong identity? Kershaw knew that to be
Both brands showed modest growth initially and seemed to
successful with these new lines, he needed to be more effec-
take a backseat to the more dominant private-label business,
tive in leveraging his two parent brands while still adapting the
which provided a strong cash flow to International Fashions. It
company’s efforts to the new target markets.
wasn’t until 2006 that management decided to reinvigorate the
brands and relaunch them with stronger support and intent. This 1. How does the parent brand Kersh tap into the self-views of
effort saw a strong push into the U.S. market and a more aggres- the consumer?
sive effort in communication, design, and promotion. 2. Why does the fashion industry play such an important role
in actual and ideal selves? Is this a positive aspect of the
Communication, Design, and Promotion industry?
The relaunch utilized a number of tools to raise the brand equity of 3. Why does the choice of Emma Hansen as the face of the
Kersh and Press. Foremost was the identification of a face for the brand mean so much? How do feature models and celeb-
brands. Emma Hansen, daughter of famous Canadian wheelchair rity endorsers influence the self-concept of a consumer?
athlete Rick Hansen, was recommended by the Liz Belle Agency 4. As International Fashions looks to build brands in younger
as a potential fit for the brand personality the company sought to markets, does it need to give consideration to the type of
build. Indeed, Emma fit the wholesome West Coast attitude that models and imagery it attaches to these new brands? Why?
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6
C HAPTER
Personality, Lifestyles,
and Values
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that a consumer’s personality can 5 Understand that consumers’ lifestyles are key to

influence the way he or she responds to marketing many marketing strategies.
stimuli.
6 Understand that psychographics go beyond simple

2 Understand how the various theories of personality demographics to help marketers understand and

differ. reach different consumer segments.
3 Understand that trait theory proposes that various 7 Understand that every culture has a set of core

consumer characteristics can be measured and used values that it imparts to its members.
to predict outcomes.
4 Understand that marketers can use a variety of

techniques to create “brand personality.”
Personality CO 1
The concept of personality refers to a person’s unique psychological makeup and how it
consistently influences the way he or she responds to the environment. Over the years, the
nature of the personality construct has been hotly debated. Many studies have found that
people tend not to behave consistently across different situations and that they do not
seem to exhibit stable personalities. In fact, some researchers feel that people do not exhibit
a consistent personality across different situations; they argue that this is merely a conve-
nient way to think about other people.
This argument is a bit hard to accept intuitively, possibly because we tend to see oth-
ers in a limited range of situations, and so, to us, most people do act consistently. On the
other hand, each of us knows that we are not all that consistent; we might be wild and
crazy sometimes and the model of respectability at other times. Although certainly not all
psychologists have abandoned the idea of personality, many now recognize that a person’s
underlying characteristics are but one part of the puzzle and that situational factors often
play a large role in determining behaviour.1 Still, some aspects of personality tend to be
relatively stable over time and across a variety of situations. These aspects continue to be
accounted for in marketing strategies and are usually employed in concert with a person’s
choices of leisure activities, political outlook, aesthetic tastes, and other individual factors
that make up an individual’s lifestyle, a concept we’ll focus on more fully in this chapter.
Many approaches to understanding the complex concept of personality can be traced
to psychological theorists who began to develop these perspectives in the early part of the
century. These perspectives were qualitative, in the sense that they were largely based on
analysts’ interpretations of patients’ accounts of dreams, traumatic experiences, and
C H A P T E R 6 Personality, Lifestyles, and Values 151
encounters with others. More recent work looks at how specific personality traits
shape consumer behaviour.
Consumer Behaviour on the Couch: CO 2

Freudian Theory
One approach to personality is based on Sigmund Freud’s idea that much of human
behaviour stems from a fundamental conflict between a person’s desire to gratify his or
her physical needs and the necessity to function as a responsible member of society.
This struggle is carried out in the mind among three symbolic self systems.
FR E U DIA N S YS T E MS
The id is the component of the self entirely oriented toward immediate gratification—
it is the “party animal” of the mind. It operates according to the pleasure principle:
Behaviour is guided by the primary desire to maximize pleasure and avoid pain. The
id is selfish and illogical. It directs a person’s psychic energy toward pleasurable acts
without regard for any possible consequences.
The superego is the counterweight to the id. This system is essentially the per-
son’s conscience. It internalizes society’s rules and works to prevent the id from
seeking selfish gratification.
Finally, the ego is the system that mediates between the id and the superego. It is, in
a way, a referee in the fight between temptation and virtue. The ego tries to balance these
two opposing forces according to the reality principle. It finds ways to gratify the id that
will be acceptable to the outside world. These conflicts occur on an unconscious level,
so the person is not necessarily aware of the underlying reasons for behaviour.
How is Freud’s work relevant to consumer behaviour? In particular, his work
highlights the potential importance of unconscious motives underlying purchases.
The implication is that consumers cannot necessarily tell us their true motivations for
choosing a product, even if we can devise a sensitive way to ask them directly.
The Freudian perspective also hints at the possibility that the ego relies on the sym-
bolism in products to compromise between the demands of the id and the prohibitions
of the superego. The person channels his or her unacceptable desires into acceptable
The seductive synergy between the

asparagus curl and the butter curl suggests
a natural combination of food flavours and
textures. This is an example of bringing an
inanimate object to life in a way that gives
it a personality.
Photo by Georges Simhoni. Reprinted by permission
of the Dairy Farmers of Canada
outlets by using products that signify these underlying desires. This is the connection
between product symbolism and motivation: The product stands for, or represents, a
consumer’s true goal, one that is socially unacceptable or unattainable; by acquiring the
product, the person is able to experience vicariously the forbidden fruit.
S O ME T IME S A CIG AR IS J U ST A CIG AR

Most Freudian applications in marketing are related to the ways in which products
might channel unconscious urges, such as those involving sexuality and aggression.
For example, some analysts have speculated that a sports car is a substitute for sexual
gratification for many men. Indeed, some men do seem inordinately attached to their
cars and may spend many hours lovingly washing and polishing them.
Others focus on male-oriented symbolism—the so-called phallic symbol—that
appeals to women. Although Freud himself joked that “sometimes a cigar is just a
cigar,” many pop applications of Freud’s ideas revolve around the use of objects that
resemble sex organs (such as cigars, trees, or swords for men, and tunnels for women).
This focus stems from Freud’s analysis of dreams, which were often interpreted as
communicating repressed desires through symbols.
Motivational Research
The first attempts to apply Freudian ideas to understanding the deeper meanings of
products and advertisements were made in the 1950s, when a perspective known as
motivational research was developed. This approach is largely based on psychoanalytic
(Freudian) interpretations, with a heavy emphasis on unconscious motives. A basic
assumption is that socially unacceptable needs are channelled into acceptable outlets.
Motivational research relies on in-depth interviews with individual consumers.
Instead of asking many consumers a few general questions about product usage and
combining these responses with those of many other consumers in a representative
statistical sample, this technique uses relatively few consumers but probes deeply into
each person’s purchase motivations. An in-depth interview might take several hours
and is based on the assumption that the respondent cannot immediately articulate his
or her latent, or underlying, motives; these can be derived only after meticulous
questioning and interpretation on the part of a carefully trained interviewer.
This technique was pioneered by Ernest Dichter, a psychoanalyst who trained in
Vienna in the early part of twentieth century. Dichter conducted in-depth interview
studies on more than 230 different products, and many of his findings have been
incorporated in actual marketing campaigns.2 For example, Esso (now Exxon) for
many years reminded consumers to “Put a tiger in your tank” after Dichter found that
people responded well to this powerful animal symbolism containing vaguely sugges-
tive overtones. A summary of major consumption motivations identified using this
approach appears in Table 6–1.
Motivational research is attacked for two quite opposite reasons. Some feel it does
not work at all, while others feel it works too well. On the one hand, social critics have
attacked this school of thought for giving advertisers the power to manipulate consum-
ers.3 On the other hand, many consumer researchers feel the research has lacked suffi-
cient rigour and validity, since interpretations are subjective and indirect.4 Because
conclusions are based on the analyst’s own judgment and are derived from discussions
with a small number of people, some researchers are dubious as to the degree to which
these results can be generalized to a large market. In addition, because the original moti-
vational researchers were heavily influenced by orthodox Freudian theory, their inter-
pretations usually carried strong sexual overtones. This emphasis tends to overlook
other plausible causes for behaviour. Examples of insights from motivational research
include conclusions such as the idea that people associate coffee with companionship,
that we avoid prunes because they remind us of old age, and that men fondly equate the
first car they owned as an adolescent with the onset of their sexual freedom.
TABLE 6–1
Major Motives for Consumption as Identified by Ernest Dichter

Motive Associated Products
Power/masculinity/virility Power: Sugary products and large breakfasts (to charge oneself
up), bowling, electric trains, hot rods, power tools
Masculinity/virility: Coffee, red meat, heavy shoes, toy guns,

shaving with a razor
Security Ice cream (to feel like a loved child again), full drawer of neatly
ironed shirts, home baking, hospital care
Eroticism Sweets (to lick), gloves (to be removed by women as a form of

undressing), a man lighting a woman’s cigarette (to create a
tension-filled moment culminating in pressure, then relaxation)
Moral purity/cleanliness White bread, cotton fabrics (to connote chastity), harsh household
cleaning chemicals, bathing, oatmeal (sacrifice, virtue)
Social acceptance Companionship: Ice cream (to share fun), coffee
Love and affection: Toys (to express love for children), sugar
and honey (to express terms of affection)
Acceptance: Soap, beauty products
Individuality Gourmet foods, foreign cars, vodka, perfume, fountain pens
Status Scotch, fur coats, luxury cars
Femininity Cakes and cookies, dolls, silk, tea, household curios (to have a
light, decorative, and heavily tactile component)
Reward Candy, alcohol, ice cream, cookies
Mastery over environment Kitchen appliances, boats, sporting goods
Disalienation (a desire to feel Home decorating, skiing, morning radio broadcasts (to feel “in
a connectedness to things) touch” with the world)
Magic/mystery Soups (have healing powers), paints (change the mood of a

room), carbonated drinks (magical, effervescent property),
vodka (romantic history), unwrapping of gifts
Source: Adapted from Jeffrey F. Durgee, “Interpreting Dichter’s Interpretations: An Analysis of Consumption Symbolism in The Handbook of
Consumer Motivations,” Marketing and Semiotics: Selected Papers from the Copenhagen Symposium, eds. Hanne Hartvig-Larsen, David Glen
Mick, and Christian Alstead (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1991).
Motivational research has great appeal to marketers looking to uncover consumer

insights. The knowledge derived from motivational research often helps to develop
marketing communications that appeal to deep-seated needs and thus provide a more
powerful “hook” to relate a product to consumers. Even if they are not necessarily
valid for all consumers in a target market, these insights can be valuable when used in
an exploratory way. For example, the rich imagery that may be associated with a prod-
uct can be used creatively when developing advertising copy.
NE O - FRE UDIA N T H E OR IE S O F P E R S O N A L ITY

Freud’s work had a huge influence on subsequent theories of personality. Although
Freud opened the door to the realization that explanations for behaviour may lurk
beneath the surface, many of his co-workers and students felt that an individual’s
personality was more influenced by how he or she handled relationships with others.
These theorists are often called neo-Freudian (meaning following from or being
influenced by Freud).
KAREN HORNEY One of the most prominent neo-Freudians was a psychoanalyst

named Karen Horney. She proposed that people can be described as moving toward
others (compliant), away from others (detached), or against others (aggressive).5 Some
research indicates that these three types prefer different kinds of products. For exam-
ple, one study found that compliant people are more likely to gravitate toward name-
brand products, that detached types are more likely to be tea drinkers, and that males
classified as aggressive prefer brands with a strong masculine orientation (e.g., Axe
deodorant).6 Other well-known neo-Freudians include Alfred Adler, who proposed
that many actions are motivated by people’s desire to overcome feelings of inferiority
relative to others, and Harry Stack Sullivan, who focused on how personality evolves
to reduce anxiety in social relationships.7
CARL JUNG Carl Jung was also a disciple of Freud (and was being groomed by Freud
to be his successor). However, Jung was unable to accept Freud’s emphasis on sexual
aspects of personality, which was a contributing factor in the eventual dissolution of
their relationship. Jung went on to develop his own method of psychotherapy, which
became known as analytical psychology. This approach emphasized both the indi-
vidual’s development as a creative person (his or her future) and his or her individual
and racial history (his or her past) in the formation of personality.
Jung believed that people are shaped by the cumulative experiences of past gen-
Marketing erations. A central part of his perspective was an emphasis on what Jung called the
Insight collective unconscious, which is a storehouse of memories inherited from our ances-
tral past. For example, Jung would argue that many people are afraid of the dark
The technique that eLoyalty uses exemplifies the
because their distant ancestors had good reason to exhibit this fear. These shared
application of trait theory to marketing. This
company, which builds tools and services for memories create archetypes, or universally shared ideas and behaviour patterns.
call centres, compiles personality profiles of Archetypes involve themes, such as birth, death, or the devil, that appear frequently in
each individual caller and matches them with a myths, stories, and dreams.
customer service representative who works best Jung’s ideas may seem a bit far-fetched, but advertising messages often do invoke
with that personality type. The system is based (at least intuitively) archetypes to link products with underlying meanings. For exam-
on a methodology called the Process Communi- ple, some of the archetypes identified by Jung and his followers include the old wise
cation Model, which NASA used to weed out man and the earth mother.8 These images appear frequently in marketing messages
astronaut candidates and Bill Clinton used to that use such characters as wizards, revered teachers, or even Mother Nature to con-
tailor his speeches. The system’s creator vince people of the merits of products. Our culture’s infatuation with stories such as
divided people into six main personality types, Harry Potter and The Hobbit speaks to the power of these images.
each of which has a different communication Young & Rubicam (Y&R), a major advertising agency, uses the archetype approach
style and each of which has different stress in its BrandAsset Archetypes model, as depicted in Figure 6–1. The model proposes
triggers. It’s based on the idea that if you know healthy relationships among archetypes as well as unhealthy ones. A healthy person-
the personality type of the person you’re speak- ality is one in which the archetypes overwhelm their corresponding shadows; a sick
ing with, you can modify your own communica- personality results when one or more shadows prevail. When a brand’s shadows dom-
tion style to work more effectively with that inate, this cues the agency to take action to guide the brand to a healthier personality,
person. One such type is the “workaholic,” a much as one would try to counsel a psychologically ill person.9
personality type who is very task-oriented. If a
customer service rep starts chit-chatting to
establish rapport with a workaholic, this Trait Theories CO 3
approach will backfire. In contrast, a type called
One approach to personality is to focus on the quantitative measurement of specific
the “reactor” is relationship-oriented, so a rep
traits, or identifiable characteristics that define a person. For example, people can be
who does not acknowledge the caller’s feelings
distinguished by the degree to which they are socially outgoing (the trait of extrover-
before getting down to business is doomed to
failure. The automated system analyzes callers’ sion). Some specific traits that are relevant to consumer behaviour include innovative-
language patterns to identify their personality ness (the degree to which a person likes to try new things), public self-consciousness
type so that each time the customer calls back, (the degree to which a person deliberately monitors and controls the image of the self
he or she is directed to a rep who is a good that is projected to others), and need for cognition (the degree to which a person likes
match for that caller’s type.11 to think about things and, by extension, to expend the necessary effort to process
brand information).10
FIGURE 6–1
BrandAsset Valuator Archetypes
Characteristics Magician - thought

logical, analytical, insightful
Sage - peace Patriarch - belief
wise, visionary, mentoring dignified, authoritative, inspirational
Matriarch - order THOUGHT Angel - dreams

organized, systematic, controlled optimistic, innocent, pure
Mother Earth - body Enchantress - soul

stable, genuine, nurturing SUBSTANCE EMOTIONS
mysterious, sensual, tempting
Queen - being Actress - feelings

relaxed, comforting, sociable glamorous, dramatic, involved
ENERGY
Warrior - ego Troubadour - joy

confident, powerful, heroic joyous, free-spirited, agile
Jester - spirit
witty, resilient, daring
Shadow Characteristics Sorcerer

hollow, dark, cowardly
Hermit Dictator
isolated, lonely, irrelevant repressive, close- minded, unforgiving
Hag Orphan
stingy, messy, crotchety abandoned, vulnerable,
frightened
Shadow Mother Shadow Witch

bloated, immobile, self-absorbed cold, vain, selfish
Slave Addict
oppressed, tormented, despondent wounded, jealous, tragic
Destroyer Idiot
angry, aggressive, destructive silly, dimwitted, goofy
Trickster
tricky, phony, scheming
Source: Courtesy of Young & Rubicam Group.

A R E Y O U AN IN N IE O R AN O U TIE?
Perhaps the trait dimension most relevant to consumer behaviour is the extent to
which a person is motivated to consume in order to please others or to fit in versus the
extent to which a person consumes to express a unique sense of self without much
concern about being accepted by a group. A sociologist named David Riesman first
introduced the terms inner-directed and outer-directed to our culture.12 This general
idea has resurfaced in a variety of ways. As we’ll see in Chapter 14, some cultures tend
to stress individualism while others reward those who try to fit in. We’ll talk more
about the power of conformity (the impact of shaping one’s behaviour to meet the
expectations of a group) in Chapter 11.
Each of us to some extent is a conformist by definition, because as members of soci-
ety we follow certain rules. As a simple example, we each “agree” to stop at a corner
when the light turns red. Still, some of us are more concerned about the reactions of
others to what we do, while some seem to “march to a different drummer.” One person-
ality trait we can measure is the need for uniqueness (the degree to which a person is
motivated to conform to the preferences of others versus standing apart from the
crowd).13
Some research examines consumption differences between individuals who are
idiocentrics (having an individualist orientation) and those who are allocentrics
(having a group orientation). Differences between these two personality types include
the following:
• Contentment: Idiocentrics scored higher than allocentrics on the statement “I am
very satisfied with the way things are going in my life these days.” They are also
more satisfied with their financial situations.
• Health-consciousness: Allocentrics are more likely to avoid foods that are high in
cholesterol, have a high salt content, have additives in them, or have a high amount
of fat.
• Food preparation: The kitchen is the favourite room of allocentrics, who spend
more time preparing meals than do idiocentrics.
• Workaholics: Idiocentrics are more likely to say they work very hard most of the
time, and they stay late at work more than do allocentrics.
• Travel and entertainment: Idiocentrics are more interested in other cultures and
travelling than are allocentrics. They are also more likely to go to movies, art
galleries, and museums. Compared to idiocentrics, allocentrics visited the pub-
lic library and finished reading books with a greater frequency. Allocentrics
reported working on craft projects such as needlework and model building. On
the other hand, idiocentric individuals were more likely to collect stamps or
rocks, work on do-it-yourself projects, and take photos. They were also more
likely to play the lottery.14
WH E N T R A ITS AR E U SEFU L
The notion that consumers buy products that are extensions of their personalities
makes intuitive sense. This idea is endorsed by many marketing managers who try to
create brand personalities that will appeal to particular types of consumers. Take for
example, the ad from Pepsi that appeals to consumers who view themselves as having
youthful personalities. However, the use of standard personality-trait measurements
to predict product choices has met with mixed success.15 One domain in which using
personality measures has proven very successful is dating services, such as eHarmony.
eHarmony Canada uses a combination of different measures of personality to help
match consumers on core traits and values.
Although personality alone does not always directly predict consumption
behaviours, personality traits often interact with situational factors to predict how
consumers will behave. Take, for example, consumers high in the trait of public
self-consciousness noted above.16 Consumers high in public self-consciousness are
By using strategic product placement, Pepsi

associates itself with a certain personality
type.
Barry Brecheisen/Getty Images for Pepsi
more likely to make choices that allow them to present a positive view of the self to
others. For instance, consumers high in public self-consciousness are more likely
to avoid products with negative associations (e.g., men won’t choose a steak called
the “ladies’ cut”17 and are more likely to donate to a charity in public settings if it
looks like they are doing it for more altruistic, other-focused reasons).18 Need for
uniqueness has also been shown to drive product choice when the specific con-
sumption context motivates the relevance of this personality trait.19 Specifically,
those high in need for uniqueness tend to be more likely to desire unique, counter-
normative, or unconventional options when a consumption situation activates this
need.20 One study examined how having one’s product choice mimicked or copied
by another person can threaten this need for uniqueness. Have you ever shown up
The Axe brand appeals to consumers who

see themselves as having fun and flirtatious
personalities.
Courtesy of Unilever
at a party to find that another guest is wearing the same thing as you? Would it be
Consumers worse if it were your best friend wearing the identical outfit rather than someone
In Focus
you didn’t know? It turns out that consumers high in need for uniqueness, and who
were copied by someone similar to them, were most upset about the uniqueness
violation—they were most willing to dispose of, trade in, or alter their choice when
One interesting implication of the notion of
they were copied.21
“brand personality” is that the brands and
Finally, need for cognition can be activated when the consumption situation
products that people own might communicate
something about their own personalities to oth- provides the opportunity for effortful cognitive activity—or, in other words, think-
ers. Not only do people often infer personality ing. 22 Consumers high in need for cognition enjoy thinking extensively about
traits from an individual’s possessions, but things like products and their attributes. Those low in need for cognition are
they are surprisingly accurate in their trait more likely to take shortcuts or rely on their feelings when making decisions, as
inferences. For example, upon viewing a target opposed to thinking carefully.23 Those high in need for cognition tend to process
person’s bedroom or office containing all of information carefully and to scrutinize the content of the advertising message more
their possessions, observers were fairly accu- closely. Those low in need for cognition are more likely to respond on the basis of
rate in estimating the individual’s personality information peripheral to the message itself, such as attractive models, humour,
traits.25 Interestingly, individuals are also very and other cues.24
good at accurately conveying their personality
traits to others online. Instead of merely pre-
senting idealized self-images to others online
using social networks, people often do convey Brand Personality CO 4
their true personality traits.26
In 1886 a momentous event occurred: The Quaker Oats man first appeared on boxes
of hot cereal. Quakers had a reputation in nineteenth-century America for being
shrewd but fair, and peddlers sometimes dressed as Quakers for this reason. The
Personality Traits
Consumers infer strong differences in a
wine’s personality based on the design on Sincerity Excitement Competence Sophistication Ruggedness
the bottle’s label. Down-to-earth Daring Reliable Upper class Outdoorsy
Reprinted with permission from Journal of Honest Spirited Intelligent Charming Tough
Marketing, published by the American Wholesome Imaginative Successful
Marketing Association, Ulrich R. Orth &
Cheerful Up-to-date
Keven Malkewitz, May 2008, Vol. 72, p. 73.
Low Low Low Low Low
High High High High High

This visual for Harley-Davidson conveys

personality characteristics that resonate
with the average Harley rider.
Courtesy of Deeley Harley-Davidson Canada
cereal company’s decision to “borrow” this imagery for its packaging signalled the
recognition that purchasers might make the same associations with its product.27 A
brand personality is the set of traits people attribute to a product as if it were a per-
son. Many of the most recognizable figures in popular culture are spokescharacters
for long-standing brands, such as the Tony the Tiger, Geico Gecko, and the Jolly Green
Giant. And, like real people, these characters sometimes need a “makeover” to keep
them fresh and young-looking.
Our feelings about a brand’s personality are an important part of brand equity,
which refers to the extent to which consumers hold strong, favourable, and
unique associations with a brand in memory—and the extent to which they are
willing to pay more for the branded version of a product than for a non-branded
(generic) version.28
Personality dimensions that can be used to compare and contrast the perceived
characteristics of brands in various product categories include the following:29
• Old-fashioned, wholesome, traditional
• Surprising, lively, “with it”
• Serious, intelligent, efficient
• Glamorous, romantic, sexy
• Rugged, outdoorsy, tough, athletic
The following memo was written to help an advertising agency figure out how a
client should be portrayed in advertising. Based on this description of the “client,”
can you guess who he is? “He is creative . . . unpredictable . . . an imp. . . . He not only
walks and talks, but has the ability to sing, blush, wink, and work with little devices
like pointers. . . . He can also play musical instruments. . . . His walking motion is
characterized as a ‘swagger’. . . . He is made of dough and has mass.”30
Of course, we all know today that packaging and other physical cues create a “per-
sonality” for a product (in this case, the Pillsbury Doughboy!). But the marketing activ-
ities undertaken on behalf of the product can also influence inferences about its
“personality.” Some of these actions are shown in Table 6–2.
The creation and communication of a distinctive brand personality is one of the
primary ways marketers can make a product stand out from the competition and
inspire years of loyalty to it. This process can be understood in terms of animism, the
practice found in many cultures whereby inanimate objects are given qualities that
make them somehow alive. Animism is in some cases a part of a religion: Sacred
TABLE 6–2
Brand Behaviours and Possible Personality Trait Inference
Brand Action Trait Inference
Brand is repositioned several times or changes its slogan Flighty, schizophrenic

repeatedly.
Brand uses continuing character in its advertising. Familiar, comfortable
Brand charges a high price and uses exclusive distribution. Snobbish, sophisticated
Brand is frequently available on a special deal. Cheap, uncultured
Brand offers many line extensions. Versatile, adaptable
Brand sponsors a show on PBS or uses recycled materials. Helpful, supportive
Brand features easy-to-use packaging or speaks at consumer’s Warm, approachable

level in advertising.
Brand offers seasonal clearance sale. Planful, practical
Brand offers five-year warranty or free customer hotline. Reliable, dependable
Source: Adapted from Susan Fournier, “A Consumer-Brand Relationship Framework for Strategic Brand Management,” doctoral dissertation,
Department of Marketing, University of Florida, 1994, Table 2.2: 24.
objects, animals, or places are believed to have magical qualities or to contain the spir-
its of ancestors. In our society these objects may be “worshipped” in the sense that
they are believed to impart desirable qualities to the owner, or they may in a sense
become so important to a person that they can be viewed as a “friend.”
Two types of animism can be identified to describe the extent to which human
qualities are attributed to a product:31
• Level 1: In the highest order of animism, the object is associated with a human
individual—as is sometimes the case for spokespersons in advertising. This
strategy allows the consumer to feel that the spirit of the celebrity or endorser
is available through the brand. In other cases, a brand might be strongly associ-
ated with a loved one, alive or deceased; for example, “My grandmother always
served Kraft blueberry jam.”
• Level 2: Objects are anthropomorphized—given human characteristics. A cartoon
character or mythical creation might be treated as if it were a person, and even
assumed to have human feelings. Think of such familiar spokescharacters as the
Jolly Green Giant or the Michelin Man. One study illustrates how this works:
Participants saw an advertisement with a picture of a car that had been modified
to make it appear as though it was either “smiling” or “frowning.” In some cases,
the text of the ad was written in the first person, to activate a human schema,
while others saw the same ad written in the third person. When the human
schema was active, those who saw the “smiling” car rated it more favourably than
when they saw a “frowning” car.32
Personality of Positioning
As we saw in Chapter 2, a brand’s positioning strategy is a statement about what that
brand wants to be in the eyes of its customers—especially relative to the competition.
Marketers are used to thinking in these terms, routinely describing their brands and
the competition as if they were people.
This ad for Becel margarine uses animism
Go ahead, by positioning the brand as something

consumers might have a relationship with.
you know you Reproduced with kind permission of Unilever
PLC and group companies
want to.
Becel® Buttery Taste Margarine has
80% less saturated fat than butter.
And with a delicious buttery taste
you’ll love, cheating never felt so right.
Cheat on Butter. TM
becel.ca
A healthy diet low in saturated and trans fat may reduce the risk of heart disease. Becel margarine is low in saturated fat and trans fat.
Trade-mark owned or used under license by Unilever Canada, Toronto, Ontario M4W 3R2.
In a sense, then, a brand personality is also a statement about how the brand is
positioned. Understanding this concept is crucial to the success of a marketing
strategy—especially if consumers don’t see the brand the way its makers intend
them to, which means the makers have to try to reposition the product (i.e., give it a
personality makeover). That’s the problem now being faced by Volvo, whose cars are
renowned for safety but not exactly seen as exciting or sexy. A safe and solid brand
personality makes it hard to sell a racy convertible like the C70 model, so a British
ad tries to change that perception with the tagline, “Lust, envy, jealousy. The dangers
of a Volvo.” In another example of trying to reposition a brand around a distinct
personality, Lincoln (a General Motors brand) used Matthew McConaughey as a
spokesperson in the hopes that he would bring a younger, cooler, more laid-back
image to the brand.
In using this character, played by Isaiah

Mustafa, Old Spice has done an excellent
job of creating a strong brand personality.
After the original commercials aired, Old
Spice created several YouTube spots to help
viewers get to know the man behind the
brand better.
Ryan Pierse/Getty Images
Geico creates a distinct brand personality by

the use of anthropomorphization.
All text and images are copywritten with permission from
GEICO.
Lifestyles and Psychographics

Lifestyle: Who We Are, What We Do CO 5
In traditional societies, consumption options are largely dictated by class, caste,
village, or family. In a modern consumer society, however, people are more free to Advertising
select the set of products, services, and activities that defines them and, in turn, to cre-
ate a social identity that can be communicated to others. A person’s choice of goods
and services indeed makes a statement about who that person is and about the types of
people with whom that person desires to identify—and even about those he or she
wishes to avoid.
Lifestyle refers to a pattern of consumption reflecting a person’s choices of how
he or she spends time and money. Many of the factors already discussed in this
book, such as a person’s self-concept, ethnicity, and social class, are used as “raw
ingredients” to fashion a unique lifestyle. In an economic sense, a person’s lifestyle
represents the way he or she has elected to allocate income both to different prod-
ucts and services and to specific alternatives within these categories.33 Other some-
what similar distinctions have been made to describe consumers in terms of their
broad patterns of consumption.34 For example, consumers can be distinguished by
their social class, which can be determined by the proportion of expenditures on
food, advanced technology, or such information-intensive goods as entertainment
and education.
A lifestyle marketing perspective recognizes that people sort themselves into
groups on the basis of the things they like to do, how they like to spend their lei-
sure time, and how they choose to spend their disposable income.35 These choices,
in turn, create opportunities for market-segmentation strategies that recognize the
This Wiser’s advertisment does a nice job

of appealing to the lifestyle of playing and
watching hockey.
J.P. Wiser’s Distillery
As I See It
When individuals think about people sharing an affinity for the brand.1 Other work documents
what makes their lives mean- how some brands, such as Apple, and activities, such as skate-
ingful and what they enjoy boarding or running, take on extreme levels of importance for
doing with their time, it is consumers such that they dominate their lifestyle.2
unlikely that they will come More recently, some of my own research on the running com-
up with answers relating to munity has uncovered the complexities of consumer–producer,
particular brands or purchase consumer–consumer, and producer–producer interactions in
decisions. Rare is the person communities.3 This work shows that the role of marketing and
Courtesy of Tandy Thomas
who proclaims a brand of products within lifestyle-based consumption communities is far

soup, for example, to be cen- more complex than originally thought. While marketers do provide
tral to his or her life. On the products that support community members in traditional
other hand, consumers readily exchange relationships, my work shows that, beyond this, there is
describe their hobbies, pas- a complex exchange of both social and economic resources across
Tandy Chalmers Thomas Queen’s sions, families, and social consumers and producers in the community through which both
University communities as enriching consumers and producers benefit.
parts of their lives. This is why One important finding from this work is that brands and
the lifestyle marketing perspective is so important for marketers: resource providers take on important roles within communities,
It is a perspective that aligns the goals of marketers with the way where they become viewed as valuable community members,
consumers view their own lives. just like people. Here, consumers’ views of producers extend
A key area of research within the lifestyle marketing per- far beyond perceptions of a brand’s personality: Consumers
spective involves exploring consumption communities: groups of think of producers as meaningful and agentic community
consumers with a shared passion for a consumption activity, members. The findings also highlight unique ways that produc-
product class, or brand. Research in this area began in the mid- ers work with each other. Within consumption communities, we
1990s when marketers started to notice the role that consump- see producers offering complementary products, working
tion played in the lifestyle-based communities in which together to provide a constellation of goods (e.g., Nike working
consumers were increasingly participating, such as sport com- with Apple to create running shoes that sync with iPods); but
munities (e.g., skydiving, snowboarding, running), music com- we also see firms with competing products working together in
munities (e.g., hip hop), and brand communities (e.g., Apple “co-opetition” (e.g., two different running specialty stores
fans, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers fans). Since then, cooperating to support a local running event).4 Overall, con-
research has uncovered the pivotal role that brands and other sumption communities and a lifestyle marketing perspective
resource providers play in these communities. For example, it enrich our understanding of consumer–firm relationships and
has been shown that brands, even mundane ones such as allow marketers to engage consumers, and their communities,
Nutella or Lego, serve as a vital link between consumers, such in meaningful ways in which they work together and derive
that they are able to derive social meaning and value from other mutual benefits.
1 Bernard Cova, “Community and Consumption: Towards a Definition of the ‘Linking Value’ of Product or Services,” European Journal of Marketing 31(3/4) (1997): 297–316.
2 Russell W. Belk and Gulnur Tumbat, “The Cult of Macintosh,” Consumption, Markets, and Culture 8 (September 2005): 205–217.
3Tandy Chalmers Thomas, Linda L. Price, and Hope Jensen Schau, “When Differences Unite: Resource Dependence in Heterogeneous Consumption Communities.”
Forthcoming in Journal of Consumer Research 39(5) (February 2013): 1010–1033.
4 Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff, Co-opetition (New York: Currency/Doubleday, 1996).
potency of a consumer’s chosen lifestyle in determining both the types of products

purchased and the specific brands more likely to appeal to a designated lifestyle
segment.
L IF E S T Y L E S AS G R O U P ID EN TITIES
Economic approaches are useful in tracking changes in broad societal priorities,
but they do not begin to embrace the symbolic nuances that separate lifestyle
groups. Lifestyle is more than the allocation of discretionary income. It is a state-
ment about who we are in society and who we are not. Group identities, whether of
hobbyists, athletes, or drug users, jell around forms of expressive symbolism. The
self-definitions of group members are derived from the common symbol system to Marketing
which the group is dedicated. Such self-definitions have been described by a num-
ber of terms, including lifestyle, taste public, consumer group, symbolic community,
Insight
and status culture.36 Did you use AirBnB rather than a hotel the last
Patterns of consumption based on lifestyles often comprise many ingredients that time you travelled? Or use Uber to get home
are shared by others in similar social and economic circumstances. Still, each person rather than take a taxi? Or decided to rely on
also provides a unique “twist” to this pattern that allows him or her to inject some Zipcar instead of bringing your car to campus?
individuality into a chosen lifestyle. For example, a “typical” university student might If yes, you are a part of the sharing economy.
dress much like his or her friends, hang out in the same places, and like the same The sharing economy represents a major shift
foods, yet still indulge a passion for marathon running, blogging, or community activ- in consumer lifestyles in recent years.37 Shar-
ism that makes him or her unique. ing is a form of social exchange that takes
place among people known to each other,
And lifestyles are not set in stone. Unlike deep-seated values, people’s tastes and
without any profit. Instead of buying and own-
preferences tend to evolve, so that consumption patterns viewed favourably at one
ing a material good for a higher price, con-
time may be laughed (or sneered) at a few years later. If you don’t believe that, simply
sumers can borrow or share anything from
think back to what you, your friends, and your family were wearing, doing, and eating
transportation to accommodation to household
five or ten years ago.
appliances. This also represents a shift in
Because people’s attitudes regarding physical fitness, social activism, gender roles consumer values, suggesting that consumers
for men and women, the importance of home life and family, and many other things are putting less emphasis on the ownership of
do change, it is vital for marketers to continuously monitor the social landscape to try material goods.
to anticipate where these changes will lead. Some of the most important lifestyle
changes (known as trends) will be discussed later in this chapter.
Adidas associates itself with a particular

type of lifestyle.
Norm Hall/Getty Images for Adidas
Products Are the Building Blocks of Lifestyles

Lululemon Athletica is well known for making comfortable clothing; but, more impor-
tantly, the company wants to play an integral role in creating consumer lifestyles
around its products. Known for making lightweight, yet high durable and fashionable,
athletic wear Lululemon encourages consumers to change their lifestyles by asking
them to write down their New Year’s resolutions and post them in the store. In addi-
tion, it posts goal-setting activities and worksheets online, allowing consumers to give
each other feedback and post blog updates on how to follow through with set goals.
The company also rewards consumers who live the “Lululemon Lifestyle” by award-
ing them “ambassador” status. According to Lululemon’s website, ambassadors are
“unique individuals in our store communities who embody the Lululemon lifestyle
and live our culture.”
At Whole Foods Market, shoppers take part in a “singles” night the first Friday of
every month. The store’s marketing staff organizes a wine tasting or sets out snacks in
a room they use to stage cooking classes. Customers can opt to wear a red or blue
ribbon to indicate whether they are looking for a male or a female partner. Mountain
Equipment Co-op offers training in kayaking and mountain biking at its stores;
PetSmart and Petco provide training classes for pet owners; and Cabela’s, a hunting
store, offers classes on “trout tactics” and gun cleaning.38
These are smart moves, especially when marketers encourage a sense of com-
munity among product users (think about the reasons you faithfully check your
Facebook account every day). We often choose a product precisely because we
associate it with a certain lifestyle. For this reason, lifestyle marketing strategies
attempt to position a product by fitting it into an existing pattern of consumption
and thus create a brand personality that is relevant to a variety of products and
situations.
Because a goal of lifestyle marketing is to allow consumers to pursue their
chosen ways of enjoying their lives and expressing their social identities, a key
aspect of this strategy is to focus on product usage in desirable social settings (see
Chapter 10). The goal of associating a product with a social situation is a long-
standing one for advertisers, whether the product is included in a round of golf, a
family barbecue, or a night at a glamorous club surrounded by jetsetters.39 Thus,
people, products, and settings are combined to express a certain consumption style,
as diagrammed in Figure 6–2.
The adoption of a lifestyle marketing perspective implies that we must look at
patterns of behaviour to understand consumers. We can get a clearer picture of how
people use products to define lifestyles by examining how they make choices in a vari-
ety of product categories. As one study noted, “All goods carry meaning, but none by
FIGURE 6–2
Linking Products to Lifestyles
PERSON PRODUCT
LIFESTYLE
SETTING
itself. . . . The meaning is in the relations between all the goods, just as music is in the
relations marked out by the sounds and not in any one note.”40
Indeed, many products and services do seem to “go together,” usually because
they tend to be selected by the same types of people. In many cases, products do not
seem to “make sense” if they’re unaccompanied by companion products (e.g., fast
food and paper plates or a suit and tie) or are incongruous in the presence of others
(e.g., an antique chair in a high-tech office). Therefore, an important part of lifestyle
marketing is to identify the set of products and services that seems to be linked in con-
sumers’ minds to a specific lifestyle.
Product complementarity occurs when the symbolic meanings of different prod-
ucts are related to each other.41 These sets of products, termed consumption constella-
tions, are used by consumers to define, communicate, and perform social roles.42 The
meshing of objects from many different categories to express a single lifestyle idea is at
the heart of many consumption decisions, including coordinating an outfit for a big
date (shoes, garments, fragrance), decorating a room (tables, carpet, wallpaper), and
designing a restaurant (menu, ambiance, server uniforms). Many people today evalu-
ate products not just in terms of function, but also in terms of how well their design
coordinates with other objects and furnishings. Marketers who understand these
cross-category relationships may pursue co-branding strategies where they team up
with other companies to promote two or more items. Some marketers even match up
their spokescharacters in ads: The Pillsbury Doughboy appeared in a commercial with
the Sprint Guy to pitch cell phones, the lonely Maytag repairman was in an ad for the
Chevrolet Impala, and the Taco Bell chihuahua (now retired) showed up in a commer-
cial for Geico insurance.43
Psychographics CO 6
Marketers often find it useful to develop products that appeal to different lifestyle
groups. Just knowing a person’s income doesn’t predict whether he or she will Segmentation, Targeting, Positioning
drive a Cadillac Escalade SUV, an Escalade EXT pickup, or a Cadillac Eldorado
sedan. Consumers can share demographic characteristics and still be very different
people.
For this reason, marketers need a way to “breathe life” into demographic data to
really identify, understand, and target consumer segments that will share a set of
preferences for their products and services. This chapter discussed some of the
important differences in consumers’ personalities that play a role in determining
product choices. When personality variables are combined with knowledge of life-
style preferences, marketers have a powerful lens through which to view consumer
segments.
This tool is known as psychographics, which involves the “use of psychological,
sociological, and anthropological factors . . . to determine how the market is seg-
mented by the propensity of groups within the market—and their reasons—to make a
particular decision about a product, person, ideology, or otherwise hold an attitude
or use a medium.”44
Psychographics can help marketers fine-tune their offerings to meet the needs of
different segments. For example, Best Buy at one point decided to revamp some of its
stores according to the types of customers they serve. The company identified five
prototypical customers:
• “Jill,” a busy suburban mom who wants to talk about how electronics can help
her family
• “Buzz,” a focused, active younger male who is interested in buying (and showing
off) the latest gadgets
• “Ray,” a family man who likes his technology to be practical
• “BB4B” (short for Best Buy for Business), a small employer

• “Barry,” an affluent professional male who is likely to drop tens of thousands of
dollars on a home-theatre system and who is an action-movie enthusiast
The chain worked to identify the two dominant customer types who patronize
each of its outlets and plan accordingly. Store clerks received training to help them
pick out the most likely category in which to pigeonhole a customer. A customer who
says his family has a regular “movie night,” for example, is labelled as a “Ray” and is
steered toward home-theatre equipment. Stores catering to the “Jill” segment feature
play areas for kids; instead of a booming bass beat, the soundtrack playing in the back-
ground would be instrumental or children’s music.45
Conducting a Psychographic Analysis

Some early attempts at lifestyle segmentation “borrowed” standard psychological
scales (often used to measure pathology or personality disturbances) and tried to
relate scores on these tests to product usage. As might be expected, the results
of such efforts were largely disappointing. These tests were never intended to
be related to everyday consumption activities and yielded little in the way of
explanation for purchase behaviours. The technique is more effective when the
variables included are more closely related to actual consumer behaviours. If one
wants to understand purchases of household cleaning products, it is better to ask
people about their attitudes toward household cleanliness than to test for personality
disorders.
Psychographic studies can take several forms:
• A lifestyle profile that looks for items that differentiate between users and non-
users of a product
• A product-specific profile that identifies a target group and then profiles these
consumers on product-relevant dimensions
• A general lifestyle segmentation, in which the respondents in a large sample
are placed into homogeneous groups based on similarities in their overall
preferences
Sooruz appeals to consumers who have

adventurous personality and lifestyle
profiles.
Campaign © Publicis Conseil for Sooruz. Photographers:
Cesar Anceile-Hancelle/Jacques Demarcillac-Producer:
Charles Denis
• A product-specific segmentation, in which questions used in a general approach

are tailored to a product category (e.g., in a study done specifically for a stomach
medicine, an item such as “I worry too much” might be rephrased as “I get stom-
ach problems if I worry too much”; this allows the researcher to discriminate
more finely between users of competing brands)46
AIOs
Most contemporary psychographic research attempts to group consumers according to
some combination of three categories of variables—activities, interests, and opinions—
known as AIOs. Using data from large samples, marketers create profiles of customers
who resemble one another in their activities and patterns of product usage.47 The
dimensions used to assess lifestyles are listed in Table 6–3.
To group consumers into common AIO categories, researchers give respondents a
long list of statements and ask them to indicate how much they agree with each one.
Lifestyle is thus “boiled down” by discovering how people spend their time, what
they find interesting and important, and how they view themselves and the world
around them, as well as by discovering demographic information.
Typically, the first step in conducting a psychographic analysis is to determine
which lifestyle segments are producing the bulk of customers for a particular product.
Researchers attempt to determine who uses the brand and try to isolate heavy, moderate,
and light users. They also look for patterns of usage and attitudes toward the product.
In many cases, just a few lifestyle segments account for the majority of brand users.48
Marketers primarily target these heavy users, even though they may constitute a
relatively small number of total users.
After the heavy users are identified and understood, the brand’s relationship to
them is considered. Heavy users may have quite different reasons for using the prod-
uct; they can be further subdivided in terms of the benefits they derive from using the
product or service. For instance, marketers at the beginning of the walking-shoe craze
assumed that purchasers were basically burned-out joggers. Subsequent psycho-
graphic research showed that there were actually several different groups of walkers,
TABLE 6–3
Lifestyle Dimensions
Activities Interests Opinions Demographics
Work Family Themselves Age
Hobbies Home Social issues Education
Social events Job Politics Income
Vacation Community Business Occupation
Entertainment Recreation Economics Family size
Club memberships Fashion Education Dwelling
Community Food Products Geography
Shopping Media Future City size
Sports Achievements Culture Stage in life cycle
Source: William D. Wells and Douglas J. Tigert, “Activities, Interests, and Opinions,” Journal of Advertising Research 11 (August 1971): 27–35.
© 1971 by The Advertising Research Foundation.
ranging from those who walk to get to work to those who walk for fun. This realization
resulted in shoes aimed at different segments.
Uses of Psychographic Segmentation

Psychographic segmentation can be applied in a variety of ways:
• To define the target market: This information allows the marketer to go beyond
simple demographic or product-usage descriptions (e.g., middle-aged men or fre-
quent users).
• To create a new view of the market: Sometimes the marketer creates a strategy
with a “typical” customer in mind. This stereotype may not be correct because the
actual customer may not match these assumptions. For example, marketers of a
facial cream for women were surprised to find their key market was composed of
older, widowed women rather than the younger, more sociable women to whom
they were pitching.
• To position the product: Psychographic information can allow the marketer to
emphasize features of the product that fit in with a person’s lifestyle. Products
targeted at people whose lifestyle profiles show a high need to be around other
people might focus on the product’s ability to help meet this social need.
• To better communicate product attributes: Psychographic information can offer
very useful input to the advertising creative person who must communicate some-
thing about the product. The artist or writer obtains a much richer mental image
of the target consumer than that obtained through dry statistics, and this insight
improves his or her ability to “talk” to that consumer.
• To develop overall strategy: Understanding how a product fits, or does not fit, into
consumers’ lifestyles allows the marketer to identify new product opportunities,
chart media strategies, and create environments most consistent and harmonious
with these consumption patterns.
• To market social and political issues: Psychographic segmentation can be an
important tool in political campaigns, and it can also be employed to find com-
monalities among types of consumers who engage in destructive behaviours, such
as drug use or excessive gambling.
G Adventures offers consumers travel plans

that perfectly fit their distinct personalities,
preferences, and lifestyles.
Courtesy of G Adventures
A psychographic study of men aged 18 to 24 who drink and drive highlights the
potential for this perspective to help in the eradication of harmful behaviours. This
demographic segment accounts for a disproportionately high number of alcohol-
related fatalities. Researchers divided this segment into four groups: “good timers,”
“well adjusted,” “nerds,” and “problem kids.” They found that one group in par-
ticular—good timers—is more likely to believe that it is fun to be drunk, that the
chances of a drunk driver having an accident are low, and that drinking increases
their appeal to the opposite sex. Since the study showed that this group is also the
most likely to drink at rock concerts and parties, watch MTV, and listen to rock-
oriented radio stations, reaching good timers with a prevention campaign is made
easier and more efficient.49
Psychographic Segmentation Typologies

Marketers are constantly on the prowl for new insights that will allow them to identify
and reach groups of consumers that are united by a common lifestyle. To meet this
need, many research companies and advertising agencies have developed their own
segmentation typologies that divide people into segments. Respondents answer a bat-
tery of questions that allow the researchers to cluster them into a set of distinct life-
style groups. The questions usually include a mixture of AIOs, plus other items
relating to their perceptions of specific brands, favourite celebrities, media prefer-
ences, and so on. These systems are usually sold to companies that want to learn more
about their customers and potential customers.
At least at a superficial level, many of these typologies are fairly similar to one
another in that a typical typology breaks up the population into roughly five to
eight segments. Each cluster is given a descriptive name, and a profile of the “typi-
cal” member is provided to the client. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to compare
or evaluate different typologies, since the methods and data used to devise these
systems are frequently proprietary—that is, the information is developed and
owned by the company, and the company feels it would not be desirable to release
it to outsiders.
VALS™
The most well-known and widely used segmentation system is VALS (Values and
Lifestyles), developed at what is now SRI International in California. The VALS sys-
tem has been used by well over 200 corporations and advertising agencies in their
marketing efforts.
VALS divides people into eight groups, according to both psychological charac-
teristics and resources, which include such factors as income, education, energy
levels, and eagerness to buy, as shown in Figure 6–3.50
The VALS system has been a useful way to understand consumers. SRI estimates
that 12 percent of adults are thrill-seekers, who tend to fall into the system’s Experi-
encer category and who are likely to agree with statements such as “I like a lot of
excitement in my life” and “I like to try new things.” Experiencers like to break the
rules and are strongly attracted to extreme sports such as sky surfing or bungee jump-
ing. Not too surprisingly, one-third of consumers aged 18 to 34 belong in this category,
so it has attracted the interest of many marketers who are trying to appeal to younger
people (more on this in Chapter 13). If you want to see which VALS type you would
be classified as, go to www.strategicbusinessinsights.com. It will take you about 10
minutes to log on, take the test, and see which category best describes your approach
to life.
Marketers have found the VALS typology to be useful in directing new product
development, product positioning, and the creation of effective communications.
FIGURE 6–3
VALS Segmentation System
The top group has the most resources:

• Innovators are concerned with social issues and are open to change.
The next three groups also have sufficient resources but differ in their outlooks on life:
• T hinkers are satisfied, reflective, and comfortable. They tend to be practical and to
value functionality.
• Achievers are career-oriented and prefer predictability over risk or self-discovery.
• Experiencers are impulsive and young and enjoy offbeat or risky experiences.
The next three groups have fewer resources:

• Believers have strong principles and favour proven brands.
• trivers are like achievers but with fewer resources. They are very concerned about the
S
approval of others.
• akers are action-oriented and tend to focus their energies on self-sufficiency. They
M
will often be found working on their cars, canning their own vegetables, or building
their own houses.
Finally comes the group with the fewest resources:

• urvivors are at the bottom of the laddwer. They are most concerned with meeting the
S
needs of the moment.
For example, a Japanese auto manufacturer repositioned its product for the U.S.
market by utilizing the VALS framework. It used VALS to provide greater insight
into how the target market was interpreting its product mix. The resulting advertising
campaign increased sales by 60 percent in six months!51
Geodemography
Geodemography refers to analytical techniques that combine data on consumer expen-
ditures and other socioeconomic factors with geographic information about the areas
in which people live to identify consumers who share common consumption patterns.
The assumption is that “birds of a feather flock together”—that is, people with similar
needs and tastes tend to live near one another—so it should be possible to locate pock-
ets of like-minded people who can then be reached more economically by direct mail
and other methods.
Geographic information is increasingly being combined with other data to paint
an even more complete picture of the Canadian consumer. Several marketing research
ventures now employ single-source data, in which information about a person’s actual
purchasing history is combined with his or her geodemographic data. This method
allows marketers to learn even more about the types of marketing strategies that moti-
vate some people—but not others—to respond.
CO 7 Values
A value is a belief that some condition is preferable to its opposite. A person’s set of
values plays a very important role in his or her consumption activities, since many
products and services are purchased because they will (it is believed) help attain a
value-related goal. As noted above, values often underlie an individual’s lifestyle and
The HSBC “Points of View” campaign

highlights the importance of understanding
that consumers with different values might
see things from different points of view.
Courtesy of HSBC. Photographer: Chris Fraser Smith
psychographic profile. Values are central to what makes a consumer distinct in his or
her consumption and in society.
Indeed, two people can believe in the same behaviour (e.g., vegetarianism), but
their underlying belief systems might be quite different (e.g., animal activism versus
health concerns). The extent to which people share a belief system is a function of
individual, social, and cultural forces. Advocates of a given belief system often seek
out others with similar beliefs, so that social networks overlap and, as a result, believ-
ers tend to be exposed to information that supports their beliefs (e.g., “tree huggers”
rarely hang out with loggers).52
Core Values
Kim Kardashian wasn’t pleased when her picture ran on the cover of Cosmopolitan
Turkey, especially when it was released on the same date that some countries com-
memorate the alleged Armenian genocide in the last days of the Ottoman Empire.
Because Cosmopolitan publishes in 64 countries, it is difficult to be sure that readers
everywhere experience the content the same way. In addition to political differences,
marketers have to be sensitive to cultural values: In some countries, because of local
norms about modesty, some female readers have to hide the magazine from their hus-
bands! Different cultures emphasize varying belief systems that define what it means
to be female, feminine, or appealing—and what people consider appropriate to see in
print on these matters. Publishers of the Chinese version aren’t even permitted to
mention sex at all, so they replace articles about uplifting cleavage with uplifting
stories about youthful dedication. Ironically, there isn’t much down-and-dirty mate-
rial in the Swedish edition, either—but for the opposite reason: The culture is so
open about this topic that it doesn’t grab readers’ attention the way it would in the
United States.53
In many cases, of course, values are universal. Who does not desire health, wis-
dom, or world peace? What sets cultures apart is the relative importance, or ranking,
of these universal values. This set of rankings constitutes a culture’s value system.54
For example, one study found that North Americans have more favourable attitudes
toward advertising messages that focus on self-reliance, self-improvement, and the
achievement of personal goals as opposed to themes stressing family integrity, collec-
tive goals, and the feeling of harmony with others. Korean consumers exhibited the
reverse pattern.55
Every culture is characterized by its members’ endorsement of a value system.
These end states may not be equally endorsed by everyone, and in some cases values
may even seem to contradict one another. (North Americans appear to value both
conformity and individuality and seek to find some accommodation between the
two.) Nonetheless, it is usually possible to identify a general set of core values that
uniquely define a culture. These beliefs are taught to us by socialization agents,
including parents, friends, and teachers. The process of learning the beliefs and
behaviours endorsed by one’s own culture is called enculturation. In contrast, the
process of learning the value system and behaviours of another culture (often a prior-
ity for those who wish to understand consumers and markets in foreign countries) is
called acculturation.
How Values Link to Consumer Behaviour

Consumers Despite their importance, values have not been widely applied to direct examinations
in Focus of consumer behaviour. One reason is that such broad-based concepts as freedom,
security, or inner harmony are more likely to affect general purchasing patterns than
There are a great many differences in the impor- to differentiate among brands within a product category. For this reason, some
tance of values to consumers in different cultures. researchers have found it convenient to distinguish among such broad-based cultural
Since it is these values that underlie, motivate, values as security or happiness, such consumption-specific values as convenient shop-
and guide our behaviour, we can understand what ping or prompt service, and such product-specific values as ease of use or durability.56
motivates consumer behaviour by understanding
For example, people who value group affiliation and approval have been shown to put
the differences in the importance of values. For
more importance on style and brand name when evaluating the desirability of clothing
example, freedom is a very basic and important
products.57
value in the United States, emanating from the
history of the country. A war was fought for free-
dom from Britain, and another was fought to Ways to Classify Values
free the slaves. The phrases freedom of expres-
sion, free to bear arms, and freedom of speech The psychologist Milton Rokeach identified a set of terminal values, or desired end
are the basis of the American Constitution and states, that apply (to various degrees) to many different cultures. The Rokeach Value
reflect U.S. culture. In contrast, Canadians focus Survey, a scale used to measure these values, also includes a set of instrumental val-
on equality. Equal access to health care and edu- ues, which comprise actions needed to achieve these terminal values.58
cation and equality of the provinces and territories Although some evidence indicates that these global values do translate into
underlie Canadian cultural values. product-specific preferences and differences in media usage, the Rokeach Value
Survey has not been widely used by marketing researchers.59 As an alternative, the
List of Values (LOV) Scale was developed to isolate values with more direct market-
ing applications.
This instrument identifies nine consumer segments on the basis of the values they
endorse and relates each to differences in consumption behaviours. These segments
include consumers who give priority to such values as a sense of belonging, excite-
ment, warm relationships with others, and security. For example, people who endorse
the value of a sense of belonging are more likely to read Reader’s Digest, drink and
entertain frequently, prefer group activities, and be older than are people who do not
endorse this value as highly. In contrast, those who endorse the value of excitement
prefer reading Rolling Stone magazine.60
Conscientious Consumerism: A New Core Value?

Are consumers finally going green—for real? In one survey, eight out of ten consumers
Does Green? said they believe it’s important to buy green brands and products from green compa-
nies and that they’ll pay more to do so. The consumer’s focus on personal health is
merging with a growing interest in global health. Some analysts call this new value
conscientious consumerism.61 In another survey, 71 percent of consumers agree that
they avoid purchasing from companies whose practices they disagree with, and about
half claim they tell others to either patronize or avoid certain products on the basis of
the manufacturer’s social and environmental practices.62
However, it’s important to note that attitudes don’t always predict behaviour (as
we’ll see in Chapter 7)—especially for pocketbook issues. When people have less
money to spend they might not purchase environmentally friendly or healthy prod-
ucts if they have to pay a premium for them.
Still, it’s clear that values are shifting. In particular, marketers point to a seg-
ment of consumers they call LOHAS—an acronym for “lifestyles of health and sus-
tainability.” This label refers to people who worry about the environment, want
products to be produced in a sustainable way, and spend money to advance what
they see as their personal development and potential. These so-called “Lohasians”
(others refer to this segment as cultural creatives) represent a great market for
products such as organic foods, energy-efficient appliances, and hybrid cars as
well as alternative medicine, yoga tapes, and ecotourism.63 Whereas in the past it
was sufficient for companies to offer recyclable products, this new movement is
Offsetters is a Canadian company that

allows consumers and businesses to
calculate their carbon footprint and then
purchase “offsets” that invest in things like
clean technologies and carbon sequestering
to compensate for the amount of personal
pollution their activities create.
www.offsetters.ca
WITHOUT WINTER, THERE'S NO WINTER GAMES.

Help make the Vancouver 2010 Olympic Winter Games carbon neutral.
o setters.ca
creating a whole new vocabulary as consumers begin to “vote with their forks” by
demanding food, fragrances, and other items that are hormone-free, locally grown,
cage-free, made without genetically modified ingredients (GMOs), and don’t
involve animal clones or animal testing, just to name a few of consumers’ concerns
and requirements.
Although Lohasians have been helping demand for eco-friendly products for
several years, the big news today is that conscientious consumerism is now spread-
ing to the mass market. In fact, even the retailing behemoth Walmart is making
significant strides in this area. The world’s largest retailer developed a survey
called the “Live Better Index” that allows it to monitor customers’ feelings about
eco-friendly products. The first wave of research polled more than 2500 consumers
on five products: compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs), organic milk, concen
trated reduced-packaging liquid laundry detergents, extended-life paper products, and
organic baby food. Sixty-two percent of respondents said they would buy
more eco-friendly products if there were no price difference. Nearly half (47 percent)
said they completely agree that buying environmentally friendly products
makes them feel like smart consumers, and 68 percent agree that “even the small
act of recycling at home has an impact on the environment.”64 Numerous companies
are responding to these desires as they develop “green” formulations or partner

Marketing with other organizations to promote environmentally friendly behaviour. Clorox
Insight teamed up with the Sierra Club to promote a new line of eco-friendly Clorox prod-
ucts in exchange for a share of the profit. The cleaners are made from natural ingre-
More than 27 million people have taken a test dients such as coconuts and lemon oil, contain no phosphorus or bleach, are
on the RealAge website that promises to take biodegradable, and are not tested on animals. The packaging bottles are recyclable
years off your age. The test asks you about and bear the Sierra Club’s name and logo—a giant sequoia tree framed by mountain
150 questions about lifestyle (e.g., stress, peaks.65
exercise, eating habits) and family history and Ethical behaviour aside for a moment, is there a financial reward waiting for
then tells you your “biological age,” which is those companies that pay closer attention to what goes into their products and who
how much older or younger your lifestyle makes makes them (e.g., some products made overseas employ young children who work
you. Then the site delivers recommendations to long hours for low pay)? One study that examined this question suggests the answer
take years off your age. Here’s the hitch: The
is yes.66 The researchers gave subjects a description of a coffee company that either
site makes money because it sells responses
used or did not use fair trade principles to buy its beans. They found that partici-
to pharmaceutical firms that contact members
pants were willing to pay an additional $1.40 for a pound of the coffee if it was ethi-
to suggest drug solutions to their problems.
cally sourced and that participants were very negative about the company if it did
Companies including Pfizer, Novartis, and
not adhere to these principles. The study obtained similar results for shirts that were
GlaxoSmithKline can learn whether respon-
dents take antidepressants, how sexually
made with organic cotton.
active they are, or if they have a happy mar-
riage. They can even notify a person that his or Materialism: “He Who Dies with the Most
her responses indicate the symptoms of a dis- Toys Wins”
ease before he gets a diagnosis from a doctor.
The company does state that “we will share Although most people don’t literally worship material goods, “things” do play a cen-
your personal data with third parties to fulfill tral role in many people’s lives and can influence their value systems. Materialism
the services that you have asked us to provide refers to the importance people attach to worldly possessions. 67 We sometimes
to you,” and you must agree to become a mem- take the bounty of products and services for granted until we remember how recent
ber before you get added to its database. Still, this abundance is. For example, in 1950 two out of five homes did not have a tele-
critics claim that consumers join without phone, and in 1940 half of all households still did not have complete indoor
understanding this process. According to an plumbing. North Americans inhabit a materialistic society in which people often
analyst at one public interest group, “[The gauge their own worth and that of others by how much they own (see Chapter 12).
company] can create a group of people, and The popular bumper sticker “He who dies with the most toys wins” is a comment
hit them up and create anxiety even though on this philosophy.
the person does not have a diagnosis.”68 Today, many consumers now energetically seek “the good life,” which abounds in
material comforts. Most young people can’t imagine a life without smartphones, iPads,
and other comforts. In fact, one way to think about marketing is as a system that pro-
vides a certain standard of living to consumers. To some extent, then, our lifestyles are
influenced by the standard of living we have come to expect and desire—either by
personal experience or because of the affluent lifestyles we see on TV and in movies.69
Materialistic values tend to emphasize the well-being of the individual versus the
group, which may conflict with family or religious values. That conflict may help to
explain why people with highly material values tend to be less happy.70 Other research
suggests that materialism might be associated with other negative outcomes. For
example, youth who were more materialistic reported lower liking for school and got
poorer grades.71
C H A P TER 6 Personality, Lifestyles, and Values 177
Chapter Summary
A consumer ’s personality is thought to influence the way he their brand or product preferences, media usage, leisure-
or she responds to marketing stimuli. time activities, and attitudes toward such broad issues as
politics and religion.
• The concept of personality refers to a person’s unique
psychological makeup and how it consistently influences Identifying patterns of consumption can be superior to
the way a person responds to his or her environment. knowledge of individual purchases when crafting a lifestyle
Some approaches have attempted to understand underly- marketing strategy.
ing differences in small samples of consumers by employ-
ing techniques based on Freudian psychology and • Interrelated sets of products and activities are associated
variations of this perspective, whereas others have tried to with social roles to form consumption constellations. Peo-
assess these dimensions more objectively using large ple often purchase a product or service because it is asso-
samples and sophisticated quantitative techniques. More ciated with a constellation that, in turn, is linked to a
recent approaches have looked at how distinct aspects of lifestyle they find desirable. A set of techniques called
personality or “traits” interact with situational factors to geodemography analyzes consumption patterns using
predict how will consumers behave. geographical and demographic data and identifies
clusters of consumers who exhibit similar psychographic
Knowledge of consumers’ lifestyles is key to many marketing characteristics.
strategies.
Our deeply held cultural values dictate the types of products
• A consumer’s lifestyle refers to the ways he or she and services we seek out or avoid.
chooses to spend time and money and how his or her
values and tastes are reflected by consumption choices. • Consumer motivations are often driven by underlying val-
Lifestyle research is useful for tracking societal con- ues. In this context, products take on meaning because
sumption preferences and for positioning specific prod- they are seen as being instrumental in helping the per-
ucts and services to different segments. Marketers son to achieve some goal that is linked to a value, such
segment by lifestyle differences, often by grouping as individuality or freedom. Each culture is characterized
consumers in terms of their AIOs (activities, interests, by a set of core values to which many of its members
and opinions). adhere.
• Consumers vary in the importance they attach to worldly
Psychographics go beyond simple demographics in helping possessions, and this orientation in turn has an impact on
marketers understand and reach different consumer segments. their priorities and behaviours.
• Psychographic techniques attempt to classify consumers • Materialism refers to the importance people attach to
in terms of psychological, subjective variables in addition worldly possessions. Research suggests that materialistic
to observable characteristics (demographics). A variety of values are associated with negative outcomes such as
systems, such as VALS, have been developed to identify deceased happiness and even poorer academic perfor-
consumer “types” and to differentiate them in terms of mance among youth.
Key Terms
Acculturation p. 173 Id p. 151 Psychographics p. 167
AIOs p. 169 Idiocentrics p. 156 Public self-consciousness p. 156
Allocentrics p. 156 Lifestyle p. 163 Sharing economy p. 165
Animism p. 159 LOHAS p. 174 Superego p. 151
Archetype p. 154 Materialism p. 176 Terminal values p. 174
Brand equity p. 159 Motivational research p. 152 Traits p. 154
Brand personality p. 159 Need for cognition p. 158 Unconscious motives p. 151
Co-branding strategies p. 167 Need for uniqueness p. 157 Value p. 172
Conscientious consumerism p. 174 Personality p. 150 Value system p. 173
Ego p. 151 Pleasure principle p. 151 VALS (Values and Lifestyles) p. 171
Geodemography p. 172 Product complementarity p. 167
178 SE C TION II Consumers as Individuals
Review Questions
1. Describe the id, ego, and superego, and explain how they 7. Define psychographics, and describe three ways market-
work together according to Freudian theory. ers can use it.
2. What is motivational research? Give an example of a mar- 8. What are three specific kinds of AIOs?
keting study that used this approach. 9. What are values, and why should marketers care?
3. Describe three personality traits relevant to marketers. 10. What is the difference between enculturation and accul-
4. Define a brand personality, and give two examples. turation?
5. How does lifestyle differ from income? 11. What is LOHAS, and why are people who follow this life-
6. What is the basic philosophy behind a lifestyle marketing style important?
strategy? 12. What is materialism, and why is it relevant to marketing?
Discuss Should consumers have the right to limit access to

these data?
1. What consumption constellation might characterize you
and your friends today?
Experiential Exercises
2. Geodemographic techniques assume that people who
live in the same neighbourhood have other things in 7. Construct a brand personality inventory for three differ-
common as well. Why do they make this assumption, ent brands within a product category. Ask a small num-
and how accurate is it? ber of consumers to rate each brand on about 10 different
personality dimensions. What differences can you iden-
3. Should organizations or individuals be allowed to create
tify? Do these “personalities” relate to the advertising
websites that advocate potentially harmful practices?
and packaging strategies used to differentiate these
Why or why not?
products?
4. Wireless devices have quickly become an indispens-
8. Compile a set of recent ads that attempt to link con-
able part of many consumers’ lifestyles. How do you
sumption of a product with a specific lifestyle. How is
view this rapid transition to a situation in which
this goal usually accomplished?
many of us are lost without our smartphones? What
impact on other lifestyle activities do you predict as 9. Psychographic analyses can be used to market politi-
a result? cians. Conduct research on the marketing strategies used
in a recent major election. How were voters segmented in
5. Starbucks is solidly established as a go-to location for
terms of values? Can you find evidence that communica-
coffee, tea, and pastries, but in order to grow, the com-
tions strategies were guided by this information?
pany needs to expand its offerings so that customers
spend more of their time (and money) there. The chain 10. Construct separate advertising executions for a cosmet-
is experimenting with a new concept, Starbucks Eve- ics product targeted to the Achiever, Experiencer,
nings, where after 4:00 each afternoon the store flips Believer, and Maker VALS types. How would the basic
to a different menu that includes wine, beer, and small appeal differ for each group?
plates like truffle mac and cheese, sandwiches, and 11. Using media targeted to the group, construct a con-
salads. Is Starbucks too entrenched in our “coffee- sumption constellation for the social role of university
house lifestyle,” or does the chain have room to students. What set of products, activities, and inter-
expand? What recommendations would you make to ests tend to appear in advertisements depicting “typi-
Starbucks to help the company expand its lifestyle cal” university students? How realistic is this
marketing strategy? constellation?
6. Behavioural targeting techniques give marketers 12. Extreme sports. Day trading. Chat rooms. Vegetarianism.
access to a wide range of information about a con- Can you predict what will be “hot” in the near future?
sumer by relaying websites he or she visits. Do you Identify a lifestyle trend that is just surfacing in your
believe this “knowledge power” presents any ethical universe. Describe this trend in detail and justify your
problems with regard to consumer privacy? Should prediction. What specific styles and/or products are part
the government regulate access to such information? of this trend?
Going to Digital Extremes directly with the producer, art director, and lead programmer to
It had been a long week, and Allen Goode was facing crunch ensure that projects reached completion and maintained the
time on the latest “blue-sky” assignment he had been given by original creative vision that started each initiative.
top management. As a lead game designer at Digital Extremes,
Allen was primarily responsible for managing a design team A Competitive Arena—A Changing Consumer
project that focused on the development of a specific game With each passing year, the gaming industry seemed to be
title. From time to time, however, opportunities were given to becoming more and more competitive. Often characterized as
bring fresh ideas and approaches to the front end of the pro- a juggernaut of continuous development, the industry had
cess. Indeed, the industry was highly competitive, and top grown to become one of the largest categories of entertainment
management was always looking for innovative ideas with spending, with over $115 billion in revenue in 2015 (more rev-
respect to game storylines and structure. Allen was happy with enue than produced by the film and music industries com-
the direction he had taken with his proposal, but as he read bined). Interestingly, the industry had become very volatile,
through the rough draft he realized he needed to better develop with large players such as Activision, Electronic Arts, and Cap-
his ideas to show the value of the customer-centric approach com being challenged by smaller players and third-party game
he was proposing. developers as well as open-source games defined by consum-
ers themselves. Much like the film industry, franchise game
titles have come to play a dominant role in assured sales, with
Digital Extremes
noted successes such as Call of Duty, Halo, Assassin’s Creed,
Founded in 1993 by James Schmalz, Digital Extremes (www. and Sims releasing numerous sequels. Importantly, game play
digitalextremes.com) is a mid-size player in the highly com- has broadened the platforms from which consumers seek
petitive gaming industry. Located in London, Ontario, the com- gaming experiences. While console play such as Sony’s PS3
pany has grown from a small organization of just its founder to and Nintendo’s Wii continues to grow, the largest growth was
a studio that employs over 150 people. Digital Extremes’ first being seen in gaming opportunities for mobile, tablet, and
success was a 10-month project titled Epic Pinball that went social network–based gaming platforms. Game developers
on to become one of the most popular shareware games ever Zynga (Farmville) and King (Candy Crush) represent success-
made. Perhaps the most successful title developed by the ful innovators in this regard, with over 200 million active
company is the Unreal game franchise (co-created in collabo- monthly players using their Facebook games.
ration with Epic Games), which includes the original Unreal One factor underlying the growth of gaming across these
title game and extensions Unreal Tournament and Unreal multiple platforms has been the diffusion of gaming across dif-
Championship. With over 12 million units sold worldwide, this ferent types of consumers. Traditionally, gaming was stereo-
franchise set new standards for graphics and production val- typed as an activity embraced by the young male consumer.
ues in first-person action games and broke new ground in This stereotype was largely based on historical evidence that
online multiplayer gaming. Following the success of the Unreal saw the male market define most of the gaming trends for the
franchise, Digital Extremes completed development on its own past three decades. First-person shooter games (e.g., Duke
intellectual property for the new generation of game consoles, Nuke’em), driving games (e.g., Grand Theft Auto), and sports
releasing the Evolution Engine in 2008 as a technology for games (e.g., MaddenNFL) represented the majority of titles
game developers worldwide. In more recent years, the com- brought to market for a number of years. However, the success
pany has completed work (with other gaming companies) on of the introduction of Nintendo’s Wii system in 2006, the accep-
titles that include Warframe, Bioshock2, The Darkness II, tance of specific non-male titles such as Sims, and the
Homefront, and Star Trek. aforementioned diversity in gaming platforms have led to the
Digital Extremes attributes much of its success to the cre- industry breaking away from its traditional consumer segmenta-
ative freedom its organizational structure provides. Indeed, its tion approach. A much broader consumer market has embraced
employees create the concepts, develop the storylines, create gaming, and titles specific to children, females, and older con-
all characters and artwork, and manage the programming and sumers are now easily identified. As an example, research now
production of each game. Each respective division, whether indicates that approximately 40 percent of gamers are female
design, art, or programming, is responsible for its role in bring- consumers—a significant rise from only a few years ago.
ing the game to life. Working in design, Allen was directly
involved in both overseeing and creating a game’s rules,
balancing game play to ensure that it’s fun and feels real, and A New Approach to Understanding the Consumer
designing levels and layout, encounters, and objectives. Impor- The fact that different consumer markets were now central
tantly, in addition to managing his design team, Allen worked targets for new gaming development inspired Allen. While
demographic segmentation variables such as gender, age, identified, Allen couldn’t help but imagine how this idea might
and ethnicity were effective in defining new markets and gam- truly be a game-changer for the company.
ing ideas, Allen wondered if other approaches to understand-
ing the consumer might also be valuable in formulating new Questions
products. This thinking led him to build a proposal around
1. Do you think Allen’s idea to bring personality, psycho-
broader views on individual consumer differences. Allen won-
graphics, and value measures to gaming development has
dered if personality, psychographics, and different value pro-
merit? Why or why not?
files could be better harnessed in the development of gaming
concepts. In his initial draft, he identified individual differ- 2. Of the individual difference measures you have learned
ences like need for cognition, need for uniqueness, and value about, which do you think has the most applicability in the
gaming industry? Why?
profiles as possible drivers of game development. In fact,
those with a high need for cognition were certainly likely to be 3. Of the game categories that currently exist, which map to
drawn to quest and puzzle games, and Allen projected similar the individual difference constructs you have learned about?
correlations for other consumer personality and lifestyle 4. If you were charged with game development and had this
measures. As he tweaked a few of the relationships he had idea, what new game would you propose?
Notes
1. J. Aronoff and J.P. Wilson, Personality in the Social Process (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, com/1706766/how-a-system-designed-to-weed-out-nasa-astronauts-is-taking-the-
1985); Walter Mischel, Personality and Assessment (New York: Wiley, 1968). pain-out-of-customer-support-call?partner=homepage_newsletter.
2. Ernest Dichter, A Strategy of Desire (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1960); E. Dichter, 12. David Riesman, The Lonely Crowd: A Study of the Changing American Character
The Handbook of Consumer Motivations (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964); Jeffrey J. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1969).
Durgee, “Interpreting Dichter’s Interpretations: An Analysis of Consumption
Symbolism in The Handbook of Consumer Motivations,” unpublished manuscript, 13. Kelly Tepper Tian, William O. Bearden, and Gary L. Hunter, “Consumers’ Need for
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, 1989; Pierre Martineau, Motivation in Uniqueness: Scale Development and Validation,” Journal of Consumer Research 28
Advertising (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1957). (June 2001): 50–66.
3. Vance Packard, The Hidden Persuaders (New York: D. McKay, 1957). 14. Mohan J. Dutta-Bergman and William D. Wells, “The Values and Lifestyles of
Idiocentrics and Allocentrics in an Individualist Culture: A Descriptive Approach,”
4. Harold Kassarjian, “Personality and Consumer Behavior: A Review,” Journal of Journal of Consumer Psychology 12 (2002): 231–242.
Marketing Research 8 (November 1971): 409–418.
15. Jacob Jacoby, Personality and Consumer Behavior: How Not to Find
5. Karen Horney, Neurosis and Human Growth (New York: Norton, 1950). Relationships, Purdue Papers in Consumer Psychology, 102 (Lafayette, IN:
6. Joel B. Cohen, “An Interpersonal Orientation to the Study of Consumer Behavior,” Purdue University, 1969); Harold H. Kassarjian and Mary Jane Sheffet,
Journal of Marketing Research 6 (August 1967): 270–278; Pradeep K. Tyagi, “Personality and Consumer Behavior: An Update,” in Perspectives in
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for Consumer Research, 1983): 112–114. John Lastovicka and Erich Joachimsthaler, “Improving the Detection of
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Sons, 1970). the notion of personality more directly to marketing issues, see Jennifer L.
Aaker, “Measuring Brand Personality,” unpublished manuscript, Stanford
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Innovativeness,” in Advances in Consumer Research 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and 73(4) (2009): 109–124.
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Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, ed. Leonard Berkowitz (New York: Uniqueness: Scale Development and Validation,” Journal of Consumer Research 28
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“Measuring Consumer Innovativeness,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science Journal of Marketing 59(3) (1995): 16–29; Kelly T. Tian and Karyn McKenzie, “The
19 (1991): 209–221; Curtis P. Haugtvedt, Richard E. Petty, and John T. Cacioppo, Long-Term Predictive Validity of Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness Scale,” Journal of
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in Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 1 (1992): 239–260. 21. Katherine White and Jennifer J. Argo, “When Imitation Doesn’t Flatter: The Role of
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182 SE C TION II Consumers as Individuals
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C H A P T ER
7
Attitudes
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that it is important for consumer 5 Understand that a need to maintain consistency

researchers to understand the nature and power of among all of our attitudinal components often
attitudes. motivates us to alter one or more of them.
2 Understand that attitudes are more complex than 6 Understand that we use attitude models to identify

they first appear. specific components and combine them to predict a
consumer’s overall attitude toward a product or brand.
3 Understand that attitudes are made up of three
7 Understand that social norms can impact the degree
components: affect, behaviour, and cognition.

to which consumer attitudes will influence their
4 Understand that we form attitudes in several ways. behaviours.

THE POWER OF ATTITUDES

The term attitude is widely used in popular culture. You might be asked, “What is your
attitude toward abortion?” A parent might scold, “Young man, I don’t like your attitude.”
Some bars even euphemistically refer to happy hour as “an attitude adjustment period.”
For our purposes, an attitude is a lasting, general evaluation of people (including one-
self), objects, or issues.1 Anything toward which a person has an attitude, whether tangi-
ble, such as a brand of vodka, or intangible, such as drunk driving, is called an attitude
object (Ao). An attitude is lasting because it tends to endure over time. It is general because
it applies to more than a momentary event, like hearing a loud noise (though you might,
over time, develop a negative attitude toward all loud noises). Consumers have attitudes
toward very product-specific behaviours (such as using Crest toothpaste rather than Col-
gate), as well as toward more general consumption-related behaviours (such as how often
they should brush their teeth). Attitudes help to determine whom a person chooses to date,
what music he or she listens to, whether he or she will recycle or discard aluminum cans,
and whether he or she chooses to become a consumer researcher for a living.
This chapter will consider the contents of an attitude, how attitudes are formed, and CO 1
how they can be measured, and will review some of the surprisingly complex relation-
ships between attitudes and behaviour. In the next chapter, we’ll take a closer look at how
attitudes can be changed—certainly an issue of prime importance to marketers.
The Functions of Attitudes CO 2

Psychologist Daniel Katz developed the functional theory of attitudes to explain how atti-
tudes facilitate social behaviour.2 According to this pragmatic approach, attitudes exist
because they serve some function for the person; that is, they are determined by a person’s
184 S E C T I O N I I I Attitude Change and Decision Making
motives. Consumers who expect that they will need to deal with similar information
at a future time will be more likely to start forming attitudes in anticipation of
this event.3
Two people can each have the same attitude toward some object for very differ-
ent reasons. As a result, it can be helpful for a marketer to know why an attitude is
held before attempting to change it. The following are attitude functions identified
by Katz:
• Utilitarian function: The utilitarian function is related to the basic principles of
reward and punishment. We develop some of our attitudes toward products sim-
ply on the basis of whether these products provide pleasure or pain. If a person
likes the taste of a cheeseburger, that person will develop a positive attitude
toward cheeseburgers. Ads that stress straightforward product benefits (e.g., you
should drink Diet Coke “just for the taste of it”) appeal to the utilitarian function.
• Value-expressive function: Attitudes that perform a value-expressive function
express the consumer’s self-concept (Chapter 5) or central values (Chapter 6). A
person forms a product attitude not because of its objective benefits, but because
of what the product says about him or her as a person (“What sort of man rides a
Harley?”). Value-expressive attitudes are highly relevant to lifestyle analyses, in
which consumers cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to
express a particular social identity. Value-expressive attitudes are also highly rel-
evant to the psychographic analyses we discussed in Chapter 6, which consider
how consumers cultivate a cluster of activities, interests, and opinions to express
a particular social identity.
• Ego-defensive function: Attitudes that are formed to protect the person, either
from external threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive function.
Products that promise to help a man project a rugged, manly image may be appeal-
ing to his insecurities about his masculinity. Another example is deodorant ads
that stress the dire, embarrassing consequences of being caught with underarm
odour in public.
• Knowledge function: Some attitudes are formed as the result of a need for order,
structure, or meaning. This function applies when a person is in an ambigu-
ous situation (“It’s okay to wear casual pants to work, but only on Friday”) or
when he or she confronts a new product (e.g., “Bayer wants you to know about
pain relievers”).
Buckley’s, an Ontario-based company, high-

lights the utilitarian function by focusing on
the rewards it can provide (It works!) and
making fun of the punishments associated
with it (It tastes awful!).
Reprinted with permission of Novartis Consumer Health
Canada Inc.
C H A P T E R 7 Attitudes 185
An attitude can serve more than one function, but in many cases a particular one
will be dominant. By identifying the dominant function a product serves for consum-
ers (what benefits it provides), marketers can emphasize these benefits in their com-
munications and packaging. Ads relevant to the function prompt more favourable
thoughts about what is being marketed and can result in a heightened preference for
both the ad and the product.
The importance of an attitude object may differ quite a bit for different people.
Understanding the attitude’s importance to an individual and to others who share sim-
ilar characteristics can be useful to marketers who are trying to devise strategies that
will appeal to different customer segments. A study of football game attendance illus-
trates that varying levels of commitment result in different fan “profiles.”4 The study
identified three distinct clusters of fans:5
• One cluster consisted of the real diehard fans who were highly committed to their
team and who displayed an enduring love of the game. To reach these fans, the
researchers recommend that sports marketers should focus on providing them
with greater sports knowledge and relate their attendance to their personal goals
and values.
• A second cluster reflected attitudes based on the unique, self-expressive experi-
ence provided by the game. These fans enjoy the stimulation of cheering for a
team and the drama of the competition itself. They are more likely to be “brand
switchers” who are fair-weather fans, shifting allegiances when the home team no
longer provides the thrills they need. This segment can be appealed to by publi-
cizing aspects of the visiting teams, such as advertising the appearance of stars
likely to give the fans a game they will remember.
• A third cluster were looking for camaraderie above all. These consumers attend
games primarily to take part in small group activities such as pre- or postgame
parties that accompany the event. Marketers could appeal to this cluster by pro-
viding improved peripheral benefits, such as making it easier for groups to meet at
the stadium, improving parking, and offering multiple-unit pricing.
The ABC Model of Attitudes CO 3

When Subaru began work on a new marketing strategy, the automaker discovered that
even though most auto buyers had heard of their brand, very few had strong emotional
connections to it. However, among Subaru owners there was an outspoken passion
and love for the brand, and they expressed a very positive emotional link to their cars.
The new campaign therefore targets people who are in three different stages of buying
a car—what Subaru calls the heart, the head, and the wallet. Advertisements for the
“heart” stage focus on the love owners have for their cars by sharing personal stories of
attachment. The “head” stage ads, in contrast, present a rational side of specific mod-
els, as they emphasize how the cars benefit their owners in terms of reliability, econ-
omy, and so on. The “wallet” ads deal with the financial side of actually buying a
Subaru, such as local dealer offers.6
Like the Subaru campaign, an attitude has three components: affect, behaviour, and
cognition. Affect refers to the way a consumer feels about an attitude object. Behaviour,
or conation, involves the person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude
object (but, as will be discussed later, an intention does not always result in an actual
behaviour). Cognition refers to the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object. These
three components of an attitude can be remembered as the ABC model of attitudes.
This model emphasizes the interrelationships among knowing, feeling, and doing.
Consumers’ attitudes toward a product cannot be determined simply by identifying
their beliefs about it. For example, a researcher might find that shoppers “know” that
a particular digital SLR camera has a power zoom lens, auto-focus, and built-in Wi-Fi
connectivity, but such findings do not indicate whether they feel these attributes are
good, bad, or irrelevant, or whether they would actually buy the camera.
FIGURE 7–1
Three Hierarchies of Effects
HIGH INVOLVEMENT ATTITUDE

Based on
Cognition Affect Behaviour cognitive
information
processing
LOW INVOLVEMENT ATTITUDE

Based on
Cognition Behaviour Affect behavioural
learning
processes
ZAJONC'S MODEL
ATTITUDE
Based on
Affect Behaviour Cognition
hedonic
consumption
H IE R A R C H IES O F EFFECTS
Although all three components of an attitude are important, their relative importance
will vary according to a consumer’s level of motivation with regard to the attitude
object. Attitude researchers have developed the concept of a hierarchy of effects to
explain the relative impact of the three components. Each hierarchy specifies that a
fixed sequence of steps occurs en route to an attitude. Three different hierarchies are
summarized in Figure 7–1.
T H E H IG H -IN VO LVEMEN T H IER AR CH Y

When highly involved, a consumer approaches a product decision as a problem-solving
process. First, he or she forms beliefs about a product by accumulating knowledge
(beliefs) regarding relevant attributes. Next, the consumer evaluates these beliefs and
forms a feeling about the product (affect). Finally, on the basis of this evaluation, the
consumer engages in a relevant behaviour, such as buying the product.
This careful choice process often results in a type of brand loyalty. The consumer
“bonds” with the product over time and is not easily persuaded to experiment with
other brands. The standard learning hierarchy assumes that a consumer is highly
involved in making a purchase decision.7 The person is motivated to seek out a lot of
information, carefully weigh alternatives, and come to a thoughtful decision.
T H E L O W-IN VO LVEMEN T H IER AR CH Y

In sharp contrast to high involvement, under low involvement interest in the attitude
object is at best lukewarm. The consumer has collected only a minimal amount of
information before acting and has an emotional response only after consuming the
product. This is typical of a consumer who forms an attitude via the low-involvement
hierarchy of effects. In this sequence, the consumer initially does not have a strong
preference for one brand over another; he or she instead acts on the basis of limited
knowledge and then forms an evaluation only after the fact.8 The attitude is likely to
come about through behavioural learning, in which the consumer’s choice is rein-
forced by good or bad experiences with the product after purchase.
The possibility that consumers simply don’t care enough about many decisions
to carefully assemble a set of product beliefs and then evaluate them is important,
because it implies that all the concern about influencing beliefs and carefully com-
municating information about product attributes may be largely wasted. Consumers
aren’t necessarily going to pay attention anyway; they are more likely to respond to
simple stimulus–response connections when making purchase decisions. For exam-
ple, a consumer choosing among paper towels might remember that “Bounty is the
quicker picker-upper” rather than bothering systematically to compare all the brands
on the shelf.
For marketers, the ironic silver lining to this low-involvement cloud is that under
these conditions consumers are not motivated to process a lot of complex brand-
related information. Instead, they will be swayed by principles of behavioural learn-
ing, such as the simple responses caused by conditioned brand names, point-of-purchase
displays, and so on. This results in what we might call the involvement paradox: The
less important the product is to consumers, the more important are many of the mar-
keting stimuli (e.g., packages, jingles) that have to be devised to market it.
ZA J O NC ’S MODE L O F H E DO N IC C O N S U MPTIO N
According to the experiential hierarchy of effects, we act on the basis of our emotional
reactions. The experiential perspective highlights the idea that intangible product
attributes, such as package design, advertising, brand names, and the nature of the set-
ting in which the experience occurs, can help shape our attitudes toward a brand. We
may base these reactions on hedonic motivations, such as whether using the product
is exciting like the Nintendo Wii or aesthetically pleasing like the Apple iPhone.
Even the emotions expressed by the communicator have an impact. A smile is
infectious; in a process termed emotional contagion, messages delivered by happy
people enhance our attitude toward the product.9 Numerous studies indicate that
the mood a person is in when exposed to a marketing message influences how the ad
is processed, the likelihood that the information presented will be remembered, and
how the person will feel about the advertised item and related products in
the future.10
One important debate about the experiential hierarchy concerns the indepen-
dence of cognition and affect. On the one hand, the cognitive-affective model argues
that an affective judgment is but the last step in a series of cognitive processes. Earlier
steps include the sensory registration of stimuli and the retrieval of meaningful infor-
mation from memory to categorize these stimuli.11
On the other hand, the independence hypothesis takes the position that affect and
cognition involve two separate, partially independent systems; affective responses do
not always require prior cognitions.12 The independence hypothesis does not elimi-
nate the role of cognition in experience; it simply balances this traditional, rational
emphasis on calculated decision making by paying more attention to the impact of
aesthetic, subjective experience. This type of holistic processing is more likely to
occur when the product is perceived as primarily expressive or when it delivers sen-
sory pleasure rather than utilitarian benefits.13
Product Attitudes Don’t Tell the Whole Story

Marketers who are concerned with understanding consumers’ attitudes have to
contend with an even more complex issue: In decision-making situations, people
form attitudes toward objects other than the product itself that can influence their
ultimate selections. One additional factor to consider is attitudes toward the act of
buying in general. As we’ll see later in this chapter, sometimes people are reluc-
tant, embarrassed, or just too plain lazy to expend the effort to obtain a desired
product or service.
ATTI T UDE TOWA RD T H E A D V E RT IS E ME N T

In addition, consumers’ reactions to a product, over and above their feelings about the
product itself, are influenced by their evaluations of its advertising. Our evaluation of
a product can be determined solely by our appraisal of how it is depicted in marketing
communications; that is, we don’t hesitate to form attitudes toward products we’ve
never even seen in person, much less used.
One special type of attitude object, then, is the marketing message itself. The
attitude toward the advertisement (Aad) is defined as a predisposition to respond
in a favourable or unfavourable manner to a particular advertising stimulus during
a particular exposure occasion. Determinants of Aad include the viewer’s attitude
toward the advertiser, evaluations of the ad execution itself, the mood evoked by
the ad, and the degree to which the ad affects viewers’ arousal levels.14 A viewer’s
feelings about the context in which an ad appears can also influence brand atti-
tudes. For example, attitudes about an ad and the brand depicted will be influ-
enced if the consumer sees the ad while watching a favourite series on YouTube.15
The effects demonstrated by A ad emphasize the importance of an ad’s entertain-
ment value in the purchase process. 16 If consumers are not able to view an ad
again, both belief in and attitude confidence about that ad rapidly diminish. This
research supports marketers’ efforts to pulse or frequently repeat advertisements in
the media.17
AD S H AV E FEELIN G S TO O
The feelings generated by advertising have the capacity to directly affect brand atti-
tudes. Commercials can evoke a wide range of emotional responses, from disgust to
happiness. These feelings can be influenced both by the way the ad is done (the spe-
cific advertising execution) and by the consumer’s reactions to the advertiser’s
motives. For example, many advertisers who are trying to craft messages for adoles-
cents and young adults are encountering problems because this age group, having
grown up in a “marketing society,” tend to be skeptical about attempts to get them to
buy things.18 These reactions can, in turn, influence memory for advertising con-
tent.19 At least three emotional dimensions have been identified in commercials:
pleasure, arousal, and intimidation.20 Specific types of feelings that can be generated
by an ad include the following:21
• Upbeat feelings: Amused, delighted, playful
• Warm feelings: Affectionate, contemplative, hopeful
• Negative feelings: Critical, defiant, offended
By associating the product with positive

imagery, Cheerios creates positive attitudes
toward the brand.
© Patti McConville/Alamy
The McDonald’s “I’m Loving It” campaign,

like that of Cheerios, creates warm feelings
and positive attitudes toward the brand.
Courtesy of McDonald’s
FORMING ATTITUDES CO 4
We all have lots of attitudes, and we don’t usually question how we got them. Certainly
a person isn’t born with the conviction that, say, Pepsi is better than Coke, or that Marketing
indie rock music liberates the soul. Where do these attitudes come from?
An attitude can form in several different ways, depending on the particular hier- Insight
archy of effects in operation. It can occur because of classical conditioning, wherein The now infamous story of the the introduction of
an attitude object, such as the McDonald’s name, is repeatedly paired with a catchy New Coke in the 1980s illustrates what can hap-
jingle (“I’m lovin’ it”). Or it can be formed through instrumental conditioning, in pen when a marketer messes with strongly held
which consumption of the attitude object is reinforced (e.g., “Pepsi quenches one’s attitudes. In this case, Coca-Cola decided to
thirst”). Or the learning of an attitude can be the outcome of a very complex cognitive change its flavour formula to meet the needs of
process. For example, a teenager may come to model the behaviour of friends and younger consumers who often preferred a
media figures who drink Red Bull because she believes that this act will allow her to sweeter taste (more characteristic of Pepsi). The
fit in with the desirable images of the Millennial generation. company conducted rigorous blind taste tests
that showed people who didn’t know what
brands they were drinking preferred the flavour
Not All Attitudes Are Created Equal of the new formula. Much to its surprise, when
New Coke hit the shelves, the company faced a
It is important to distinguish among types of attitudes, since not all are formed the
consumer revolt as die-hard Coke fans pro-
same way.22 For example, on the one hand, a highly brand-loyal consumer has an
tested. This allegiance to Coke was obviously
enduring, deeply held positive attitude toward an attitude object, and this involve-
more than a minor taste preference for these
ment will be difficult to weaken. On the other hand, another consumer may be
people; the brand was intertwined with their
less brand-loyal; he or she may have a mildly positive attitude toward a product social identities and took on intense patriotic
but be quite willing to abandon it when something better comes along. This sec- and nostalgic properties. Thus, savvy marketers
tion will consider the differences between strongly and weakly held attitudes, need to be aware that consumer attitudes
and will briefly review some of the major theoretical perspectives that have been toward their products often have to do with more
developed to explain how attitudes form and relate to one another in the minds than simple functional attributes such as taste!
of consumers.
Levels of Commitment to an Attitude

Consumers vary in their commitment to an attitude. The degree of commitment is
related to their level of involvement with the attitude object as follows:23
• Compliance: At the lowest level of involvement, compliance, an attitude is formed
because it helps gain rewards or avoid punishments from others. This attitude is
very superficial; it is likely to change when the person’s behaviour is no longer
monitored by others or when another option becomes available. A person may
drink Pepsi because this is the brand that all of his friends drink and he doesn’t
want to rock the boat.
• Identification: A process of identification occurs when attitudes are formed so that
the consumer will then feel similar to another person or group. Advertising that
depicts the social consequences of choosing some products over others is relying on
the tendency of consumers to imitate the behaviour of desirable models.
• Internalization: At a high level of involvement, deep-seated attitudes are internal-
ized and become part of the person’s value system. These attitudes are very diffi-
cult to change, because they are so important to the individual.
CO 5 The Consistency Principle

Have you ever heard someone say, “Mountain Dew is my favourite drink. It tastes ter-
rible,” or “I love my husband. He’s the biggest idiot I’ve ever met”? Probably not,
because these beliefs or evaluations are not consistent with each other. According to
the principle of cognitive consistency, consumers value harmony among their
thoughts, feelings, and behaviours, and they are motivated to maintain uniformity
among these elements. This desire means that, if necessary, consumers will change
their thoughts, feelings, or behaviours to make them consistent with other experiences.
The consistency principle is an important reminder that attitudes are not formed in a
vacuum. A significant determinant of the way an attitude object will be evaluated is
how it fits in with other, related attitudes already held by the consumer.
CO G N IT IV E D ISSO N AN CE AN D H AR MO N Y AMO N G ATTITU D ES

The theory of cognitive dissonance states that when a person is confronted with
inconsistencies among his or her own attitudes or behaviours, he or she will take some
action to resolve this unpleasant psychological state, or “dissonance.” The theory pro-
poses that people are motivated to reduce the negative feelings caused by dissonance
by making things fit with one another. This can be done, for example, by changing the
attitude or modifying behaviour.24 The theory has important ramifications for atti-
tudes, since people are often confronted by situations in which there is some conflict
between their attitudes and behaviours.25
A cognitive element can be something people believe about themselves, behav-
iours they perform, or observations about their surroundings. For example, the two
belief statements “I know smoking cigarettes causes cancer” and “I smoke ciga-
rettes” are dissonant with one another. This psychological inconsistency creates a
feeling of discomfort that the smoker is motivated to reduce. The magnitude of dis-
sonance depends on both the importance and the number of dissonant elements.26
In other words, the pressure to reduce dissonance is more likely to be observed in
high-involvement situations in which the dissonant elements are more important to
the individual.
Dissonance reduction can occur by eliminating, adding, or changing elements.
For example, the person might stop smoking (eliminate) or remember Great-Aunt
Sophie, who smoked until the day she died at age 90 (add).
Dissonance theory can help to explain why evaluations of a product tend to
increase after it has been purchased. Postpurchase dissonance can occur in situations
where the consumer has a choice between more than one favourable alternative. For
example, if the consumer narrows down her search for a new computer to two key
alternatives and then selects one, dissonance can arise because the alternative she
gave up (what researchers call the “forgone option”) had many desirable qualities.
This is because the cognition “That computer had some really cool options” and
the behaviour “I picked something else instead” are inconsistent. This can lead to
feelings of dissonance, which the consumer is motivated to resolve. One way this
can be done is by reconfirming that she made the right purchase after all, focusing
on desirable qualities of the chosen option and actually liking it more after it has
been selected. Marketers often encourage consumers to deal with potential post-
choice dissonance in this way by reinforcing why choosing their brand was the
right decision.
TRANSIT SHELTER
Standard Size Transit Shelter
Production Template
SE LF-P E RC E P TION T H E ORY

STANDARD TRIM STANDARD VISIBLE OPENING SAFETY BLEED
Do attitudes necessarily change
17.18" x 24.818" following behaviour
16.36" x 24.09" 15.45" x 23.52" because people
17.68" are
x 25.318"motivated to
feel good about their decisions? Self-perception theory provides an alternative expla-
nation of dissonance effects.27 It assumes that people use observations of their own
behaviour to determine what their attitudes are, just as we assume that we know the
She’s
One implication of cognitive dissonance in
decision-making contexts is that marketers
should confirm that the consumer made
(or is making) the right choice. This
advertisement from Canadian retailer
Spence Diamonds does an excellent job
The One
of this.
Courtesy of Spence Diamonds
(You said you

needed a sign.)
07/2007
attitudes of others by watching what they do. The theory states that we maintain con-
Marketing sistency by inferring that we must have a positive attitude toward an object if we have
Insight bought or consumed it (assuming that we freely made this choice).
Self-perception theory is relevant to the low-involvement hierarchy, since it
Have you ever liked a social cause on Facebook involves situations in which behaviours are initially performed in the absence of a
or followed a charitable organization on Twitter? strong internal attitude. After the fact, the cognitive and affective components of atti-
One interesting example where foot-in-the door tude fall into line. Thus, buying a product out of habit may result in a positive attitude
effects do not always arise is in the domain toward it after the fact—namely, why would I buy it if I didn’t like it?
of providing displays of “token support” for Self-perception theory helps to explain the effectiveness of a sales strategy
causes. These symbols of token support can be called the foot-in-the-door technique, which is based on the observation that a
physical, such as wearing a pin or a bracelet for consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed to
the cause, or online, such signing an online comply with a smaller request.28 The name for this technique comes from the prac-
petition or joining a Facebook group. One issue
tice of door-to-door selling, wherein a salesperson was taught to plant his or her
that has been raised in the media is that allow-
foot in a door so that the prospect could not slam it shut. A good salesperson knows
ing consumers to provide this type of token
that he or she is more likely to get an order if the customer can be persuaded to
support for causes can lead to slacktivism,
open the door and talk. By agreeing to do so, the customer has established a will-
wherein people are willing to give a relatively
ingness to listen to the salesperson. Placing an order is consistent with this self-
costless, token display of support for a social
cause (such as liking a page on Facebook), but
perception. This technique is especially useful for inducing consumers to answer
are unwilling to subsequently devote significant surveys or to donate money to charity. Such factors as the time lag between the
effort to enact meaningful change (such as first and second requests, the similarity between the two requests, and whether the
donating money or volunteering to support the same person makes both requests have been found to influence the effectiveness of
cause). Recent research shows that when such this technique.29
token displays are made very publicly (so that Another variation of this strategy is the low-ball technique, in which a person
others can view the support), people are no is asked for a small favour and is informed after agreeing to it that it will be very
more likely to help when subsequently asked to costly. This can be contrasted against the door-in-the-face technique, in which a
donate money or volunteer time. However, when person is first asked to do something extreme (a request that is usually refused) and
the initial act of token support is private, people then is asked to do something smaller. In the latter case, people tend to go along
are more likely help in response to a subse- with the smaller request, possibly because they feel guilty about denying the larger
quent, more meaningful request for support. one.30
Importantly, if people are asked to think about
how their own values align with the cause, SOCIAL JUDGMENT THEORY Social judgment theory also assumes that people assimi-
this slacktivism can be counteracted and peo- late new information about attitude objects in light of what they already know or
ple can be more willing to provide meaningful feel.31 The initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, and new information is catego-
support. rized in terms of this existing standard. Just as our decision that a box is heavy depends
in part on other boxes we have lifted, we develop a subjective standard when making
judgments about attitude objects.
One important aspect of the theory is the notion that people differ in terms of
the information they will find acceptable or unacceptable. They form latitudes of
acceptance and rejection around an attitude standard. Ideas that fall within a
latitude will be favourably received, while those falling outside this zone will not.
For example, consider a consumer who has a favourable attitude toward the use of
designated drivers. He is likely to be receptive to communications urging him to play
this role before heading out for an evening on the town. If he were opposed to this
practice, these messages would probably not be considered.
On the one hand, messages that fall within the latitude of acceptance tend to be
seen as more consistent with our own position than they actually are. This process is
called an assimilation effect. On the other hand, messages falling within the latitude of
rejection tend to be seen as even further from our own position than they actually are,
resulting in a contrast effect.32
As a person becomes more involved with an attitude object, his or her latitude of
acceptance gets smaller; in other words, the consumer accepts fewer ideas that are
removed from his or her own position and tends to oppose even mildly divergent posi-
tions. This tendency is evident in ads that appeal to discriminating buyers, which
claim that knowledgeable people will reject anything but the very best. On the other
hand, relatively uninvolved consumers will consider a wider range of alternatives.
They are less likely to be brand-loyal and more likely to switch brands.33
Consistency theories, such as balance

theory, predict that consumers will have
more favourable attitudes to a product if it
is paired with a positively viewed stimulus
such as a well-liked movie.
PRNewsFoto/Mercedes-Benz USA
BALANCE THEORY Balance theory considers relations among elements that a person
might perceive as belonging together.34 This perspective involves relations (always
from the perceiver’s subjective point of view) among three elements, so the resulting
attitude structures are called triads. Each triad contains (1) a person and his or her
perceptions of (2) an attitude object and (3) some other person or object.
These perceptions can be either positive or negative. More importantly, people
alter these perceptions to make relations among them consistent. The theory specifies
that people desire relations among elements in a triad to be harmonious, or balanced.
If they are not, a state of tension will result until somehow perceptions are changed
and balance is restored.
Elements can be perceived as going together in one of two ways. They can have
either a unit relation, in which one element is seen as somehow belonging to or being
a part of the other (something like a belief), or a sentiment relation, in which the two
elements are linked because one has expressed a preference (or dislike) for the other.
A dating couple might be seen as having a positive sentiment relation. Upon getting
married, they will have a positive unit relation. The process of divorce is an attempt to
sever a unit relation.
To see how balance theory might work, consider the following scenario:
• Monica would like to date Jerry, who is in her consumer behaviour class. In balance
theory terms, Monica has a positive sentiment relation with Jerry.
• One day Jerry shows up in class and she sees that he has a new tattoo on his arm.
Jerry has a positive unit relation with the tattoo. It belongs to him and is literally a
part of him.
• Monica does not like tattoos. She has a negative sentiment relation with tattoos.
According to balance theory, Monica faces an unbalanced triad, and she will
experience pressure to restore balance by altering some aspect of the triad, as shown in
Figure 7–2. She might, for example, decide that she does not like Jerry after all. Or her
liking for Jerry might prompt a change in her attitude toward tattoos. She might even
try to negate the unit relation between Jerry and the tattoo by deciding that he must
have gotten it only as part of an initiation (reducing the free-choice element). Finally,
she could choose to “leave the field” by not thinking any more about Jerry and his
controversial tattoo.
FIGURE 7–2
Alternative Routes to Restoring Balance in a Triad
Monica
Jerry Tattoo
Monica
Monica
Consumers Jerry Tattoo
in Focus
Jerry Tattoo Monica
Consumers often like to publicize their con-
nections with successful people or organiza-
tions (no matter how shaky the connection) to UNBALANCED TRIAD
enhance their own standing. Researchers call
Jerry Tattoo
this basking in reflected glory. A series of
studies at Arizona State University (ASU)
showed how students’ desires to identify with Monica
a winning image—in this case, ASU’s football
team—influenced their consumption behav-
iours. After the team played a game each
weekend, observers recorded the incidence of Jerry Tattoo
students wearing school-related items, such
as ASU T-shirts and caps. The researchers cor- Note that although the theory does not specify which of these routes will be
related the frequency of these behaviours to taken, it does predict that one or more of Monica’s perceptions will probably change
the team’s performance. If the team won on to achieve balance. Although this distortion is most likely an oversimplified repre-
Saturday, students were more likely to show sentation of most attitude processes, it helps to explain a number of consumer
off their school affiliation (basking in reflected
behaviour phenomena.
glory) the following Monday than if the team
had lost. And the bigger the point spread, the MARKETING APPLICATIONS OF BALANCE THEORY Balance theory reminds us that
more likely they were to observe students who when perceptions are balanced, attitudes are likely to be stable. On the other hand,
wore clothes with the ASU logo. when inconsistencies are observed, we are more likely to observe changes in attitudes.
Similarly to college sports, professional Balance theory also helps to explain why consumers like to be associated with posi-
sports franchises such as those in the NHL and tively valued objects. Forming a unit relation with a popular product (buying and
CFL reap huge revenues when they license their wearing fashionable clothing or driving a flashy car) may improve one’s chances of
team’s name and logo. NHL teams with strong being included as a positive sentiment relation in other people’s triads.
histories of success, such as the Edmonton Finally, balance theory is useful in accounting for the widespread use of celebri-
Oilers, Montreal Canadiens, and Vancouver ties to endorse products. In cases where a triad is not fully formed (e.g., one involving
Canucks, earn substantial profits selling mil- perceptions about a new product or one about which the consumer does not yet have
lions of dollars’ worth of merchandise in their
a well-defined attitude), the marketer can create a positive sentiment relation between
local markets (everything from T-shirts to travel
the consumer and the product by depicting a positive unit relation between the prod-
mugs). The Jets began playing in Winnipeg in
uct and a well-known personality. In other cases, behaviours are discouraged when
the 2011–12 season, which provided a new
admired people argue against them, as is the goal when athletes appear in public
opportunity for fans to bask in reflected glory. In
service advertisements against drinking and driving.
one example, Budweiser leveraged this concept
This “balancing act” is at the heart of celebrity endorsements, in which it is
by releasing a limited-edition “Fan Brew” beer
for Winnipeg Jets fans. The water used in the hoped that the star’s popularity will transfer to the product. This strategy will be
brewing process was collected from iconic considered at length in the next chapter. For now, it pays to remember that this
locations around Winnipeg and the marketing creation of a unit relation between product and star can backfire if the public’s
campaign centred on a sense of pride in being opinion of the celebrity endorser shifts from positive to negative, as happened when
a Winnipeg Jets fan. Tiger Woods’s philandering was exposed: Tag Heuer, Gillette, and Accenture all cut
or suspended him as their spokesperson. The strategy can also cause trouble if the
Budweiser leveraged the desire to associ-

ate with positive groups by promoting its
limited-edition Winnipeg Jets Fan Brew
beer, which associates the brand with a
much-loved hockey team.
Courtesy of Labatt Breweries of Canada. NHL and NHL
team marks are the property of the NHL and its teams.
© NHL 2015. All Rights Reserved. Used with
permission.
star–product unit relation is questioned, as when the celebrity gets caught using a
competitor’s brand.
ATTITUDE MODELS
A consumer’s overall evaluation of a product sometimes accounts for most of his or
her attitude toward it. When market researchers want to assess attitudes, it can
often be sufficient for them simply to ask consumers, “How do you feel about
American Apparel?”
However, as we saw earlier, attitudes can be a lot more complex than that. One
problem is that a product or service may comprise many attributes, or qualities, some
of which may be more important than others to particular people. Another problem is
that people’s decisions to act on their attitudes are affected by other factors, such as
whether they feel that buying a product would be met with approval by friends or
family. For these reasons, attitude models have been developed that try to specify the
different elements that might work together to influence people’s evaluations of
attitude objects.
Multi-attribute Attitude Models CO 6
A simple response does not always tell us everything we need to know about either
why the consumer feels a certain way toward a product or what marketers can do to
change the consumer’s attitude.
Beliefs about specific brand attributes can be pivotal for a product. Warner-
Lambert discovered this in research it did for its FreshBurst Listerine mouthwash.
A research firm paid 37 families to set up cameras in their bathrooms to watch their
daily routines. Users of both Listerine and rival Scope said they used mouthwash to
As I See It
Where do our consumption atti- basis for our own attitudes toward food and eating later in life.
tudes come from? Some of our Other social groups such as our friends, classmates, and team-
attitudes are based on our own mates influence our attitudes in the same ways.
experiences, and our likes and Our attitudes toward food and food consumption practices
dislikes are shaped by advertising, are also shaped by social institutions. The government gives us a
product-rating services such as food guide that specifies what we should eat each day to be
Courtesy of Professor Robert Fisher
Consumer Reports and Epinions. healthy. It also uses public service announcements and school
com, and of course through pur- nutrition programs to try to inform and persuade us. In the busi-
chase and use. Often overlooked ness sector, supermarkets, food manufacturers, and restaurants
is the fact that our attitudes are advertise foods to achieve their economic objectives. Often the
also a reflection of the attitudes of foods they promote are convenient to prepare and consume and
those around us. taste great, but they are also often high in fat, sodium, and calo-
Consider our beliefs and ries. The messages we receive from government sources and the
Dr. Robert Fisher University of feelings about food. When we are food industry are often contradictory.
Alberta young our parents influence or As you might have guessed by this point, I am interested in
determine the foods we experi- people’s attitudes and beliefs about eating. Along with Professor
ence, how they are prepared, how often we eat, what constitutes Laurette Dubé, I have recently published a paper in Appetite
a typical meal, and so forth. Sometimes our parents tell us that develops measures of Americans’ beliefs about the appro-
directly what we should do, such as when we are told “not to eat priateness of various eating behaviours. I am also involved in
between meals” or that we must “finish our dinner before we projects related to the effects of advertising on these beliefs,
can have dessert.” These statements are based on injunctive and consequent food purchases and consumption. Understand-
norms that reflect an obligation to act in a certain way. We also ing attitudes about eating can help public policy makers and
learn through what are called descriptive norms, which relate to managers promote healthy eating behaviours. It can also help
what is typical or normal within our environment. The routines consumers understand the origins of their beliefs about eating
we experience within our homes during childhood become the and better manage their health.
Robert J. Fisher and Laurette Dubé, “Development and Validation of an Eating Norms Inventory: Americans’ Lay-Beliefs about Appropriate Eating,” Appetite 57(2) (2011):
365–376.
make their breath smell good. But Scope users swished the liquid and then spit it out,
while Listerine users kept the product in their mouths for a long time. These findings
meant that Listerine hadn’t shaken its medicine-like image.35
For this reason, multi-attribute attitude models have been popular among market-
ing researchers. This type of model assumes that a consumer’s attitude (evaluation) of
an attitude object (Ao) will depend on the beliefs he or she has about several or many
attributes of the object. The use of a multi-attribute model implies that an attitude
toward a product or brand can be predicted by identifying these specific beliefs and
combining them to derive a measure of the consumer’s overall attitude.
We’ll describe here how these work, using the example of a consumer evaluating
a complex attitude object that should be very familiar to you: a grocery store. Basic
multi-attribute models specify three elements:36
1. Attributes are characteristics of the Ao. Most models assume that the relevant
characteristics can be identified; that is, the researcher can include those attri-
butes that consumers take into consideration when evaluating the Ao. For exam-
ple, degree of freshness of produce is an attribute of a grocery store.
2. Beliefs are cognitions about the specific Ao (usually relative to others similar to it).
A belief measure assesses the extent to which the consumer perceives that a brand
possesses a particular attribute. For example, a student might have a belief that
Sobeys has the freshest produce.
3. Importance weights reflect the relative priority of an attribute to the consumer.
Although an Ao can be considered on the basis of a number of attributes, some are
This ad from Kia highlights the value that

consumers place on multiple attributes
(such as being safe and stylish) when
forming attitudes.
Brian Garland Photography/Dimitri Daniloff/Levine/
Leavitt—Kia Motors America, Inc.
likely to be more important than others (i.e., they will be given greater weight).
And these weights are likely to differ across consumers. In the case of grocery
stores, for example, one student might stress low prices while another might
assign greater weight to fresh produce.
THE F IS HBE IN MO DE L
The most influential multi-attribute model is called the Fishbein model, named after
its primary developer.37 The model measures three components of attitude:
1. Salient beliefs people have about an Ao (those beliefs about the object that are
considered during evaluation)
2. Object-attribute linkages, or the probability that a particular object has an impor-
tant attribute
3. Evaluation of each of the important attributes
Note, however, that the model makes some assumptions that may not always be
warranted. It assumes that we have been able to specify adequately all the relevant
attributes that, for example, a student will use in evaluating his or her choice about
which university to attend. The model also assumes that he or she will go through the
process (formally or informally) of identifying a set of relevant attributes, weighing
them and summing them. Although this particular decision is likely to be highly
involving, it is still possible that the student’s attitude will instead be formed by an
overall affective response (a process known as affect-referral).
By combining these three elements, a consumer’s overall attitude toward an object
can be computed. (We’ll see later how this equation has been modified to increase its
accuracy.) The basic formula is as follows:
Aijk = SBijkIik
where i = attribute
j = brand
k = consumer
I = the importance weight given attribute i by consumer k
B = consumer k’s belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses
attribute i
A = a particular consumer k’s attitude score for brand j
TABLE 7–1
The Basic Multi-attribute Model: Narveen’s Grocery Store Decision

Attribute (i ) Importance (I) Beliefs (B)
Safeway IGA Loblaws
Low prices 5 2 3 4
Customer loyalty card 3 5 5 1
Free and accessible parking 4 4 3 4
In-store deli 5 5 5 3
Fresh produce 2 3 3 4
Attitude score 72 73 62
Note: These hypothetical ratings are scored from 1 to 5, and higher numbers indicate “better” standing on an attribute.
The overall attitude score (A) is obtained by multiplying a consumer’s rating

of each attribute for all of the brands considered by the importance rating for
that attribute.
To see how this basic multi-attribute model might work, let’s suppose we want to
predict at which grocery store Narveen is likely to do his weekly shopping. He lives
more or less equidistant from three different stores. To decide which one he will go
to, he considers the attributes across all three stores and forms an attitude toward
each store. We can ask Narveen to assign a rating regarding how well each store per-
forms on each attribute and how important each attribute is to him. An overall atti-
tude score for each store can then be computed by summing scores on each attribute
(after weighting each by its relative importance). These hypothetical ratings are
shown in Table 7–1.
S T R AT E G IC APPLICATIO N S O F TH E MU LTI-ATTR IB U TE M O D EL
Suppose you were the director of marketing for Loblaws. How might you use the data
Brownstein Group from this analysis to improve your image?
CAPITALIZE ON RELATIVE ADVANTAGE If one’s brand is viewed as being superior on a

particular attribute, consumers such as Narveen need to be convinced that this partic-
ular attribute is an important one. For example, although Narveen rates fresh produce
highly, he does not believe this attribute is a valued aspect for some grocery stores. As
Loblaws’s marketing director, you might emphasize the importance of fruits and veg-
etables in a healthy balanced diet.
STRENGTHEN PERCEIVED PRODUCT–ATTRIBUTE LINKS A marketer may discover

that consumers do not equate his or her brand with a certain attribute. This problem is
commonly addressed by campaigns that stress the product’s qualities to consumers
(e.g., “new and improved ingredients”). Narveen apparently does not think much of
Loblaws’s deli. You might develop an information campaign to improve these percep-
tions (such as “little-known facts about Loblaws’s deli”).
ADD A NEW ATTRIBUTE Product marketers frequently try to create a position distinct
from those of their competitors by adding a product feature. Loblaws might try to
emphasize some unique aspect, such as an online order system for busy people who
do not like to grocery shop.
INFLUENCE COMPETITORS’ RATINGS Finally, you might try to decrease the positivity
of competitors. This type of action is the rationale for a strategy of comparative adver-
tising. One tactic might be to publish an ad that lists the attributes on which Loblaws
can be favourably compared as the basis for emphasizing the value obtained for the
money spent at Loblaws. Marketing
Insight
The gulf between what consumers say and
USING ATTITUDES TO PREDICT BEHAVIOUR what they do is apparent when we look at sales
of environmentally friendly products. Especially
Although multi-attribute models have been used by consumer researchers for many since the economic downturn, people continue
years, they have been plagued by a major problem: In many cases, knowledge of a per- to insist that they want green alternatives—
son’s attitude is not a very good predictor of behaviour. In a classic demonstration of they’re just not willing to pay extra for them.
“Do as I say, not as I do,” many studies have obtained a very low correlation between For example, when Clorox unveiled its Green
a person’s reported attitude toward something and his or her actual behaviour toward Works cleaning line, it seemed poised for suc-
it. Some researchers have been so discouraged that they have questioned whether atti- cess as it secured an endorsement from the
tudes are of any use at all in understanding behaviour.38 This questionable link Sierra Club, a national launch at Walmart, and
between attitudes and behaviour can be a big headache for advertisers in that consum- a vow to “move natural cleaning into the main-
ers can love a commercial and yet still not buy the product. stream.” At first, sales were stagnant or worse,
just like those of similar products from major
brands like Arm & Hammer, Windex, Palmolive,
The Extended Fishbein Model Hefty, and Scrubbing Bubbles. As an industry
consultant observed, “Every consumer says, ‘I
The original Fishbein model, which focused on measuring a consumer’s attitude
want to help the environment; I’m looking for
toward a product, has been extended in several ways to improve its predictive ability.
eco-friendly products.’ But if it’s one or two
An improved version is called the theory of reasoned action.39 This model contains
pennies higher in price, they’re not going to buy
several important additions to the original, and although the model is still not perfect,
it. There is a discrepancy between what people
its ability to predict relevant behaviour is better.40 Some of the modifications to this say and what they do.”
model are considered here. However, others have suggested that it is
only the inauthentic “green” cleaning brands
I NTE N TIONS VE R S U S BE H AV IOU R that are seeing drops in support. Method and
Like the consumer motivations discussed in Chapter 4, attitudes have both direction Seventh Generation, for example, did not expe-
and strength. A person may like or dislike an attitude object with varying degrees of rience drops in sales and grew to $100 million
confidence or conviction.43 It is helpful to distinguish between firmly held attitudes in revenue in 2012.41 According to Eric Ryan of
and those that are more superficial, especially since an attitude held with greater con- Method, it’s the non-authentic brands that are
viction makes it more likely that it will be acted upon. One study on environmental going to lose out, similar to what we have seen
issues and marketing activities found, for example, that people who express greater with food products that have been positioned
on the basis of health and wellness: “What
would you trust more for your health: Natural
Cheetos or Kashi crackers?”42 So one solution
to the gap between what consumers do and
what they say is to offer them choices that
really allow them to make a difference.
In response to a national survey that found

that more than one-third of drivers are dis-
tracted while driving, TELUS has launched
a campaign that encourages consumers to
change their attitudes and their behaviours
related to texting and driving.
TELUS materials, used with permission. © 2015 TELUS.
All rights reserved.
conviction in their feelings regarding environmentally responsible behaviours such as

recycling show greater consistency between attitudes and behavioural intentions.44
However, research consistently finds that consumer attitudes don’t always lead to
the congruent behaviour. One challenge for marketers, then, is ensuring that consumer
attitudes translate into relevant consumer behaviours. Volkswagen’s fun theory cam-
paign (www.thefuntheory.com) plays on this issue by showing that we can get people
to change their behaviours simply by making the activity fun! For example, by trans-
forming a subway station’s staircase into a piano, the marketers increased the number
of people who chose the stairs over the escalator by 66 percent.45
Many factors might interfere with actual behaviour, even if the consumer has sincere
intentions. He or she might save up with the intention of buying a new smartphone. In the
interim, though, any number of things—losing a job, getting mugged on the way to the
store, or arriving at the store to find that the desired model is out of stock—could happen.
It is not surprising, then, that in some instances past purchase behaviour has been found
to be a better predictor of future behaviour than a consumer’s behavioural intention.46
The theory of reasoned action aims to measure behavioural intentions, recognizing that
certain uncontrollable factors inhibit prediction of actual behaviour.
SOCIAL PRESSURE The theory acknowledges the power of other people in influenc-
ing behaviour. Many of our behaviours are not determined in a vacuum. Much as we
may hate to admit it, what we think others would like us to do may be more crucial
than our own individual preferences. Some research approaches try to assess the
extent to which people’s “public” attitudes and purchase decisions might be different
from what they would do if they were in private. For example, one firm uses a tech-
nique it calls “engineered theatre.” Researchers go to the actual site where a product is
being consumed, such as a bar. They arrange for the wrong product to be “mistakenly”
served, and then observe the consumer’s “naked response” to the brand and his or her
reaction to consuming the brand in a social context.47
A new element, the subjective norm (SN), was thus added to include the effects of
what we believe other people think we should do. The value of SN is arrived at by
including two other factors: (1) the intensity of a normative belief (NB) that others
think an action should be taken or not taken, and (2) the motivation to comply (MC)
with that belief (i.e., the degree to which the consumer takes others’ anticipated reac-
tions into account when evaluating a course of action or a purchase).
Volkswagen’s “Fun Theory” campaign

suggests that we can encourage consumers
to engage in positive behaviours if the
activity is enjoyable.
Courtesy of Volkswagen
ATTI T UDE TOWA RD B U Y IN G

The model now measures attitude toward the act of buying (Aact) rather than only the Consumers
attitude toward the product itself. In other words, it focuses on the perceived conse-
quences of a purchase. Knowing how someone feels about buying or using an object
in Focus
turns out to be more valid than merely knowing the consumer’s evaluation of the The (in)consistency between attitudes and
object itself.48 behaviour links to a major public health prob-
To understand this distinction, consider a problem that might arise when measur- lem: medical adherence. This term describes the
ing attitudes toward condoms. Although a group of university students might have a extent to which people fill and actually take pre-
positive attitude toward condoms, does this necessarily predict that they will buy and scribed medicines. While some patients unfortu-
use them? A better prediction would be obtained by asking the students how likely nately don’t adhere to prescriptions because
they are to buy condoms and use them during sex. Although a person might have a they can’t afford them, many simply forget or
positive Ao toward condoms, Aact might be negative, because of the embarrassment or don’t want to swallow their pills. This breakdown
the hassle involved in the act of buying. between attitudes and behaviour threatens
many people’s health and adds huge costs to
the health care system. An industry study esti-
Obstacles to Predicting Behaviour in the Theory mated that it costs U.S. taxpayers $290 billion
of Reasoned Action annually. One pharmacy chain found that even
for chronic diseases, one-third of its customers
Despite improvements to the Fishbein model, problems arise when it is misapplied. In
stopped taking their prescribed medicine after a
many cases the model is applied in ways for which it was not intended or where cer- month, and half stopped after a year. This phar-
tain assumptions about human behaviour may not be warranted.49 Other obstacles to macy uses texts, emails, and phone calls to
predicting behaviour are as follows: aggressively remind people to fill their prescrip-
• The model was developed to deal with actual behaviour (e.g., taking a diet pill), tions. Still, even these methods are only part of
not with the outcomes of behaviour (e.g., losing weight) that are instead assessed the solution: People need to actually take the
in some studies. pills once they get them home.
• Some outcomes are beyond the consumer’s control, such as when the purchase
requires the cooperation of other people. For instance, consumers might want to
get a mortgage, but this intention will be worthless if they cannot find a banker to
give them one.
• The basic assumption that behaviour is intentional may be invalid in a variety of
cases, including those involving impulsive acts, sudden changes in one’s situa-
tion, novelty-seeking, or even simple repeat buying. One study found that such
unexpected events as having guests, changes in the weather, or reading articles
about the healthfulness of certain foods exerted a significant effect on actual
behaviours.50
• Measures of attitude often do not really correspond to the behaviour they are sup-
posed to predict, either in terms of the Aact or when the act will occur. One com-
mon problem is a difference in the level of abstraction employed. For example,
knowing a person’s attitude toward the environment may not predict whether he
or she will purchase an electric car. It is very important to match the level of
specificity between the attitude and the behavioural intention.
• A similar problem relates to the time frame of the attitude measure. In general, the
longer the time between the attitude measurement and the behaviour it is sup-
posed to assess, the weaker the relationship will be. For example, predictability
would improve markedly by asking consumers about the likelihood of buying a
house in the next week as opposed to within the next five years.
• Attitudes formed by direct, personal experience with an Ao are stronger and more
predictive of behaviour than those formed indirectly, such as through advertising.51
According to the attitude accessibility perspective, behaviour is a function of the
person’s immediate perceptions of the Ao in the context of the situation in which it
is encountered. An attitude will guide the evaluation of the object, but only if it is
activated from memory when the object is observed. These findings underscore the
importance of strategies that induce trial (through widespread product sampling to
encourage the consumer to try the product at home, by taste tests, test drives, etc.)
as well as those that maximize exposure to marketing communications.
The theory of reasoned action has been applied primarily in Western settings.
Certain assumptions inherent in the model may not necessarily apply to consumers
from other cultures. Several of the following cultural roadblocks diminish the univer-
sality of the theory of reasoned action:
• The model was developed to predict the performance of any voluntary act. Across
cultures, however, many consumer activities, ranging from taking exams and
entering military service to receiving an inoculation or choosing a marriage part-
ner, are not necessarily voluntary.
• The relative impact of subjective norms may vary across cultures. For example,
Asian cultures tend to value conformity and face-saving, so it is possible that sub-
jective norms involving the anticipated reactions of others to the choice will have
an even greater impact on behaviour for many Asian consumers.
• The model measures behavioural intentions and thus presupposes that consumers
are actively thinking ahead and planning future behaviours. The intention concept
assumes that consumers have a linear time sense (i.e., that they think in terms of
past, present, and future). This perspective on time is not held in all cultures.
CO 7 Types of Normative Influence

Robert Cialdini and his colleagues52 highlight that norms are best divided into two
categories. The first classification is descriptive norms, defined as norms that convey
information regarding what other people commonly do. For example, an advertise-
ment communicating that 85 percent of residents are currently recycling is communi-
cating a descriptive norm. The second classification is injunctive norms, defined as
norms that convey information regarding what is commonly approved and disap-
proved of by others. An advertisement highlighting that others approve of recycling
would convey an injunctive norm. Both types of norms can be powerful influencers on
consumer attitudes and behaviour.
Communicating that others are engaging in a particular activity can increase com-
pliance with that behaviour. This has been shown for consumption behaviours such as
not littering,53 reducing energy consumption,54 and even voting.55 One strategy that
has been used to harness the power of descriptive norms and ensure they translate
into positive attitudes and behaviours is to give consumers feedback on how they are
performing relative to the descriptive norm. For example, Opower is a privately held
software-as-a-service company that partners with utility providers to encourage con-
sumers to conserve household energy. Opower’s software creates individualized Home
Energy Reports that analyze consumers’ energy use and compares this to what others
are doing.
In another example of using social norms to impact conservation behaviours,
Cialdini and his colleagues gave hotel guests different messages to encourage them to
This consumer feedback form highlights the

power of descriptive norms and provides
personal feedback to encourage households
to conserve energy.
Opower
As I See It
What happens when marketers either the self as an individual (using words like I and you), or the
ask consumers to engage in a self as part of a group (using wording like us and we).
behaviour that is relatively unfa- We collected data to examine this idea, including one field
miliar? This is exactly what the study where we followed a garbage truck around a neighbourhood
City of Calgary did when it asked of almost 700 houses for six weeks in summer to measure resi-
residents to do something called dential grasscycling behaviours. The key metric was whether resi-
“grasscyling.” Grasscycling refers dents reduced the number of bags of grass they threw in the
to leaving grass clippings on the garbage as a result of seeing our different messages.
lawn so that they can decompose What appeal type worked best? As we thought, it depends
and return nutrients to the soil, on the consumer’s mindset. When a group-level mindset was
rather than bagging them up for activated (e.g., “How can we as a community make a differ-
garbage collection. When the city ence?”), descriptive and injunctive norms worked best. When a
Bonnie Simpson, Western first launched a campaign to message was directed at the individual level of the self (e.g.,
University encourage people to grasscycle, “How can you make a difference?”), consumers were most likely
nobody did it! We wanted to find to adopt the action if paired with a benefit appeal (e.g., “Think
a way to encourage residents to take part. about the benefits for you as an individual if you grasscycle—
We started by looking at three different strategies marketers improved lawn quality, reduced amount of fertilizer and water
often use to entice consumers to act, and conducted research to needed, time saved on yard work”).
examine which one would convince the most residents to grass- Interestingly, descriptive appeals also worked well when the
cycle. The first two include informing people about the actions of consumer thought about the individual level of the self. This is
others: descriptive norm appeals—those that communicate what because we used the context of a relatively unfamiliar sustainable
other people are doing (e.g., “Your neighbours are grasscycling”), behaviour. When the behaviour is unfamiliar and unambiguous,
and injunctive norm appeals—those that communicate what oth- people look to others to see what the appropriate way to behave is.
ers think a person should do (e.g., “Our neighbours want us to What does this mean for marketers or others trying to
grasscycle”). The third type of appeal we used was a benefit encourage people to change their behaviours? First, descriptive
appeal, which highlights how an action will provide a benefit (e.g., appeals are effective in encouraging behaviour change in these
“Think about the benefits for you as an individual if you grass- types of settings. Second, it is possible to influence the mindset
cycle—improved lawn quality, reduced amount of fertilizer and of consumers through the way we word appeals, which can be
water needed, time saved on yard work”). We also varied whether “matched” to fit the appeal that consumers are given to create
each of these three appeals was paired with wording that invoked the most effective combination.
B. Simpson and K. White, When Do (and Don’t) Normative Appeals Best Influence Consumer Conservation Behaviors? (Las Vegas, NV: Society for Consumer Psychology, 2012).
K. White and B. Simpson, “The ‘Dos and Don’ts’ of Normative Influence: When Do (and Don’t) Normative Messages Lead to Sustainable Consumer Behaviors?”Journal of Market-
ing 77(2) (2013): 78–95.
reuse their towels. Two versions of the message were created. One of the messages
simply told guests about the energy conservation program and made a more traditional
environmental appeal: “HELP SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT. You can show your respect
for nature and help save the environment by reusing your towels during your stay.”
The other version provided a descriptive norm: “JOIN YOUR FELLOW GUESTS IN
HELPING TO SAVE THE ENVIRONMENT. Almost 75% of guests who are asked to
participate in our new resource savings program do help by using their towels more
than once. You can join your fellow guests in this program to help save the environ-
ment by reusing your towels during your stay.” The hotel’s attendants were trained to
record whether guests participated in the program.
The results showed that people who received the normative message were more
likely to reuse their towels (44 percent) than those who received a more traditional
environmental appeal (35 percent). In a subsequent study the authors varied other
information presented to guests. The researchers found that the most compliance
with the energy conservation program occurred when the descriptive norm was
linked to other guests who stayed in the same hotel room. For example, guests who
also read “In a study conducted in Fall 2003, 75% of the guests who stayed in this
room participated in our new resource savings program by using their towels more
than once” were most likely to participate in the towel reuse program (49 percent).56 It
seems that cues that connect the descriptive norm to the immediate setting (such as the
specific hotel room the guest is staying in) enhance the impact of the descriptive norm.
Chapter Summary
It’s important for consumer researchers to understand the • One organizing principle of attitude formation is the
nature and power of attitudes. importance of consistency among attitudinal components;
that is, some parts of an attitude may be altered to be in
• An attitude is a predisposition to evaluate an object or
line with others. Theoretical approaches to attitudes,
product positively or negatively.
such as cognitive dissonance theory and balance theory,
Attitudes are more complex than they first appear. stress the vital role of the need for consistency.
• The ABC model suggests that attitudes are made up of We can measure attitudes using models that identify specific
three components: affect, behaviour, and cognition. components and combine them to predict what a consumer’s
We form attitudes in several ways, and consumers are overall attitude will be.
motivated to maintain consistency among all the components • The complexity of attitudes is underscored by multi-
of their attitudes. attribute attitude models, in which sets of beliefs and
• Attitude researchers traditionally assumed that attitudes evaluations are identified and combined to predict an
were learned in a fixed sequence, consisting first of the overall attitude. Factors such as subjective norms and the
formation of beliefs (cognitions) regarding an attitude specificity of attitude scales have been integrated into
object, followed by some evaluation of that object (affect), attitude measures to improve predictability.
and then some action (behaviour). Depending on the con- • Social norms also have the ability to impact our atti-
sumer’s level of involvement and the circumstances, how- tudes and behaviours. Researchers have divided social
ever, attitudes can result from other hierarchies of effects norms into injunctive norms (information regarding
as well. A key to attitude formation is the function the what other people think we should do) and descriptive
attitude performs for the consumer (e.g., is it utilitarian or norms (information regarding what other people are
ego-defensive?). doing).
Key Terms
Affect p. 185 Behaviour p. 185 Latitudes of acceptance and

Attitude p. 183 rejection p. 192
Cognition p. 185
Attitude object (Ao) p. 183 Multi-attribute attitude models p. 196
Descriptive norms p. 202
Attitude toward the act of buying Principle of cognitive consistency p. 190
Experiential hierarchy of effects p. 187
(Aact) p. 201 Self-perception theory p. 191
Foot-in-the-door technique p. 192
Attitude toward the advertisement Social judgment theory p. 192
(Aad) p. 188 Functional theory of attitudes p. 183 Subjective norm (SN) p. 200
Balance theory p. 192 Hierarchy of effects p. 186 Theory of cognitive dissonance p. 190
Basking in reflected glory p. 194 Injunctive norms p. 202 Theory of reasoned action p. 199
Review Questions
1. How can an attitude play an ego-defensive function? 9. According to balance theory, how can we tell if a triad is
2. Describe the ABC model of attitudes. balanced or unbalanced? How can consumers restore
balance to an unbalanced triad?
3. List the three hierarchies of attitudes, and describe the
10. Describe a multi-attribute attitude model, listing its key
major differences among them.
components.
4. How are emotions (affect) and cognitions (beliefs) related
11. “Do as I say, not as I do.” How does this statement relate
to how attitudes are formed?
to attitude models?
5. How do levels of commitment to an attitude influence 12. What is a subjective norm, and how does it influence our
the likelihood that it will become part of the way we think attitudes?
about a product in the long term?
13. What are three obstacles to predicting behaviour even if
6. We sometimes increase our attitude toward a product we know a person’s attitudes?
after we buy it. How does the theory of cognitive disso-
14. Describe the theory of reasoned action. Why might it not
nance explain this change?
be equally valuable when it is applied to non-Western
7. What is the foot-in-the-door technique? How does self- cultures?
perception theory relate to this effect? 15. How are injunctive and descriptive norms similar? How
8. What are latitudes of acceptance and rejection? How are they different? Give an example of how each might be
does a consumer’s level of involvement with a product used to influence a consumer’s decision to vote in the
affect his or her latitude of acceptance? federal election.
Discuss 5. Read the case on implementing warning labels on gas

pumps. Tweet your suggestions or questions to Robert
1. Contrast the hierarchies of effects outlined in this chap-
Shirkey at @OurHorizonOrg or @robshirkey and see what
ter. How should marketers’ strategic decisions related to
he thinks!
the marketing mix change depending on which hierar-
chy is operative among target consumers? 6. Many universities use commercial companies to run
campus websites and email services. These agree-
Experiential Exercises ments provide Web services to universities at little or
no cost. But these actions arouse controversy because
2. Think of someone who exhibits a behaviour inconsistent
major companies pay to place advertising on the sites.
with his or her attitudes (e.g., attitudes toward choles-
That gives marketers the opportunity to influence the
terol, drug use, or even buying things to make him or her
attitudes of thousands of students who are involun-
stand out or attain status). Ask the person to explain the
tarily exposed to product messages. University admin-
behaviour, and try to identify the way he or she has
istrators argue that they could not provide the services
resolved dissonant elements.
by themselves. Students expect to be able to fill out
3. Devise an attitude survey for a set of competing automo- financial aid forms and register for classes online, and
biles. Identify areas of competitive advantage or disad- universities that do not offer such services may lose
vantage for each model you incorporate. their ability to attract students. How do you feel about
4. Construct a multi-attribute model for a set of local res- this situation? Should companies be able to buy access
taurants. On the basis of your findings, suggest how res- to your eyeballs from the school you pay to attend if it
taurant managers can improve an establishment’s image means you get access to enhanced online services in
via the strategies described in this chapter. return?
Warning Labels for Climate Change? with the status quo solution, Robert believed the labels would
As Robert Shirkey finished reading the article he had penned stimulate broader demand for alternatives to create a social
for Municipal World, he couldn’t help but smile. His efforts with environment in which governments and businesses would
the nonprofit organization Our Horizon (http://ourhorizon.org) have a greater impetus to respond to climate change.
over the past two years to promote the idea of gas pump han-
dle labelling among municipalities was finally starting to gain The Potential of Warning Labels
real traction. As he noted in the article, the district of West Warning labels have existed for over 75 years in North America.
Vancouver had unanimously passed a resolution that “all They were first established in the United States in 1938 by the
vendors of retail petroleum products in Canada be legislated Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act. Typically, a warning
to provide warning labels on all pump handles.”57 Further, his label is simply a label attached to an item or its usage instruc-
recent presentation at a Sustainable Communities conference tions that warns the consumer about the risks associated with
in London, Ontario, had received a very positive reaction from its use. Warning labels have been shown to be effective in a
municipal delegates from all the provinces and territories number of consumption situations, including the use of harm-
in Canada. Robert was passionate that his idea of putting cli- ful products (e.g., bleach, rat poison), effective operation of
mate change and air pollution information labels on pumps at machinery (e.g., chainsaws, lawnmowers), and dissuading
gas stations would truly make a difference in consumer atti- consumers in their usage and levels of consumption (e.g.,
tudes toward their consumption and the resulting behaviours alcohol, cigarettes). It is because of this latter category, the dis-
they exhibited. suasion of consumption, that Robert believed warning labels
could be effective in reducing emissions in Canada. Of note,
Global Warming and the End Consumer Canada became an international leader with this type of warn-
ing label when it introduced graphic picture-based warning
Greenhouse gas emissions and their impact on global warm-
labels for cigarette products. Shown to be highly effective in
ing in Canada are clearly a problem that must be dealt with.
terms of both attitude change toward smoking and the reduc-
Interestingly, a large part of the discussion that has taken
tion of cigarette consumption, this strategy has been adopted
place on this topic has centred on extraction industries that
by over 50 countries around the world.
source, refine, and transport products that lead to harmful
Robert believed picture-based warning labels that
emissions. Oil-sand companies like Syncrude and Suncor and
informed consumers about the consequences of their fuel
pipeline and transportation companies like Enbridge and
consumption—seen on the pump handle when filling up at
Kinder-Morgan have continually been in the news for the chal-
the gas station—would be effective in reducing consumption.
lenges their activities pose to the environment. Opinion pieces,
He supported this prediction with a number of arguments.
boycotts, investment actions, and protest activities directed
First, the delay between the cause (i.e., putting gas in the car)
toward these companies have grown in number over the past
and effect (e.g., extreme weather, ocean acidification) of con-
decade. However, these efforts are perhaps misplaced some-
sumption could be bridged by a warning label. A vivid warning
what if the true concern is reducing greenhouse gas emis-
label that showed consequences would directly inform con-
sions. In fact, the emissions from extraction activities pale in
sumers that their current behaviour has damaging implica-
comparison to the amount of emissions produced by the end
tions. Second, a warning label would address the diffusion of
consumer (e.g., through vehicle combustion).
responsibility felt by some consumers for the global warming
As noted by Robert in his article, “We rarely question the
problem. The notion that everyone is responsible, so I am not,
simple act of pumping gas. There is a complete disconnect—
is refuted when you are made to see that your direct action
one that is perhaps compounded by the distancing effect of
produces an outcome. Finally, the warning label on the gas
our upstream focus. The act of going to a gas station and fill-
pump effectively communicates to the consumer because the
ing up a car has been normalized for several generations.”58
medium becomes the message. Instead of hearing about cli-
If this premise is true, how can consumer attitudes be
mate change through the Internet or on the news, the warning
changed? Is it possible to move consumers from a complacent
label on the gas pump directly links the messaging, and the
position where they either ignore the outcomes of their own
consumer stops being a passive observer and becomes a
behaviours or are wilfully oblivious to the externalities involved
more active participant in the communication process.
in their consumption? Robert felt strongly that he had a solu-
tion that would truly make a difference—leveraging the use of
warning labels at the point-of-purchase for gasoline. He Getting Traction
believed the labels would de-normalize the everyday, auto- Robert was encouraged by the positive reaction he had
matic act of gassing up. By creating a sense of dissatisfaction received thus far. Academics from a variety of disciplines
(professors in the natural sciences, business, and health), three points of support. What are additional reasons this
non-governmental organizations (David Suzuki Foundation, approach may or may not be successful?
Canadian Association of Physicians for the Environment), and 4. What would you recommend Robert do next? What does
Canadian municipalities were seeing value in this initiative. he need to do to be successful in changing the attitudes
Robert wondered what would be the best next step. How and behaviours of the end consumer?
could he build on this momentum and garner broader support
5. Experiential Exercise: Tweet your suggestions or questions
from consumers? Should he work toward that direction now,
to Robert Shirkey at @OurHorizonOrg or @robshirkey and
or should he continue to focus on local municipal govern-
see what he thinks!
ments in his effort to induce change? And as he moves ahead,
how can he most effectively execute the gas pump labels?
How can he ensure that the implementation of these labels
leads to the desired behaviour change and not resistance on
the part of citizens?
1. Do you think Robert’s idea has merit? Will warning labels
in this context change attitudes? Why or why not?
2. What aspects of attitude theory outlined in this chapter
have applicability to this initiative? How might you ensure
a positive response to the gas pump labels in terms of
both attitude and behavioural change?

Courtesy of Our Horizon
3. Do you accept Robert’s reasoning for why this initiative will
be successful? Develop arguments for and against his
Note s
1. Robert A. Baron and Donn Byrne, Social Psychology: Understanding Human (depression) to acceptance of health-related messages, see Punam Anand Keller,
Interaction, 5th ed. (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1987). Issac M. Lipkus, and Barbara K. Rimer, “Depressive Realism and Health Risk
2. Daniel Katz, “The Functional Approach to the Study of Attitudes,” Public Opinion Accuracy: The Negative Consequences of Positive Mood,” Journal of Consumer
Quarterly 24 (Summer 1960): 163–204; Richard J. Lutz, “Changing Brand Attitudes Research 29 (June 2002): 57–69.
through Modification of Cognitive Structure,” Journal of Consumer Research 1 11. Punam Anand, Morris B. Holbrook, and Debra Stephens, “The Formation of Affective
(March 1975): 49–59. Judgments: The Cognitive-Affective Model versus the Independence Hypothesis,”
3. Russell H. Fazio, T.M. Lenn, and E.A. Effrein, “Spontaneous Attitude Formation,” Journal of Consumer Research 15 (December 1988): 386–391; Richard S. Lazarus,
Social Cognition 2 (1984): 214–234. “Thoughts on the Relations between Emotion and Cognition,” American Psychologist
37 (1982): 1019–1024.
4. For the original work that focused on the issue of levels of attitudinal commitment,
see Herbert Kelman, “Compliance, Identification, and Internalization: Three 12. Robert B. Zajonc, “Feeling and Thinking: Preferences Need No Inferences,” American
Processes of Attitude Change,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 2 (1958): 51–60. Psychologist 35 (1980): 151–175.
5. Lynn R. Kahle, Kenneth M. Kambara, and Gregory M. Rose, “A Functional Model of 13. Banwari Mittal, “The Role of Affective Choice Mode in the Consumer Purchase of
Fan Attendance Motivations for College Football,” Sports Marketing Quarterly 5 Expressive Products,” Journal of Economic Psychology 4 (1988): 499–524.
(1996): 51–60. 14. Scot Burton and Donald R. Lichtenstein, “The Effect of Ad Claims and Ad Context on
6. Aaron Baar, “New Subaru Campaign Takes Aim with Cupid’s Arrow,” Marketing Daily Attitude toward the Advertisement,” Journal of Advertising 17(1) (1988): 3–11;
(April 28, 2008). Karen A. Machleit and R. Dale Wilson, “Emotional Feelings and Attitude toward the
7. Michael Ray, “Marketing Communications and the Hierarchy-of-Effects,” in New Advertisement: The Roles of Brand Familiarity and Repetition,” Journal of
Models for Mass Communications, ed. P. Clarke (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1973): Advertising 17(3) (1988): 27–35; Scott B. Mackenzie and Richard J. Lutz, “An
147–176. Empirical Examination of the Structural Antecedents of Attitude toward the Ad in an
Advertising Pretesting Context,” Journal of Marketing 53 (April 1989): 48–65; Scott
8. Herbert Krugman, “The Impact of Television Advertising: Learning without B. Mackenzie, Richard J. Lutz, and George E. Belch, “The Role of Attitude toward the
Involvement,” Public Opinion Quarterly 29 (Fall 1965): 349–356; Robert Lavidge and Ad as a Mediator of Advertising Effectiveness: A Test of Competing Explanations,”
Gary Steiner, “A Model for Predictive Measurements of Advertising Effectiveness,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (May 1986): 130–143; Darrel D. Muehling and
Journal of Marketing 25 (October 1961): 59–62. Russell N. Laczniak, “Advertising’s Immediate and Delayed Influence on Brand
9. Daniel J. Howard and Charles Gengler, “Emotional Contagion Effects on Product Attitudes: Considerations across Message-Involvement Levels,” Journal of
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Broach, “Effect of Ad Pacing and Optimal Level of Arousal on Attitude toward the
10. See, for example, Andrew B. Aylesworth and Scott B. MacKenzie, “Context Is Key:
Ad,” in Advances in Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R.
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Solomon (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 94–99. Some
Advertising 27 (Summer 1998): 17; Angela Y. Lee and Brian Sternthal, “The Effects
research evidence indicates that a separate attitude is also formed regarding the
of Positive Mood on Memory,” Journal of Consumer Research 26 (September 1999):
brand name itself; see George M. Zinkhan and Claude R. Martin, Jr., “New Brand
115–128; Michael J. Barone, Paul W. Miniard, and Jean B. Romeo, “The Influence of
Names and Inferential Beliefs: Some Insights on Naming New Products,” Journal of
Positive Mood on Brand Extension Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research 26
Business Research 15 (1987): 157–172.
(March 2000): 386–401. For a study that compared the effectiveness of emotional
appeals across cultures, see Jennifer L. Aaker and Patti Williams, “Empathy versus 15. John P. Murry, Jr., John L. Lastovicka, and Surendra N. Singh, “Feeling and Liking
Pride: The Influence of Emotional Appeals across Cultures,” Journal of Consumer Responses to Television Programs: An Examination of Two Explanations for Media-
Research 25 (December 1998): 241–261. For research that relates mood Context Effects,” Journal of Consumer Research 18 (March 1992): 441–451.
16. Barbara Stern and Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky, “The Impact of Entertaining 39. Icek Ajzen and Martin Fishbein, “Attitude–Behavior Relations: A Theoretical Analysis
Advertising on Consumer Responses,” Australian Marketing Researcher 14 (August and Review of Empirical Research,” Psychological Bulletin 84 (September 1977):
1991): 68–80. 888–918.
17. Krishnan H. Shanker and Robert E. Smith (1998), “The Relative Endurance of 40. Morris B. Holbrook and William J. Havlena, “Assessing the Real-to-Artificial
Attitudes, Confidence, and Attitude–Behavior Consistency: The Role of Information Generalizability of Multi-Attribute Attitude Models in Tests of New Product Designs,”
Source and Delay,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 7(3): 273–298. Journal of Marketing Research 25 (February 1988): 25–35; Terence A. Shimp and
18. For a recent study that examined the impact of skepticism on advertising issues, see Alican Kavas, “The Theory of Reasoned Action Applied to Coupon Usage,” Journal of
David M. Boush, Marian Friestad, and Gregory M. Rose, “Adolescent Skepticism Consumer Research 11 (December 1984): 795–809.
toward TV Advertising and Knowledge of Advertiser Tactics,” Journal of Consumer 41. Rod Kurtz, “A Soap Maker Sought Compatibility in a Merger Partner,” The New York
Research 21 (June 1994): 165–175. Times (January 16, 2013), www.nytimes.com/2013/01/17/business/smallbusiness/
19. Basil G. Englis, “Consumer Emotional Reactions to Television Advertising and Their a-founder-of-the-soap-maker-method-discusses-its-sale.html?_r=0.
Effects on Message Recall,” in Emotion in Advertising: Theoretical and Practical 42. Ariel Schwartz, “Method: Only Inauthentic “Green” Cleaning Products Are Failing,”
Explorations, eds. S. Agres, J.A. Edell, and T.M. Dubitsky (Westport, CT: Quorum Fast Co.Exist, www.fastcoexist.com/1678022/method-only-inauthentic-
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Real World,” Journal of Consumer Research 13 (June 1986): 114–118. 11(3) (1996): 557–572.
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Attitude Change,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 2 (1958): 51–60. Attitude Strength,” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 11(3) (1996): 557–572.
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Effects in Communication and Attitude Change (New Haven, CT: Yale University Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 24 (1991): 201–234.
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53. R.B. Cialdini, R.R. Reno, and C.A. Kallgren, “A Focus Theory of Normative Conduct:
32. For a recent treatment, see Joan Meyers-Levy and Brian Sternthal, “A Two-Factor Recycling the Concept of Norms to Reduce Littering in Public Places,” Journal of
Explanation of Assimilation and Contrast Effects,” Journal of Marketing Research 30 Personality and Social Psychology 58(6) (1990): 1015–1026.
(August 1993): 359–368.
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1969): 65. 58. Robert Shirkey, “Creating a New Normal,” Municipal World, March 2015.
C HAPTER
8
Attitude Change and
Interactive Communications
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that the communications model 4 Understand that the way a marketer structures his or

identifies several important components for her message determines how persuasive it will be.
marketers when they try to change consumers’
attitudes toward products and services. 5 Understand that the elaboration likelihood model

outlines how consumers will process a given
2 Understand that the consumer who processes a message once it is received.

message is not necessarily the passive receiver of
information marketers once believed him or her to be. 6 Understand that audience characteristics help to

determine whether the nature of the source or the
3 Understand that several factors influence the message itself will be relatively more persuasive.

effectiveness of a message source.
Changing Attitudes through

Communication
Buy now! Advertisers constantly bombard us with messages imploring us to change our
attitudes—and of course buy their products. These persuasion attempts can range from
logical arguments to graphic pictures, from peers who try to intimidate us to celebrities
who try to charm us. Now we’ll review some of the factors that help gauge the effectiveness
of marketing communications. Our focus will be on some basic aspects of communication
that specifically help to determine how and if consumers will form new attitudes or mod-
ify existing ones.
Persuasion involves an active attempt to change attitudes. This is, of course, a priority
for many marketing communications. Later we’ll learn more about how marketers try to
accomplish this, but for now we’ll set the stage by listing some basic psychological prin-
ciples that influence people to change their minds or comply with a request.1
• Reciprocity: People are more likely to give if they receive something first. That’s why
including a nominal amount of money (such as a dollar) in a mail survey question-
naire increases the response rate by an average of 65 percent over the number of
responses to mail surveys without a monetary incentive.
• Scarcity: Items become more attractive when they are less available. In one study that
asked people to rate the quality of chocolate chip cookies, participants who got only
two cookies liked them better than those who got ten of the same kind of cookie. That
helps to explain why we tend to value “limited edition” items.
• Authority: We tend to believe an authoritative source much more readily. CNN.com
carries more weight with respect to public opinion than does TMZ.com. We’ll talk
more about the importance of who delivers the message later in this chapter.
• Consistency: As we saw in the last chapter, people try not to contradict them-
selves in terms of what they say and do about an issue. In one study, students who
solicited donations to help people with disabilities doubled the amount they nor-
mally collected in a neighbourhood by first asking the residents to sign a petition
supporting people with disabilities two weeks before asking for donations. The
act of committing to a small sign of support (signing a petition) beforehand led
people to be more likely to consistently follow through on a later larger request
(making a charitable contribution).
• Consensus: We often take into account what others are doing before we decide
what to do. We’ll talk more about the power of conformity in Chapter 11. This
desire to fit in with what others are doing influences our actions; for example,
people are more likely to donate to a charity if they first see a list of the names of
their neighbours who have already done so.
Decisions, Decisions:
Tactical Communications Options
Suppose Audi wants to create an advertising campaign for a new convertible it
targets to young drivers. As it plans this campaign, the automaker must develop a
message that will arouse desire for the car. To craft persuasive messages that might
persuade someone to buy this car instead of the many others available, we must
answer several questions:
• Who will drive the car in the ad? A NASCAR driver? A career woman? A reality show
star? The source of a message helps determine whether consumers will accept it.
• How should we construct the message? Should it emphasize the negative conse-
quences of being left out when others drive cool cars and you still tool around in
your old clunker? Should it directly compare the car with others already on the
market, or maybe present a fantasy in which a tough-minded female executive
meets a dashing stranger while she cruises down the highway in her Audi?
• What media should we use? Should the ad run in a magazine? Should we air it
on TV? Sell the product door-to-door? Post the material on a website or create a
Facebook group? Convince bloggers to write about it? Reward shoppers who
check in on FourSquare at an Audi dealership? If we do produce a print ad,
should we run it in the pages of Vogue? Good Housekeeping? Car and Driver?
Sometimes where you say something is as important as what you say. Ideally,
we should match the attributes of the medium with those of what we sell. For
example, advertising in magazines with high prestige is more effective when we
want to communicate messages about overall product image and quality,
whereas specialized expert magazines do a better job when we want to convey
factual information.2
• What characteristics of the target market might influence the ad’s acceptance? If
targeted users are frustrated in their daily lives, they might be more receptive to
a fantasy appeal. If they’re status-oriented, maybe a commercial should show
bystanders who swoon with admiration as the car cruises by.
CO 1 The Elements of Communication

Marketers and advertisers have traditionally tried to understand how marketing
messages change consumers’ attitudes by thinking in terms of the communications
model, which specifies that a number of elements are necessary for communication
to be achieved.
In this model, a source must choose and encode a message (i.e., initiate the trans-
fer of meaning by choosing appropriate symbolic images that represent this meaning).
There are many ways to say something, and the structure of the message has a big
C H A P T E R 8 Attitude Change and Interactive Communications 211
FIGURE 8–1
The Traditional Communications Model
FEEDBACK
Consumer
Consumer
Organization Message Medium Consumer
Consumer
Consumer
effect on how it is perceived. The message must be transmitted via a medium, which
might be television, social media, magazines, billboards, or even a T-shirt. The mes-
sage is then decoded by one or more receivers, who interpret the symbols in light of
their own experiences. Finally, feedback must be received by the source, who uses the
reactions of receivers to modify aspects of the message. The communications process
is depicted in Figure 8–1.
An Updated View: Interactive CO 2

Communications
Although the traditional communications model is not entirely wrong, it does not tell
the whole story—especially in today’s dynamic world of interactivity in which con-
sumers have many more choices available to them and greater control over which
messages they will choose to process.3 In fact, a popular strategy known as permission
Captain Morgan encourages consumers to

use the hashtag #CaptainsTable on Twitter,
Facebook, and Pinterest. Social media
platforms have opened up new ways for
brands to communicate and interact with
consumers.
Bryan Bedder/Getty Images for Captain Morgan
FIGURE 8–2
The Interactive Communications Model
Sender Receiver
Communication
Sender Medium Receiver
(e.g., Internet)
Sender Receiver
Source: Adapted from Donna L. Hoffman and Thomas P. Novak, “Marketing in Hypermedia Computer-Mediated Environments: Conceptual
Foundations,” Journal of Marketing 60(3) (July 1996): Figure 4.
marketing is based on the idea that a marketer will be much more successful trying to
persuade consumers who have opted into its messages; consumers who “opt out” of
listening to the message probably weren’t good prospects in the first place.4 On the
other hand, those who say they are interested in learning more are likely to be recep-
tive to marketing communications they have already chosen to see or hear. As the
permission marketing concept reminds us, we don’t have to just sit there and take it.
We have a voice in deciding which messages we choose to see and when—and we are
exercising that option more and more.
The traditional model was developed to understand mass communications, in
which information is transferred from a producer (source) to many consumers
(receivers) at once—typically via print, television, or radio. This perspective essen-
tially views advertising as the process of transferring information to the buyer before
a sale. A message is seen as perishable; it is repeated (perhaps frequently) for a fairly
short period of time, and then it “vanishes” as a new campaign eventually takes its
place. As we’ll see, that model doesn’t work as well now that we can narrowcast, or
finely tune our messages to suit very small groups of receivers (sometimes even one
person at a time).
Another problem with the traditional communications model is that it does not
necessarily account for two-way communications between consumers and market-
ers. Consumers are making their voices heard now more than ever before. How long
has it been since you posted to your Facebook page? As people increasingly play
more proactive roles in communications, exciting technological and social develop-
ments make us rethink the picture of passive consumers. In other words, we are, to
a greater extent, partners—rather than couch potatoes—in the communications pro-
cess. Our input helps to shape the messages we and others like us receive; further-
more, we may seek out these messages rather than sit home and wait to see them on
TV or in the paper. For example, the popular social media platform Pinterest allows
users to create digital scrapbooks, but in the process it serves as a voyage of discov-
ery as people pull images from many sources (often other users’ boards). This kind
of new medium allows consumers to “dream out loud” and also guide one another
toward many new styles and brands. Figure 8-2 illustrates this updated approach to
communications.
Consumer Interactivity
Consumers who are highly involved with a product and who want to share their
opinions with manufacturers are an invaluable (and often free) form of input that can
shape marketing decisions in important ways. When the consumer interacts with the
Jones Soda is an example of a brand that

allows the consumer to have a say in how
the final product will look.
Courtesy of Jones Soda
marketer to influence the product, service, or outcome that is created, this is called
customer co-creation.5 One example of consumer interactivity occurs when the
marketer allows the consumer to customize its products, which can include everything
from building your own Subway sandwich to designing your own Nike running shoe.
Giving the customer a voice in how the product is offered often leads to not only more
innovative solutions, but also greater consumer engagement.6
Consider these examples:
• The beauty division of the NPD Group, which tracks retail purchases, noticed that
a product intended to reduce stretch marks called StriVectin-SD was selling
exceptionally well at department store beauty counters. The firm found that about
75 percent of buyers were actually using it on their faces as a wrinkle fighter.
Taking heed of this new use for the product, its manufacturer unveiled a new
advertising slogan: “Better than Botox?”
• Virtually every component of Jones Soda, from labels to flavours, comes from cus-
tomers. The company gets suggestions for offbeat flavours (including chocolate
fudge and green apple), wacky names (Whoop Ass and MF Grape), and neon
colours. Even the “Deep Thoughts” quotes found underneath the bottle caps
(“76.4% of all statistics are meaningless”) come straight from Jones enthusiasts.
• Danone went to consumers when its reduced-fat Light & Fit yogurts were not
selling well against rivals’. The company emailed 40 000 men and women and
asked them to click on a link to help create a new product and get a shot at winning
$10 000. They evaluated a series of yogurt containers with different combinations
of name, package design, nutritional labelling, and size. By the end of the project,
researchers had decided that the yogurt should be called Carb Control, come in a
red container, and be sold in a four-pack of four-ounce cups; as well, the label
should appeal to dieters by highlighting the claims of “80% less sugar” and
“3 grams of carbs.”
The Increasing Role of the Consumer

One way marketers are attempting to encourage increases in interactive marketing
communications is by using what has been dubbed real-time marketing. Real-time
marketing involves marketing activities that leverage up-to-date and currently
occurring events. Often real-time marketing takes advantage of platforms like
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat because these allow for quick and
interactive communications with consumers. Oreo’s infamous “You can still dunk in
the dark” tweet during the power outage at the 2013 Super Bowl is an example of
this tactic. Another example occurred after Apple received bad press for having
phones that bent more than expected. Other brands, such as Kit Kat, Heineken, and
Samsung, followed suit by referring to scandals in their own marketing
Heineken cleverly linked its real-time

marketing activities to the conversation
consumers were having in social media
about Apple’s “Bendgate.”
Courtesy of Heineken N.V.
communications. Importantly, these real-time marketing activities become successful

when consumers interact with the messaging by forwarding the communications
through postings or retweets.
New Message Formats

Marketers now have open to them an array of new ways to transmit information. The
“ice-bucket challenge” that swept the Internet was a novel way to harness social
media for a good cause. The movement, which asked people to take a selfie or a
video while dousing their heads in a bucket of ice water, went viral and raised more
than $115 million for ALS research. Researchers explain this success by pointing to
several elements of the message, including the following:
1. the 24-hour deadline to either take the cold shower or pay the money (a very
specific goal as opposed to a more abstract one)
2. the public nature of the challenge, which allowed participants to share their
selfies online
3. the slight amount of self-sacrifice involved
Yes, people tend to donate more money when they have to suffer a bit for the cause;
researchers label this the martyrdom effect. As one put it, “We’re supposed to prefer
pleasure to pain but, when it comes to charity, you don’t hear about massage-a-thons or
dessert-a-thons.”7
If you’re on Facebook, Twitter, or LinkedIn, you’re one of the billion people who
analysts project will use social media applications globally within five years. This
term refers to the set of technologies that enable users to create content and share it
with a large number of others. Social media are so widespread that in Canada and
other developed countries, more people use these platforms than use email—and the
time people spend on these networks is growing three times faster than the rate of
overall participation online.8
We’ll dive into social media in more detail in Chapter 11. In addition to “the
obvious suspects”—popular social media platforms such as Facebook, Pinterest,
Foursquare, Tumblr, and so on—there are many other alternatives for marketers
who want to harness these new technologies to communicate with customers.
Some of these may even use multiple platforms, unfold their messages over a
period of time, and integrate social media with real-world experiences. A transme-
dia storytelling strategy typically includes communications media that range from
websites, blogs, and email to recorded phone calls and even graffiti messages
scrawled in public spaces.
Levels of Interactive Response

A key to understanding the dynamics of interactive marketing communications is to
consider exactly what is meant by a response.9 The early perspective on communica-
tions regarded feedback primarily in terms of behaviour: Did the recipient run out and
buy the laundry detergent after being exposed to an ad for it?
However, a variety of other responses are possible as well, including building

awareness of the brand, informing us about product features, reminding us to buy a
new package when we’ve run out, and—perhaps most importantly—building a
long-term relationship. Therefore, a transaction is one type of response, but for-
ward-thinking m arketers realize that customers can interact with them in other
valuable ways as well. For this reason it is helpful to distinguish between two basic
types of feedback:
• First-order response: Direct-marketing vehicles such as online display ads, Web
catalogues, and TV infomercials are interactive; if successful, they result in an
order, which is most definitely a response! So let’s think of a product offer that
directly yields a transaction as a first-order response. In addition to providing
revenue, sales data are a valuable source of feedback that allows marketers to
gauge the effectiveness of their communications efforts.
• Second-order response: A marketing communication does not have to immedi-
ately result in a purchase to be an important component of interactive marketing.
Messages can prompt useful responses from customers, even though these recipi-
ents do not necessarily place an order immediately after being exposed to the
communication. Customer feedback in response to a marketing message that is
not in the form of a transaction is a second-order response. For example, one key
metric that marketers are becoming increasingly interested in is social media
responses to their brands.
THE ROLE OF PERSUASION KNOWLEDGE The Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM)

suggests that consumers develop knowledge about persuasion and use this knowledge
to “cope” with or deal with persuasive attempts.10 This model views the exchange
between the consumer and the persuasion agent as a two-way interaction, in which
both the consumer and the agent have their own goals. The model also suggests that
the target (i.e., the consumer) has three types of knowledge: topic knowledge (specific
knowledge related to the issue at hand), agent knowledge (knowledge about the source
of the persuasion), and persuasion knowledge (knowledge about the persuasive tactics
and techniques being used).
Persuasion knowledge refers to consumers’ theories about persuasion. It includes
beliefs about marketers’ motives and tactics; the effectiveness and appropriateness of
persuasion tactics; and ways of coping with persuasion attempts. Consumers’ persua-
sion knowledge is understood to “hover in readiness” to help them form attitudes
about the influence agent or the product. The theory suggests that consumers use
their knowledge about such persuasive attempts to get the best outcome for them-
selves. Importantly, if consumers attribute negative motives to the persuasive agent,
such as a salesperson, they may be less easily persuaded or may negatively evaluate
the individual.11
The Source CO 3
Regardless of whether we receive a message by “snail mail,” email, or SMS text,

common sense tells us that if different people say or write the very same words, the
message can still affect us differently. Researchers have discussed the power of source
effects for more than 60 years. When we attribute the same message to different sources
and measure the degree of attitude change that occurs after listeners hear it, we can
isolate which characteristics of a communicator cause attitude change.12
Under most conditions, the source of a message can have a big impact on the like-
lihood that the message will be accepted. The choice of a source to maximize attitude
change can tap into several dimensions. The source can be chosen because he or she is
an expert, attractive, famous, or even a “typical” consumer who is both likeable and
trustworthy. Two important source characteristics are credibility and attractiveness.13
How do marketing specialists decide whether to stress either credibility or attrac-

Marketing tiveness when choosing a message source? There should be a match between the needs
Insight of the recipient and the potential rewards offered by the source. When this match
occurs, the recipient is more motivated to process the message. People who tend to be
In recent years we’ve witnessed a new attempt sensitive about social acceptance and the opinions of others, for example, are more
to manipulate attitudes that some people call persuaded by an attractive source, whereas those who are more internally oriented
sock puppeting, which involves a company are swayed by a credible, expert source.14
executive or other biased source posing as The choice may also depend on the type of product. A positive source can help
someone else and touting his or her organiza- to reduce risk and increase message acceptance overall, but particular types of
tion in social media. For example, it came to sources are more effective at reducing different kinds of risk. Experts are effective at
light that the CEO of Whole Foods Market
changing attitudes toward utilitarian products that have high performance risk,
posted derogatory comments about rival Wild
such as vacuums (i.e., they may be complex and not work as expected). Celebrities
Oats Markets without revealing his true iden-
are more effective when they focus on products such as jewellery and furniture that
tity. More recently, a not-for-profit research
have high social risk; the user of such products is aware of their effect on the
organization called GiveWell, which rates the
impression others have of him or her. Finally, “typical” consumers, who are appeal-
effectiveness of charities, had to discipline two
ing sources because of their similarity to the recipient, tend to be most effective
of its founders who pretended to be other peo-
ple on blogs and then referred people to the when providing real-life endorsements for everyday products that are low-risk,
group’s website. such as cookies.15
Similar problems potentially dilute the credi-
bility of Wikipedia, the open-source online encyclo-
pedia beloved by many students. Anyone can edit
Source Credibility
entries, so their reliability is not assured. Although Source credibility refers to a communicator’s expertise, objectivity, or trustworthi-
other alert contributors may eventually correct ness. This dimension relates to consumers’ beliefs that this person is competent
false or self-serving entries, there is still room for and will provide the necessary information we need when we evaluate competing
organizations to colour content in a way that products. Sincerity is particularly important when a company tries to publicize its
serves their goals. For example, a visitor edited the corporate social responsibility (CSR) activities that benefit the community in some
Wikipedia entry for the SeaWorld theme parks to way. When consumers believe it’s genuinely doing good things, a company’s image
change all mentions of “orcas” to “killer whales,”
can skyrocket. But this effort can backfire if people question the organization’s
and he or she also deleted a paragraph that criti-
motivations (e.g., if they think the firm spends more to talk about its good deeds
cized SeaWorld’s “lack of respect toward its
than to actually do them).16 Not too surprisingly, people who see deceptive adver-
orcas.” It turns out that the changes originated at
tising experience a feeling of distrust that carries over to other messages from that
a computer from Anheuser-Busch—the company
source and even to other sources because they are more likely to assume that
that just happens to own SeaWorld. An employee
advertising in general is not very credible—a true case of poisoning the well for
of PepsiCo deleted several paragraphs of the
Pepsi entry that focused on its detrimental health other marketers.17
effects, and a person at Walmart altered an entry A credible source is particularly persuasive when the consumer has yet to
about how the retailer pays its employees. learn much about a product or form an opinion of it.18 Indeed, one study demon-
Another form of sock puppeting is so-called strated that simply letting consumers know that a firm is profitable leads them
paid influencer programs that attempt to to put more stock in what the company says in its advertising.19 One widely
start online conversations about brands by used technique to generate credibility is to pay an expert or a celebrity to tout a
encouraging bloggers to write about them. product—but this kind of endorsement doesn’t come cheap. However, typically the
These “sponsored conversations” can be effec- investment is worth it, simply because market analysts use the announcement of
tive, but again, marketers need to be careful an endorsement contract to evaluate a firm’s potential profitability, which affects
about the potential to distort source recommen- its expected return. On average, the impact of endorsements on stock returns
dations. For example, Kmart awarded a shop- appears to be so positive that it offsets the cost of hiring the spokesperson. Indeed,
ping spree to a group of bloggers who agreed to a study on the use of celebrities in marketing reported that ads containing a celeb-
post about their experiences. Panasonic flew rity endorser produced 9.4 percent higher consumer readership than ads without a
bloggers to the Consumer Electronics Show in celebrity endorser.20
Las Vegas, where they posted about the show The drawing power of famous people may even be “wired in”: One study found
and the Panasonic products unveiled there. that compared to “ordinary” faces, our brains pay more attention to famous faces and
Mercedes gave a blogger the use of an SUV for a more efficiently process information about these images.21 Celebrities increase aware-
week in exchange for posts about it.
ness of a firm’s advertising and enhance both company image and brand attitudes. A
celebrity endorsement strategy can be an effective way to differentiate among similar
products. This is especially important when consumers do not perceive many actual
differences among competitors, as often occurs when brands are in the mature stage of
the product life cycle.22
As I See It
Imagine you purchase a pair of negative toward advertised products even weeks after the
“toning shoes” on the basis of initial deception occurred. Further, generalized suspicion
an advertisement that says led to more negative attitudes whether the advertisement
they have been proven to included strong or weak arguments, whether or not the sec-
strengthen your lower body ond advertiser was a well-known and reputable firm,2 and even
better than regular running if consumers had had the chance to directly test the adver-
shoes. However, you later learn tised product for themselves. 3 This generalized suspicion
that regulators have deter- occurred because consumers felt defensive, which led them to
mined the advertisement was become concerned that they might be fooled by advertisers
misleading because there was again in the future.
Courtesy of Peter Darke
never actually any real evi- We have already seen that generalized distrust can under-
dence to back up the claim. If mine otherwise effective persuasion tactics, such as the use of
you are like most people, this strong arguments or promoting a positive reputation to consum-
kind of experience would make ers. However, other approaches to dealing with such suspicions
you suspicious or distrustful of have proven more successful. For instance, firms that are inde-
Peter Darke, York University
the company involved. pendently certified by the Better Business Bureau are less vul-
This seems pretty reasonable, given that the offending nerable to the effects of generalized suspicion. The use of
advertiser has already proven unreliable. But now how would you multiple trust cues can also be effective. In particular, one study
feel about advertising from other companies? Would a bad expe- showed that the combination of a reputable brand name (e.g.,
rience with one advertiser make you doubt the claims of another? Amazon) and high customer satisfaction ratings reduced the
Asked directly, most say they would only be suspicious of the effects of generalized suspicion, whereas either of these trust
advertiser that actually made the false claim. cues used in isolation failed to do so.4
In contrast to these intuitions, our own research found that Broadly speaking, the power that generalized suspicion has
suspicion induced by a deceptive advertisement spreads readily to undermine the persuasive appeal of advertising messages
to unrelated firms.1 In a series of experiments, we had consum- speaks to the strong need for advertisers to ensure their claims
ers read an initial advertisement that suggested the product was are not overstated. This might seem obvious, but recent trends
the best on the market. Some of the participants later learned indicate an increase in the incidence of misleading claims,
this claim was not true—other brands actually performed better! which might explain why only about half of Canadians currently
The results showed that learning the ad was deceptive generated view advertising as truthful.5 Firms that rely heavily on advertis-
suspicion toward not only the offending firm, but also the adver- ing have a vested interest in maintaining its integrity by avoiding
tisements of other companies selling very different products. misleading claims in the first place. This is best accomplished
The latter, more generalized form of suspicion proved to by adequately testing messages before communicating them
have rather broad effects. For instance, consumers were more to consumers.
1Peter R. Darke and Robin B. Ritchie, “The Defensive Consumer: Advertising Deception, Defensive Processing, and Distrust,” Journal of Marketing Research 44 (February
2007): 114–127.
2 Peter R. Darke, Laurence Ashworth, and Robin B. Ritchie, “Damage from Corrective Advertising: Causes and Cures,” Journal of Marketing 72 (November 2008): 81–97.
3Peter R. Darke, Laurence Ashworth, and Kelley J. Main, “Great Expectations and Broken Promises: Misleading Advertising, Product Failure, Expectancy Disconfirmation and
Consumer Suspicion,” Journal of Academy of Marketing Science 38(3) (2010): 347–362.
4 Ray L. Benedicktus, Michael K. Brady, Peter R. Darke, and Clay M. Voorhees, “Conveying Trustworthiness to Online Consumers: Reactions to Brand, Consensus, Physical
Presence, and Suspicion,” Journal of Retailing 85(4) (2010): 310–323.
5 Advertising Standards Canada, “Canadian Perspectives on Advertising,” 2011, www.adstandards.com/en/MediaAndEvents/canadianPerspectivesOnAdvertising.pdf.
Although in general more positive sources tend to increase attitude change, there
are exceptions to this rule. Sometimes we can think a source is obnoxious, yet it is still
effective. In some instances the differences in attitude change between positive sources
and less positive sources become erased over time. After a while, people appear to
“forget” about the negative source and change their attitudes anyway. We call this
process the sleeper effect.23
The source effects issue has gained even more attention recently, due to a hot
trend in marketing known as native advertising. This term refers to digital messages
designed to blend into the editorial content of the publications in which they appear.
The idea is to capture the attention of people who might resist ad messages that pop
up in the middle of an article or program. These messages may look a lot like a regular
article, but they often link to a sponsor’s content. For example, native ads on Vanity
Fair magazine’s website resemble editorial contributions, complete with a byline, but
the author is listed as “Vanity Fair Agenda.” As one advertising executive commented,
native ads “should not come across as anything that doesn’t belong. That is what we
mean by native; it belongs.”24
Building C redibility
Credibility can be enhanced if the source’s qualifications are perceived as relevant to
the product being endorsed. This link can overcome other objections people might
have to the endorser or the product. For example, LeBron James uses Nike basketball
shoes. One might hate Nike, or LeBron, yet see the results that LeBron gets using that
brand. It’s important to note that what is credible to one consumer segment may be a
turnoff to another. Indeed, rebellious, even deviant celebrities may be attractive to
some for just that reason. Take, for example, Calvin Klein using Justin Bieber as a
model, despite media coverage of his rebellious behaviours.25 Parents might not be
thrilled by this type of role model—but isn’t that the point?
A consumer’s beliefs about a product’s attributes can be weakened if the source is
perceived to be the victim of bias in presenting information.26 Knowledge bias implies
that a source’s knowledge about a topic is not accurate. Reporting bias occurs when a
source has the required knowledge but his or her willingness to convey it accurately is
compromised, as when a star tennis player is paid by a racket manufacturer to use its
products exclusively. Although his or her credentials might be appropriate, the fact
that the expert is perceived as a “hired gun” compromises believability. Of course, it’s
not always clear that a person has been paid to say he or she loves a product. Microsoft
was criticized when the software company offered to pay “travel costs” for professors
if they presented papers at conferences and mentioned how Microsoft programs
helped them in their work.27
Hype versus Buzz: The Corporate Paradox

Obviously many marketers spend lavishly to create marketing messages that they
hope will convince hordes of customers that their products or services are the
best. There’s the rub—in many cases they may be trying too hard! We can think of
this as the corporate paradox—the more involved a company appears to be in the
dissemination of news about its products, the less credible it becomes.28 As we’ll
see in Chapter 11, consumer word of mouth is typically the most convincing kind
of message. As Table 8–1 shows, buzz is word of mouth viewed as authentic and
generated by customers. In contrast, hype is word of mouth dismissed as
inauthentic—propaganda planted by a company. So the challenge to marketers is
to get the word out there without looking as though they are working at it.
TABLE 8–1
Hype versus Buzz

Hype Buzz
Advertising Word of mouth
Overt Covert
Corporate Grassroots
Fake Authentic
Skepticism Credibility
Some marketers are trying to borrow the veneer of buzz by mounting “stealth”
campaigns that seem as if they are untouched by the corporate world. Buzz building Marketing
has become the new mantra at many companies that recognize the power of under-
ground word of mouth.29 Indeed, a bit of a cottage industry has sprung up as some
Insight
firms begin to specialize in the corporate shill business by planting comments on web- Celebrities (and their managers) don’t neces-
sites made to look as if they originated from actual consumers. sarily jump at the chance to endorse just any
Powerful as these tactics are, they have the potential to poison the well in a big product. After all, they have a brand image to
way. Consumers, already skeptical about what they see and hear, may get to the point protect as well. For years one popular strategy
where they assume that every “authentic” site they find is really a corporate front. has been to film commercials overseas and
Until then, however, buzz-building online is going strong. stipulate that they are not to air at home. The
practice is so widespread in Japan that one
website has even coined a term to describe it:
Source Attractiveness japander, a combination of “Japanese” and
“pandering,” which the Urban Dictionary
Source attractiveness refers to the source’s perceived social value. This quality can defines as follows: “1. a western star who uses
emanate from the person’s physical appearance, personality, or social status, or from his or her fame to make large sums of money in
his or her similarity to the receiver (we like to listen to people who are like us). A com- a short time by advertising products in Japan
pelling source has great value, and endorsement deals are constantly in the works. that they would probably never use. . . . 2. to
Even dead sources can be attractive: The great grandson of the artist Renoir is putting make an ass of oneself in Japanese media.”
his famous ancestor’s name on bottled water, and the Picasso family has licensed their Go online and check out actors such as
name to the French automaker Citroën.30 Arnold Schwarzenegger, George Clooney, and
Jennifer Aniston in commercials they’d prefer
W hat I s Beautiful Is G ood their North American fans don’t see.
Almost everywhere we turn, beautiful people are trying to persuade us to buy or do
something. Our society puts a very high premium on physical attractiveness, and we
tend to assume that people who are good-looking are smarter, cooler, and happier.
Such an assumption is called a halo effect, which occurs when individuals who are 2013 Abercrombie and Fitch Under Fire
rated highly on one dimension are assumed to excel on others as well. The effect can “Exclusionary” Tactics
be explained in terms of the consistency principle, discussed in Chapter 7, which
states that people are more comfortable when all of their judgments about a person go
together. This notion has been called the “what is beautiful is good” stereotype.31
A physically attractive source tends to facilitate attitude change. His or her degree
of attractiveness exerts at least a modest effect on consumers’ purchase intentions or
product evaluation.32
As a result, physically attractive people often get a boost in life because people
assume they excel in other dimensions as well. Occasionally this halo effect can back-
fire if observers infer that someone has exploited his or her attractiveness (e.g., women
who are labelled as “golddiggers”). One study found that good-looking children are
less likely to receive assistance from adults (at least for fairly mild problems) because
people assume they are more competent and thus better able to help themselves. One
implication of this work is that, ironically, charitable organizations may want to con-
sider using less attractive kids as models to solicit donations! 33 Psychologists also
refer to the opposite—the forked-tail effect, which describes our assumptions that an
unattractive person also isn’t good at other things.
Star P ower: C elebrities as Communications Sources

Celebrities hawk everything from grills (George Foreman) to perfumes (Ariana Grande).
As our discussion about the consistency principle illustrates, these messages are more
effective when there’s a logical connection between the star and the product. When
Bob Dylan—who wrote lyrics such as “Advertising signs that con you/Into thinking
you’re the one/That can do what’s never been done/That can win what’s never been
won”—pitches Victoria’s Secret lingerie, marketers may need to reread their consumer
behaviour textbook.34
Star power works because celebrities embody cultural meanings—they symbolize
important categories like status and social class (“working-class hero” Kevin James of
King of Queens), gender (the effeminate Cam on Modern Family), age (the youthful
Pepsi links its brand to the star power

of Beyoncé.
© Walter McBride/Corbis
President Grant on Scandal), and even personality types (the nerdy Sheldon on
Big Bang Theory and cool Adam Levine on The Voice). Ideally, the advertiser decides
Consumers what meanings the product should convey (that is, how it should position the item in
in Focus the marketplace) and then chooses a celebrity who embodies a similar meaning. The
product’s meaning thus moves from the manufacturer to the consumer, using the star
Anyone today can make an ad, and some compa- as a vehicle.
nies even encourage customers to create mes- For celebrity campaigns to be effective, the endorser must have a clear and popu-
sages about their products. Perhaps this can all lar image. In addition, the celebrity’s image and that of the product he or she endorses
be blamed on the successful consumer-created should be similar; this effect is known as the match-up hypothesis.35 Many promo-
$12.97 ad for Doritos, created for and shown dur-
tional strategies employing stars fail because the endorser has not been selected care-
ing the 2007 Super Bowl. Sometimes consumers’
fully enough; some marketers just assume that because a person is “famous,” he or she
ads are compelling messages for the product,
will serve as a successful spokesperson.
but more often than not consumers are not the
As noted above, the effectiveness of celebrities as communications sources often
best at conveying the desired brand image. In
depends on their perceived credibility. Consumers may not trust a celebrity’s motives
one contest, Heinz offered $57 000 for the best ad
for endorsing a product, or they may question the star’s competence to evaluate the
about its ketchup. Some teenage boys were using
the ketchup as acne cream, some were chugging product’s claims critically. The lack of credibility is aggravated by instances in which
it straight from the bottle, and others were shav- celebrities have endorsed products that they do not really believe in or in some cases
ing and brushing their teeth with it. Often the do not use. In one example, Beyoncé’s credibility was questioned when she endorsed
ketchup looked like blood and the ads were more Pepsi products after she had been a strong proponent of Michelle Obama’s “Let’s
grotesque than appetizing.36 Move” fitness campaign. Consumers are very sensitive to celebrities appearing to be
inconsistent or insincere in their endorsements.37
And of course, sometimes celebrities don’t behave in ways sponsors approve of.
The downfall of Tiger Woods as a suitable endorser for many brands is a good exam-
ple. After his many infidelities were made public, both Accenture and Gillette cut him
loose very quickly. The balance theory of attitudes (see Chapter 7) helps to predict this
downfall, as these companies did not want the negative image of a sexually promiscu-
ous individual associated with their brands.
Non- human Endorsers

Celebrities can be effective endorsers, but there are drawbacks to using them. As noted
previously, their motives may be suspect if they plug products that don’t fit their
image, or if they come to be seen as never having met a product they didn’t like (for a
fee). They may be involved in a scandal or deviate from a brand’s desired image—for
example, the Milk Processor Education Program suspended “Got Milk?” ads featuring
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen after Mary-Kate entered a treatment facility for an undis-
closed health issue.
For these reasons, some marketers seek alternatives, including cartoon characters
and mascots. After all, as the marketing director of a company that manufactures cos-
tumed characters for sports teams and businesses points out, “You don’t have to worry
about your mascot checking into rehab.” Researchers report that spokescharacters,
such as the Pillsbury Doughboy, Chester the Cheetah, and the Geico Gecko, do, in fact,
boost viewers’ recall of claims that ads make and also yield higher brand attitudes.38
One example of non-human endorsers is avatars. Avatars originated in computer
games such as The Sims, but now they are starting to appear in online advertising
and on e-commerce sites as a mechanism for enhancing the online experience. Rock
bands, soft-drink makers, and other big-time marketers are using avatars. Coca-Cola
launched an avatar-populated site for the Hong Kong market in which avatars mill
around and chat in a Coke-sponsored world. British Telecom is also testing such
products as avatar email, which is software that makes the sender’s face appear and
speak the message aloud.39
One advantage of virtual avatars compared to flesh-and-blood models is that it’s
possible to change them in real time to suit the needs of the target audience or indi-
vidual consumer. From an advertising perspective, using avatars is likely to be more
cost-effective than hiring a real person. From a personal selling and customer service
perspective, they have the ability to handle multiple customers at any one time, they
are not geographically limited, and they are operational 24/7, freeing up company
employees and sales personnel to perform other activities.
Morty the Bison has been an effective spokes-

person for Manitoba Telecom Services (MTS)
for over a decade. Morty is an effective
endorser because he adds a light-hearted
and playful element to the MTS brand.
Courtesy of MTS Inc.
CO 4 The Message
Very subtle aspects of the way a source delivers a message can influence our inter-
pretation of what he or she says. For example, if a source refers to the brand as
“you,” “we,” or, more abstractly, “the brand,” this changes how people feel about the
product. A more intimate reference can bolster feelings about brands with which the
consumer has a positive relationship, but it can also be off-putting if it’s inconsistent
with how the person feels about the product.40
Even the layout in a print ad sends a message about how the consumer should
relate to the advertised item. A brand that wants customers to see it as a “friend” by
depicting a model using it is more effective when the product image appears horizon-
tally and near the model. On the other hand, if a brand wants customers to see it as a
“leader,” the advertiser will have better luck if it physically places the brand above the
user and farther away (“It’s lonely at the top”).41
A major study of more than 1000 commercials identified factors that appear to
determine whether a commercial message will be persuasive. The single most impor-
tant feature was whether the communication contained a brand-differentiating mes-
sage. In other words, did the communication stress a unique attribute or benefit of
the product?42
The characteristics of the commercial message itself help to determine the impact
of that message on attitudes. These variables may include how the message is said as
well as what is actually said. The issues facing marketers include the following:
• Should the message be conveyed in words or pictures?
• How concrete or vivid should the arguments and imagery be?
• How often should the message be repeated?
• Should both sides of an argument be presented?
• Should a conclusion be drawn, or should this be left up to the listener/viewer?
• Is it effective to explicitly compare a product with that of competitors?
• Should a blatant sexual appeal be used?
• Should the ad be funny?
• Should negative emotions, such as fear, ever be aroused?
Sending the Message

The saying “One picture is worth a thousand words” captures the idea that visual
stimuli can economically deliver a big impact, especially when the communicator
wants to influence the receivers’ emotional responses. For this reason, advertisers
often put great emphasis on vivid and creative illustrations or photography.43
On the other hand, a picture is not always as effective at communicating factual
information. Ads that contain the same information, presented in either visual or ver-
bal form, have been found to elicit different reactions. The verbal version affects rat-
ings on the utilitarian aspects of a product, while the visual version affects aesthetic
evaluations.44 Verbal elements are more effective when reinforced by an accompany-
ing picture, especially if the illustration is framed (i.e., the message in the picture is
strongly related to the copy).45
Because it requires more effort to process, a verbal message is most appropriate for
high-involvement situations, such as in print contexts where readers are motivated to
pay attention to the advertising. Because verbal material decays more rapidly in mem-
ory, more frequent exposures are needed to obtain the desired effect. Visual images, in
contrast, allow the receiver to chunk information at the time of encoding (see Chapter 3
on memory processes). Chunking results in a stronger memory trace, which aids
retrieval over time.46
FIGURE 8–3
Effects of Visual and Verbal Components of Advertisements on Brand Attitudes
Visual Component Attitude toward

of Advertisement the Advertisement
Brand
Attitudes
Verbal Component Beliefs about

of Advertisement Product Attributes
Visual elements may affect brand attitudes in one of two ways. First, the con-
sumer may form inferences about the brand and change his or her beliefs because
of an illustration’s imagery. For example, people who saw an ad for a facial tissue
accompanied by a photo of a sunset were more likely to believe that the brand
came in attractive colours. Second, brand attitudes may be affected more directly.
A strong positive or negative reaction elicited by the visual elements will influ-
ence the consumer’s a ttitude toward the ad (A ad), which will then affect brand
attitudes (A b). This dual-component model of brand attitudes is illustrated in
Figure 8–3.47
R epetition
Repetition can be a two-edged sword for marketers. As noted in Chapter 3, multiple
exposures to a stimulus are usually required for learning (especially conditioning) to
occur. Contrary to the saying “Familiarity breeds contempt,” people tend to like things Marketing
that are more familiar to them, even if they were not that keen on them initially.48 This
phenomenon is known as the mere exposure effect. Positive effects for advertising Insight
repetition are found even in mature product categories; repeating product information The Pandora music site attracts about 70 million
has been shown to boost consumers’ awareness of the brand even though nothing new listeners, who tune in to playlists Pandora cre-
has been said.49 On the other hand, too much repetition creates habituation, wherein ates based upon their initial preferences for
the consumer no longer pays attention to the stimulus because of fatigue or boredom. certain artists. The site uses a music intelli-
Excessive exposure can cause advertising wearout, which can result in negative reac- gence algorithm to dissect the characteristics of
tions to an ad after seeing it too much.50 favourite songs and serve up others that are
The fine line between familiarity and boredom has been explained by the two- similar. Pandora’s engineers constantly tweak
factor theory, which proposes that two separate psychological processes are operating the playlists as they experiment with variations
when a person is repeatedly exposed to an ad. The positive side of repetition is that it of the experience. For example, do listeners want
increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about the product. The negative to hear mostly familiar songs, or do they want to
side is that, over time, boredom increases with each exposure. At some point the discover new music? One of the biggest issues
amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed the amount of uncertainty reduced, Pandora wrestles with is how frequently it should
resulting in wearout. This pattern is depicted in Figure 8–4. Its effect is especially repeat the same song or artist in a playlist. The
site constantly tries new variations to arrive at
pronounced in cases where each exposure is of a fairly long duration (such as a
the optimal number of repetitions, but it turns
60-second commercial).51
out that a lot depends on other factors, such as
The theory implies that advertisers can overcome this problem by limiting the
the time of day and where listeners are when
amount of exposure per repetition (e.g., by using 15-second spots). They can also
they tune in. For example, Pandora’s data show
maintain familiarity but alleviate boredom by slightly varying the execution of ads
that users welcome new music instead of the
over time through campaigns that revolve around a common theme (for which each same old same old, but not so much when
spot may be different). Recipients who are exposed to varied ads about the product they’re at work. The company continues to tweak
absorb more information about product attributes and experience more positive its algorithm as it tries to answer the elusive
thoughts about the brand than do those exposed repeatedly to the same information. question, Can you have too much of a good
This additional information allows the person to resist attempts to change his or her thing?53
attitude in the face of a counterattack by a competing brand.52
FIGURE 8–4
Two-Factor Theory and Advertising Wearout
Factor
ive Learning
POSITIVE Posit
AFFECT
Net E
ffec
t
NEUTRAL NUMBER OF EXPOSURES
AFFECT
Ne
gat
ive
Ted
ium
Fa
cto
NEGATIVE r
AFFECT
Constructing the Argument

Many marketing messages are similar to debates or trials, in which someone presents
arguments and tries to convince the receiver to shift his or her opinion accordingly.
The way the argument is presented can thus be very important.
One- versus Two-S ided Arguments

Most messages merely present one or more positive attributes about the product or
reasons to buy it. These are known as supportive arguments. An alternative is to use a
two-sided message, in which both positive and negative information is presented.
Research has indicated that two-sided ads can be quite effective, yet they are not
widely used.54
Why would a marketer want to devote advertising space to a product’s negative
attributes? Under the right circumstances, the use of refutational arguments, in
which a negative issue is raised and then dismissed, can be quite effective. This
approach can increase source credibility by reducing reporting bias. Also, people
who are skeptical about the product may be more receptive to a balanced argument
as opposed to a “whitewash.”55
This is not to say that the marketer should go overboard in presenting major prob-
lems with the product. In the typical refutational strategy, relatively minor attributes
are discussed that may present a problem or fall short when a product is compared
with competitors. These drawbacks are then refuted by emphasizing positive, impor-
tant attributes. Avis got a lot of mileage out of claiming to be only “No. 2,” while an ad
for Volkswagen woefully described one of its cars as a “lemon” because there was a
scratch on the glove-compartment chrome strip.56
A two-sided strategy appears to be most effective when the audience is well edu-
cated (and presumably more impressed by a balanced argument).57 It is also best used
when receivers are not already loyal to the product; “preaching to the converted”
about possible drawbacks may raise doubts unnecessarily.
Drawing Conclusions
A related issue is whether the argument should draw conclusions or whether the
points should merely be presented, permitting the consumer to arrive at his or her
own conclusion. Should the message say only “Our brand is superior,” or should it
add “You should buy our brand”? On the one hand, consumers who make their own
inferences instead of being spoonfed will form stronger, more accessible attitudes. On
the other hand, leaving the conclusion ambiguous increases the chance that the
desired attitude will not be formed.
The response to this issue depends on the consumers’ motivation to process the
ad and the complexity of the arguments. If the message is personally relevant, people
will pay attention to it and spontaneously form inferences. However, if the arguments
are hard to follow or consumers’ motivation to follow them is lacking, it is safer for the
ad to state the conclusions to be drawn.58
Comparative Advertising
Comparative advertising refers to a strategy wherein a message identifies two or more
specifically named or recognizably presented brands and compares them in terms of
one or more specific attributes.59
This strategy can cut both ways, especially if the sponsor depicts the competition
in a nasty or negative way. Although some comparative ads result in desired attitude
changes, they may also be lower in believability and stir up source derogation (i.e., the
consumer may doubt the credibility of a biased presentation).60 Indeed, in some cul-
tures (such as in Asia) comparative advertising is rare, because people find such a
confrontational approach offensive.
This advertisement does an excellent job of

comparative advertising.
Courtesy of Molson Coors Canada
Comparative ads do appear to be effective in the case of new products. Here, they
are superior in anchoring a new brand closer to a dominant one and in building a clear
brand image. However, if the aim is to compare the new brand with the market leader
in terms of specific product attributes, merely saying it is as good as or better than the
leader is not sufficient. However, advertisers need to tread lightly, especially when
they risk ruffling the feathers of other companies. Fox rejected a commercial that Soda
Stream submitted for the 2015 Super Bowl because the actress Scarlett Johansson sen-
sually sips her homemade soda and says, “Sorry, Coke and Pepsi.”61
Types of Message Appeals

The way something is said can be as significant as what is said; the same idea can be
encoded in many different ways. It can tug at the heartstrings or scare you, make
you laugh, make you cry, or leave you wanting to learn more. In this section we’ll
review the major alternatives available to communicators who wish to appeal to a
message recipient.
E motional versus R ational Appeals

Colgate-Palmolive’s Total brand was the first toothpaste to claim that it fights gingi-
vitis, a benefit that let Colgate inch ahead of Procter & Gamble’s Crest for the first
time in decades. Colgate initially made a scientific pitch for its new entry as it
emphasized Total’s germ-fighting abilities. In newer ads, however, former model
Brooke Shields cavorted with two children (not hers) as soft music played in the
background. She stated, “Having a healthy smile is important to me. Not just as an
actress but as a mom.”62
So which is better: to appeal to the head or the heart? The answer often depends
on the nature of the product and the type of relationship consumers have with it. Many
companies turned to the latter strategy after realizing that consumers do not find many
differences among brands, especially those in well-established, mature categories. Ads
for products ranging from cars to greeting cards focus instead on emotional aspects.
The precise effects of rational versus emotional appeals are hard to gauge.
Though recall of ad content tends to be better for “thinking” ads than for “feeling”
This advertisement makes an emotional

appeal to get a response from consumers.
Advertising Agency: Saatchi & Saatchi, | Leo Burnett The
Netherlands; Creative Director: Magnus Olsson;
Copywriter: Saatchi & Saatchi Tribe (Avinash Sampath);
Art Director: Saatchi & Saatchi Tribe (Tim Bishop);
Photographer: Calle Stolze; Producer: Jan Willem
Wiesenekker; Account Supervisor: Ard Krak; Advertiser’s
Supervisor: Alexandra van Nieuwenhuyzen
ads, conventional measures of advertising effectiveness (such as day-after recall)

may not be adequate to assess cumulative effects of emotional ads. These open-
ended measures are oriented toward cognitive responses, and feeling ads may be
penalized because the reactions are not as easy to articulate.63
Se x Appeals
A risqué ad campaign for Kraft’s Zesty Italian salad dressing attracted the attention of
a conservative activist group called One Million Moms. Members took to the Web to
protest a print ad featuring a hunky male model having a naked picnic. The group
stated, “Last week’s issue of People magazine had the most disgusting ad on the inside
front cover that we have ever seen Kraft produce. A full 2-page ad features a n*ked
man lying on a picnic blanket with only a small portion of the blanket barely covering
his g*nitals. It is easy to see what the ad is really selling.” Kraft responded, “Our Kraft
dressing’s ‘Let’s Get Zesty’ campaign is a playful and flirtatious way to reach our con-
sumers. People have overwhelmingly said they’re enjoying the campaign and having
fun with it.” Apparently not everyone.64
Echoing the widely held belief that “sex sells,” many marketing communications
for products from perfumes to autos feature heavy doses of erotic suggestions that
range from subtle hints to blatant displays of skin. Of course, the prevalence of sex
appeal varies from country to country. Perhaps not surprisingly, female nudity in
print ads generates negative feelings and tension among female consumers, while
men’s reactions are more positive.65 In a case of turnabout being fair play, another
Sexual appeals are a popular means of

attracting a younger target audience.
Courtesy of Diesel
study found that males dislike nude males in ads, whereas females responded well to
undressed males—but not totally nude ones.66
Research has also shown the importance of product fit with sex appeals.67 Sexual
imagery paired with products that have little to do with sex (e.g., socket wrenches) has
been shown to produce negative reactions from both genders. The poor fit between the
sex appeal and the product was seen to be gratuitous and unnecessary. However, when
cognitively busy (i.e., when an individual is unable to give full attention to an ad),
male consumers were shown to react positively to sexual imagery in ads regardless of
product fit. Interestingly, negative responses from female consumers were reduced in
this instance if the sex appeal was framed to promote commitment and relationship.68
It seems the softening of the sex appeal in this way makes the advertisement more
acceptable to a female audience.
So, does sex work? Although erotic content does appear to draw attention to an
ad, its use may actually be counterproductive. In one survey, an overwhelming
61 percent of respondents said that sexual imagery in a product’s ad makes them less
likely to buy it. Ironically, a provocative picture can be too effective; it can attract so
much attention as to hinder processing and recall of the ad’s contents. Sexual appeals
appear to be ineffective when marketers use them merely as a “trick” to grab atten-
tion. They do, however, appear to work when the product is itself related to sex (e.g.,
lingerie or Viagra).69
A research firm recently explored how men and women look at sexually themed
ads and what effect, if any, what they choose to look at might have on the ads’ effec-
tiveness. One part of the study used special software to follow the visual behaviour of
respondents as they looked at ten print ads. The ad sample consisted of two ads, one
sexual and one nonsexual, from each of five product categories. When the participants
looked at a sexual ad, men tended to ignore the text, focusing instead on the woman in
it, whereas the women participants tended first to explore the ad’s text elements. Men
said they liked the sexual ads more, liked the products advertised in them more, and
would be more likely to buy those products. Women scored the sexual ads lower than
the nonsexual ones on all three of those criteria.70
H umorous A ppeals
The use of humour can be tricky, particularly since what is funny to one person may
be offensive or incomprehensible to another. Specific cultures have different senses of
humour and also use funny material in diverse ways. For example, commercials in the
United Kingdom and Canada are more likely to use puns and satire than those in the
United States.71
Overall, humorous advertisements do get attention. One study found that recogni-
tion scores for humorous liquor ads were better than average. However, the verdict is
mixed as to whether humour affects recall or product attitudes in a significant way.72
Humour can be effective when it provides a source of distraction. A funny ad inhibits
the consumer from counterarguing. This, in turn, increases the likelihood of message
acceptance.73 One suggestion is that for an advertisement to be funny, it needs to
simultaneously violate expectations and be benign (i.e., not overly offensive).74
Of course, for different people what is considered offensive can differ. Brands
using humor need to be careful that they are not offensive to potenial customers.
Humour is more likely to be effective when the brand is clearly identified and the
funny material does not “swamp” the message. This danger is similar to that of beauti-
ful models diverting attention from copy points. Subtle humour is usually better, as is
humour that does not make fun of the potential consumer. Humour should also be
appropriate to the product’s image. An undertaker or a bank might want to avoid
humour, while other products adapt to it quite well. For example, successful market-
ers of beer often incorporate humour into their advertising (see Figure 8–5). Finally, a
study by two University of McGill researchers found that humorous messages can tem-
per ads for threatening situations. For example, people do not want to think too much
This advertisement uses humour to resonate

with the target market.
DB Export Dry—The wine is over.
about disease or other avoidance situations. When the message for these negative sce-
narios was couched in humour, the advertisements were better received.75
F ear Appeals
Fear appeals highlight the negative consequences that can occur if the consumer
fails to change a behaviour or attitude. Fear appeals are fairly common in advertis-
ing, although they are more common in social marketing contexts in which organi-
zations encourage people to convert to healthier lifestyles by quitting smoking,
FIGURE 8–5
What Makes a Beer Advertisement Appealing?
Something Else 5%
Sex 3%
The Product 4%
Humour 62%
The Actors 5%
The Music 7%
The Situation 14%
Source: Jean-Marc Léger and Dave Scholz, “The Appeal of Beer Ads,” Marketing Magazine (June 17, 2002): 24. Reprinted with permission of
Marketing Magazine, Rogers Publishing.
FIGURE 8–6
The Relationship between Fear and Attitude Change
ATTITUDE CHANGE
DEGREE OF FEAR
using contraception, or relying on a designated driver. For example, Canada was

one of the first countries to introduce graphic warning labels on cigarette packaging.
These are good examples of fear appeals that attempt to convince consumers to
avoid unhealthy behaviours.
Fear appeals are usually most effective when only a moderate amount of fear is
induced. The relationship between fear and attitude change is non-monotonic. 76
As shown in Figure 8–6, this means that increasing levels of fear does not result in
increased change; the relationship instead resembles an inverted U-shaped curve.
If the threat is too great, the audience tends to deny that it exists as a way of ratio-
nalizing the danger. Fear appeals appear to be most effective when the consumer is
already afraid of the problem discussed in the ad. As a result, when using fear
appeals, threats should not be excessive, and a solution to the problem should be
presented. (Otherwise, consumers will tune out the ad, since they can do nothing
to solve the problem.)77 Fear appeals also work better when source credibility is
high.78 When a strong threat doesn’t work, there may be too much elaboration that
interferes with the processing of the recommended change in behaviour—the
receiver is too busy thinking of reasons the message doesn’t apply to her to pay
By also providing contact information on

where to find help, this antismoking label
is a good example of providing a fear
appeal along with a potential solution to
the problem.
Canadian Press
attention to the offered solution. A study that manipulated subjects’ degree of anx-
iety about AIDS, for example, found that they evaluated condom ads most posi-
tively when the ads used a moderate threat. Copy that promoted use of the condom
because “Sex is a risky business” (moderate threat) resulted in more attitude
change than either a weaker threat that emphasized the product’s sensitivity or a
strong threat that discussed the certainty of death from AIDS.79 Similarly, scare
tactics have not been as effective as hoped in getting teenagers to decrease their use
of alcohol or drugs. Teens simply tune out the message or deny its relevance to
them.80 On the other hand, a study of adolescent responses to social threat versus
physical threat appeals in drug prevention messages found that social threat is a
more effective strategy.81
The Message as Art Form:

Metaphors Be with You
Marketers may be thought of as storytellers who supply visions of reality similar to
those provided by authors, poets, and artists. These communications take the form of
stories because the product benefits they describe are intangible and must be given
tangible meaning by being expressed in a form that is concrete and visible. Advertising
creatives rely (consciously or not) on various literary devices to communicate these
meanings. For example, a product or service might be personified by a character such
as Mr. Clean, the Jolly Green Giant, or the Geico Gecko. Many ads take the form of an
allegory, wherein a story is told about an abstract trait or concept that has been
personified as a person, animal, or vegetable.
A metaphor involves the use of an explicit comparison, such as “A is B” (“Air
Canada is your friend in faraway places”). Metaphors allow the marketer to activate
meaningful images and apply them to everyday events. In the stock market, “white
knights” battle “hostile raiders” using “poison pills,” while Tony the Tiger allows us
to equate cereal with strength, and the Merrill Lynch bull sends the message that the
company is “a breed apart.”82
Resonance is another type of literary device that is frequently used in advertis-
ing. It is a form of presentation that combines a play on words with a relevant pic-
ture. Table 8–2 gives some examples of actual ads that rely on the principle of
TABLE 8–2
Some Examples of Advertising Resonance

Product/Headline Visual
Embassy Suites: “This Year, We’re Unwrapping Chocolate kisses with hotel name under-
Suites by the Dozen” neath each kiss
Toyota auto parts: “Our Lifetime Guarantee Man holding a shock absorber
May Come as a Shock”
Bounce fabric softener: “Is There Something Woman’s dress bunched up on her back,
Creeping Up Behind You?” caused by static
Pepsi: “This Year, Hit the Beach Topless” Pepsi bottle cap lying on the sand
ASICS athletic shoes: “We Believe Women Woman jogging in a rural setting
Should Be Running the Country”
Source: Adapted from Edward F. McQuarrie and David Glen Mick, “On Resonance: A Critical Pluralistic Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric,” Journal
of Consumer Research 19 (September 1992): 182, Table 1. Reprinted with permission of The University of Chicago Press.
resonance. Although metaphor substitutes one meaning for another by connecting

two things that are in some way similar, resonance uses an element that has a
double meaning, such as a pun, in which there is a similarity in the sound of a
word but a difference in meaning. For example, an ad for a diet strawberry short-
cake dessert might bear the copy “berried treasure” so that qualities associated
with buried treasure—being rich, hidden, and associated with adventurous
pirates—are conveyed for the brand. Because the text departs from expectations, it
creates a state of tension or uncertainty in the viewer until he or she figures out the
wordplay. Once the consumer “gets it,” he or she may prefer the ad over a more
straightforward message.83
Just as a story can be told in words or pictures, the way the audience is addressed
can also make a difference. Commercials are structured like other art forms, borrowing
conventions from literature and art as they communicate their messages.84
One important distinction is between a drama and a lecture.85 A lecture is like a
speech in which the source speaks directly to the audience members in an attempt to
inform them about a product or to persuade them to buy it. Because a lecture clearly
implies an attempt at persuasion, the audience will regard it as such. Assuming
listeners are motivated to do so, they will weigh the merits of the message along with
the credibility of the source. Cognitive responses, such as counterargumentation,
will occur. The appeal will be accepted to the extent that it overcomes the consumer’s
objections and is congruent with his or her beliefs.
In contrast, a drama is similar to a play or a movie. While an argument holds
the viewer at arm’s length, a drama draws the viewer into the action. The charac-
ters address the audience only indirectly; they interact with each other about a
product or service in an imaginary setting. Dramas attempt to be experiential—to
involve the audience emotionally. In transformational advertising, the consumer
associates the experience of product usage with some subjective sensation. Thus,
ads for the Infiniti attempted to transform the “driving experience” into a mystical,
spiritual event.
CO 5 The Source versus the Message: Sell

the Steak or the Sizzle?
Two major components of the communications model—the source and the message—
have been reviewed. Which aspect has the most impact on persuading consumers to
change their attitudes? Should marketers worry more about what is said or about how
it is said and who says it?
The answer is that it depends. Variations in a consumer’s level of involvement,
as discussed in Chapter 4, result in the activation of very different cognitive pro-
cesses when a message is received. Research indicates that this level of involvement
will determine which aspects of a communication are processed. The situation
resembles that of a traveller who comes to a fork in the road and can choose only one
path. The decision will have a big impact on the factors that will make a difference
in persuasion attempts.
The Elaboration Likelihood Model

The elaboration likelihood model (ELM) assumes that once a consumer receives a
message, he or she begins to process it.86 Depending on the personal relevance of the
information, one of two routes to persuasion will be followed. Under conditions of
high involvement, the consumer takes the central route to persuasion. Under conditions
of low involvement, a peripheral route is taken instead. This model is diagrammed
in Figure 8–7.
FIGURE 8–7
The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
High-Involvement Cognitive Belief and Behaviour

Processing Responses Attitude Change Change
Central Route
COMMUNICATION
Attention and
(source, message,
Comprehension
channel)
Peripheral Route
Low-Involvement Belief Behaviour Attitude

Processing Change Change Change
Source: Reprinted with the permission of Macmillan Publishing Company, from John C. Mowen, Consumer Behavior, 2nd. ed. © 1990 by Macmillan Publishing Company.
T he Central Route to P ersuasion

When the consumer finds the information in a persuasive message to be relevant or
somehow interesting, he or she will carefully attend to the message content. The
person is likely to think actively about the arguments presented and generate
cognitive responses to these arguments. Upon hearing a message warning about
drinking while pregnant, an expectant mother might say to herself, “She’s right. I
really should stop drinking alcohol now that I’m pregnant.” Or she might offer
counterarguments, such as “That’s a bunch of baloney. My mother had a cocktail
every night when she was pregnant with me, and I turned out fine.” If a person
generates counterarguments in response to a message, it is less likely that he or she
will yield to the message, while the generation of further supporting arguments
increases the probability of compliance.87
The central route to persuasion is likely to involve the traditional hierarchy of
effects, as discussed in Chapter 7. Beliefs are carefully formed and evaluated, and
strong attitudes that are then formed will be likely to guide behaviour. The impli-
cation is that message factors, such as the quality of arguments presented, will be
important in determining attitude change. Prior knowledge about a topic may
result in more thoughts about the message and will also increase the number of
counterarguments.88
T he Peripheral Route to Persuasion

In contrast, the peripheral route is taken when the person is not motivated to think
about the arguments presented. Instead, the consumer is likely to use other cues in
deciding on the suitability of the message. These cues might include the product’s
package, the attractiveness of the source, or the context in which the message is pre-
sented. Sources of information extraneous to the actual message content are called
peripheral cues because they surround the actual message.
The peripheral route to persuasion highlights the paradox of low involvement dis-
cussed in Chapter 4: When consumers do not care about a product, the stimuli associ-
ated with it increase in importance. The implication here is that low-involvement
products may be purchased chiefly because the marketer has done a good job designing
a “sexy” package, choosing a popular spokesperson, or perhaps just creating a pleasant
shopping environment.
When marketers pair a product such as

a car with a beautiful model, they are
encouraging consumers to take the
peripheral route to persuasion, hoping
that consumers will have more positive
attitudes toward the brand because it is
paired with something attractive.
© Ed Lefkowicz/Alamy
CO 6 Support for the ELM Model

The ELM approach has received a lot of research support.89 In one typical study,
undergraduates were exposed to one of several mock advertisements for Break, a new
brand of low-alcohol beer. Using the technique of thought-listing or cognitive
responses, students were asked to provide their thoughts about the ads, which were
later analyzed by the researchers.90 Three independent variables crucial to the ELM
were manipulated:
1. Message-processing involvement: Some subjects were motivated to be highly
involved with the ads by being promised a gift of low-alcohol beer for participat-
ing in the study and by being told that the brand would soon be available in their
area. Subjects who were not promised a gift and who were told that the brand
would be introduced in a distant area had low involvement.
2. Argument strength: One version of the ad used strong, compelling arguments to
drink Break (“Break contains one-half the amount of alcohol of regular beers and
therefore has less calories than regular beer”), while the other listed only weak
arguments (“Break is just as good as any other regular beer”).
3. Source characteristics: Although both ads contained a photo of a couple drinking
the beer, their relative social attractiveness was varied by their dress, posture, and
nonverbal expressions, and by the background information given about their
educational achievements and occupations.
Consistently with the ELM model, high-involvement subjects had more thoughts
related to the ad messages than did low-involvement subjects, who devoted more
cognitive activity to the sources used in the ad. The attitudes of high-involvement
subjects were more likely to be swayed by powerful arguments, while the attitudes of
low-involvement subjects were more likely to be influenced by the ad version using
attractive sources. The results of this study, paired with those of others, indicate that
the relative effectiveness of a strong message and a favourable source depends on
consumers’ level of involvement with the product being advertised.
These results underscore the basic idea that highly involved consumers look for
the “steak” (strong, rational arguments), while those who are less involved are more
affected by the “sizzle” (the colours and images used in packaging, or endorsements
by famous people). It is important to remember, however, that the same communica-

tions variable can be both a central and a peripheral cue, depending on its relation to
the attitude object. The physical attractiveness of a model might serve as a peripheral
cue in a car commercial, but her beauty might be a central cue for a product such as
shampoo, where the product’s benefits are directly tied to enhancing attractiveness.91
Chapter Summary
Consumers who process messages are not necessarily the whether an emotional or a rational appeal is used, the fre-
passive receivers of information marketers once believed quency with which it is repeated, whether a conclusion is
them to be. drawn, whether both sides of the argument are presented,
• Persuasion refers to an attempt to change consumers’ and whether the message includes fear, humour, or sexual
attitudes. The communications model specifies the elements references. Advertising messages often incorporate elements
needed to transmit meaning. These include a source, a from art or literature such as drama, lecture, metaphor, and
message, a medium, a receiver, and feedback. resonance.
Consumer variables help to determine whether the nature of

Several factors influence the effectiveness of the source of the source or the message itself will be more effective in a
a communication. particular communication.
• Two important characteristics that determine the effec- • The relative influence of the source versus that of the
tiveness of a source are its attractiveness and its credibil- message depends on the receiver’s level of involvement
ity. Although celebrities often serve these purposes, their with the communication. The elaboration likelihood model
credibility is not always as strong as marketers would like. specifies that a less-involved consumer will more likely be
swayed by source effects, while a more-involved consumer
The way a message is structured can exert a big impact on will more likely attend to and process components of the
how persuasive it will be. actual message.
• Some elements of a message that help to determine its
effectiveness are whether it is conveyed in words or pictures,
Key Terms
Buzz p. 218 Match-up hypothesis p. 220 Resonance p. 231
Communications model p. 210 Metaphor p. 231 Social media p. 214
Comparative advertising p. 225 Native advertising p. 217 Sock puppeting p. 216
Corporate paradox p. 218 Paid influencer programs p. 216 Source attractiveness p. 219
Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) p. 232 Permission marketing p. 211 Source credibility p. 216
Fear appeal p. 229 Persuasion p. 209 Source derogation p. 225
Halo effect p. 219 Persuasion Knowledge Model Spokescharacters p. 220
Hype p. 218 (PKM) p. 215 Transmedia storytelling strategy p. 214
Martyrdom effect p. 214 Real-time marketing p. 213 Two-factor theory p. 223
236 SE C TION III Attitude Change and Decision Making
Review Questions
1. List three psychological principles related to persuasion. 8. How does the two-factor theory explain the effects of
2. Describe the elements of the traditional communications message repetition on attitude change?
model, and explain how the updated model is different. 9. When is it best to present a two-sided message versus a
3. What is source credibility, and what are two factors one-sided message?
that influence whether we will perceive a source to be 10. Do humorous ads work? If so, under what conditions?
credible? 11. Should marketers ever try to arouse fear to persuade
4. What is the difference between buzz and hype? How consumers?
does this difference relate to the corporate paradox? 12. Why do marketers use metaphors to craft persuasive
5. What is a halo effect, and why does it happen? messages? Give two examples of this technique.
6. What is an avatar, and why might an advertiser choose to 13. What is the difference between a lecture and a drama?
use one instead of hiring a celebrity endorser? 14. Describe the elaboration likelihood model, and explain
7. When should a marketer present a message visually ver- how it is related to the relative importance of what is said
sus verbally? versus how it’s said.
Discuss provide stars with “goody bags” full of complimentary

products.92 What do you think about the practice of
1. What are the pros and cons of using rational versus
“gifting the talent” to accumulate endorsements? Is this
emotional appeals (i.e., trying to persuade consumers
a sound strategy? Is it ethical for celebrities to accept
by focusing on what they know as opposed to what they
these gifts?
feel)? When should marketers use one type or the
other?
2. A flog is a fake blog a company posts to build buzz
around its brand. Is this ethical? 8. A government agency wants to encourage the use of des-
3. The sleeper effect implies that perhaps we shouldn’t ignated drivers by people who have been drinking. What
worry too much about how positively people evaluate a advice could you give the organization about construct-
source. Similarly, there’s a saying in public relations ing persuasive communications? Discuss some factors
that “any publicity is good publicity.” Do you agree? that might be important, including the structure of the
Why or why not? communications, where they should appear, and who
should deliver them. Should fear appeals be used, and
4. Discuss some conditions under which it would be advis-
if so, how?
able to use a comparative advertising strategy.
9. Why would a marketer consider saying negative things
5. A marketer must decide whether to incorporate rational about his or her product? When is this strategy feasible?
or emotional appeals in its communications strategy. Can you find examples of it?
Describe conditions that are more favourable to using
10. Collect ads that rely on sex appeal to sell products. How
one or the other.
often are benefits of the actual product communicated
6. Many companies rely on celebrity endorsers as commu- to the reader?
nications sources to persuade consumers. Especially 11. Watchdog groups have long decried product place-
when targeting younger people, these spokespeople ments because they blur the line between content and
are often “cool” musicians, athletes, or movie stars. advertising without adequately informing viewers. The
In your opinion, who would be the most effective celeb- networks themselves appear to be divided on how far
rity endorser today and why? Who would be the least they want to open the gate. According to one study, the
effective? Why? effectiveness of product placement varies by product
7. Swiss Legend, a watch brand, gets famous people to category and type of placement. Consumers indicate
wear its colourful timepieces. One way it does this is to that product placements have the most influence on
give away its products at awards shows. Publicists call their grocery, electronics, and apparel purchases. The
this common practice “gifting the talent”: Companies most common platform for a placement is to get a
C HA P TER 8 Attitude Change and Interactive Communications 237
brand shown on a T-shirt or other piece of an actor’s that otherwise could not provide computers and other
wardrobe. What do you think about this practice? goodies to their students. However, a California law bans
Under what conditions is product placement likely to the use of textbooks with brand names and company
influence you and your friends? When (if ever) is it logos. This legislation was prompted by complaints from
counterproductive? parents about a middle-school math book that uses
names such as Barbie, Oreos, Nike, and Sony PlaySta-
12. One of the most controversial intersections between
tion in word problems. What is your position on these
marketing and society occurs when companies provide
practices? Should corporations be allowed to promote
“educational materials” to schools. For example, in the
their products in schools in exchange for donations of
USA many firms, including Nike, Hershey, Crayola,
educational materials, computers, and so on?93
Nintendo, and Foot Locker, provide free book covers
swathed in ads. Standard art supplies, blocks, trucks, 13. Collect examples of ads that rely on the use of meta-
and dolls get supplemented with Milton Bradley and phors or resonance. Do you feel these ads are effective?
Care Bears worksheets, Purell hand-cleaning activi- If you were marketing the products, would you feel more
ties, and Pizza Hut reading programs. Clearasil provides comfortable with ads that use a more straightforward,
sample packets of its acne medication along with bro- “hard sell” approach? Why or why not?
chures to educate high school students about proper 14. Create a list of current celebrities whom you feel typify
skin care; the handouts also direct students to the cultural categories (e.g., clown, mother figure). What spe-
Clearasil website, where they can register for music cific brands do you feel each might effectively endorse?
downloads and iPods. Other companies contract with 15. Conduct an “avatar hunt” by going to commerce web-
schools to run focus groups with their students during sites, online video game sites, and online communities
the school day in order to get reactions to new product such as The Sims that let people select what they want
ideas. Some schools encourage kids to practise their to look like in cyberspace. What seem to be the domi-
math as they count Tootsie Rolls, and the kids use read- nant figures people are choosing? Are they realistic or
ing software that bears the logos of Kmart, Coke, Pepsi, fantasy characters? Male or female? What types of ava-
and Cap’n Crunch cereal. Many educators argue that tars do you believe would be most effective for each of
these materials are a godsend for resource-poor schools these different kinds of websites, and why?
Cobs Bread—Changing Bread Consumption as the logical place to grow their business model. This import
Aaron Gillespie, Vice President of Canadian Operations at was launched by Australia’s most successful bakery fran-
COBS Bread, was stumped. The latest consumer feedback chise—Baker’s Delight—that had established around 700
reports had just been delivered, and once again the COBS bakeries across Australia and New Zealand. Serving over 2.5
Bread product was scoring extremely high among consumers million customers each week, Baker’s Delight has surpassed
for product taste and overall satisfaction. Indeed, the response over half a billion dollars in revenues annually. At the centre
to some of the products that had recently launched (e.g., the of the business model was a commitment to the quality of
new Turkish bread and the pane di casa rolls) was very posi- the product and the development of their people, which the
tive. Despite this excellent feedback, however, Aaron could see company believed would lead to positive customer experi-
that some segments of COBS’s consumers still didn’t consider ences. Operating under a franchise model, Baker’s Delight
COBS Bread the appropriate choice for their daily bread con- provided support to its franchise owners in the areas of mar-
sumption needs. It was seen rather as a specialty food retailer keting, human resources training, finance, purchasing, and
where one would look to buy bread for special occasions only, operations.
such as dinner parties or holiday events. Aaron knew that the COBS Bread replicated the model established by the par-
high-quality product the company produced had led to this ent company, and has been able to grow quickly in C anada.
attitude, but he wondered how he could facilitate attitude The company now has 81 bakeries across four provinces
change among consumers in a way that increased frequency (Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan) and
of purchasing COBS products. plans to continue its aggressive growth over the next few years.
Indeed, COBS sees itself as a young, energetic company with
high ambitions dedicated to providing the community with
The COBS Bread Story the highest-quality, freshest bread possible. COBS bakes its
COBS Bread (www.cobsbread.com) was launched in 2003 in product fresh each day using “scratch baking” techniques.
Canada by an Australian family company who saw Canada This means COBS bakes from original ingredients, not from
premixes, in store, every day. The product offerings range from Possible Solutions
standard white loaves of bread to more artisan offerings like Aaron knew there were many possible paths to attempting to
kalamata olive paninos and sweet breads such as custard change consumer attitudes. He wondered whether tactics
scrolls. COBS took its name from one of its most popular crusty like comparative advertising would be beneficial in this
breads, though some customers felt the name should stand for instance. Or perhaps the company’s promotional strategies
“Canada’s Own Bread Stores.” should move toward more emotional appeals instead of the
current rational messaging being employed? Further, Aaron
wondered how consumers were best persuaded in this
The Issue at Hand context. He knew that some retailers were pursuing more
While the growth of COBS Bread in Canada had been excellent, interactive communications with their customers, and it was
the company knew it needed to continue to improve and grow its an open question in his mind how effective these new
business. One goal centred on ensuring stable and committed approaches would be. Engagement through social media
franchisees over time. To achieve this, it was important that each had been good thus far for COBS, but Aaron was unsure how
COBS location work to increase same-store sales year after year. these media might be used to facilitate attitude change
This was achieved through operational improvements, new among this segment.
product introductions, carefully designed promotional activities, He needed to figure out a strategy soon—there was a
and attention to market research. clear requirement to convert these infrequent shoppers into
It was in this context that Aaron became aware that more loyal consumers in order to facilitate the growth the
some customer segments held an attitude toward COBS that company needed as it moved forward.
prevented them from frequent purchase. Interestingly, these
1. How are consumers persuaded when it comes to food
segments had a very positive attitude to COBS, holding the
products? What routes to persuasion are most important
company in high esteem. These consumers, however,
in this context?
viewed COBS products as a high-quality treat reserved for
special occasions—not something to be bought regularly. 2. What advertising/promotional tactics do you recommend
Instead of making weekly purchases at COBS to fulfil their to Aaron with respect to changing consumer attitudes
bread needs, these consumers typically shopped there less about COBS Bread?
than once a month. Regular bread purchases were made at 3. Is there a role to play for social media in meeting this chal-
more-mainstream grocery stores, where more-processed lenge? Can COBS Bread leverage its efforts in this area to
brands such as Wonder Bread and McGavin’s would be change consumer attitudes?
available. 4. In attempting to change attitudes, do you feel there is
This was obviously a cause for concern, and Aaron won- any danger to other customer segments? In other
dered what might be done. COBS wanted to be the destination words, in seeking to address the attitudes of one seg-
of choice for all household bread needs. Achieving this goal ment, might COBS inadvertently change the attitudes of
would certainly build sales and would ultimately strengthen the another? How? What might be done to alleviate this
organization. danger, if present?
Notes
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Advertising Appeals,” Journal of Marketing Research 10 (February 1973): 23–33; Print Advertising,” Journal of Advertising 23(3) (September 1994): 81–90.
George J. Szybillo and Richard Heslin, “Resistance to Persuasion: Inoculation
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for Understanding Two-Sided Persuasion,” Journal of Consumer Research 20(4) Commercials: A Comparison,” Journal of Advertising 18(2) (1989): 39–44.
(March 1994): 561–574; Cornelia Pechmann, “Predicting When Two-Sided Ads 72. Thomas J. Madden, “Humor in Advertising: An Experimental Analysis,” working paper
Will Be More Effective Than One-Sided Ads: The Role of Correlational and no. 8327, University of Massachusetts, 1984; Thomas J. Madden and Marc G.
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56. Linda L. Golden and Mark I. Alpert, “Comparative Analysis of the Relative U.S. versus U.K. TV Commercials: A Comparison,” Journal of Advertising 18(2)
Effectiveness of One- and Two-Sided Communication for Contrasting Products,” (1989): 39–44.
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57. George E. Belch, Michael A. Belch, and Angelina Villareal, “Effects of Advertising Research 10 (1970): 25–30.
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Comparative Advertising: Attribute vs. Overall Similarity Approaches,” Journal of by Marketing,” Journal of Marketing 34(1) (1970): 54–62; Tony L. Henthorne,
Marketing Research 24 (1987): 377–389; D. Muehling and N. Kangun, “The Michael S. LaTour, and Rajan Nataraajan, “Fear Appeals in Print Advertising:
Multidimensionality of Comparative Advertising: Implications for the FTC,” Journal An Analysis of Arousal and Ad Response,” Journal of Advertising 22(2) (June
of Public Policy and Marketing (1985): 112–128; Beth A. Walker and Helen H. 1993): 59–70; and Thomas Giese, Dana-Nicoleta Lascu, and Terry M.
Anderson, “Reconceptualizing Comparative Advertising: A Framework and Theory Weisenberger, “Intended and Unintended Consequences of the Use of Fear and
of Effects,” in Advances in Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Guilt Appeals in Marketing Communications,” Proceedings of the Southern
Michael R. Solomon (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 342– Marketing Association (1993): 12.
347; William L. Wilkie and Paul W. Farris, “Comparison Advertising: Problems and
77. Judith Waldrop, “They’re Coming to Take You Away (Fear as a Form of Persuasion),”
Potential,” Journal of Marketing 39 (October 1975): 7–15; and R.G. Wyckham,
American Demographics (June 15, 1988): 2; John F. Tanner, Jr., James B. Hunt, and
“Implied Superiority Claims,” Journal of Advertising Research (February/March
David R. Eppright, “The Protection Motivation Model: A Normative Model of Fear
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Appeals,” Journal of Marketing 55 (July 1991): 36–45.
60. Stephen A. Goodwin and Michael Etgar, “An Experimental Investigation of
78. Brian Sternthal and C. Samuel Craig, “Fear Appeals: Revisited and Revised,” Journal
Comparative Advertising: Impact of Message Appeal, Information Load, and Utility of
of Consumer Research 1 (December 1974): 22–34.
Product Class,” Journal of Marketing Research 17 (May 1980): 187–202; Gerald J.
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Perception and Attitude: Some Positive Findings,” Journal of Consumer Research 11 and the Evaluation of Condom Advertisements,” Journal of Advertising 17(4) (1988):
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Comparative Advertising Messages: Subjects’ Responses to Perceptual Dimensions,”
81. Denise D. Schoenbachler and Tommy E. Whittler, “Adolescent Processing of Social
in Advances in Consumer Research 3, ed. B.B. Anderson (Ann Arbor, MI: Association
and Physical Threat Communications,” Journal of Advertising 25(4) (Winter 1996):
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biggest-advertisers-going-for-it-in-super-bowl/4835695//business/2014/01/24/ Inquiry into Advertising Rhetoric,” Journal of Consumer Research 19 (September
sodastream-banned-super-bowl-ad-coke-pepsi-scarlett-johannson/4838575. 1992): 180–197.
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Million Moms,” Adweek (June 17, 2013), www.adweek.com/adfreak/kraft-salad- 85. John Deighton, Daniel Romer, and Josh McQueen, “Using Drama to Persuade,”
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February 25, 2015.
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Advertising Communications: Review of Research,” in Research in Marketing 9 Consumer Research 10(2) (1983): 135–146.
(Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987): 59–117; A.E. Courtney and T.W. Whipple, Sex
Stereotyping in Advertising (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1983); Michael S. 87. Jerry C. Olson, Daniel R. Toy, and Philip A. Dover, “Do Cognitive Responses Mediate
LaTour, “Female Nudity in Print Advertising: An Analysis of Gender Differences in the Effects of Advertising Content on Cognitive Structure?” Journal of Consumer
Arousal and Ad Response,” Psychology & Marketing 7(1) (1990): 65–81; B.G. Research 9(3) (1982): 245–262.
Yovovich, “Sex in Advertising—The Power and the Perils,” Advertising Age (May 88. Julie A. Edell and Andrew A. Mitchell, “An Information Processing Approach to
2, 1983): M4–M5. Cognitive Responses,” in Research Frontiers in Marketing: Dialogues and Directions,
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Academy of Marketing Science 24(3) (1996): 257–262. Limitations and Extensions in Marketing,” in Advances in Consumer Research 12,
eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook (Provo, UT: Association for eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (Provo, UT: Association for
Consumer Research, 1985): 420–425; Meryl P. Gardner, “Does Attitude toward the Consumer Research, 1991): 187–193.
Ad Affect Brand Attitude under a Brand Evaluation Set?” Journal of Marketing
90. J. Craig Andrews and Terence A. Shimp, “Effects of Involvement, Argument Strength,
Research 22 (1985): 192–198; C.W. Park and S.M. Young, “Consumer Response to
and Source Characteristics on Central and Peripheral Processing in Advertising,”
Television Commercials: The Impact of Involvement and Background Music on
Psychology & Marketing 7 (Fall 1990): 195–214.
Brand Attitude Formation,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (1986): 11–24;
Richard E. Petty, John T. Cacioppo, and David Schumann, “Central and Peripheral 91. Richard E. Petty et al., “Affect and Persuasion: A Contemporary Perspective,”
Routes to Advertising Effectiveness: The Moderating Role of Involvement,” Journal American Behavioral Scientist 31(3) (1988): 355–371.
of Consumer Research 10(2) (1983): 135–146. For a discussion of how different
92. Rob Walker, “The Gifted Ones,” The New York Times (November 14, 2004).
kinds of involvement interact with the ELM, see Robin A. Higie, Lawrence F. Feick,
and Linda L. Price, “The Importance of Peripheral Cues in Attitude Formation for 93. Brian Steinberg and Suzanne Vranica, “Prime-Time TV’s New Guest Stars: Products,”
Enduring and Task-Involved Individuals,” in Advances in Consumer Research 18, The Wall Street Journal (January 12, 2004), www.wsj.com.
9
C HAPTER
Individual Decision Making
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that consumer decision making is a 4 Understand that a variety of factors can influence

central part of consumer behaviour, but the way we how much search consumers engage in.
evaluate and choose products varies widely,
depending on various factors. 5 Understand that we often fall back on well-learned

rules of thumb to make decisions.
2 Understand that a purchase decision is composed of
6 Understand that consumers rely on different
a series of stages that results in the selection of one
product over competing options. decision rules when they evaluate competing
options.
3 Understand that decision making is not always

rational.
Consumers as Problem CO 1
Solvers
A consumer purchase may be a response to a perceived problem. These situations are
encountered by consumers virtually every day of their lives: They realize that they want to
Beauty Care and
make a purchase and go through a series of steps to do so. These steps can be described as
Pregnancy
(1) problem recognition, (2) information search, (3) evaluation of alternatives, and (4) prod-
uct choice. Of course, after the decision is made, the quality of that decision affects the
final step in the process, when learning occurs based on how well the choice worked out.
This learning process in turn influences the likelihood that the same choice will be made
the next time the need for a similar decision occurs. An overview of this decision-making
process appears in Figure 9–1.
This chapter begins by considering various approaches consumers use when faced
with a purchase decision. It then focuses on three of the steps in the decision process:
(1) how consumers recognize the problem or need for a product; (2) their search for infor-
mation about product choices; and (3) the ways in which they evaluate alternatives to
arrive at a decision.
This intensive decision-making process gets even more complicated in today’s envi-
ronment where we have so many options to choose from. Ironically, for many modern
consumers one of the biggest problems is not having too few choices but too many. We can
think of this profusion of options as consumer hyperchoice, a condition where the large
number of available options forces us to make repeated choices that may drain psychologi-
cal energy while decreasing our abilities to make smart decisions.1
Indeed, research suggests that consumers are overwhelmed with the number of
options available in the marketplace,2 and that too much choice can lead consumers to
be less satisfied with the purchase experience and less likely to choose within the
C H A P T E R 9 Individual Decision Making 243
FIGURE 9–1
Stages in Consumer Decision Making
Problem Recognition
Bill realizes he’s fed up

with a tablet that has
bad battery life.
Information Search
Bill talks to a few

friends about buying
a new tablet.
Evaluation of Alternatives
Bill compares several

models in the store in
terms of reputation
and available features.
Product Choice
Bill chooses one model

because it has a feature
that really appeals to him.
Consumption and Learning
Bill brings home the tablet

and enjoys his purchase.
product category. For example, one study allowed customers in a grocery store to
select and try a sample from an assortment of flavoured fruit jams. In the “limited
choice” condition consumers were asked to choose from 6 flavours, and in the
“extensive choice” condition they were asked to choose from 24 flavours. While
both groups tried just one or two flavours, their purchasing behaviour varied
dramatically: Only 3 percent of those in the “extensive choice” group bought a jar of
jam, compared to 30 percent in the “limited choice” group. 3 Having extensive
options available has also been suggested to have negative psychological
consequences for individual consumers. Consumers who are characterized by a
desire to look at all the options in a way that allows for the best possible choice
(maximizers) are more anxious and depressed than their “satisficing” counterparts
(who simply select an option good enough to satisfy their needs).4
Perspectives on Decision Making

Traditionally, consumer researchers have approached decision makers from a rational
perspective. In this view, people calmly and carefully integrate as much information
as possible with what they already know about a product, painstakingly weigh the
pluses and minuses of each alternative, and arrive at a satisfactory decision. This tra-
ditional perspective relates the economics of information approach to the search pro-
cess; it assumes that we collect just as much data as we need to make an informed
decision. We form expectations of the value of additional information and continue to
search to the extent that the rewards of doing so (what economists call the utility)
exceed the costs. This utilitarian assumption also implies that we collect the most
valuable units of information first. We absorb additional pieces only to the extent that
we think they will add to what we already know.5 In other words, we’ll put ourselves
out to collect as much information as we can, so long as the process of gathering isn’t
too onerous or time-consuming.6
CO 2 Stages in Consumer Decision Making

This process implies that steps in decision making should be carefully studied by
marketing managers to understand how information is obtained, how beliefs are
formed, and what product-choice criteria are specified by consumers. Products can
then be developed that emphasize appropriate attributes, and promotional strategies
can be tailored to deliver the types of information most likely to be desired in the most
effective formats.7
Although these decision-making steps are followed by consumers for some pur-
chases, this process is not always an accurate portrayal of many purchase decisions.8
Because some purchase decisions are more important than others, the amount of effort
we put into each differs. Sometimes the decision-making process is almost automatic;
we seem to make snap judgments based on very little information. At other times it
resembles a full-time job. A person may literally spend days or weeks agonizing over
an important purchase such as a new home, a car, or even an iPhone versus a Samsung
Galaxy. We make some decisions very thoughtfully and rationally as we carefully
weigh the pros and cons of different choices—while in other cases we let our emotions
guide us to one choice over another as we react to a problem with great enthusiasm or
even disgust. Still other actions are actually contrary to those predicted by rational
models. For example, purchase momentum occurs when these initial impulses actu-
ally increase the likelihood that we will buy even more (instead of less as our needs
are satisfied), almost as if we get “revved up” and plunge into a spending spree (think
of shopping at Winners).9 And research hints that people differ in terms of their cogni-
tive processing style. Some of us tend to have a rational system of cognition that pro-
cesses information analytically and sequentially using rules of logic, while others rely
on an experiential system of cognition that processes information more holistically
and in parallel.10
Researchers now realize that decision makers actually possess a repertoire of
strategies. A consumer evaluates the effort required to make a particular choice, and
then he or she chooses a strategy best suited to the level of effort required. This
sequence of events is known as constructive processing. Rather than using a big club
to kill an ant, consumers tailor their degree of cognitive “effort” to the task at hand.11
When the task requires a well-thought-out, rational approach, we’ll invest the brain-
power to do it. Otherwise, we look for shortcuts or fall back on learned responses that
“automate” these choices.
Some decisions are made under conditions of low involvement, as discussed in
Chapter 4. In many of these situations, the consumer’s decision is a learned response
to environmental cues (see Chapter 3), as when a person decides to buy something on
impulse that is promoted as a “surprise special” in a store. Concentrating on these
types of decisions can be described as the behavioural influence perspective. Under
these circumstances, managers must concentrate on assessing the characteristics of the
environment, such as physical surroundings and product placement, that influence
members of a target market.12
In other cases, consumers are highly involved in a decision, but this involvement
might not lend itself to the rational approach. For example, the traditional approach is Consumer
hard pressed to explain a person’s choice of art, music, or even a romantic partner. In
these cases no single quality is the determining factor. Instead, the experiential per-
Insight
spective stresses the gestalt, or totality, of the product or the service. Marketers focus Situational factors such as the time of day can
on measuring consumers’ affective responses to products or services and develop impact our decision-making ability. Sometimes
offerings that elicit appropriate subjective reactions. our best-laid intentions go awry simply because
we’re too tired to fight temptation. Research
shows that our ability to self-regulate declines
Types of Consumer Decisions as the day goes on.13
One helpful way to characterize the decision-making process is to consider the amount
of effort that goes into the decision each time it must be made. Consumer researchers
have found it convenient to think in terms of a continuum, which is anchored at one
end by habitual decision making and at the other by extended problem solving. Many
decisions fall somewhere in the middle and are characterized by limited problem
solving. This continuum is presented in Figure 9–2.
Ha b i tu a l De c is io n M a kin g
Habitual decision making involves decisions that are made with little or no conscious
effort. Many purchase decisions are so routine that we may not realize we’ve made
them until we look in our shopping carts. Choices characterized by automaticity are
performed with minimal effort and without conscious control.14 Although this kind of
thoughtless activity may seem dangerous or, at best, stupid, it is actually an efficient
way to operate. The development of habitual, repetitive behaviour allows consumers
to minimize the time and energy spent on mundane purchase decisions.
On the other hand, habitual decision making poses a problem when a marketer tries
to introduce a new way of doing an old task. In this case consumers must be convinced to
“unfreeze” their former habits and replace them with new ones. Take, for example, teeth
whitening. Brands such as Crest have done an excellent job of changing consumers’ per-
ceptions and habits such that this is no longer seen as a service that needs to be done by a
professional. Instead, it is viewed as a “DIY” type of task that can be done at home.
Li mi te d P robl e m So lv in g
Limited problem solving is usually somewhat straightforward and simple, but it does
require some cognitive processing. Buyers are not necessarily motivated to search for
information or to evaluate each alternative rigorously, but they are not simply acting
FIGURE 9–2
A Continuum of Buying Decision Behaviour
HABITUAL DECISION MAKING LIMITED PROBLEM SOLVING EXTENSIVE PROBLEM SOLVING
Low-Cost Products More Expensive Products
Frequent Purchasing Infrequent Purchasing
Low Consumer Involvement High Consumer Involvement
Familiar Product Class and Brands Unfamiliar Product Class and Brands
Little Thought, Search, or Extensive Thought, Search, and Time

Time Given to Purchase Given to Purchase
Walmart’s slogan “Everyday Low Prices” is

an example of encouraging limited problem
solving. By encouraging consumers to use
simple decision rules, such as using only
price to distinguish between retailers,
Walmart is able to attract price-conscious
consumers.
Andrew Francis Wallace/Toronto Star via Getty Images
out of habit either. People instead use simple decision rules to choose among alterna-
tives. These cognitive shortcuts enable them to fall back on general guidelines instead
of having to start from scratch every time a decision is to be made.
E x t e n de d Pr o b lem So lvin g
Decisions involving extended problem solving correspond most closely to the tra-
ditional decision-making perspective. As indicated in Table 9–1, the extended
problem-solving process is usually initiated by a motive that is fairly central to
TABLE 9–1
Characteristics of Limited versus Extended Problem Solving

Limited Problem Solving Extended Problem Solving
Motivation Low risk and involvement High risk and involvement

Information search Little search Extensive search
Information processed passively Information processed actively
In-store decision likely Multiple sources consulted prior to store visits
Alternative evaluation Weakly held beliefs Strongly held beliefs

Only most prominent criteria used Many criteria used
Alternatives perceived as basically similar Significant differences perceived among alternatives
Non-compensatory strategy used Compensatory strategy used
Purchase Limited shopping time; may prefer self-service Many outlets shopped if needed
Choice often influenced by store displays Communication with store personnel often desirable
the self-concept (see Chapter 5), and the eventual decision is perceived to carry
a fair degree of risk. The consumer tries to collect as much information as possible,
both from memory (internal search) and from outside sources (external search).
On the basis of the importance of the decision, each product alternative is care-
fully evaluated. The evaluation is often done by considering the attributes of one
brand at a time and seeing how each brand’s attributes shape up to some set of
desired characteristics.
Next, the discussion will turn to the stages involved in the extended-problem-
solving context.
Problem Recognition
Ford’s plan to promote its Fusion hybrid model focused on people who aren’t think-
ing about buying a new car—at least not right now. Its TV commercials targeted what
the auto industry terms the “upper funnel,” or potential buyers down the road.
Ford’s research found that a large number of U.S. drivers are still unaware of the
Fusion. The company was confident that it could close sales if and when customers
decide to buy a new car. But its weak spot was to get people into the frame of mind
where they wanted to do that. So, to create desire where there was none, Ford pro-
moted a special website where visitors could enter to win a trip and a new Fusion.
Ford publicized the sweepstakes on Twitter and Facebook; during the first two weeks
of the promotion, almost 70 000 people requested more information about the car.15
Problem recognition occurs at what Ford terms “the upper funnel” when we
experience a significant difference between our current state of affairs and some
state we desire. We realize that to get from here to there we need to solve a prob-
lem, which may be small or large, simple or complex. A person who unexpectedly
runs out of gas on the highway has a problem, as does the person who becomes
dissatisfied with the image of his car, even though there is nothing mechanically
wrong with it.
Problems arise in one of two ways. The person who runs out of gas experiences a
decline in the quality of his actual state–need recognition. In contrast, the person who
craves a newer, flashier car moves his ideal state-opportunity recognition, meaning
there is a gulf between the actual state and the ideal state.16 Figure 9–3 highlights how
opportunity recognition and need recognition can occur.
FIGURE 9–3
Problem Recognition: Shifts in Actual or Ideal States
Ideal
Ideal State Ideal
Actual State Actual
Actual
NO PROBLEM OPPORTUNITY NEED

RECOGNITION RECOGNITION
This advertisement from Tylenol works at the

“problem recognition” stage of the decision-
making process by offering a solution to
having a headache.
Courtesy Johnson & Johnson
Information Search
Once a problem has been recognized, consumers need adequate information to resolve
it. Information search is the process in which the consumer surveys his or her envi-
ronment for appropriate data to make a reasonable decision. This section will review
some of the factors involved in this search. You might recognize a need and then
search the marketplace for specific information (a process we call prepurchase search).
However, many of us, especially veteran shoppers, enjoy browsing just for the fun of it
or because we like to stay up to date on what’s happening in the marketplace. These
shopaholics engage in ongoing search.17
I n t e r n a l ver sus Exter n al Sear ch

Information sources can be roughly broken down into two kinds: internal and exter-
nal. As a result of prior experience and simply living in a consumer culture, each
of us already has in memory some degree of knowledge about many products.
Confronted with a purchase decision, we might engage in internal search by scanning
our own memory banks to assemble information about different product alternatives
(see Chapter 3). Usually, though, even the most market-savvy of us need to supple-
ment this knowledge with external search, in which information is obtained from
advertisements, friends, or people-watching. One study demonstrated how what our
neighbours buy impacts our own decision making. The researchers discovered that
when one of a person’s 10 nearest neighbours bought a car, the odds that he would buy
a car of the same make during the next week and a half jumped 86 percent.18
D e l ib e r ate ver s us “A cciden tal” Sear ch

Our existing knowledge of a product may be the result of directed learning, wherein
on a previous occasion we had already searched for relevant information or experi-
enced some of the alternatives. A parent who bought a birthday cake for one child last
month, for example, probably has a good idea of the best kind to buy for another child
this month.
Alternatively, we may have acquired information in a more passive manner. Even

though a product might not be of interest, exposure to advertising, packaging, and
sales promotion activities might result in incidental learning. Mere exposure over
time to conditioned stimuli and observations of others results in the learning of much
material that may not be needed for some time after the fact, if ever. For marketers, this
result is actually a benefit of steady, “low-dose” advertising, since product associa-
tions are established and maintained until the time they are needed.19
In some cases we may be such an expert about a particular product category (or at
least believe we are) that no additional search is undertaken. Frequently, however, our
own existing state of knowledge is not satisfactory to make an adequate decision and
we must go outside ourselves for more information. The sources we consult for advice
vary. They may be impersonal and marketer-dominated sources, such as retailers and
catalogues; they may be friends and family members; or they may be unbiased third
parties, such as Yelp or Consumer Reports.20
One type of deliberate search involves searching on the Internet for information.
What’s the most common way for us to conduct information search today? Google it,
of course! Although there are other search engines out there, such as Bing, Yahoo!,
or even YouTube, Google’s software that examines the Web for matches to terms like
“home theatre system” or “tattoo removal services” is so dominant—with 96 percent
of the world’s mobile search market—that the name has become a verb. However,
even a giant like Google can’t rest on its laurels, because changes in how we search
will probably reduce our reliance on search engines. Increasingly, consumers bypass
Google as they go directly on their smartphones or tablets to apps like Yelp to read
and write product reviews.21 However, as anyone who’s ever Googled knows, the
Web delivers enormous amounts of product and retailer information in seconds. The
biggest problem Web surfers face these days is to narrow down their choices, not to
beef them up. In cyberspace, simplification is key. Still, the sad reality is that in
many cases we simply don’t search as much as we might. If we Google a term, most
of us are only likely to look at the first few results at the top of the list. Indeed, that’s
one reason why search engine optimization (SEO) is so important today. This term
refers to the procedures companies use to design the content of websites and posts to
maximize the likelihood that their content will show up when someone searches for
a relevant term.
Not surprisingly, social media platforms also play a major role in the search pro-
cess. Although about 60 percent of consumers start their online process by typing
queries into a search engine like Google or Bing, 40 percent now continue their quest
for more information on other social media platforms, such as blogs, YouTube, Twitter,
and Facebook. The goal here is not to collect more technical or performance informa-
tion, but to get other people’s opinions about options in the product category—and to
eliminate some brands from consideration when others ding them. What’s more, after
they buy a brand, about three-quarters of shoppers who use social media in the pro-
cess choose to follow it on the company’s Facebook page so that they can continue to
engage with it in the future.22
D o Co ns um e rs A lway s S e a rc h R at io n ally? CO 3
As we’ve seen, we don’t necessarily engage in a rational search process where we care-
fully identify and evaluate every alternative before we choose the one we want. In fact,
the amount of external search we do for most products is surprisingly small, even
when we would benefit if we had more information. And lower-income shoppers, who
have more to lose when they make a bad purchase, actually search less before they buy
than do more affluent people.23
One widely used distinction is between a decision strategy that seeks to deliver
the best possible result (maximizing) and one that simply tries to yield an adequate
solution—often as a way to reduce the costs of the decision-making process. This is
called a satisficing solution (economist Herbert Simon even won a Nobel Prize for this
idea in 1956). Since we rarely have the resources (especially the time) to weigh every
possible factor into a decision, we will often happily settle for a solution that is just
good enough. This perspective on decision making is called bounded rationality.
These two extremes have huge implications for marketing and retailing strategy,
because they imply very different approaches to customers. Indeed, the maximizer
strongly resembles the high-involvement consumer we discussed in Chapter 4—she
who is going to go all out to explore as much information as she can before she decides.
In contrast, the satisficer resembles the low-involvement consumer who will probably
use some simple shortcuts (which we’ll discuss shortly) to just pick something decent
and get on with her life.
Many consumers are satisficers; typically they visit only one or two stores and
rarely seek out unbiased information sources before they make a purchase decision,
especially when they have little time available to do so.24 This pattern is especially
prevalent for decisions about durable goods, such as appliances or autos, even when
these products represent significant investments. One study of Australian car buyers
found that more than a third had made two or fewer trips to inspect cars prior to
buying one.25
This tendency to avoid external search is less prevalent when consumers con-
sider the purchase of symbolic items, such as clothing. In those cases, not surpris-
ingly, people tend to do a fair amount of external search, although most of it involves
seeking the opinions of peers.26 The stakes might be lower financially, but these
self-expressive decisions can be seen as having negative social consequences if the
wrong choice is made. The level of perceived risk, a concept to be discussed shortly,
is therefore high.
In addition, consumers are often observed to engage in brand switching, even if
their current brands satisfy their needs. For example, researchers who were studying
the beer market for British brewer Bass Export discovered the consumer trend of hav-
ing a repertoire of two to six favourite brands rather than sticking to only one. This
preference for brand switching led them to decide to begin exporting their Tennent’s
1885 lager to the United States, positioning the brew as an alternative for young drink-
ers’ usual favourite brands.27 Sometimes it seems that people just like to try new
things—that is, they are interested in variety seeking, in which the priority is to vary
one’s product experiences, perhaps as a form of stimulation to reduce boredom.
Variety seeking is especially likely to occur when people are in a good mood or
when there is relatively little stimulation elsewhere in their environment.28 In the
Quality Street does an excellent job of

appealing to variety seekers by offering an
array of options—all in the same box of
chocolates.
QUALITY STREET ® is a registered trademark of Société
des Produits Nestlé S.A., Vevey, Switzerland.
case of foods and beverages, variety seeking can occur because of a phenomenon
known as sensory-specific satiety. Put simply, this means that the pleasantness of
food just eaten drops while the pleasantness of uneaten foods remains unchanged.29
So even though we have favourites, we still like to sample other possibilities. Ironi-
cally, consumers may actually switch to less-preferred options for variety’s sake even
though they enjoy the more familiar option more.30 On the other hand, when the
decision situation is ambiguous, or when there is little information about competing
brands, consumers tend to opt for the safe choice by selecting familiar brands and
maintaining the status quo.
M e nta l A c c ou n t in g: Bia s e s in t h e D ecisio n -Mak in g Pr o cess

Consider the following scenario: You’ve been given a free ticket to a playoff hockey
game. At the last minute a sudden snowstorm makes getting to the arena somewhat
dangerous. Would you go?
Now, assume the same game and snowstorm, except this time you paid hand-
somely for the ticket. Would you go?
Analysis of people’s responses to this situation and to others illustrates principles
of mental accounting, where decisions are influenced by the way a problem is posed
(called framing) and by whether it is put in terms of gains or losses.31 For example,
people are more likely to risk their personal safety in the storm if they paid for the
hockey ticket. Only the most diehard fan would fail to recognize that this is an irratio-
nal choice, since the risk to the person is the same regardless of whether he or she got
a great deal on the ticket. This decision-making bias is called the sunk-cost fallacy—
having paid for something makes us reluctant to waste it.
Whether we focus on the present or the future is another example of how framing
an issue influences the options we choose and how we feel about them. The condition
of hyperopia (the medical term for being far-sighted) describes people who are so
obsessed with preparing for the future that they can’t enjoy the present. University
students who participated in a study on this phenomenon reported that they regretted
not working, studying, or saving money during their winter breaks. But when research-
ers asked them to imagine how they will feel about this break a year from now, their
biggest regrets were that they didn’t have enough fun or travel enough. In another
study, female subjects received a ticket for a lottery that would be held three months
later. They had to choose in advance from one of two prizes if they won: either $85 in
cash or an $80 voucher for a massage or facial at a spa. Even though they were reminded
that they could use the $85 in cash to get a spa treatment and pocket the $5 difference,
more than a third of the women chose the voucher. Researchers found similar results
in other situations; when people had to choose between cash and prizes such as bot-
tles of wine or dinners out, many of them chose the luxuries even though the cash was
a better deal. One participant observed, “If I took the cash it would end up going into
the rent.”32
Another bias is known as loss aversion. People put much more emphasis on
loss than they do on gain. For example, for most people losing money is more
unpleasant than the pleasure of gaining money. One theory that highlights how
individuals respond to losses and gains is prospect theory.33 This theory has four
key parts:
1. People think in terms of gains and losses with respect to some reference point. For
example, imagine that Yoonji calls a helpline and is told the wait will be 10 minutes.
Meanwhile, Chuck calls the helpline and is told the wait will be 30 minutes. They
both end up waiting 20 minutes before they are helped. Yoonji will think of this
20-minute wait as a loss of 10 minutes of her time, and she will be upset, whereas
Chuck will think of the exact same 20-minute wait as a gain of 10 minutes, and
be happy.
2. Furthermore, people are loss averse, meaning that losses count twice as much as
equivalent gains. For example, while Chuck may only be a little happy about an
As I See It
Advances in information and individual’s attention to those offerings likely to best match his
network technology are trans- or her preference.
forming how consumers shop. Our research shows that personalized product recommen-
One key aspect of this is that dations can be highly beneficial to consumers. Specifically,
the amount of time and effort those who shop with such assistance tend to make substantially
required to obtain information better purchase decisions—in that they choose products that
about what is available in the better match their preferences—and they do so with much less
marketplace has decreased effort than they would exert otherwise.1
dramatically. While easy access On the other hand, tools that assist shoppers also provide
to huge amounts of information an opportunity for companies to influence consumer behaviour.
Courtesy of Gerald Häubl
about many different products Many real-world recommendation tools are provided by organiza-
and services has clear advan- tions that have objectives other than—or in addition to—helping
tages for consumers, it can also consumers find the product that is best for them (at the lowest
be overwhelming for them. price). In many cases, consumers don’t seem to mind that the
Therefore, I (and others) have product recommendations they receive are somewhat biased.
argued that it is important to One reason for this is that the benefits of this type of assistance,
Dr. Gerald Häubl University of Alberta provide consumers with tools compared to shopping without it, are substantial.2 In addition,
that filter all of the available consumers might believe that they are able to recognize bias and
information and direct their attention toward what is most relevant “decontaminate” product recommendations. However, our
to them if they are to truly benefit from this dramatic increase in research shows that consumers’ product choices are influenced
the accessibility of information. substantially by even seemingly harmless aspects of a recom-
Some of my research group’s work has involved examining mendation tool such as the particular set of product features
tools designed to help consumers make purchase decisions in that are used as input in generating the recommendations.3
technology-mediated environments. One important form of My research group continues to study various aspects of con-
such consumer assistance is the provision of personalized sumer behaviour in connection with assistive technology. Some of
product recommendations, either by the seller or by a third this work seeks to enhance our understanding of the psychological
party. The basic idea is that a recommendation system obtains processes that underlie assisted decision making,4 whereas other
some understanding of a consumer’s idiosyncratic preferences parts of this research program focus on how to design consumer-
(either elicited explicitly or inferred on the basis of passive oriented decision support systems that are more effective and
observation), which is then used to selectively draw that more widely accepted than what is currently available.5
1 Gerald Häubl and Valerie Trifts, “Consumer Decision Making in Online Shopping Environments: The Effects of Interactive Decision Aids,” Marketing Science 19(1)
(2000): 4–21.
2 Gerald Häubl and Kyle Murray, “Double Agents: Assessing the Role of Electronic Product Recommendation Systems,” Sloan Management Review 47(3) (2006): 8–12.
3Gerald Häubl and Kyle Murray, “Preference Construction and Persistence in Digital Marketplaces: The Role of Electronic Recommendation Agents,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology 13(1/2) (2003): 75–91.
4 Benedict Dellaert and Gerald Häubl, “Searching in Choice Mode: Consumer Decision Processes in Product Search with Recommendations,” Journal of Marketing Research
49(2) (2012): 277–288; Murat Usta and Gerald Häubl, “Self-Regulatory Strength and Consumers’ Relinquishment of Decision Control: When Less Effortful Decisions Are
More Resource Depleting,” Journal of Marketing Research 48(2) (2011): 403–412.
5 Kyle Murray and Gerald Häubl, “Personalization without Interrogation: Towards More Effective Interactions between Consumers and Feature-Based Recommendation
Agents,” Journal of Interactive Marketing 23(2) (2009): 138–146; Bob Price, Russ Greiner, Gerald Häubl, and Alden Flatt, “Automatic Construction of Personalized Customer
Interfaces,” Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI-06, 2006): 250–256.
extra 10 minutes of time, Yoonji might be quite upset about 10 minutes of lost
time. Likewise, according to a recent national survey of Canadians, credit card
interest rates and fees count much more than equivalent credit card rewards.34
3. People are risk averse concerning gains, and risk seeking concerning losses. For
example, imagine there is a shipping disaster, and 600 people are at risk of dying.
Your firm is considering two rescue strategies. Strategy A: Save 200 people for
sure. Strategy B: A one-third chance of saving 600 people and a two-thirds chance
that no one will be saved. In this case, considering potential gains, most people
are risk averse and prefer Strategy A. However, the same decision can be framed
as a loss: In Strategy A, 400 people die for sure. In Strategy B, there is a one-third
chance that no one will die and a two-thirds chance that 600 people will die. With
this “loss framing,” most people prefer Strategy B, even though the final outcomes
are logically equivalent to the gain frame. Marketing
4. People tend to overweight small probabilities. This explains the popularity of lot- Insight
teries: People think they have a chance of winning, no matter how small the actual
probability. Likewise, consumers are often willing to pay for insurance and prod- Why are organ donation rates more than twice as
uct warranties, even for extremely rare events.35 high in Spain as in Canada? One reason is that
in Canada, people have to actively sign up or
A related framing phenomenon is the “house money” effect, which is illustrated “opt in” to the organ donation registry, while in
by the following choices. For each, would you take the safe bet or choose to gamble? Spain, people are automatically placed on the
• Option #1: You’re given $30 and then offered a chance to flip a coin: heads you registry unless they “opt out.” This difference in
win $9, tails you lose $9. defaults is an example of choice architecture.
• Option #2: You’re given a choice of getting $30 outright or accepting a coin flip Choice architecture involves the different
ways in which choices can be presented to con-
that will win you either $39 or $21.
sumers in order to influence their preferences
In one study, 70 percent of those given option #1 chose to gamble, compared with and decisions. Often, the goal of choice archi-
just 43 percent of those offered option #2. Yet the odds are the same for both options! tecture is to “nudge” consumers toward better
The difference is that people prefer “playing with the house money”; they are more decisions, improving the welfare of individuals
willing to take risks when they perceive that they’re using someone else’s resources. and society; for example, by helping people
So, contrary to a rational decision-making perspective, we value money differently choose healthier foods, save more for retirement,
depending on where it comes from. This explains, for example, why people might go to the gym more, and be more sustainable.
choose to blow a big bonus on some frivolous purchase, while they would never One big success using different ways of pre-
consider taking that same amount out of their savings account for this purpose. senting the way the choice is framed is the
Finally, research in mental accounting demonstrates that extraneous characteris- “Save More Tomorrow” program, which dramati-
tics of the choice situation can influence our selections, even though they shouldn’t if cally increased employee retirement savings
we were totally rational decision makers. For example, participants in a survey were rates. In the program, people commit in advance
provided with one of two versions of this scenario: “You are lying on the beach on a to setting aside a portion of their future salary
hot day. All you have to drink is ice water. For the last hour you have been thinking increases. This works for two reasons. First,
about how much you would enjoy a nice cold bottle of your favourite brand of beer. A people are present biased and are more willing
companion gets up to go and make a phone call, and he offers to bring back a beer from to sign up for a retirement program if they don’t
the only nearby place where beer is sold [either a fancy resort hotel or a small, run- have to give anything today. Second, because
the retirement contributions come out of salary
down grocery store, depending on the version you’re given]. He says that the beer
raises, the contributions don’t feel like a loss,
might be expensive and asks how much you are willing to pay for it. What price do
and don’t hurt as much. This program increased
you tell him?”
saving rates from 3.5 percent to 13.6 percent
In this survey, the median price given by participants who were in the fancy-
over a period of 40 months.
resort version was $5, while those who were told the grocery-store version were will-
This box content was written by David
ing to pay only $2.25! In both versions the consumption act is the same, the beer is the Hardisty, University of British Columbia.
same, and no “atmosphere” is consumed since the beer is being brought back to the
beach.36 So much for rational decision making!
How Much Search Occurs? CO 4
As a general rule, search activity is greater when the purchase is important, when
there is a need to learn more about the purchase, and when the relevant information is
easily obtained and used.37 Consumers differ in the amount of search they tend to
undertake, regardless of the product category in question. All things being equal,
younger, better-educated people who enjoy the shopping/fact-finding process tend to
conduct more information search. Women are more inclined to search than men, as
are those who place greater value on style and the image they present.38
Amou nt of I nf o r m at io n Ava il a b l e
Contrary to what might be expected, more information is not always better for the con-
sumer. We know that consumers have limited capacity in their short-term memory and
adjust to their environment by making it more manageable. Therefore, when in choice
environments with more information than we can easily process, we truncate the envi-
ronment to deal efficiently with a subset of it. For example, when shopping for wine or
beer, shoppers do not consider all information available, such as bottler, ingredients,
A variety of factors can increase external

search, including the amount of information
available, the consumer’s expertise, and
perceived risk.
Amble Design/Shutterstock
price, brand, image, or reputation. Shoppers consider only partial information, because
there are just too many combinations of all the attributes to take into short-term memory
and process effectively.
The C o n sum er ’s Pr io r Exp ertise

Should prior product knowledge make it more or less likely that a consumer will
engage in a search? Product experts and novices use very different procedures during
decision making. Novices who know little about a product should be the most moti-
vated to find out more about it; however, experts, who are more familiar with the prod-
uct category, should be able to better understand the meaning of any new product
information they might acquire.
So who searches more? The answer is neither: Search tends to be greatest among
those consumers who are moderately knowledgeable about the product. There is an
inverted U-shaped relationship between knowledge and external search effort, as
shown in Figure 9–4. People with very limited expertise may not feel they are capable
of searching extensively. In fact, they may not even know where to start. Many times
people do not spend a lot of time researching their purchases. They may visit one store
FIGURE 9–4
The Relationship between Amount of Information Search and Product Knowledge

AMOUNT OF SEARCH
PRODUCT KNOWLEDGE AND/OR

AMOUNT OF INFORMATION
and look only at brands with which they are already familiar. In addition, only a small
number of product features may be considered.39
The type of search undertaken by people with varying levels of expertise dif-
fers as well. Because experts have a better sense of what information is relevant to
the decision, they tend to engage in selective search, which means their efforts are
more focused and efficient. In contrast, novices are more likely to rely on the opin-
ions of others and upon “non-functional” attributes, such as brand name and price,
to distinguish among alternatives. They may also process information in a “top-
down” rather than a “bottom-up” manner, focusing less on details than on the big
picture. For instance, they may be more impressed by the sheer amount of techni-
cal information presented on a webpage than by the actual significance of the
claims made.40
Pe r ce ive d R is k
One additional factor that can lead to more extensive search is the degree of perceived
risk, or the belief that the product has potentially negative or uncertain consequences.
Perceived risk may be present if the product is expensive or is complex and hard to
understand. Alternatively, perceived risk can be a factor when a product choice is
visible to others and we run the risk of embarrassment if the wrong choice is made.
Figure 9–5 lists five basic kinds of risk—including both objective factors (such as
physical danger) and subjective factors (such as social embarrassment)—as well as the
FIGURE 9–5
Five Types of Perceived Risk
BUYERS MOST PURCHASES MOST

SENSITIVE TO RISK SUBJECT TO RISK
Risk capital consists of money High-ticket items that require

MONETARY and property. Those with substantial expenditures are
RISK relatively little income and most subject to this form of risk.
wealth are most vulnerable.
Risk capital consists of Products or services whose

FUNCTIONAL alternative means of perform- purchase and use require the
RISK ing the function or meeting the buyer’s exclusive commitment
need. Practical consumers are and preclude redundancy are
most sensitive. most sensitive.
Risk capital consists of physical Mechanical or electrical goods

PHYSICAL vigour, health, and vitality. (such as vehicles or flamma-
RISK Those who are elderly, frail, or bles), drugs and medical
in ill health are most vulnerable. treatment, and food and
beverages are most sensitive.
Risk capital consists of Socially visible or symbolic

SOCIAL self-esteem and goods, such as clothes,
RISK self-confidence. Those who are jewellery, cars, homes, or
insecure and uncertain are sports equipment, are most
most sensitive. subject to this form of risk.
Risk capital consists of Expensive personal luxuries

PSYCHO- affiliations and status. Those that may engender guilt,
LOGICAL lacking self-respect or durables, and services whose
RISK attractiveness to peers are use demands self-discipline or
most sensitive. sacrifice are most sensitive.
products subject to each type of risk. As this figure notes, consumers with greater “risk
capital” are less affected by perceived risks associated with the products. For example,
a highly self-confident person would be less worried about the social risk inherent in
a product, while a more vulnerable, insecure consumer might be reluctant to take a
chance on a product that might not be accepted by peers.
Evaluation of Alternatives
Much of the effort that goes into a purchase decision occurs at the stage at which a
choice must be made from the available alternatives. After all, modern consumer soci-
ety abounds with choices. In some cases there may be literally hundreds of different
brands (as in beer) or different variations of the same brand (as in shades of lipstick),
each screaming for our attention.
Just for fun, ask a female friend to name all the brands of perfume she can think of.
Odds are she will reel off three to five names rather quickly and then stop to think
awhile before coming up with a few more. It is likely that perfumes in the first set of
brands are those with which she is highly familiar, and she probably wears one or
more of these. The list may also contain one or two brands that she does not like and
would perhaps like to forget. Note also that there are many, many more brands on the
market than she named.
If your friend were to go to the store to buy perfume, it is likely that she would
consider buying some or most of the brands she listed initially. She might also con-
sider a few more possibilities if these were forcefully brought to her attention while at
the store—for example, if she were “ambushed” by an employee who sprays scent
samples on shoppers, which is a common occurrence in some department stores.
Identifying Alternatives
The alternatives actively considered during a consumer’s choice process are called his
or her consideration or evoked set. The evoked set comprises those products already
in memory (the retrieval set) plus those prominent in the retail environment. For
When it comes to evaluating alternatives,

some product categories are difficult to
evaluate in online contexts. In an attempt
to overcome this barrier, L’Oréal cosmetics
has created an app called “Makeup Genius.”
This application uses the camera on the
consumer’s phone to create a virtual
“makeover” that allows her to compare
and contrast different products.
© L’Oréal Paris

FIGURE 9–6
Identifying Alternatives: Getting in the Game
All
Alternatives
Consideration
Inert Inept
or
Set Set
Evoked Set
Retrieval Prominent
Set Products in
(Stored Environment
Memory) (Advertising)
example, suppose you are looking for a new HDTV, but you do not know much about
the technical aspects of TV sets and have only a few major brands in memory. Of
these, two are acceptable possibilities and one is not. The alternatives that you are
aware of but would not consider buying because they aren’t what you are looking for
are your inept set, while those not coming to mind at all compose the inert set. These
categories are depicted in Figure 9–6.
For obvious reasons, a marketer who finds that its brand is not in the evoked set of
many consumers in the target market has cause to worry. A product is not likely to be
placed in the evoked set after it has previously been considered and rejected. Indeed,
a new brand is more likely to be added to the evoked set than is an existing brand that
was previously considered but passed over, even after additional positive information
is provided for that brand.41 For marketers, this unwillingness to give a rejected prod-
uct a second chance underscores the importance of ensuring that it performs well from
the time it is introduced.
An advertising campaign for Hyundai illustrates how hard a company some-
times has to work to get its brand into consumers’ evoked set. Many people think of
Hyundai strictly as a low-cost vehicle, even though it has received high marks for
quality in recent years. The carmaker’s “Think about It” campaign encouraged con- Consumers
sumers to reconsider their long-held beliefs through frank statements such as “The in Focus
logo is there to tell you what the car is, not who you are,” and “When a car company
charges for roadside assistance, aren’t they just helping themselves?” As Hyundai’s Women choose a new shoe according to its
vice-president for marketing explained, “Unless we give people a compelling reason brand category—or do they? At the footwear
to shuffle the brand deck, they’ll stand with the brands they know rather than make website MustHaveShoes.com, shoppers see
that switch.”42 shoes categorized by style rather than brand—
for example, black high heels, strappy thong
sandals, or funky boots. One of the site’s devel-
How Do We Put Products into Categories? opers explains the shift in categorization:
“When you walk into a shoe store, there are
Tropicana (a division of PepsiCo) has rolled out a new pureed fruit product that it
tables set up with shoes that have something
hopes is thick enough that consumers will view it as a snack rather than as a bever- in common—they’re not usually separated by
age.43 Tropolis comes in brightly coloured pouches to appeal to moms and kids. The brand. Maybe everything will have a metallic
head of PepsiCo’s nutrition group maintains that it’s time to move beyond the idea tone, or there’ll be several evening shoes
that snacks are dry and beverages are wet. As Tropicana realizes, the category we together.” When consumers make choices, cat-
assign to a product is important, because it influences what we compare it to and egories matter.44
how we use it.
Remember that when consumers process product information, they don’t do it in

a vacuum. They evaluate its attributes in terms of what they already know about the
item or other similar products. A person who thinks about a particular 35-mm digital
camera will most likely compare it to other 35-mm digital cameras rather than to a
camera phone. Because the category in which a consumer places a product determines
the other products he or she will compare it to, the way we classify a brand in our
minds plays a big role in how we evaluate it. These classifications derive from differ-
ent product attributes, including appearance (e.g., we assume chocolates in silver or
gold wrappings are more upscale), price (we view items with prices ending in .99 as
cheaper than those ending in .00), or previously learned connections (“If it has the
name Porsche on it, it must be expensive”).45
The products in a consumer’s evoked set are likely to be those that share some
similar features. This process of categorizing products can either help or hurt a
product, depending on what people compare it to. For example, in one survey
about 25 percent of consumers said they would be less likely to buy a product
made of hemp if they knew it was derived from the same plant as marijuana (but
without any of the latter’s effects). When faced with a new product, consumers
refer to their already existing knowledge in familiar product categories to form
new knowledge.46
It is important to understand how this knowledge is represented in consumers’
“cognitive structure”—their body of factual knowledge (i.e., beliefs) about products
and the way it is organized in their minds.47 These structures, or schemas, were
discussed in Chapter 4. One reason cognitive structure is important is that market-
ers want to ensure that their products are correctly grouped. For example, Tide
Pods ran into the problem of consumers miscategorizing the product category when
children mistook the small sachets of laundry detergent for candy. One study
reports that during a two-year period, poison control centres received 17 000 calls!
Clearly, it is in the marketer’s best interest to ensure that people correctly categorize
their product offerings.48
Le v e l s o f Categ o r izatio n
Not only do people group things into categories, but these groupings also occur at
different levels of specificity. Typically, a product is represented in a cognitive struc-
ture at one of three levels. To understand this idea, consider how someone might
POM Wonderful Juice wants consumers to

categorize the product as a health product,
rather than just a tasty fruit beverage.
Jason DeCrow/AP Images for POM Wonderful
FIGURE 9–7
Levels of Abstraction in Dessert Categories
Dessert
SUPERORDINATE LEVEL
Fattening Dessert BASIC LEVEL Non-fattening Dessert
Ice Cream Pie Cake SUBORDINATE Fruit Yogurt Diet Ice

LEVEL Cream
respond to the following questions about an ice cream cone: What other products
share similar characteristics? Which would be considered as alternatives to eating
a cone?
The questions may be more complex than they first appear. At one level a cone is
similar to an apple, because both can be eaten as a dessert. At another level a cone is
similar to a piece of pie, because both are eaten for dessert and both are fattening. At
still another level a cone is similar to an ice cream sundae; both are eaten for dessert,
are made of ice cream, and are fattening.
It is easy to see that the items a person associates with the category of, say, “fatten-
ing dessert” influence the choices he or she will make for what to eat after dinner. The
middle level, known as a basic-level category, is typically the most useful in classify-
ing products, since items grouped together at this level tend to have a lot in common
with each other but still permit a range of alternatives to be considered. The first level,
the broader superordinate category, is more abstract, while the third, more specific
subordinate category often includes individual brands.49 These three levels are
depicted in Figure 9–7.
Of course, not all items fit equally well into a category. Apple pie is a better exam-
ple of the subordinate category “pie” than rhubarb pie, even though both are legiti-
mate kinds of pies. Apple pie is thus more prototypical and would tend to be
considered first, especially by category novices. In contrast, pie experts will tend to
have knowledge about both typical and atypical category examples.50
Str ate gic Impl ic at io n s o f Pr o duc t C ateg o r izatio n

Product categorization has many strategic implications. The way a product is grouped
with others has very important ramifications for determining both its competitors and
what criteria will be used to make this choice.
Product Positioning The success of a positioning strategy often hinges on the mar-
keter’s ability to convince the consumer that its product should be considered within
a given category. For example, the orange juice industry tried to reposition orange
juice as a drink that could be enjoyed all day long (“It’s not just for breakfast any-
more”). On the other hand, soft drink companies are now attempting to do the oppo-
site, portraying their beverages as suitable for breakfast consumption. They are trying
to make their way into consumers’ “breakfast drink” category, along with orange juice,
grapefruit juice, and coffee. Indeed, this categorization already exists for many con-
sumers in the southern United States, who routinely guzzle a soft drink with their
breakfast! Of course, this strategy can backfire, as Pepsi discovered when it introduced
Pepsi A.M. and positioned it as a coffee substitute. The company did such a good job
of categorizing the drink as a morning beverage that customers wouldn’t drink it at any
other time. The product failed.51
This advertisement from Sunkist attempts to

reposition the product by placing it in a new
category—a salt substitute.
Courtesy of Sunkist Growers
Identifying Competitors At the more abstract, superordinate level of categori-

zation, many different product forms can compete for membership. Both bowling
and ballet may be considered subcategories of “entertainment” by some people,
but many would not necessarily consider the substitution of one of these activi-
ties for the other. Products and services that, on the surface, are quite different
actually compete with each other at a broad level, often for consumers’ discretion-
ary dollars. Although bowling or ballet may not be a likely trade-off for many peo-
ple, it is conceivable that, for example, a symphony might try to lure away ballet
season ticketholders by positioning itself as an equivalent member of the category
“cultural event.”52
Consumers are often faced with choices between non-comparable categories, in
which a number of attributes exist that cannot be directly related to one another (the
old problem of comparing apples and oranges). The comparison process is easier when
consumers can derive an overlapping category that encompasses both items (such as
entertainment value or usefulness) and then rate each alternative in terms of that
superordinate category.53
Exemplar Products: POMEGRANATES versus Apples, Etc. If a product is a

really good example of a category, it is more familiar to consumers and, as a result, is
more easily recognized and recalled.55 Judgments about category attributes tend to be
Marketing disproportionately influenced by the characteristics of category exemplars.56 In a
Insight sense, brands that are strongly associated with a category get to “call the shots” by
defining the criteria that should be used to evaluate all category members.
One implication of the notion that consumers Being a bit less than prototypical is not necessarily a bad thing. Products that
like to place products into categories is the are moderately unusual within their product category may stimulate more infor-
emergence of hybrid products that feature mation processing and positive evaluations, since they are neither so familiar that
characteristics from two distinct domains. they will be taken for granted nor so discrepant that they will be dismissed. 57
These products often have positive qualities Further, a brand that is strongly discrepant may occupy a niche position, while
from two different categories. Examples those that are moderately discrepant remain in a differentiated position within
include the crossover utility vehicle (CUV) that the general category.58
mixes a passenger car and a sport utility
vehicle (SUV) and the recent “cronut” craze (a Locating Products Product categorization can also affect consumers’ expectations
combination croissant and doughnut) that regarding the places they can locate a desired product. If products do not clearly fit
started with a New York bakery and made its into categories (e.g., Is a rug furniture?), consumers’ ability to find them or make sense
leap to national stardom courtesy of Dunkin’ of them may be affected. For instance, a frozen dog food that had to be thawed and
Donuts.54 cooked failed in the market, partly because people could not adapt to the idea of
buying dog food in the “frozen foods for people” section of the grocery store.
Product Choice: Selecting among

Alternatives
Once the relevant options from a category have been assembled, a choice must be
made among them.59 Recall that the decision rules that guide choice can range from
very simple and quick strategies to complicated processes requiring a lot of attention
and cognitive processing. Our job isn’t getting any easier as companies overwhelm us
with more and more features. We deal with smartphones with hundreds of apps, digi-
tal cameras with mysterious features and book-length manuals, and tablets with more
options than one can realistically manage. Experts call this spiral of complexity fea-
ture creep. As evidence that the proliferation of gizmos is counterproductive, Philips
Electronics found that at least half of the products buyers return have nothing wrong
with them—consumers simply couldn’t figure out how to use them! What’s worse, on
average a buyer spent only 20 minutes trying to figure out how to use the product
before giving up.
Why don’t companies avoid this problem? One reason is that we often assume that
the more features the better. It’s only when we get the product home and try to use it that
we realize the virtue of simplicity. In one study, consumers chose among three models
of a digital device that varied in terms of how complex each was. More than 60 percent
chose the one with the most features. Then the participants got the chance to choose
from up to 25 features to customize their product—the average person chose 20 of
these add-ons. But when they actually used the devices, it turns out that the large
number of options only frustrated them—they ended up being much happier with the
simpler product.
Interestingly, although consumers frequently choose products with too many fea-
tures that they later find difficult to use, there may be some positive benefits of addi-
tional features—they may sometimes help to make a positive impression on others.
Indeed, making choices in public, where consumers’ preferences are displayed to others
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(as when others see the consumer holding a fancy camera), encourages feature-seeking
Marketing behaviour. In contrast, the anticipation of having to actually use a complicated product
Insight in front of others (when there is a possibility of making a mistake in front of others)
enhances the attractiveness of a simpler, feature-poor product.60
Consumers today often want to know just where
the things they buy came from. The J. Peterman
Company clothing catalogues tell stories about Evaluative Criteria
the apparel they sell, and upscale grocery stores
like Whole Foods provide great detail about the
Evaluative criteria are the dimensions used to judge the merits of competing options.
specific farms where produce and meat were In comparing alternative products, you might choose from among any number of crite-
raised. Product authenticity is becoming a ria, ranging from very functional attributes to experiential ones.
determinant attribute. Researchers claim that Another important point is that criteria on which products differ carry more
although authenticity can be a hard concept to weight in the decision process. If all brands being considered rate equally well on
pin down, it seems to be composed of three one attribute (e.g., if all smartphones have high-resolution cameras), consumers will
attributes: heritage, sincerity, and commitment have to find other attributes to use in making a choice. The specific attributes that are
to quality.63 That explains why many companies actually used to differentiate among choices are determinant attributes.
like to tout their “authentic” story; for example, Marketers can play a role in educating consumers about which criteria should be
New Balance describes its Maine factory like used as determinant attributes. For example, consumer research indicated that many
this: “Built in 1945, the Depot Street building is consumers view the use of natural ingredients as a determinant attribute. The result
the workplace of almost 400 associates. Each was a promotion for a toothpaste made from baking soda, which the company already
pair of shoes they produce is a proud work of manufactured for its Arm & Hammer brand.61 And sometimes the company can even
craftsmanship that carries a little bit of the invent a determinant attribute: PepsiCo accomplished this by stamping freshness
long history that is the town and its people.”64 dates on pop cans. The company spent about $25 million on an advertising and pro-
People like to know that a company has been motional campaign to convince consumers that there’s nothing quite as horrible as a
around for a long time; one study even found stale can of pop—even though it has been estimated that 98 percent of all cans are
that consumers especially valued products that consumed well before this could be a problem. Six months after introducing the cam-
came from a company’s original factory. These
paign, an independent survey found that 61 percent of respondents felt that freshness
researchers also reported that, compared to
dating is an important attribute for a soft drink!62
people who read about Levi jeans from a newer
factory, when subjects read about a pair of
jeans made in the Levi Strauss plant built in N e u r om a r k etin g : H ow Yo ur Br ain Reacts to Alter n ati ves
San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake, they Is there a “buy button” in your brain? Some corporations have teamed up with neu-
said the pants contained more of the “true roscientists to find out. 66 Neuromarketing uses functional magnetic resonance
essence” of the brand and were willing to pay imaging (fMRI), a brain-scanning device that tracks blood flow as we perform men-
more for the “authentic” pair.65 tal tasks. In recent years, researchers have discovered that regions in the brain, such
as the amygdala, the hippocampus, and the hypothalamus, are dynamic switch-
boards that blend memory, emotions, and biochemical triggers. These intercon-
nected neurons shape the ways that fear, panic, exhilaration, and social pressure
influence our choices.
Scientists know that specific regions of the brain light up in these scans to show
increased blood flow when a person recognizes a face, hears a song, makes a decision,
or senses deception. Now they hope to harness this technology to measure consumers’
reactions to movie trailers, automobiles, the appeal of a pretty face, and even their loy-
alty to specific brands. In one study researchers recorded brain activity as shoppers
toured a virtual store. They claim to have identified the neural region that becomes
active when a shopper decides which product to pluck from a supermarket shelf.
DaimlerAG took brain scans of men as they looked at photos of cars and confirmed that
sports cars activated their reward centres. The company’s scientists found that the
most popular vehicles—the Porsche- and Ferrari-style sports cars—triggered activity
in a section of the brain they call the fusiform face area, which governs facial recogni-
tion. A psychiatrist who ran the study commented, “They were reminded of faces
when they looked at the cars. The lights of the cars look a little like eyes.”
In another study, researchers reported that pictures of celebrities triggered many of
the same brain circuits as did images of shoes, cars, chairs, wristwatches, sunglasses,
handbags, and water bottles. All of these objects set off a rush of activity in a part of the
cortex that links to our sense of identity and social image. The scientists also identified
types of consumers based on their responses. At one extreme were people whose brains
responded intensely to “cool” products and celebrities with bursts of activity, but who
didn’t respond at all to “uncool” images. They dubbed these participants “cool fools” Marketing
who are likely to be impulsive or compulsive shoppers. At the other extreme were
people whose brains reacted only to the unstylish items; this pattern fits well with
Insight
people who tend to be anxious, apprehensive, or neurotic. Product labels assist us with problem solving,
Many researchers remain skeptical about how helpful this technology will be for but some are more useful than others. Here are
consumer research. If indeed researchers can reliably track consumers’ brand prefer- some examples of the not-so-helpful variety:67
ences by seeing how their brains react, there may be many interesting potential oppor- • O n a Conair Pro Style 1600 hair dryer:
tunities for new research techniques that rely on what we (or at least our brains) do Warning: Do not use in shower. Never use
rather than what we say. while sleeping.
• Instructions for folding up a portable baby
carriage: Step 1: Remove baby.
Cybermediaries • A rest stop on a Wisconsin highway: Do not
As anyone who’s ever typed a term such as “smartphone” into a search engine eat urinal cakes.
knows, the Web delivers enormous amounts of information in seconds. With the • On a bag of Fritos: You could be a winner!
tremendous number of websites available, and the huge number of people surfing No purchase necessary. Details inside.
the Web every day, how can people organize information and decide where to • On some Swanson frozen dinners: Serving
click? One type of business that is growing to meet this demand is called a suggestion: Defrost.
• On Tesco’s Tiramisu dessert (printed on
cybermediary—this term describes a website or app that helps to filter and organize
bottom of box): Do not turn upside down.
online market information so that customers can identify and evaluate alternatives
• On Marks & Spencer bread pudding:
more efficiently.68
Product will be hot after heating.
Cybermediaries can take many different forms.69 Many consumers regularly link
• On packaging for a Rowenta iron: Do not
to comparison-shopping sites, such as Bizrate.com and Pricegrabber.com, for example,
iron clothes on body.
that list online retailers that sell a given item along with the price each charges. Direc- • On Nytol sleeping aid: Warning: May cause
tories and portals like Yahoo! and The Knot are general services that tie together a drowsiness.
large variety of different sites.
Can you imagine choosing a restaurant before you check it out online? Increas-
ingly, many of us rely on online reviews to steer us toward and away from specific
restaurants, hotels, movies, garments, music, and just about everything else. A sur-
vey of 28 000 respondents in 56 countries reported that online user ratings are the
second most trusted source of brand information (after recommendations from fam-
ily and friends). We usually put a lot of stock in what members of our social net-
works recommend, often even more so than what experts recommend. This happens
even though user ratings don’t link very strongly to actual product-quality ratings
that objective evaluation services like Consumer Reports provide. And there’s evi-
dence that mobile reviews may be less helpful than desktop reviews—even when the
same reviewer writes both. Comments posted via mobile devices are more emotional
and more negative.70
Customer product reviews are a key driver of satisfaction and loyalty. Another
advantage these reviews provide is that consumers learn about other, less popular
options they may like as well—and at the same time, products such as movies, books,
and CDs that aren’t “blockbusters” are more likely to sell. At the online DVD rental
company Netflix, for example, fellow subscribers recommend about two-thirds of the
films people order. In fact, between 70 and 80 percent of Netflix rentals come from the
company’s back catalogue of 38 000 films rather than recent releases.71
This aspect of online customer review is one important factor that’s fuelling a
new way of thinking that one writer calls the long tail.72 The basic idea is that mar-
keters no longer need to rely solely on big hits (such as blockbuster movies or best-
selling books) to find profits. Companies can also make money if they sell small
amounts of items that only a few people want—if they sell enough different items.
For example, Amazon.com maintains an inventory of 3.7 million books compared to
the 100 000 or so you’ll find in an Chapters-Indigo retail store. Most of these will sell
only a few thousand copies (if that), but the 3.6 million books that Chapters-Indigo
doesn’t carry make up a quarter of Amazon’s revenues! Other examples of the long
tail include successful microbreweries and TV networks that make money on reruns
of old shows, such as the Game Show Network.
Heuristics: Mental Shortcuts CO 5

Marketing To simplify decisions, consumers often employ decision rules that allow them to use
Insight some dimensions as substitutes for others. These assumptions serve as a shortcut to
When a UC Berkeley professor realized he didn’t more extensive information processing.75 Especially where limited problem solving
know much about the everyday products he occurs prior to making a choice, consumers often fall back on heuristics, or mental
bought for his family, he decided to do some- rules of thumb that lead to a speedy decision. These rules range from the very general
thing about it. He developed GoodGuide, a web- (“Higher-priced products are higher-quality products” or “I’ll buy the same brand I
site and iPhone application that lets consumers bought last time”) to the very specific (“I buy Redpath, the brand of sugar my mother
enter a product’s name and learn about its always bought”).76
health, environmental, and social impacts. The
site continues to grow and maintains its objec- R e ly in g o n a Pr oduct Sig n al
tivity by refusing to sell advertising, although it
One frequently used shortcut is the tendency to infer hidden dimensions of products
does collect a small fee if a customer links to
from observable attributes. The aspect of the product that is visible acts as a product
Amazon to find a product it rates highly.73
signal of some underlying quality. Such inferences explain why someone trying to sell
The huge growth in demand for user reviews
a used car takes great pains to be sure the car’s exterior is clean and shiny: Potential
in turn fuels new opinion-based sites, including
buyers often judge the vehicle’s mechanical condition by its appearance, even though
Yelp for local businesses, TripAdvisor for travel,
and Urbanspoon for restaurants. Yelp, for exam-
this means they may drive away in a shiny, clean clunker.77
ple, offers over 4 million reviews of everything When product information is incomplete, judgments are often derived from
from corner cafés to dog groomers. People who beliefs about covariation, or associations among events.78 For example, a consumer
take the time to post to these sites don’t do it may form an association between product quality and the length of time a manufac-
for money, but they do generate an income in turer has been in business. Other signals or attributes believed to coexist with good or
the form of props for good recommendations. bad products are well-known brand names, country of origin, price, and the retail
Analysts refer to this reward system as the rep- outlets that carry the product.
utation economy; many thousands of consum- Unfortunately, consumers tend to be poor estimators of covariation. Their beliefs
ers devote significant time to editing Wikipedia persist despite evidence to the contrary. Similar to the consistency principle discussed
entries, serving as brand advocates, or upload- in Chapter 7, they tend to see what they are looking for. They will look for product
ing clips to YouTube simply because they enjoy
the process and want to boost their reputations
as knowledgeable advisors.74
Consumers often simplify choices by using

heuristics such as automatically choosing a
favourite colour or brand.
Courtesy of iParty Retail Store Corp.
information that confirms their guesses. In one experiment, consumers sampled four
sets of products to determine whether price and quality were related. Those who Marketing
believed in this relationship prior to the study elected to sample higher-priced prod-
ucts, thus creating a sort of self-fulfilling prophecy.80
Insight
Companies fall all over one another in their
quest to be “green.” Unfortunately, many con-
M a r ke t B e lief s : I s I t B e t t e r If I H ave to Pay Mo r e fo r I t?
sumers who want to buy earth-friendly prod-
Consumers often form specific market beliefs about relationships in the marketplace. ucts aren’t sure how to tell if an item really is
These beliefs then become the shortcuts—whether or not they are accurate—that guide as green as it says. They would like to rely on a
their decisions.81 A large number of market beliefs have been identified. Some of these convenient heuristic—the environmental
are listed in Table 9–2 on the next page. How many do you share? equivalent of a Good Housekeeping Seal of
Do higher prices mean higher quality? The assumption of a price–quality relation- Approval. Unfortunately, so many organizations
ship is one of the most pervasive market beliefs.82 Novice consumers may, in fact, offer their own version of this seal that it’s
consider price as the only relevant product attribute. Experts also consider this infor- hard to know which are legitimate. The website
mation, although they tend to use price for its informational value, especially for prod- www.ecolabelling.org reports that more than
ucts that are known to have wide quality variations in the marketplace (such as virgin 300 of these labels currently certify items from
wool). When this quality level is more standard or strictly regulated (e.g., as it is for seafood to coffee. While some of these pro-
VQA wines), experts do not weigh price in their decisions. For the most part this belief grams, such as Green Seal and EcoLogo, obtain
is justified; you do tend to get what you pay for. However, let the buyer beware: The independent verification of product manufac-
assumption of a price–quality relationship is not always justified.83 turers’ green claims, many others don’t expend
the time or money to do so. A few major retail-
ers try to reduce confusion as they perform
Co u ntry o f O rig in a s a H e u r is t ic their own ratings; these include Home Depot’s
A product’s “address” matters. We like to buy Italian shoes, German cars, and “Eco Options” designation for items such as
French luxury goods. A product’s country of origin in some cases is an important energy-efficient light bulbs, and Office Depot’s
piece of information in the decision-making process.84 Certain items are strongly “Green Book” catalogue, which it distributes to
associated with specific countries, and products from those countries often attempt business buyers. Still, the potential for confu-
to benefit from these links. Country-of-origin effects can function as a stereotype—a sion and misleading claims is huge; one study
knowledge structure based on inferences across products. Though stereotypes are of almost 4000 consumer products found evi-
often biased or inaccurate, they do play a constructive role in simplifying complex dence of rampant greenwashing, in which
manufacturers make untrue or misleading
choice situations.85
green claims.79
Evidence indicates that the consumer’s knowledge of a product’s country of origin
is not necessarily good or bad. Instead it has the effect of stimulating the consumer’s
interest in the product to a greater degree. The purchaser thinks more extensively
about the product and evaluates it more carefully.86 The origin of the product can thus
act as a product attribute that combines with other attributes to influence evalua-
tions.87 In addition, the consumer’s own expertise with the product category moder-
ates the effects of this attribute. When other information is available, experts tend to
ignore country-of-origin information whereas novices continue to rely on it. However,
when other information is unavailable or ambiguous, both experts and novices will
rely on this attribute to make a decision.88
Canada as a country of origin is extremely important for some products, especially
bottled water and vitamins. An ad for Jamieson vitamins sold in Japan reads, “This
product is imported from Canada, home of forests and lakes.”89 The image that Canada
is portraying is clean, pure, and trustworthy.
The tendency to prefer products or people of one’s own culture over those from
other countries is called ethnocentrism. Ethnocentric consumers are likely to feel it is
wrong to buy products from other countries, particularly because of the negative
effect this may have on the domestic economy. This trait has been measured on the
Consumer Ethnocentrism Scale (CETSCALE) that was devised for this purpose. The
scale identifies ethnocentric consumers by their extent of agreement with items such
as the following:
• Purchasing foreign-made products is un-Canadian.
• Curbs should be put on all imports.
• Consumers who purchase products made in other countries are responsible for
putting their fellow citizens out of work.90
TABLE 9–2
Common Market Beliefs
Brand All brands are basically the same.

Generic products are just name brands sold under a different label at a
lower price.
The best brands are the ones purchased the most.
Store Specialty stores are great places to familiarize yourself with the best
brands; but once you figure out what you want, it’s cheaper to buy it at
a discount outlet.
A store’s character is reflected in its window displays.
Salespeople in specialty stores are more knowledgeable than other

sales personnel.
Larger stores offer better prices than small stores.
Locally owned stores give the best service.
A store that offers a good value on one of its products probably offers
good value on all of its items.
Credit and return policies are most lenient at large department stores.
Stores that have just opened usually charge attractive prices.
Prices/Discounts/Sales Sales are typically run to get rid of slow-moving merchandise.

Stores that are constantly having sales don’t really save you money.
Within a given store, higher prices generally indicate higher quality.
Advertising and Sales “Hard sell” advertising is associated with low-quality products.
Promotion Items tied to “giveaways” are not a good value (even with the freebie).
Coupons represent real savings for customers because they are not
offered by the store.
When you buy heavily advertised products, you are paying for the label,
not for higher quality.
Product/Packaging Largest-sized containers are almost always cheaper per unit than
smaller sizes.
New products are more expensive when they’re first introduced; prices
tend to settle down as time goes by.
When you are not sure what you need in a product, it’s a good idea
to invest in the extra features because you’ll probably wish you had
them later.
In general, synthetic goods are lower in quality than goods made of
natural materials.
It’s advisable to stay away from products when they are new to the market;
it usually takes the manufacturer a little time to work the bugs out.
Source: Adapted from Calvin P. Duncan, “Consumer Market Beliefs: A Review of the Literature and an Agenda for Future Research,” in Advances
in Consumer Research 17, eds. Marvin E. Goldberg, Gerald Gorn, and Richard W. Pollay (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1990):
729–735.
Choosing Familiar Brand Names:

Loyalty or Habit?
Branding is a marketing strategy that often functions as a heuristic. People form prefer-
ences for favourite brands and then may literally never change their minds in the
course of their lifetimes. Clearly “choose a well-known brand name” is a powerful
heuristic. Some brands in a sense are well known because they are well known; we
assume that if so many people choose a product it must be good.
Indeed, our tendency to prefer a number-one brand to the competition is so strong
that it seems to mimic a pattern scientists find in other domains, from earthquakes to
linguistics. Zipf’s law describes this pattern. In the 1930s, a linguist named George
Kingsley Zipf found that the—the most-used English word—occurs about twice as
often as of (second place), about three times as often as and (third), and so on. Since
then, scientists have found similar relationships between the size and frequency of
earthquakes and a variety of other natural and artificial phenomena.
A marketing researcher decided to apply Zipf’s law to consumer behaviour. His
firm asked Australian consumers to identify the brands of toilet paper and instant cof-
fee they use and to rank them in order of preference. As the model predicted, people
spend roughly twice as much of their toilet paper budget on the top choice than on the
second-ranked brand, about twice as much on the number-two brand as on the third-
ranked brand, and about twice as much on the number-three brand as on the number-
four brand. One ramification is that a brand that moves from number two to number
one in a category will see a much greater jump in sales than will, say, a brand that
moves from number four to number three. Brands that dominate their markets are as
much as 50 percent more profitable than their nearest competitors.91
INERTIA VERSU S BRAN D LOYALTY

Many people tend to buy the same brand just about every time they go to the store. This
consistent pattern is often due to inertia, in which a brand is bought out of habit merely
because less effort is required. If another product comes along that is for some reason
easier to buy (e.g., it is cheaper or the original product is out of stock), the consumer
will not hesitate to do so. A competitor who is trying to change a buying pattern based
on inertia can often do so rather easily, because little resistance to brand switching will
be encountered if some reason to switch is apparent.
Since there is little to no underlying commitment to the product, such promo-
tional tools as point-of-purchase displays, extensive couponing, or noticeable price
reductions may be sufficient to “unfreeze” a consumer’s habitual pattern. This kind of Marketing
fickleness will not occur if true brand loyalty exists. In contrast to inertia, brand loy- Insight
alty is a form of repeat-purchasing behaviour reflecting a conscious decision to con-
tinue buying the same brand. This concept thus refers to a pattern of purchases over How do we ultimately help consumers make
time where actual decision making occurs.92 For brand loyalty to exist, a pattern of decisions that are “good” for them? One way is
repeat purchasing must be accompanied by an underlying positive attitude toward the to associate the desired choice with a reward-
ing option. In one study, consumers’ iPods were
brand. Brand loyalty may be initiated by customer preference based on objective rea-
loaded with “guilty pleasure” books, such as
sons, but after the brand has been around for a long time and is heavily advertised, it
The Hunger Games, but they were only allowed
can also create an emotional attachment, either by being incorporated into the con-
to listen to these while they were working out at
sumer’s self-image or because it is associated with prior experiences.93 Purchase deci-
the gym. This temptation bundling increased
sions based on brand loyalty also become habitual over time, but the underlying
gym attendance by over 50 percent. In addi-
commitment to the brand is much stronger.
tion, after the study, 61 percent of participants
were willing to pay for this commitment device.
Decision Rules CO 6 In other words, consumers valued a “restricted-
use” iPod more than a regular, full-access
Consumers consider sets of product attributes by using different rules, depending on iPod! Consumers often know that they have
the complexity of the decision and its importance to them. As we have seen, in some self-control problems, and are willing to pay
cases these rules are quite simple: People simply rely on a “shortcut” to make a choice. for solutions that help them make healthy
In other cases, though, more effort and thought are put into carefully weighing alterna- choices.94
tives before coming to a decision.
TABLE 9–3
Hypothetical Alternatives for a TV Set

Brand Ratings
Personal Importance*
Attribute Rating Ranking Prime Wave Precision Kamashita
Size of screen 5 6 Excellent 5 Excellent 5 Excellent 5
Stereo broadcast 4 5 Poor 1 Excellent 5 Good 4

capability
Brand reputation 2 4 Excellent 5 Excellent 5 Poor 1
On-screen 2 3 Excellent 5 Poor 1 Poor 1

programming
Cable-ready 4 2 Good 4 Good 4 Good 4

capability
Sleep timer 1 1 Excellent 5 Poor 1 Good 4
*Higher numbers denote more importance.
One way to differentiate among decision rules is to divide them into those that are
compensatory versus those that are non-compensatory. Compensatory rules imply that
one good attribute can “compensate” for other poorer attributes. This is not the case
with non-compensatory rules, where some poor attributes may eliminate the choice
despite its strength on other attributes. As an aid in the discussion, the attributes of TV
sets that a consumer might consider are summarized in Table 9–3. Now let’s see whether
some of these rules result in different brand choices.
No n -c omp en sato ry D ecisio n Rules

Simple decision rules are non-compensatory, and a product with a low standing on
one attribute cannot make up for this position by being better on another attribute. In
other words, people simply eliminate all options that do not meet some basic stan-
dards. A consumer who uses the decision rule “Only buy well-known brand names”
would not consider a new brand, even if it were equal or superior to existing ones.
When people are less familiar with a product category or not very motivated to process
complex information, they tend to use simple, non-compensatory rules.95
The Lexicographic Rule When the lexicographic rule is used, the brand that is
the best on the most important attribute is selected. If two or more brands are seen
as being equally good on that attribute, the consumer then compares them using
the second most important attribute. This selection process goes on until the tie is
broken. Referring to Table 9–3, since both the Prime Wave and Precision TV models
are tied on the most important attribute (a 60-inch screen), the Precision model
was chosen because of its rating on the second-most-important attribute—its stereo
capability.
The Elimination-by-Aspects Rule Again, brands are evaluated on the most impor-
tant attribute under the elimination-by-aspects rule. In this case, though, specific cut-
offs are imposed. For example, if a consumer is more interested in having a sleep timer
on his TV (i.e., if it had a higher importance ranking), you might stipulate that his
choice “must have a sleep timer.” Since the Prime Wave model has one and the Preci-
sion does not, the Prime Wave model would be chosen.
The Conjunctive Rule While the two former rules involve processing by attribute,
the conjunctive rule entails processing by brand. As with the elimination-by-aspects
procedure, cut-offs are established for each attribute. A brand is chosen if it meets all
the cut-offs, while failure to meet any one cut-off means rejection. If none of the
brands meets all the cut-offs, the choice may be delayed, the decision rule may be
changed, or the cut-offs themselves may be modified. Note that this rule rates negative
data more heavily.
The Disjunctive Rule Here the consumer develops acceptable standards for each
attribute. Usually the standards are higher than the shopper’s minimum cut-offs for
attributes. If a choice alternative exceeds the standard for any attribute, it is accepted.
Although this strategy may be difficult to envisage, think about a consumer shopping
for a new T-shirt or sweater to spruce up his wardrobe. Perhaps the consumer does not
know exactly what he will buy before going shopping, but once in the choice environ-
ment he will select something that is exceptional in some unique way. The article may
be a great new colour, style, or type of fabric that exceeds his standards. When the
shopper finds two great sweaters, he must go to a different decision rule to choose
between them.
If our TV consumer stipulates that all attributes have to be rated as “good” or bet-
ter, he will not be able to choose any of the options. He might then modify his decision
rule, conceding it is not possible to attain these high standards in the price range he is
considering. Perhaps he will decide that it isn’t so important to have on-screen pro-
gramming, in which case he will again consider the Precision model.
Comp e ns atory D e c is ion Rul e s

Unlike non-compensatory decision rules, compensatory decision rules give a prod-
uct a chance to make up for its shortcomings. Consumers who employ these rules
tend to be more involved in the purchase and thus are willing to exert the effort to
consider the entire picture in a more exacting way. The willingness to let good and
bad product qualities balance out can result in quite different choices. For example,
if our consumer is not concerned about having stereo reception, he might choose the
Prime Wave model using a compensatory rule. But because this brand does not fea-
ture this highly ranked attribute, it doesn’t stand a chance when a non-compensatory
rule is used.
Two basic types of compensatory rules have been identified. When using the sim-
ple additive rule, the consumer merely chooses the alternative with the largest number
of positive attributes. This choice is most likely to occur when his or her ability or
motivation to process information is limited. One drawback to this approach for the
consumer is that some of these attributes may not be very meaningful or important. An
ad containing a long list of product benefits may be persuasive, despite the fact that
many of the benefits included are actually standard within the product class and aren’t
determinant attributes at all.
The more complex version is known as the weighted additive rule.96 When using
this rule, the consumer also takes into account the relative importance of positively
rated attributes, essentially multiplying brand ratings by importance weights. If this
process sounds familiar, it should. The calculation process strongly resembles the
multi-attribute attitude model described in Chapter 7.
In the course of the many purchases people make in their lifetimes, many differ-
ent decision rules are used by the same people for different purchases. The recurring
decision is when to stop acquiring additional information and commit to the leading
alternative. We know that this decision is governed by the costs and benefits of the
search process, as weighed by the consumer.97 There is some attempt to model this
question of how much data a consumer should acquire before choice.98
Chapter Summary
Consumer decision making is a central part of consumer as much information as possible. In many cases people
behaviour, but the ways people evaluate and choose products engage in surprisingly little search.
vary widely. • In the evaluation-of-alternatives stage, the product alter-
• Consumers are constantly faced with the need to make natives a person considers comprise his or her evoked set.
decisions about products. Some of these decisions are Members of an evoked set usually share some character-
very important and entail great effort, whereas others are istics; they are categorized similarly. The way people
made virtually automatically. The decision-making task is mentally group products influences the alternatives they
further complicated by the sheer number of decisions we will consider. They will usually associate some brands
need to make in a marketplace environment characterized more strongly with these categories than others (i.e., they
by consumer hyperchoice. will find them more prototypical).
• A common problem in information search is often weed- Decision making is not always rational.
ing out excess detail rather than needing to search for
• Research in the field of behavioural economics illustrates
more. Comparative search sites and intelligent agents
that decision making is not always strictly rational. Principles
help to filter and guide the search process when search-
of mental accounting demonstrate that decisions can be
ing online.
influenced by the way a problem is posed (called framing)
• Perspectives on decision making range from focusing on and whether it is put in terms of gains or losses.
habits that people develop over time to novel situations
involving a great deal of risk in which consumers must We often fall back on well-learned rules of thumb to make
carefully collect and analyze information prior to making decisions.
a choice. Many of our decisions are highly automated and
• Very often we use heuristics, or mental rules of thumb, to
are made largely by habit.
simplify decision making. In particular, people develop
A decision is actually composed of a series of stages that many market beliefs over time. One of the most common
results in the selection of one product over competing options. beliefs is that price is positively related to quality. When a
brand is consistently purchased over time, this pattern
• A typical decision process involves several steps. The first may be due to true brand loyalty or simply to inertia
is problem recognition, in which the consumer first real- because it’s the easiest thing to do.
izes that some action must be taken. This realization may
be prompted in a variety of ways, ranging from the actual Consumers rely on different decision rules when evaluating
malfunction of a current purchase to a desire for new competing options.
things based on exposure to different circumstances or • When consumers eventually make a product choice from
advertising that provides a glimpse into what is needed to among alternatives, they can use any one of a number of
“live the good life.” decision rules. Non-compensatory rules eliminate alter-
• Once the consumer recognizes a problem and sees it as natives that are deficient on any of the criteria the con-
sufficiently important to warrant some action, the infor- sumers have chosen to use. Compensatory rules, which
mation search begins. This search may range from simply are more likely to be applied in high-involvement situa-
scanning memory to determine what’s been done to tions, allow decision makers to consider each alterna-
resolve the problem in the past, to extensive fieldwork in tive’s good and bad points more carefully to arrive at the
which the consumer consults a variety of sources to amass overall best choice.
C H A P T ER 9 Individual Decision Making 271
Key Terms
Behavioural influence perspective p. 244 Feature creep p. 261 Non-compensatory decision rules p. 268
Bounded rationality p. 250 Greenwashing p. 265 Perceived risk p. 255
Brand loyalty p. 267 Habitual decision making p. 245 Problem recognition p. 247
Choice architecture p. 253 Heuristics p. 264 Product signal p. 264
Compensatory decision rules p. 269 Hybrid products p. 260 Prospect theory p. 251
Consumer hyperchoice p. 242 Inertia p. 267 Purchase momentum p. 244
Cybermediary p. 263 Information search p. 248 Rational perspective p. 243
Determinant attributes p. 262 Limited problem solving p. 245 Satisficing p. 249
Ethnocentrism p. 265 Long tail, the p. 263 Search engine p. 249
Evaluative criteria p. 262 Market beliefs p. 265 Search engine optimization p. 249
Evoked set p. 256 Maximizing p. 249 Stereotype p. 265
Experiential perspective p. 245 Mental accounting p. 251 Variety seeking p. 250
Extended problem solving p. 245 Neuromarketing p. 262 Zipf’s law p. 267
Review Questions
1. Why do we say that “mindless” decision making can 9. List three types of perceived risk, giving an example of
actually be more efficient? each.
2. List the steps in the model of rational decision making. 10. “Marketers need to be extra sure their product works as
3. What is purchase momentum, and how does it relate (or promised when they first introduce it.” How does this
not) to the model of rational decision making? statement relate to what we know about consumers’
evoked sets?
4. What is the difference between the behavioural influence
and experiential perspectives on decision making? Give 11. Describe the difference between a superordinate cate-
an example of the type of purchase that would most gory, a basic-level category, and a subordinate category.
likely be explained by each perspective. 12. Give an example of an exemplar product.
5. Name two ways a consumer problem can arise. 13. List three product attributes that consumers can use as
6. Give an example of the sunk-cost fallacy. product quality signals, and provide an example of each.
7. What is prospect theory? Does it support the argument 14. How does a brand function as a heuristic?
that people are rational decision makers? 15. Describe the difference between inertia and brand loyalty.
8. Describe the relationship between a consumer’s level of 16. What is the difference between a non-compensatory
expertise and how much he or she is likely to search for and a compensatory decision rule? Give one example
information about a product. of each.
Discuss 3. Commercial Alert, a U.S. consumer group, is highly crit-

ical of neuromarketing, calling it “Orwellian.” The
1. The chapter argues that in our society having too
group’s executive director has written, “What would
many choices is a bigger problem than not having
happen in this country if corporate marketers and politi-
enough. Do you agree? Is it possible to have too much of
cal consultants could literally peer inside our brains and
a good thing?
chart the neural activity that leads to our selections in
2. How big a problem is greenwashing? What is the possible the supermarket and voting booth? What if they then
impact of this practice on consumer decision making? could trigger this neural activity by various means, so as
272 SE C T I ON I I I Attitude Change and Decision Making
to modify our behaviour to serve their own ends?” 99 13. Choose a friend or parent who grocery shops on a regular
What do you think? Is neuromarketing dangerous? basis and keep a log of their purchases of common con-
4. If people are not always rational decision makers, is it sumer products during the term. Can you detect any evi-
worth the effort to study how they make purchasing dence of brand loyalty in any categories based on
decisions? What techniques might marketers employ to consistency of purchases? If so, talk to the person about
understand experiential consumption and to translate these purchases. Try to determine if his or her choices
this knowledge into marketing strategy? are based on true brand loyalty or inertia. What tech-
niques might you use to differentiate between the two?
5. Why is it difficult to place a product in a consumer’s
evoked set after it has already been rejected? What 14. Form a group of three. Pick a product and develop a
strategies might a marketer use to accomplish this goal? marketing plan based on each of the three approaches
to consumer decision making: rational, experiential, and
6. Discuss two different non-compensatory decision rules
behavioural influence. What are the major differences in
and highlight the difference(s) between them.
emphasis among the three perspectives? Which is the
7. Technology has the potential to make our lives easier by most likely type of problem-solving activity for the prod-
reducing the amount of clutter we need to get through to uct you have selected? What characteristics of the prod-
access the information on the Internet that really inter- uct make this so?
ests us. On the other hand, perhaps intelligent agents
15. Identify a person who is about to make a major pur-
limit us by making recommendations based only on
chase. Ask that person to make a chronological list of all
what we and others like us have chosen in the past; they
the information sources consulted prior to making a
reduce the chance that we will stumble on something
decision. How would you characterize the types of
great (e.g., a book on a topic we’ve never heard of, or a
sources he or she is using (i.e., internal versus external,
music group that’s different from the style we usually
media versus personal, etc.)? Which sources seem to
listen to). Will the proliferation of “shopping bots” make
have had the most impact on the person’s decision?
our lives too predictable by giving us only more of the
same? If so, is this a problem? 16. Perform a survey of country-of-origin stereotypes. Com-
pile a list of five countries, and ask people what prod-
8. It’s increasingly clear that many postings on blogs and
ucts they associate with each. What are their evaluations
product reviews on websites are fake or are posted
of the products and their likely attributes?
there to manipulate consumers’ opinions. How big a
problem is this if consumers are increasingly looking to 17. The power of a country stereotype can also be demon-
consumer-generated product reviews to guide their strated in another way. Prepare a brief description of a
purchase decisions? What steps if any can marketers product, including a list of features, and ask people to
take to nip this problem in the bud? rate it in terms of quality, likelihood of purchase, and so
on. Make several versions of the description, varying
only in terms of the country from which the product
comes. Do ratings change as a function of the country
9. Find examples of electronic recommendation agents on of origin?
the Web and evaluate them. What characteristics of the 18. Ask a friend to “talk through” the process he or she
sites are likely to make you buy products you wouldn’t used to choose one brand over others during a recent
have bought on your own? purchase. Based on this description, can you identify
10. Conduct a poll based on the list of market beliefs found the decision rule he or she most likely employed?
in Table 9–2. Do people agree with these beliefs? How 19. Give one of the scenarios described in the section
much do they influence their decisions? on “biases in decision making” to 10 to 20 people.
11. Pepsi invented freshness dating and managed to per- How do your results compare with those reported in
suade consumers that this was an important product this chapter?
attribute. Devise a similar strategy from another product 20. Think of a product you recently shopped for online.
category by coming up with a brand-new product attri- Describe your search process. How did you become
bute. Using the steps in procedural learning as described aware that you wanted/needed the product? How did you
in this chapter, how would you communicate this attri- evaluate alternatives? Did you wind up buying online?
bute to your customers? Why or why not? What factors would make it more or
12. Define the three levels of product categorization less likely that you would buy something online versus
described in this chapter. Diagram these levels for a in a traditional store?
health club.
was provided across all three service classes (Gold, Silver,

and Red Leaf).
This luxury focus led to success as Rocky Mountaineer
grew to become the largest privately owned passenger rail
service in North America and welcomed more than 1 million
guests onboard from around the world. Indeed, the com-
pany had won awards over the past 20 years, including
identification as one of the “World’s Leading Travel Experi-
ence by Train” (six times), being named one of the “World’s
Greatest Trips” by National Geographic, and being rated as
one of the “Best Life Changing Trips” by Travel and Leisure
magazine.
Courtesy of Rocky Moutaineer Customer Response

Randy evaluated some of the most recent testimonials recorded
Returning to Rocky Mountaineer by the company:
Randy Powell has been CEO at Rocky Mountaineer (www. The views from the Gold Leaf dome car were breathtaking,
rockymountaineer.com) for eight years and, while he had been the service was incredible and I would honestly recom-
successful in guiding the company toward profitability, a num- mend it to anybody. Yes this is the most spectacular train
ber of business challenges remained unsolved. Foremost was trip in the world.
the problem of low repeat business from customers who had —George Lewis, Florida
indicated a high degree of satisfaction with their consumption The trip was beyond our dreams. The scenery was beyond
experience. Indeed, Randy had begun to wonder if repeat words. The service aboard the Rocky Mountaineer made us
business was possible given the unique nature of the product feel like royalty. Thank you, everyone, at Rocky Mountaineer
his company offered—typically, a two-day voyage through the for the trip of a lifetime.
scenic Canadian Rockies via luxury rail travel. In a renewed —Mrs. Judy Poole, Louisiana
attempt to solve this puzzle, Randy wondered if a better under-
standing of how these customers made decisions with The testimonials, much like the recently reported numeric
respect to their vacation choices would help him develop a ratings of customer satisfaction, were all very positive and
better approach to bringing them back to experience Rocky pointed to happy customers who were extremely satisfied with
Mountaineer again and again. their experience. Importantly, past customers had been willing
to recommend the Rocky Mountaineer to friends, relatives,
The Rocky Mountaineer Experience and co-workers, and Randy was able to track this referral
behaviour as a central driver of growth in the business. What
Rocky Mountaineer was born in 1990, when Peter Arm-
remained a complete puzzle, however, was the very low rate of
strong acquired a struggling government-owned passenger
return to Rocky Mountaineer by past customers. Simply, once
rail service and turned it into an internationally renowned
people had travelled on the train they were very unlikely to
luxury train experience. Utilizing the historical rail passage
return to travel again.
from Calgary to Vancouver as the flagship route, Rocky
Mountaineer developed over 45 unique vacation packages
that utilized distinctive rail routes throughout the Canadian Solving the Puzzle
Rockies. Initially, Randy had worked hard to invoke marketing strate-
The focus of Rocky Mountaineer had been to provide gies directed at past customers. Marketing efforts over a
one of the most spectacular and unforgettable travel experi- decade ago had identified the Rocky Mountaineer as a “once
ences in the world. This goal was achieved in a number of in a lifetime” experience, and Randy wondered if this posi-
ways: (1) The train travelled only by daylight through the tioning had become too entrenched. Perhaps for some cus-
wild beauty of Canada’s West, (2) innovative dome cars pro- tomers a ride on the Rocky Mountaineer had become a
vided an expansive view while travelling, (3) an excellent “bucket list” event that once completed would not need to be
culinary experience was offered, and (4) first-rate service replicated. But was that the central source of the problem?
Rocky Mountaineer had numerous routes and a number of 1. What is the process consumers utilize when deciding on
add-on attractions (e.g., city tours, whale watching, helicop- their vacation plans? How would this process be altered
ter glacier tours) that might provide a different vacation expe- when repeating a vacation experience?
rience over a series of visits. Clearly a rail vacation didn’t have 2. What do you feel is the central issue driving the lack of
to be a one-time experience. repeat business for Rocky Mountaineer? Where in the
Randy realized that he needed a better understanding of decision-making process do you think the issue lies?
how customers made vacation decisions and more specifically
how his satisfied customers made their “next vacation” 3. What difference would you expect between satisfied and
choices. He knew that if he could understand the decision pro- dissatisfied consumers with respect to the decision process
cess better, he would be able to know how this problem had in this instance?
arisen, and, more importantly, what might be done to facilitate 4. What would you do if you were Randy Powell and you had
decision making leading to repeat business. to solve this problem?
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Automobiles,” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (March 1983): 366–380. Duration of Purchase Deliberation,” Journal of Marketing Research 31 (August
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Consumer Research 9 (March 1983): 366–380. 62. Stuart Elliott, “Pepsi-Cola to Stamp Dates for Freshness on Soda Cans,” The New
39. James R. Bettman and C. Whan Park, “Effects of Prior Knowledge and Experience York Times (March 31, 1994); Emily DeNitto, “Pepsi’s Gamble Hits Freshness Dating
and Phase of the Choice Process on Consumer Decision Processes: A Protocol Jackpot,” Advertising Age (September 19, 1994): 50.
Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research 7 (December 1980): 234–248. 63. Martin Reimann, Andreas Aholt, Oliver Schike, Bernd Weber, and Judith Lynne
40. Joseph W. Alba and J. Wesley Hutchinson, “Dimensions of Consumer Expertise,” Zaichkowsky, “Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Consumer Research: A
Journal of Consumer Research 13 (March 1988): 411–454; James R. Bettman and Review and Application,” Psychology & Marketing 28(6) (2011): 608–637; Robert
C. Whan Park, “Effects of Prior Knowledge and Experience and Phase of the Choice Lee Hotz, “Searching for the Why of Buy,” Los Angeles Times Online (February 27,
Process on Consumer Decision Processes: A Protocol Analysis,” Journal of Consumer 2005); Sandra Blakeslee, “If You Have a ‘Buy Button’ in Your Brain, What Pushes It?”
Research 7 (December 1980): 234–248; Merrie Brucks, “The Effects of Product Class The New York Times on the Web (October 19, 2004); Clive Thompson, “There’s a
Knowledge on Information Search Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research 12 (June Sucker Born in Every Medial Prefrontal Cortex,” The New York Times on the Web
1985): 1–16; Joel E. Urbany, Peter R. Dickson, and William L. Wilkie, “Buyer (October 26, 2003).
Uncertainty and Information Search,” Journal of Consumer Research 16 (September 64. Julie Napoli, Sonia J. Dickinson, Michael B. Beverland, and Francis Farrelly,
1989): 208–215. “Measuring Consumer-Based Brand Authenticity,” www.sciencedirect.com/
41. Robert J. Sutton, “Using Empirical Data to Investigate the Likelihood of Brands science/journal/01482963, Journal of Business Research 67(6) (June 2014):
Being Admitted or Readmitted into an Established Evoked Set,” Journal of the 1090–1098.
Academy of Marketing Science 15 (Fall 1987): 82. 65. George E. Newman and Ravi Dhar, “Authenticity Is Contagious: Brand Essence
42. Ibid. and the Original Source of Production,” Journal of Marketing Research 51 (June
2014): 371–386; Matthew Hutson, “Quenching Consumers’ Thirst for ‘Authentic’
43. www.thefwa.com/site/tropicana-tropolis
Brands,” The New York Times (December 27, 2014), www.nytimes.com/2014/12/28/
44. Quoted in Sarah Mahoney, “Small-Brand Solution: The Non-branded Site,” Marketing business/quenching-consumers-thirst-for-authentic-brands.html?module=Search&
Daily, www.mediapost.com, accessed March 13, 2009; www.musthaveshoes.com, mabReward=relbias%3Ar%2C%7B%221%22%3A%22RI%3A11%22%7D&_r=0,
accessed June 6, 2009. accessed February 18, 2015.
45. Cf. for example Kenneth C. Manning and David E. Sprott, “Price Endings, Left- 66. Ibid.
Digit Effects, and Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research 36(2) (2009): 328–335;
67. Examples provided by Dr. William Cohen, personal communication, October 1999.
Sandra J. Milberg, Francisca Sinn, and Ronald C. Goodstein, “Consumer
Reactions to Brand Extensions in a Competitive Context: Does Fit Still Matter?” 68. Michael Porter, Competitive Advantage (New York: Free Press, 1985).
Journal of Consumer Research 37(3) (2010): 543–553; David Sleeth-Keppler and 69. Material in this section adapted from Michael R. Solomon and Elnora W. Stuart,
Christian S. Wheeler, “A Multidimensional Association Approach to Sequential Welcome to Marketing.com: The Brave New World of E-Commerce (Englewood Cliffs,
Consumer Judgments,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 21(1) (2011): 14–23; NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001).
Aner Sela, Jonah Berger, and Wendy Liu, “Variety, Vice, and Virtue: How
Assortment Size Influences Option Choice,” Journal of Consumer Research 35(6) 70. Nicholas Lurie, Sam Ransbotham, and Hongju Liu, “The Content and Impact of
(2009): 941–951. Mobile vs. Desktop Reviews,” paper presented at the Association for Consumer
Research Conference, Chicago, IL (2013); Bart de Langhe, Philip Fernback, and
46. Cyndee Miller, “Hemp Is Latest Buzzword,” Marketing News (March 17, 1997): 1. David Lichtenstein, “Navigating by the Stars: What Do Online User Ratings Reveal
47. Joseph W. Alba and J. Wesley Hutchinson, “Dimensions of Consumer Expertise,” About Product Quality?,” paper presented at the annual meeting for the Association
Journal of Consumer Research 13 (March 1988): 411–454; Joel B. Cohen and Kunal for Consumer Research, Baltimore, MD (2014).
Basu, “Alternative Models of Categorization: Toward a Contingent Processing 71. “Customer Product Reviews Drive Online Satisfaction and Conversion,”
Framework,” Journal of Consumer Research 13 (March 1987): 455–472. Marketing Daily (January 24, 2007), www.mediapost.com; Chris Anderson,
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(November 10, 2014), www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/11/10/laundry- Hyperion, 2006).
pods-child-hospital/18663007. 72. Chris Anderson, The Long Tail: Why the Future of Business Is Selling Less of More
49. Eleanor Rosch, “Principles of Categorization,” in Recognition and Categorization, (New York: Hyperion, 2006).
eds. E. Rosch and B.B. Lloyd (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978). 73. www.goodguide.com, accessed June 25, 2009; Claire Cain Miller, “On Web and iPhone,
50. Michael R. Solomon, “Mapping Product Constellations: A Social Categorization a Tool to Aid Careful Shopping,” The New York Times on the Web (June 14, 2009).
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276 SE C T I ON I I I Attitude Change and Decision Making
75. Robert A. Baron, Psychology: The Essential Science (Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1989); 85. Durairaj Maheswaran, “Country of Origin as a Stereotype: Effects of Consumer
Valerie S. Folkes, “The Availability Heuristic and Perceived Risk,” Journal of Expertise and Attribute Strength on Product Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer
Consumer Research 15 (June 1989): 13–23; Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, Research 21 (September 1994): 354–365.
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Covariation Assessment: The Effects of Prior Beliefs on Search Patterns,” Journal of
94. Katherine L. Milkman, Julia A. Minson, and Kevin G. M. Volpp, “Holding the Hunger
Consumer Research 13 (June 1986): 38–47.
Games Hostage at the Gym: An Evaluation of Temptation Bundling,” Management
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Agenda for Future Research,” in Advances in Consumer Research 17, eds. Marvin E.
95. C. Whan Park, “The Effect of Individual and Situation-Related Factors on Consumer
Goldberg, Gerald Gorn, and Richard W. Pollay (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer
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96. Joseph W. Alba and Howard Marmorstein, “The Effects of Frequency Knowledge
82. Chr. Hjorth-Andersen, “Price as a Risk Indicator,” Journal of Consumer Policy 10
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(1987): 267–281.
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of-Origin Attributions on Advertisement Evaluations,” Psychology & Marketing Choices,” Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers 28(2)
11(2) (March/April 1994): 129–145; Terence A. Shimp, Saeed Samiee, and Thomas (1996): 259–264.
J. Madden, “Countries and Their Products: A Cognitive Structure Perspective,” 99. Quoted in Sandra Blakeslee, “If You Have a ‘Buy Button’ in Your Brain, What Pushes
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 21(4) (Fall 1993): 323–330. It?” The New York Times on the Web (October 19, 2004).
C HAPTER
10
Buying and Disposing
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that many factors at the time of 5 Understand that marketers need to be concerned

purchase dramatically influence the consumer’s about a consumer’s evaluations of a product after he
decision-making process. or she buys it as well as before the purchase takes
place.
2 Understand that other people in the shopping

context can influence a purchase decision. 6 Understand that one emerging trend involves

temporary ownership or usage of consumer goods.
3 Understand that perceptions of time and consumer

responses to this can be influenced by altering 7 Understand that disposing of products when

aspects of the physical context. consumers no longer need or want them is a
major concern both to marketers and to public
4 Understand that factors such as the retail setting, policy makers.

store image, atmospherics, and salesperson can
impact consumer decision making.
INTRODUCTION
Many consumers dread the act of buying a car. In fact, a survey by consumer research com-
pany Yankelovich found that, historically, buying a car was the most anxiety-provoking
and least satisfying of any retail experience.1 However, over the past decade the car show-
room has been transformed. Car shoppers now utilize Internet buying services, call auto
brokers who negotiate for them, buy cars at warehouse clubs, and visit giant auto malls
where they can comparison-shop.
These car-buying experiences illustrate some of the concepts we will discuss in this
chapter. Making a purchase is often not a simple, routine matter of going to a store and
quickly picking out something or having it delivered to your home. As illustrated in
Figure 10–1, a consumer’s choices are affected by many personal factors, such as his or her
mood, whether there is time pressure to make the purchase, and the situation or context in
which the product is needed. In some situations, such as the purchase of a car or a home,
the salesperson or realtor plays a pivotal role in the final selection. And people use the
Web to arm themselves with product and price information before they even enter a dealer-
ship or store, which puts added pressure on retailers to deliver the value consumers expect.
But the sale doesn’t end at the time of purchase.
A lot of important consumer activity occurs after a product has been purchased and
brought home or delivered to your home. After using a product, the consumer must decide
whether he or she is satisfied with it. The satisfaction process is especially important to a
savvy marketer who realizes that the key to success is not selling a product one time, but
rather forging a relationship with the consumer so that he or she will continue to buy the
product in the future. Indeed, the concept of relationship marketing is based on building
FIGURE 10–1
Issues Related to Purchase and Postpurchase Activities
ANTECEDENT PURCHASE POSTPURCHASE

STATES ENVIRONMENT PROCESSES
• Situational Factors • The Shopping • Consumer

Experience Satisfaction
• Usage Contexts
• Point-of-Purchase • Product Disposal
• Time Pressure Stimuli
• Alternative Markets
• Mood • Sales Interactions
• Shopping Orientation
strong customer service experiences with loyal customers in ways that foster a con-
tinued relationship over time.2 Finally, just as you might think about the resale value
of a new car, we must also consider how consumers go about disposing of products
and how secondary markets (such as used-car dealers) often play a pivotal role in
product acquisition. This chapter considers many issues related to purchase and
postpurchase phenomena.
SITUATIONAL EFFECTS ON CONSUMER

Marketing
BEHAVIOUR CO 1
Insight
Technology is allowing marketers to fine-tune A consumption situation is defined by contextual factors over and above characteris-
their messages to the consumption situation in tics of the person and the product. Situational effects can be behavioural (e.g., enter-
exciting new ways. McDonald’s has introduced taining friends) or perceptual (being depressed or feeling pressed for time).3 Common
a digital signage system that can automati- sense tells us that people tailor their purchases to specific occasions and that the way
cally update its menu boards as environmental they feel at a specific point in time affects what they feel like buying or doing.
conditions change. While morning customers Smart marketers understand these patterns and tailor their efforts to coincide
are greeted with animated photos of steaming with situations where people are most prone to buy. For example, both offline and
hash browns and Egg McMuffins, these will online retailers tend to invest heavily in promotional campaigns in the fall, since
abruptly change to photos of fries, Big Macs, many people are thinking about making purchases for the holiday season that looms
and ice-cold soft drinks at 10:30 a.m., when later in the year.
breakfast service is over. Enter the restaurant In addition to the functional relationship between products and usage situations,
in a snowstorm, and those images of soft another reason to take environmental circumstances seriously is that the role a person
drinks are replaced by hot cups of coffee.7 plays at any time is partly determined by his or her situational self-image, according to
Even the technology of highway billboards which he or she basically answers the question “Who am I right now?”4 (See Chapter 5.)
will change, as sensors on billboards will be Someone trying to impress his date by playing the role of “gentleman” may spend
able to detect which radio stations most drivers more lavishly, ordering champagne instead of beer and buying flowers—purchases he
are listening to as they pass by. This informa
would never consider making when hanging out with friends, drinking beer, and
tion can then be matched to the demographic
playing the role of “one of the boys.” As this discussion demonstrates, knowledge of
profiles of the people who listen to these sta-
what consumers are doing at the time a product is consumed can improve predictions
tions, and the billboards will display an adver-
of product and brand choice.5
tisement targeted to that profile. For
By systematically identifying important usage situations, marketers can develop
example, if a sensor detects that the majority
market segmentation strategies to position products that will meet the specific needs
of drivers at a certain time are listening to a
radio station known to have an affluent audi- arising from these situations. Many product categories are amenable to this form of
ence, the board itself can select and display segmentation. For example, consumers’ furniture choices are often tailored to specific
an ad for a luxury product or service, such as a settings. We prefer different styles for a city apartment, a beach house, or an executive
deluxe car stereo system or a home renovation suite. Similarly, motorcycles can be distinguished in terms of what riders use them
service.8 for, including commuting, riding them as dirt bikes, or using them on a farm or for
highway travel.6
C H A P T E R 1 0 Buying and Disposing 279
Physical and Social Surroundings CO 2

A consumer’s physical and social environment can make a big difference in motives
for product usage and also affect how the product is evaluated. Important cues include
the person’s physical surroundings as well as the number and type of other consumers
also present in that situation. Dimensions of the physical environment, such as decor,
smells, and temperature, can significantly influence consumption (one study found
that pumping in certain odours in a Las Vegas casino actually increased the amount of
money patrons fed into slot machines!).9 We’ll take a closer look at some of these fac-
tors a bit later in this chapter when considering strategic issues related to store design.
In addition to physical cues, though, many of a consumer’s purchase decisions are
significantly affected by current groups or social settings. In some cases, the sheer
presence or absence of other patrons (co-consumers) in a setting can function as a
product attribute, such as when an exclusive resort or boutique promises to provide
privacy to privileged customers. At other times, the presence of others can have posi-
tive value. A sparsely attended hockey game or an empty bar can be depressing sights.
Research has shown that the mere presence of another consumer in a retail context
(i.e., the presence of other unknown shoppers in the shopping aisle) can lead people to
opt for a more expensive brand.10 Further, if another consumer touches a product in
the retail context, this can lead consumers to negatively evaluate the product, an effect
referred to as consumer contamination.11 However, if the person who touches the
product is seen as being attractive in some way, the evaluations of the product might
be better after it has been touched.12
The presence of large numbers of people in a consumer environment increases
arousal levels so that a consumer’s subjective experience of a setting tends to be more
intense. This polarization, however, can be both positive and negative. Although the
As I See It
You have likely had the fol- attribution error. In order to investigate this error, we examined
lowing experience. You are whether consumers adequately consider the retail situation itself
shopping in a clothing store when making judgments following flattery or a compliment
and have gone to the back offered by sales staff. In some cases a plausible ulterior motive
of the store to try on a few existed for this compliment (e.g., the salesperson is trying to
items. The mirror is outside make a sale, as the flattery was given before the purchase deci-
the room, so when you have sion was completed), whereas in other cases this ulterior motive
Courtesy of Kelley Main
tried on the first item, a was less plausible (e.g., the flattery was given after the purchase
jacket, you have to leave the decision was complete, rendering a sales ulterior motive implau-
fitting room to see how it sible). Regardless of when the flattery occurred, consumer judg-
looks. While you are looking ments of the salesclerk were more negative than when there was
in the mirror, the salesclerk no flattery at all.
Dr. Kelley Main, University of Manitoba comes in and says, “That’s a Our research also revealed that consumer judgments of the
great jacket. I think it looks salesclerk are made automatically, without conscious thought.
good on you. It really suits you.” The fact that these judgments of suspicion occurred automati-
What would you think? Nice person? Helpful? How about cally helps to explain why consumers were vulnerable to the sin-
untrustworthy? ister attribution error: They were unaware of the basis of their
Our research indicates that the last option—untrustworthy— suspicions, making it almost impossible to make a correction.
is the most likely one. We reveal that consumers are overly sus- For those who work as salesclerks, this research suggests a
picious in retail settings such as this, and view the salesclerk note of caution regarding the use of compliments or flattery in a
negatively. These perceptions of ulterior motives, even when retail setting when you have no prior relationship with the
implausible, result in consumers falling prey to the sinister consumer (as was the case in our research).
Kelley J. Main, Darren W. Dahl, and Peter R. Darke, “Automatic and Deliberative Bases of Suspicion: Empirical Evidence of the Sinister Attribution Error,” Journal of
presence of other people creates a state of arousal, the consumer’s actual experience
depends on his or her interpretation of this arousal. It is important to distinguish
between density and crowding for this reason. The former term refers to the actual
number of people occupying a space, while the psychological state of crowding
exists only if a negative affective state occurs as a result of this density.13 For example,
100 students packed into a classroom designed for 75 might be unpleasant for all con-
cerned, but the same number jammed together at a party occupying a room of the same
size just might make for a great party. Interestingly, some research has shown that
perceptions of crowding in a retail context cause more variety seeking among consum-
ers. For example, consumers in narrower aisles seek out a greater variety of products
than do those in wider aisles.14
In addition, the type of consumers who patronize a store or service can serve as an
attribute. We may infer something about a store by examining its customers. For this
reason, some restaurants require men to wear jackets for dinner (and supply them if
they don’t), and bouncers of some “hot” night spots hand-pick patrons according to
whether they have the right “look” for the club. To paraphrase Groucho Marx, “I would
never join a club that would have me for a member.”
CO 3 Temporal Factors
Time is one of consumers’ most limiting resources. We talk about “making time” or
“spending time,” and we are frequently reminded that “time is money.” Our perspec-
tives on time can affect many stages of decision making and consumption, such as
when needs are stimulated, the amount of information search we undertake, and so
on. Common sense tells us that more careful information search and deliberation
occurs when we have the luxury of taking our time. A meticulous shopper who would
normally price an item at three different stores before buying it might be found run-
ning through the mall at 5:00 on Christmas Eve furiously scooping up anything left on
the shelf that might serve as a last-minute gift.
One of the benefits of paying by smartphone

is saving the important resource of time.
KEVIN SCHAFER/Getty Images
EC O N OMIC TIME
Time is an economic variable; it is a resource that must be divided among activities.15 Marketing
Consumers try to maximize satisfaction by allocating time to the appropriate combina- Insight
tion of tasks. Of course, people’s allocation decisions differ; we all know people who
seem to play all the time and others who are workaholics. An individual’s priorities Marketers have begun to come up with creative
determine his or her timestyle.16 ways of dealing with consumers’ increasing
sense of time poverty. The restaurant industry is
Many consumers believe they are more pressed for time than ever before. This
investing in technology to attract on-the-go
feeling, called time poverty, may, however, be due more to perception than to fact.
consumers who live or die by their iPhones. The
People may just have more options for spending their time and feel pressured by the
average 18-year-old and older buys a snack or a
weight of all these choices. People in different countries also “spend” this resource
meal from a restaurant five times a week, and
differently. A social scientist compared the pace of life in 31 cities around the world as
the industry finds that most people are unwill-
part of a study on timestyles.17 He and his assistants timed how long it takes pedestri-
ing to wait more than five minutes in a drive-
ans to walk 60 feet (18 metres) and the time postal clerks take to sell a stamp. Based on through line. As one busy salesperson who
these responses, he claims that the fastest countries are (1) Switzerland, (2) Ireland, (3) orders both breakfast and lunch online
Germany, (4) Japan, and (5) Italy, and the slowest countries are (31) Mexico, (30) observed, “I’m saving time. I’m so adept at it
Indonesia, (29) Brazil, (28) El Salvador, and (27) Syria. now that I can actually do business on the
With the increase in time poverty, researchers are also noting a rise in polychronic phone while I’m placing my food order.”18 In
activity, wherein consumers do more than one thing at a time.20 One area where this Korea, this mobile food ordering has been taken
type of activity is especially prevalent is eating. Consumers often do not allocate a to a new level. Commuters can view a life-size
specific time to dining but instead eat on the run or at their desk through lunch hour at photo of a virtual grocery store in the subway
work. In one poll, 64 percent of respondents said they usually do something else while station on their commute home from work. They
eating. As one food industry executive commented, “We’ve moved beyond grazing can see the items that are available, order them
and into gulping.”21 on their mobile phones, and then have them
delivered to their homes later that day.19
PS YC HOLOGIC A L T IM E
“Time flies when you’re having fun,” but other situations seem to last forever. Our
experience of time is subjective and is influenced by our immediate priorities and
needs. The fluidity of time is important for marketers to understand, because we are
more likely to be in a consuming mood at certain times than at others. In fact, we can
identify time categories in terms of when people are likely to be receptive to marketing
messages:22
• Flow time: As we saw in Chapter 4, in a flow state we become so absorbed in an
activity we notice nothing else. Not a good time to be hitting people with ads.
In Korea, one solution to increasing time

poverty is to display a virtual grocery store
in the subway, where consumers can shop
on their commute home.
Homeplus Co., Ltd.
• Occasion time: This includes special moments when something monumental

occurs, such as a birth or an important job interview. Ads clearly relevant to the
situation will be given our undivided attention.
• Deadline time: Any time when we’re working against the clock is the worst time
to try to catch our attention.
• Leisure time: During downtime, we are more likely to notice ads and perhaps try
new things.
• Time to kill: This is when we’re waiting for something to happen, such as catching
a plane or sitting in a waiting room. This is bonus time, where we feel we have the
luxury to focus on extraneous things. As a result, we’re more receptive to com-
mercial messages, even for products we don’t normally use.
One study examined how the timestyles of a group of women influenced their
consumption choices.23 The researchers identified four dimensions of time: (1) the
social dimension, which refers to individuals’ categorization of time as either “time
for me” or “time with/for others”; (2) the temporal orientation dimension, which
depicts the relative significance individuals attach to past, present, or future; (3) the
planning orientation dimension, which alludes to different time-management styles
varying on a continuum from analytic to spontaneous; and (4) the polychronic orienta-
tion dimension, which distinguishes between people who prefer to do one thing at a
time from those who have multitasking timestyles. After interviewing and observing
these women, the researchers identified a set of five metaphors that they say capture
the participants’ perspectives on time:
• Time is a pressure cooker: Women who personify this metaphor are usually ana-
lytic in their planning, other-oriented, and monochronic in their timestyles.
They treat shopping in a methodical manner and often feel under pressure and
in conflict.
• Time is a map: Women who exemplify this metaphor are usually analytic plan-
ners and have a future temporal orientation and a polychronic timestyle. They
often engage in extensive information search and comparison shopping.
This infographic highlights the many ways

in which consumers spend their time.
Courtesy of The Hartman Group, Inc.
Do you know...where the time goes?
The number of hours* consumers say they spend
engaged in various activities, on average, during a
2 hrs.
typical week. read printed
2 hrs. magazines or
2 hrs. email for 2 hrs. newspapers
10 hrs. email for work or talk on the
watch personal use school phone
television
2 hrs.
shop or
buy online
2 hrs. 3 hrs.
search/browse read printed books
/read published
content online
2 hrs.
Read/contribute on 5 hrs.
3 hrs. social networking prepare/cook
play games sites foods & beverages
online/on PC
Source: Clicks & Cravings—The Impact of Social Technology

*median averages on Food Culture 2012 report
©2013 The Hartman Group, Inc. www.hartman-group.com

• Time is a mirror: Women in this group are also analytic planners and have a poly-
chronic orientation. However, they have a past temporal orientation. Due to their
risk-averseness in time use, these women are usually loyal to products and ser-
vices they know and trust. They prefer convenience-oriented products.
• Time is a river: Women whose timestyles can be described by this metaphor are
usually spontaneous in their planning orientation and have a present focus. They
go on unplanned, short, and frequent shopping trips undertaken on impulse.
• Time is a feast: These women are analytic planners who have a present temporal
orientation. They view time as something to be consumed in the pursuit of sen-
sory pleasure and gratification; hence, they are motivated by hedonic and variety-
seeking desires in their consumption behaviour, which explains why they prefer
fresh and novel ingredients when they buy food.
Our experience of time is largely a result of our culture, because different societies
have varying perspectives on this experience. To most Western consumers, time is a
neatly compartmentalized thing: We wake up in the morning, go to school or work,
come home, eat dinner, go out, go to sleep, wake up, and do it all over again. We call
this perspective linear separable time; events proceed in an orderly sequence and dif-
ferent times are well defined, as exemplified by the phrase “There’s a time and a place
for everything.” There is a clear sense of past, present, and future. Many activities are
performed as the means to some end that will occur later, as when people “save for a
rainy day.”
The psychological dimension of time, or how it is experienced, is an important
factor in queuing theory, the mathematical study of waiting lines. A consumer’s expe-
rience of waiting can radically influence his or her perceptions of service quality.
Although we assume that something must be pretty good if we have to wait for it, the
negative feelings aroused by long waits can quickly turn customers off.24
Marketers have adopted a variety of “tricks” to minimize psychological waiting
time. These techniques range from altering customers’ perceptions of a line’s length
to providing distractions that divert attention away from waiting. Here are a few
of them:25
• Airline passengers often complain of the time they have to wait to claim their bag-
gage. In one airport passengers had to walk for one minute from the plane to the
baggage carousel and then wait seven minutes for their luggage. When the layout
was changed so that the walk to the carousel took six minutes and bags arrived
two minutes after that, complaints were almost entirely eliminated.
• Anticipating complaints about the wait for elevators, most hotels install mirrors
near the elevator banks. Even though installing mirrors does not reduce the actual
One interesting finding with regard to

queuing theory is that consumers are
happier with the experience of standing in
line when there are more people in the line
behind them.
BERNARD WEIL/Getty Images
waiting time, people naturally tend to check their appearance, making the wait
Marketing seem shorter.
Insight • Shoppers today are demanding faster, more convenient service. Retailers from
Safeway to Home Depot are responding by offering self-service options at the
The Walt Disney Company counts on our smart- checkout. According to an Ipsos Reid/NCR study, 56 percent of Canadians are
phones to enhance our theme park experience. more likely to shop at a store with self-service. The survey suggests that consumers
Guests who wait in line for a comedy show at
want more of their shopping to go high-tech, all in the name of convenience. We
Disney World can receive text-message jokes
know that consumers spend an average of 8.4 minutes in a checkout line and wait
that may be included in the show they go to
almost half an hour, on average, trying to get information or order something.
see. As one executive explained, “It works as
Most feel frustrated in line and some even abandon their shopping baskets. That’s
our warm-up act essentially for the show, but it
another reason why many retailers have installed self-serve checkouts: The
also . . . keeps them entertained while they’re
waiting.” In a deal with Verizon Wireless, park
consumer perceives that he or she has more control over the situation.27
visitors use their mobiles to save a spot in line
at a popular ride or even to locate Mickey
Mouse to get an autograph. Visitors are able to Antecedent States: If It Feels Good, Buy It . . .
download an app to plan their trips, make hotel A person’s mood or physiological condition at the time of purchase can have a big
reservations, and create a checklist of must- impact on what is bought and can also affect how products are evaluated.28 One rea-
see attractions. They are able to check wait son is that behaviour is directed toward certain goal states, as was discussed in
times at rides or locate the closest pizza ven- Chapter 4. People spend more in the grocery store if they have not eaten for a while,
dor. Disney is able to recommend alternative
because food is a priority at that time.
activities with shorter wait times and even
A consumer’s mood can greatly affect his or her purchase decisions; for example,
suggest places to go based on the user’s cur-
stress can impair information-processing and problem-solving abilities.29 Two
rent location in the park. Disney can also follow
dimensions determine whether a shopper will react positively or negatively to a store
up with personalized mementoes of the trip,
environment. These are pleasure and arousal. A person can enjoy or not enjoy a
such as a digital photo of Sleeping Beauty, who
thanks a child for coming.26
situation, and he or she can feel stimulated or not. As Figure 10–2 indicates, different
combinations of pleasure and arousal levels result in a variety of emotional states. For
example, an arousing situation can be either distressing or exciting, depending on
whether the context is positive or negative (e.g., a street riot versus a street festival, such
as Mardi Gras). Maintaining an “up” feeling in a pleasant context is one factor behind
the success of theme parks such as Disney World, which try to provide consistent doses
of carefully calculated stimulation to patrons.30
As we saw in Chapter 4, mood congruency refers to the notion that, in general, a
mood state (either positive or negative) biases judgments of products and services in
that direction.31 Put simply, consumers like things better when they are in a good
FIGURE 10–2
Dimensions of Emotional States
AROUSING
Distressing Exciting
UNPLEASANT PLEASANT
Gloomy Relaxing
SLEEPY
mood. Moods can be affected by store design, the weather, website structure, or other
factors specific to the consumer. In addition, music and TV programming can affect
mood, which has important consequences for commercials.32 When consumers hear
happy music or watch happy programs, they have more positive reactions to commer-
cials and products, especially when the marketing appeals are aimed at arousing emo-
tional reactions.33 When in positive moods, consumers process ads with less
elaboration. They pay less attention to specifics of the messages and rely more on
heuristic processing (see Chapter 9).34
Shopping: A Job or an Adventure?

People often shop even though they do not necessarily intend to buy anything at all;
others have to be dragged to a mall. Shopping is a way to acquire needed products and
services, but social motives for shopping are also important. Thus, shopping is an
activity that can be performed for either utilitarian (functional or tangible) or hedonic
(pleasurable or intangible) reasons.35 Indeed, some researchers suggest that most
women “shop to love” while most men “shop to win.” In this view, women find emo-
tional fulfillment in the act of buying, while men seek to demonstrate their expertise
or ability to procure status items.36 Obviously, there are many exceptions to this view-
point, but nonetheless it’s clear that the reasons for shopping are more complex than
may appear on the surface.
R E A SONS FOR S H O P P IN G
These different motives are illustrated by scale items used by researchers to assess
people’s underlying reasons for shopping. One item that measures hedonic value is
the statement, “During the trip, I felt the excitement of the hunt.” When that type of
sentiment is compared with a functionally related statement, such as “I accomplished
just what I wanted to on this shopping trip,” the contrast between these two dimen-
sions is clear.37 Hedonic shopping motives can include the following:38
• Social experiences: The shopping centre or department store has replaced the tra-
ditional town square or county fair as a community gathering place. Many people
(especially in suburban or rural areas) may have no place else to go to spend their
leisure time.
• Sharing of common interests: Stores frequently offer specialized goods that allow
people with shared interests to communicate.
• Interpersonal attraction: Shopping centres are natural places to congregate. The
shopping mall has become a central hangout for teenagers. It also represents a
controlled, secure environment for other groups, such as seniors.
• Instant status: As every salesperson knows, some people savour the experience of
being waited on, even though they may not necessarily buy anything. One men’s
clothing salesman offered this advice: “Remember their size, remember what you
sold them last time. Make them feel important! If you can make people feel impor-
tant, they are going to come back. Everybody likes to feel important!”39
• The thrill of the chase: Some people pride themselves on their knowledge of the
marketplace. They may relish the process of haggling and bargaining, viewing it
almost as a sport.
So which way is it? Do people hate to shop or love it? It depends. Consumers can
be segmented in terms of their shopping orientation, or general attitudes about shop-
ping. These orientations may vary depending on the particular product categories and
store types considered. One might hate to shop for a car but love to browse in high-
fashion stores. Several shopping types have been identified:40
• Economic consumer: A rational, goal-oriented shopper who is primarily inter-
ested in maximizing the value of his or her money
• Personalized consumer: A shopper who tends to form strong attachments to store

Marketing personnel (“I shop where they know my name.”)
Insight • Ethical consumer: A shopper who likes to help out the underdog and will support
locally owned stores against big chains
Is cash obsolete? In the past few years, we’ve
• Apathetic consumer: A shopper who does not like to shop and sees it as a neces-
seen a firestorm of activity to promote various
kinds of virtual currency and to encourage con-
sary but unpleasant chore
sumers to switch from cash and credit cards to • Recreational shopper: A shopper who views shopping as a fun social activity (a
digital wallets—electronic devices that allow preferred way to spend leisure time)
an individual to make electronic commerce
transactions. A lot of this activity is propelled
by the spread of near field communications E-commerce: Clicks versus Bricks
(NFC) technology that allows devices near to
People are frequently shopping online these days. Consumers worldwide spend about
one another (like a smartphone and an NFC ter-
minal in a store) to establish radio communi-
$1.5 trillion per year on e-commerce sites.41 Analysts predict that soon, about
cation. Apple Pay is a mobile payment service 25 percent of these transactions will occur on a mobile device. Already, about three-
that lets users pay for purchases in-store and quarters of the world’s population has access to a mobile phone, and users download
online with their iPhones and Apple Watches. about 30 billion apps in a year.42 Then add in the explosive growth of tablets: We’re
Google joined an initiative called SoftCard, even more likely to use these devices when we’re in the mood to shop. Their bigger
backed by AT&T, T-Mobile, and Verizon; and screens make it easier to browse items, and often they are even more efficient than
Samsung bought Loop Pay to enable customers computers because shoppers can zoom in or drag items to their carts with their fingers.
to pay digitally. Twitter bought CardSpring, a That helps explain why, in recent years, people have purchased more merchandise
mobile payments infrastructure company that from tablets than they have from phones.43
allows merchants to offer deals to consumers One thing to keep in mind when comparing traditional to online shopping is that
that can be loaded onto their credit cards so the experience of acquiring the good may be quite different offline from online. This
that when a customer pays, the discount is aspect of the transaction can provide added value over and above the good or service
automatically applied to his or her purchase. you buy. We see this difference clearly when we look at how people engage in gam-
Facebook is testing a new “buy” feature that bling in casinos versus gambling online. When researchers interviewed 30 gamblers to
will allow users to make purchases from busi- explore these experiences, they found that those who enjoy casino gambling have a
nesses directly from within the social net- strong sense of connection to fellow gamblers, so it’s very much a social experience.
work.45 The controversial bitcoin system uses Online gamblers, in contrast, enjoy the anonymity of the Internet. And while casino
peer-to-peer technology to operate with no cen- gamblers get turned on by the sensual experiences and excitement of the casino, online
tral authority or banks; it’s the most prominent
gamblers gravitate more to the feeling of safety and control they get because they are at
form of cryptocurrency that uses computing
home. Casino gamblers talked about the friendly atmosphere, while those who stayed
power in a distributed network to “mine” value.
online reported behaviours that a real casino wouldn’t tolerate, such as taunts and bul-
Some big companies, including Dell, Expedia,
lying.44 Although both groups aim to have fun and hope to make money, it’s a safe bet
PayPal, and Microsoft, already work with part-
that their experiences are quite different.
ners to process bitcoin payments.46
For marketers, the growth of online commerce is a sword that cuts both ways:
On the one hand they can reach customers around the world, even those who are
150 kilometres from nowhere. On the other hand, competition now comes not only from
Online Marketing
the store across the street, but also from thousands of websites spanning the globe. As
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trucks, marketers continue to debate how the online world affects their business. One
issue is that the rising availability of comparison shopping phone apps threatens the
NEWS
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existence of many retailers as consumers engage in what they call showrooming. This
means that a shopper visits a store like Best Buy to explore, firsthand, options for big-
ticket items like TVs or appliances, and then he or she finds a cheaper price for the
specific model online.
So what makes e-commerce sites successful? Some e-tailers take advantage of
technology to provide extra value to their customers that their landlocked rivals
can’t. eBay offers a feature within its Fashion app called “See It On” that allows
users to virtually try on sunglasses in real time on their iPhone. They can adjust the
fit, choose different styles, frames, lenses and colours to find their perfect look, and
then browse through eBay to find the perfect price.47 The myCoverGirl makeup site
allows a woman to find colours that match her skin tones and hair colour and design
a total look that’s right for her lifestyle. Other fashion sites such as Threadless and
ModCloth go a step further; they crowdsource fashion to determine what styles they
will actually produce according to what customers tell them they will buy. Indeed,
the high-fashion Moda Operandi site bills itself as a pretailer: It provides exclusive
styles by prodding manufacturers to produce runway pieces they wouldn’t other-
wise make because store buyers weren’t sure anyone would pay the money for
them.48
More generally, online shoppers value these aspects of a website:
• The ability to click on an item to create a pop-up window with more details about
the product, including price, size, colours, and inventory availability
• The ability to click on an item and add it to your cart without leaving the page
you’re on
• The ability to merchandise more tangibly through better imagery, more product
descriptions, and details
• The ability to enter all data related to your purchase on one page rather than going
through several checkout pages
• The ability to mix and match product images on one page to determine whether
they look good together49
However, all is not perfect in the virtual world; e-commerce does have its limita-
tions. Security is one important concern. We hear horror stories of consumers whose
credit-card numbers and other identity information have been stolen. Although an
individual’s financial liability in most theft cases is limited to $50, the damage to one’s
credit rating can last for years. Almost daily we hear of hackers getting into a busi-
ness’s or even a government’s website and causing havoc. Businesses risk the loss of
trade secrets and other proprietary information. Many have to spend significant
amounts to maintain security and to conduct regular audits to ensure the integrity of
their sites.
Other limitations of e-commerce relate to the actual shopping experience. It might
be satisfactory to buy a computer or a book on the Internet, but buying clothing and
other items where touching the item or trying it on is essential might be less attractive.
Even though most companies have very liberal return policies, consumers can still get
stuck with big delivery and return-shipping charges for items that don’t fit or simply
aren’t the right colour.
It’s clear that traditional shopping isn’t quite dead, but bricks-and-mortar retailers
do need to work harder to give shoppers something they can’t get (not yet, anyway) in
the virtual world: a stimulating or pleasant environment in which to browse. Now let’s
consider how they’re doing that.
Retailing as Theatre CO 4
The competition for customers is becoming even more intense as non-store alterna-
tives, from websites to TV shopping networks and home shopping parties, continue to Umpqua Bank
multiply. With all of these shopping alternatives available, how can a traditional store
compete? Malls have tried to gain the loyalty of shoppers by appealing to their social
motives, as well as by providing access to desired goods. It is now typical to find such
features as carousels, miniature golf, or batting cages in a suburban mall. As one retail-
ing executive put it, “Malls are the new mini-amusement parks.”50
American Girl (www.americangirl.com) in the United States is a great example of
this phenomenon. Describing itself as “more than just a store,” it provides a number of
activities for young girls to participate in with its American Girl dolls. Girls can bring
their dolls to the store’s hair salon for styling, enjoy lunch with their doll in the
restaurant, or find matching outfits for themselves and their doll. The American Girl
experience is like a trip to the spa that can be enjoyed by both the consumer and the
doll they love.
The quest to entertain means that many stores are going all out to create imagina-
tive environments that transport shoppers to fantasy worlds or provide other kinds of
stimulation. This strategy is called retail theming. Innovative merchants today use
these basic kinds of themes:
• Landscape themes rely on associations with images of nature, the earth, animals,
and the physical body. Bass Pro Shops, for example, creates a simulated outdoor
environment, including pools stocked with fish.
• Marketscape themes build on associations with human-made places. An example
Marketing is the Venetian Hotel in Las Vegas that lavishly recreates parts of the Italian city.
Insight • Cyberspace themes are built around images of information and communications
technology. eBay’s retail interface instils a sense of community among its vendors
Another popular theming strategy is to convert a and traders.51
store into a being space. This kind of environ-
ment resembles a sort of commercial living
room, where we can go to relax, be entertained, Store Image
hang out with friends, escape the everyday, or
even learn. When you think of being spaces, With so many stores competing for customers, how do consumers pick one over
Starbucks probably comes to mind. The coffee another? Like products, stores might be thought of as having “personalities.” Some
chain’s stated goal is to become our “third stores have very clearly defined images (good or bad). Others tend to blend into the
place” where we spend the bulk of our time, in crowd; they may not have anything distinctive about them and may be overlooked for
addition to home and work. Starbucks led the this reason. This personality, or store image, comprises many different factors. Store
way when it outfitted its stores with comfy chairs features, coupled with such consumer characteristics as shopping orientation, help to
and Wi-Fi. Other spaces cater to the needs of predict which shopping outlets people will prefer.53 Some of the important dimen-
minipreneurs (one-person businesses) as they sions of a store’s profile are location, merchandise suitability, and the knowledge and
offer work-centred being spaces. congeniality of the sales staff.54
Reflecting the ever-quickening pace of The features of a store profile typically work together to create an overall impres-
our culture, many of these spaces come and sion. When shoppers think about stores, they may not say, “Well, that place is fairly
go very rapidly—on purpose. Pop-up stores good in terms of convenience, the salespeople are acceptable, and services are good.”
appear in many forms around the world. Typi- They are more likely to say, “That place gives me the creeps,” or “I always enjoy
cally, these are temporary installations that shopping there.” Consumers evaluate stores in terms of both their specific attributes
do business only for a few days or weeks and and a global evaluation, or gestalt (see Chapter 2).55 This overall feeling may have
then disappear before they get old. For exam- more to do with such intangibles as interior design and the types of people in the
ple, the Swatch Instant Store sells limited- store than with such aspects as return policies or credit availability. As a result, some
edition watches in a major city until the
stores are likely to be consistently in consumers’ evoked sets, while others will never
masses discover it; then it closes and moves
be considered.56
on to another “cool” locale. The Dutch beer
As grocery stores and discounters stock items traditionally found in pharmacies,
brand Dommelsch organized pop-up concerts:
companies such as Shoppers Drug Mart are building up their higher-margin catego-
Fans entered barcodes they found on cans,
ries, such as cosmetics, to offset the shortfall. Cosmetic areas make up 11 percent of
beer bottles, and coasters on the brewer’s
all Shoppers’ sales, but have a 35 to 40 percent profit margin. Health and beauty items
website to discover dates and locations. You
may even run into a pop-up store on your are called “front-store sales” and account for 15 percent of all Shoppers’ sales, but
campus; several brands, including the Brazil- generate 65 percent of gross profit on front sales.57 The drugstore has also become our
ian flip-flop maker Havaianas, Victoria’s “corner store.” It is where we go for milk, bread, and lottery tickets. So in a sense
Secret’s Pink, and sustainable-clothing brand prescription drugs are what might bring us to the drugstore when we are ill, but it is
RVL7, run pop-up projects.52 the other items that make us come back on a more frequent and regular basis when we
are healthy!
McDonald’s creates its desired store image

by using “atmospherics” as it updates its
restaurants to be more upscale and modern.
Courtesy of McDonald’s Corporation.
ATM O S P HE RIC S
Retailers want you to come in—and stay. Careful store design increases the amount of
space shoppers cover and stimulating displays keep them in the aisles longer. This
“curb appeal” translates directly to the bottom line: When researchers tracked grocery
shoppers’ movements by plotting the position of their cell phones as they moved
about a store, they found that when people lingered just 1 percent longer, sales rose by
1.3 percent. Of course, grocers have a lot of tricks up their sleeves after years of observ-
ing shoppers. For example, they call the area just inside a supermarket’s entrance the
“decompression zone”; people tend to slow down and take stock of their surroundings
when they enter the store, so store designers use this space to promote bargains rather
than to sell. Similarly, Walmart’s “greeters” help customers settle in to their shopping
experience. Once they get a serious start, the first thing grocery shoppers encounter is
the produce section. Since fruits and vegetables can easily be damaged, it would be
more logical to buy these items at the end of a shopping trip. But fresh, wholesome
food makes people feel good (and righteous), so they feel less guilty when they throw
the chips and cookies in the cart later.58
Because a store’s image is now recognized to be a very important aspect of the
retailing mix, attention is increasingly paid to atmospherics, or the “conscious design-
ing of space and its various dimensions to evoke certain effects in buyers.” 59 These
dimensions include colours, scents, and sounds.
Many elements of store design can be cleverly controlled to attract customers and
produce desired effects on consumers. Light colours impart a feeling of spaciousness
and serenity, and signs in bright colours create excitement. In one subtle but effective
application, fashion designer Norma Kamali replaced fluorescent lights with pink
ones in department store dressing rooms. The light had the effect of flattering the face
and banishing wrinkles, making female customers more willing to try on (and buy) the
company’s bathing suits.60 Walmart found that sales were higher in areas of a proto-
type store lit in natural daylight compared with the more typical artificial light.61 One
study found that brighter in-store lighting influenced people to examine and handle
more merchandise.62
In addition to visual stimuli, all sorts of cues can influence behaviours.63 Patrons
of country-and-western bars drink more when the jukebox music is slower. According
to one researcher, “Hard drinkers prefer listening to slower paced, wailing, lonesome,
self-pitying music.”64 Similarly, music can affect eating habits. A study found that
diners who listened to loud, fast music ate more food. In contrast, those who listened
to Mozart or Brahms ate less and more slowly. The researchers concluded that diners
who choose soothing music at mealtimes can increase weight loss by at least five
pounds (2.3 kilograms) a month!65
The evidence suggests that a store’s overall atmosphere affects what we buy. In
one study, researchers asked shoppers how much pleasure they felt five minutes after
they entered a store. Those who enjoyed their experience spent more time and
money.66 To boost the entertainment value of shopping (and to lure online shoppers
back to bricks-and-mortar stores), some retailers create activity stores that let consum-
ers participate in the production of the products or services they buy there. One famil-
iar example is the Build-A-Bear Workshop chain, where customers dress bear bodies
in costumes.67
In-Store Decision Making

Despite all their efforts to “pre-sell” consumers through advertising and online
promotional activities, marketers are recognizing the degree to which some prod-
uct category purchases are influenced by store environment. For example, it has
been estimated that about two out of every three supermarket purchases are
decided in the aisles. The proportion of unplanned purchases is even higher for
some product categories. It is estimated that 85 percent of candy and gum, almost
70 percent of cosmetics, and 75 percent of oral-hygiene purchases are unplanned.68
And people with lists are just as likely to make spontaneous purchases as those
without them.69
Marketers are scrambling to engineer purchasing environments to increase the
likelihood that their products will be available to consumers at the exact time they
The flagship store of Galeries Lafayette in

Paris has a dome from which it can hang
eye-catching displays that are the focal
point of the atmospherics associated with
various promotional themes.
© JOHN KELLERMAN/Alamy Stock Photo
make a decision. This strategy even applies to drinking behaviour: Diageo, the
world’s largest liquor company, discovered that 60 percent of bar customers don’t
know what they will drink until seconds before they place their orders. To make it
more likely that the customer’s order will include Smirnoff vodka, Johnnie Walker
scotch, or one of its other brands, Diageo launched its Drinks Invigoration Team to
increase what it calls its “share of throat.” The Dublin-based team experiments with
bar “environments,” bottle-display techniques, and how to match drinks to custom-
ers’ moods. For example, Diageo has categorized bars into types and is identifying
the types of drinkers—and the drinks they prefer—who frequent each type of bar.
These include “style bars,” where cutting-edge patrons like to sip fancy fresh-fruit
martinis, and “buzz bars,” where the clientele is receptive to a drink made of
Smirnoff and Red Bull.70
SP O N TA NE OUS S H O P P IN G
When a shopper is prompted to buy something while in the store, one of two different
processes may be at work. Unplanned buying may occur when a person unfamiliar
with a store’s layout is under time pressure. Or a person may be reminded to buy
something by seeing it on a store shelf. About one-third of unplanned buying has been
attributed to the recognition of new needs while within the store.71
In contrast, impulse buying occurs when the person experiences a sudden urge
that he or she cannot resist. The tendency to buy spontaneously is most likely to result
in a purchase when the consumer believes that acting on impulse is appropriate, such
as when purchasing a gift for a sick friend or picking up the tab for a meal.72 To cater
to these urges, so-called impulse items, such as candy and gum, are conveniently
placed near the checkout. Similarly, many supermarkets have installed wider aisles to
encourage browsing, and the widest tend to contain products with the highest margin.
Items with low markup that are purchased regularly tend to be stacked high in nar-
rower aisles to allow shoppers to speed through.73 One trend involves creating a new
aisle that consumers must pass through in order to reach the checkout. Invariably, the
aisle is stocked with desirable yet affordable items that might lead to impulse purchas-
ing. Examples of retailers in Canada using this strategy include Sephora, Old Navy,
and Michaels.
This influence is even stronger when we shop for food: Analysts estimate that
shoppers decide on about two out of every three supermarket purchases while they
walk through the aisles.74 Research indicates that consumers use mental budgets for
grocery trips that typically comprise both an itemized portion and in-store slack. This
means they typically decide beforehand on an amount they plan to spend, but then
they have an additional amount in mind (slack) that they are willing to spend on
unplanned purchases—if they come across any they really want to have. Here are
some “tricks of the trade”:75
• Sell sweets at eye level, midway along aisles, where shoppers’ attention lingers
longest.
• Use the ends of aisles to generate big revenues—endcap displays account for
45 percent of soft-drink sales.
• Use free-standing displays toward the rear of the supermarket and on the left side
of aisles. Shoppers tend to move through a store in a counterclockwise direction,
and they are more likely to choose items from shelves to their left.
• Sprinkle the same product throughout the store, rather than grouping it in one
spot, to boost sales through repetitive exposure.
• Group ingredients for a meal in one spot.
• Post health-related information on kiosks and shelf tags to link groceries to good
health in shoppers’ minds—even though only 23 percent of them say they always
look for nutritional information on labels.
P O IN T-O F -PU R CH ASE STIMU LI

It has been estimated that impulse purchases increase by 10 percent when appropriate
displays are used. A point-of-purchase (POP) stimulus can be an elaborate product
display or demonstration, a coupon-dispensing machine, or someone giving out free
samples of a new cookie in the grocery aisle.
The importance of POP in shopper decision making explains why product
packages increasingly play a key role in the marketing mix as they evolve from the
functional to the fantastic:
• In the past 100 years, Pepsi changed the look of its can, and before that its bottles,
only 10 times. Now the company switches designs at a much faster rate. And it
has tested cans that spray an aroma when you open one to match the flavour of the
drink—such as a wild-cherry scent misting from a Wild Cherry Pepsi can.
• Coors Light bottles sport labels that turn blue when the beer is chilled to the right
temperature.
• Huggies’ Henry the Hippo hand-soap bottles have a light that flashes for
20 seconds to show children how long they should wash their hands.
• Evian’s “palace bottle” can be found in restaurants and luxury hotels. The bottle
has an elegant swanlike neck and sits on a small silver tray.
• Unilever North America sells Axe shower-gel bottles shaped like video game
joysticks.
Increasingly, marketers are finding ways to prompt a particular consumer response
at the point-of-purchase in online contexts too. For example, sites like Amazon.ca
make suggestions for other products the consumer might wish to purchase based on
what other consumers interested in the same product have done. Expedia.ca tells con-
sumers how many others are looking at or have purchased a particular flight or hotel
room in order to spur the consumer to purchase.
The Salesperson
One of the most important in-store factors is the salesperson, who attempts to influ-
ence the buying behaviour of the customer.76 This influence can be understood in
terms of exchange theory, which stresses that every interaction involves an exchange
of value; each participant gives something to the other and hopes to receive something
in return.77
What “value” does the customer look for in a sales interaction? There are a variety
of resources a salesperson might offer. He or she might offer expertise about the prod-
uct to make the shopper’s choice easier. Alternatively, the customer may be reassured
because the salesperson is an admired or likeable person whose tastes are similar to
the customer’s and who is therefore seen as someone to be trusted.78 In fact, a long
stream of research attests to the impact of a salesperson’s appearance on sales effec-
tiveness. In sales, as in much of life, attractive people appear to hold the upper hand.79
In addition, it’s not unusual for service personnel and customers to form fairly warm
personal relationships; these have been called commercial friendships. Researchers
have found that commercial friendships are similar to other friendships in that they
can involve affection, intimacy, social support, loyalty, and reciprocal gift giving.
They also work to support marketing objectives such as satisfaction, loyalty, and posi-
tive word of mouth.80
Relationships and a sense of connection to a salesperson can be established rela-
tively quickly. Indeed, research has shown that incidental similarities, such as
shared birthdays, hometowns, or educational backgrounds, between shoppers and
salespeople can be the starting point for a sales relationship that has meaning. 81
Developed relationships between shoppers and salespeople typically translate into
higher likelihood to purchase, improved satisfaction with the shopping experience,
and increased desire to return to the store. In fact, a developed relationship with a
salesperson can invoke such a strong need for reciprocity on the part of the con-
sumer that those who don’t purchase have been shown to exhibit feelings of guilt Marketing
and remorse after a shopping interaction.82
A buyer/seller situation is like many other dyadic encounters (those within two-
Insight
person groups): It is a relationship where some agreement must be reached about the In a world where consumers have multiple
role of each participant. In other words, a process of identity negotiation occurs.83 For avenues to communicate their dissatisfaction
example, if Melanie immediately establishes herself as an all-knowing expert (and if to others, encouraging postpurchase satisfac-
Mark accepts this position), she is likely to have more influence over him through the tion becomes increasingly important. When
course of the relationship. Some of the factors that help to determine a salesperson’s Dave Carroll, a musician from Halifax, watched
role (and relative effectiveness) are his or her age, appearance, educational level, and his custom-made $3500 guitar get tossed
motivation to sell.84 In addition, more effective salespeople usually know their cus- around and eventually broken by United Airlines
tomers’ traits and preferences better than ineffective salespeople do, since this knowl- baggage handlers, he expected some sort of
edge allows them to adapt their approach to meet the needs of specific customers.85 customer service response or compensation.
After nine months of futile requests via email,
The ability to be adaptable is especially vital when customers and salespeople differ
letter, and phone call, Mr. Carroll decided to
in terms of their interaction styles.86 Consumers, for example, vary in the degree of
write a song about the airline’s poor response
assertiveness they bring to interactions. At one extreme, non-assertive people believe
and post it on YouTube (www.youtube.com/
that complaining is not socially acceptable and may be intimidated in sales situations.
watch?v=5YGc4zOqozo). The song, “United
Assertive people are more likely to stand up for themselves in firm but non-threatening
Breaks Guitars,” became an instant Internet
ways, while aggressive individuals may resort to rudeness and threats if they do not sensation with over 150 000 hits on the first
get their way.87 day88 and has since been seen by well over
1 million viewers. Mr. Carroll’s song also
resulted in mainstream media coverage, and
he subsequently appeared for interviews on a
POSTPURCHASE SATISFACTION CO 5 number of media outlets, including the CBS
Morning Show and CNN.
Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) is determined by the overall feelings, or
The video put United Airlines’ policy on
attitude, a person has about a product after it has been purchased. Consumers are
mishandled luggage in the spotlight. The com-
engaged in a constant process of evaluating the things they buy as these products are
pany has since taken the videos as an opportu-
integrated into their daily consumption activities.89 nity to review its training for baggage handlers,
and the videos have been credited with improv-
ing customer service policies for airlines in
general.
This ad personalizes how the wide assort-

ment of Quality Street chocolates will bring
satisfaction to those who come together for
holiday celebrations and visits.
Nestlé Canada, Inc.
Companies that score high in customer satisfaction often have a big competitive
advantage—especially when so many firms skimp on the attention they pay to custom-
ers. A five-year study of customer satisfaction in the Canadian banking industry pro-
vides typical results: Banks that provided better service commanded a larger “share of
wallet” than did others (i.e., their customers entrusted them with a larger proportion
of their money).90
Perceptions of Product Quality

Just what do consumers look for in products? That’s easy: They want quality and
value. Especially because of foreign competition, claims of product quality have
become strategically crucial to maintaining a competitive advantage.91 Consumers use
a number of cues to infer quality, including brand name, price, and even their own
estimates of how much money has been put into a new product’s advertising cam-
paign.92 These cues and others, such as product warranties and follow-up messaging
from the company, are often used by consumers to relieve perceived risk and assure
themselves that they have made smart purchase decisions.93
Although everyone wants quality, it is not clear exactly what quality means. In
the book Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, a cult hero of university stu-
dents in an earlier generation literally went crazy trying to figure out the meaning of
quality.94 Marketers appear to use the word quality as a catchall for “good.” Because of
its wide and imprecise usage, the attribute of “quality” threatens to become a mean-
ingless claim. If everyone has it, what good is it?
To muddy the waters a bit more, satisfaction or dissatisfaction is more than a reac-
tion to the actual performance quality of a product or a service; it is influenced by
prior expectations regarding the level of quality. According to the expectancy discon-
firmation model, consumers form beliefs about product performance based on prior
experience with the product and/or on communications about the product that imply
a certain level of quality.95 When something performs the way we thought it would,
we may not think much about it. If, on the other hand, something fails to live up to
expectations, a negative affect may result. And if performance happens to exceed our
expectations, we are satisfied and pleased.
To understand this perspective, think about different types of restaurants. People
expect to be provided with clear, sparkling glassware at fancy restaurants, and they
might get upset if they discover grimy glasses. On the other hand, we may not be sur-
prised to find fingerprints on our beer mugs at a local greasy spoon—and even shrug it
off because it contributes to the “charm” of the place.
This perspective underscores the importance of managing expectations. Cus-
tomer dissatisfaction is usually due to expectations that exceed the company’s
ability to deliver. Figure 10–3 illustrates the alternative strategies a firm can choose
in these situations. When confronted with unrealistic expectations about what it
FIGURE 10–3
Managing Quality Expectations
Zone of Zone of
accommodation accommodation
Zone of Zone of
Firm’s performance level alteration alteration
Realistic expectations
Zone of Zone of
Unrealistic expectations abandonment abandonment
Extremely discrepant expectations
can do, the firm can either accommodate these demands by improving the range or
quality of products it offers, attempt to alter the expectations, or perhaps even
choose to abandon the customer if it is not feasible to meet his or her needs.96 Con-
sumers’ expectations can be altered, for example, when waiters tell patrons in
advance that the portion size they have ordered will not be very big, or when new-
car buyers are warned of strange smells they will experience during the break-in
period. A firm can also underpromise, as when Xerox inflates the time it will take
for a service rep to visit. Such underestimates will ultimately increase satisfaction
with the final outcome.
When a product doesn’t work as we expect or turns out to be unsafe (such as the
spate of hazardous products from China a few years back that ranged from toothpaste
to children’s products to dog food), it’s an understatement to say we’re not satisfied. In
these situations, marketers must immediately take steps to reassure us or risk losing a
customer for life. When the company confronts the problem truthfully, we are often
willing to forgive and forget; we’ve seen this happen in incidents over the years when
a firm suffers from a negative incident. Examples include Tylenol (product tampering)
and Perrier (traces of the chemical benzene turned up in the drink). But if the firm
seems to be dragging its heels or covering up, our resentment grows. This is what hap-
pened after BP’s infamous oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.
Acting on Dissatisfaction
If a person is not happy with a product or service, what can be done? Essentially, a
consumer has three different courses of action available (note that more than one can
be taken):97
1. Voice response: The consumer can appeal directly to the retailer for redress (e.g.,
a refund).
2. Private response: The consumer can express dissatisfaction about the store or
product to friends and/or can boycott the store. As will be discussed in Chapter 11,
negative word of mouth can be very damaging to a store’s reputation. Interestingly,
“private response” is becoming more public. With an increase in social media and
online forums for consumer expression, private responses can be communicated to
a greater number of people.
3. Third-party response: The consumer can take legal action against the merchant,
register a complaint with the Better Business Bureau, post on Yelp or other review
websites, or write a letter to a newspaper.
In one study, business majors wrote complaint letters to companies. Those who
were sent a free sample in response indicated that their image of the company signifi-
cantly improved, while those who received only a letter of apology also changed their
evaluations of the company. However, students who got no response reported having
Review platforms such as Yelp and

TripAdvisor make it increasingly easy for
consumers to voice their dissatisfaction with
a product or brand to a third party in a way
that also communicates this information to
other consumers.
© M4OS Photos/Alamy Stock Photo
an even more negative image of the company than before, indicating that some form of
response is better than none.98
A number of factors influence which response route is eventually taken. Action
is more likely to be taken for expensive products, such as household durables, cars,
and clothing, than for inexpensive products.99 In addition, consumers who are usu-
ally satisfied with a store are more likely to complain when they have a bad experi-
ence; they take the time to complain because they feel connected to the store. Older
people are more likely to complain and are much more likely to believe the store will
actually resolve the problem. Shoppers who get their problems resolved feel even bet-
ter about the store than if nothing went wrong.100 On the other hand, if the consumer
does not believe that the store will respond well to a complaint, the person will be
more likely to simply switch than fight.101 Ironically, marketers should actually
encourage consumers to complain to them: People are more likely to spread the word
to their friends about unresolved negative experiences than they are to boast about
positive occurrences.102
The Real Value of Happy Customers

One might ask, “What is more valuable to the company: the purchases the customer
makes or the referrals given to others by satisfied customers?” When a telecom com-
pany conducted rigorous research to answer this question, it found that its low-
level purchasers were almost as valuable as its high-level purchasers. A loyal buyer
with a low referral rate averaged $49, whereas the buyer with a high referral rate
brought in $670.103
Overall research finds that 78 percent of customers are willing to pay more for
products if they experience great customer service. And when they find good cus-
tomer service, others will know about it, just as they know about it when we experi-
ence bad customer service. How does this happen? Mostly through social networks,
which reach far and wide. A full 74 percent of people use social networks to research
a company’s reputation for customer care before making a large purchase; 72 percent
of customers do business with companies based on the customer service experiences
shared by others online; and 59 percent regularly use social media to vent about cus-
tomer care frustrations. However, only 33 percent believe companies take online
complaints seriously.
Total Quality Management: Going to the Gemba

Many analysts who study consumer satisfaction or who are trying to design new prod-
ucts or services to increase customer satisfaction recognize that in order to identify
potential problems, it is crucial to understand how people actually interact with their
environments. These investigations are typically done in focus groups, in which a
small group of consumers try a new item at a company’s facility while being observed
by company personnel. However, some researchers advocate a more up-close-and-
personal approach that allows them to watch people in the actual environment
wherein the item is consumed (e.g., their homes).
The Japanese approach to total quality management (TQM), which is a complex set
of management and engineering procedures aimed at reducing errors and increasing
quality, has influenced this perspective. To help attain this objective, researchers can
“go to the gemba.” The gemba means the one true source of information. According to
this Japanese philosophy, it’s essential to send marketers and designers to the precise
place where the product or service is being used rather than ask consumers to interact
with it in a simulated environment. Host Foods, which operates food concessions in
major airports, sent a team to the gemba—in this case, an airport cafeteria—to identify
problem areas. Employees watched as customers chose (or didn’t) to enter the facility,
then followed them as they inspected the menu, procured silverware, paid, and then
found a table. The findings were crucial to Host’s redesign of the facility to make it more
accessible. For example, the team hadn’t realized the problem caused by having to put
down luggage to enter the food line and not being able to keep an eye on valuables dur-
ing the process.104
The Evolution of Product Ownership CO 6

One emerging consumer trend involves the movement away from the purchase and
ownership of tangible goods toward other models that allow for temporary owner-
ship, shared ownership, or even experiences of products. This trend has been referred
to as the sharing economy or collaborative consumption. Such a trend allows the
consumer to enjoy the benefits of the product when needed, but to not have to worry
about other concerns such as paying a high price, maintaining and storing the prod-
uct, or disposing of the product.
A common example of this is car co-ops, in which a group of consumers share a
car rather than one consumer taking ownership of the car. Building on this idea,
businesses such as Car2Go and Zipcar (www.car2go.com, www.zipcar.com) have
popped up in cities across Canada. Consumers can rent a car to use for a set block of
time when it is needed rather than having to purchase a vehicle. Another example is
Bag, Borrow, or Steal, a website (www.bagborroworsteal.com) that allows fashion-
conscious females to temporarily rent a high-end designer purse. They don’t have to
spend thousands of dollars, and can update and rotate the item with the outfit or the
season as desired. Other industries, including transportation (Uber), hospitality
(Airbnb), and even errand running (Task Rabbit), have successfully leveraged the
sharing economy.
Although classic examples of this have been around for many years—for example,
renting a moving van only when it is needed—this growing trend has led to the nam-
ing of a new type of consumer, the transumer, who opts for temporary ownership or
experiences of products rather than permanently acquiring goods.105 The consump-
tion of experiences rather than tangible goods may also impact psychological well-
being, making consumers more happy and satisfied with their purchases.106 A global
survey that included over 10 000 respondents reported that one-third of Millennials
already belong to a sharing service or expect to join one soon. Many people believe
that overconsumption is putting our planet at risk, and half say they could happily
live without most of the items they own.107
Zipcar offers consumers the ability to

temporarily acquire a vehicle, allowing
them to meet their unique needs in
differing situations.
Zipcar, Inc.
CO 7 PRODUCT DISPOSAL
Because people often form strong attachments to products, the decision to dispose of
something may be a painful one. One function performed by possessions is to serve as
anchors for our identities: Our past lives on in our things.108 This attachment is exem-
plified by the Japanese, who ritually “retire” worn-out sewing needles, chopsticks,
and computer chips by burning them as thanks for good service.109
Although some people have more trouble discarding things than others, even a
“pack rat” does not keep everything. Consumers often have to dispose of things
because the things have fulfilled their designated functions, or possibly because they
no longer fit with consumers’ views of themselves. Concern about the environment
coupled with a need for convenience has made ease of product disposal a key attribute
in categories from razors to diapers.
Disposal Options
When a consumer decides that a product is no longer of use, several choices are avail-
able. The person can (1) keep the item, (2) temporarily dispose of it, or (3) permanently
dispose of it. In many cases a new product is acquired even though the old one still
functions. Reasons for this replacement include a desire for new features, a change in
the person’s environment (e.g., a refrigerator is the wrong colour for a freshly painted
kitchen), or a change in the person’s role or self-image.110 Figure 10–4 provides an
overview of consumers’ disposal options.
The issue of product disposal is doubly vital because of its enormous public
policy implications. We live in a throwaway society, which creates problems for the
FIGURE 10–4
Consumers’ Disposal Options
PRODUCT
GET RID GET RID

KEEP ITEM OF ITEM OF ITEM
PERMANENTLY TEMPORARILY
Use it to Convert it to
serve original serve a new Store it Rent it Lend it
purpose purpose
Throw it Give it Trade it Sell it

away away
To be To be Directly to Through To
(re)sold used consumer intermediary intermediary
The Salvation Army provides an alternative

disposal option to consumers—donating
used clothing and other goods to the charity,
which then resells the items to other
consumers.
Courtesy of The Salvation Army
environment and also results in a great deal of unfortunate waste. Indeed, analysts say
one-third of the food produced globally is never consumed! To make matters worse,
most food waste winds up in landfills where it decomposes and emits methane, a
potent greenhouse gas.111 One study has reported that we never use as much as
12 percent of the grocery products we buy; consumers buy nearly two-thirds of these
abandoned products for a specific purpose, such as a recipe, then change their plans.
Because we don’t use these items immediately, they slowly get pushed to the back of
the cupboard and forgotten.112 Another survey showed that 15 percent of adults
admitted they are pack rats and another 64 percent said they are selective savers. In
contrast, 20 percent said they throw out as much garbage as they can. The consumers
most likely to save things are older people and single households. 113 Training
consumers to recycle has become a priority in many countries.
Companies continue to search for ways to use resources more efficiently, often at
the prompting of activist consumer groups. McDonald’s restaurants bowed to pressure
by eliminating the use of Styrofoam packages and plastic cutlery and is experimenting
with edible utensils made of maize.114
One study examined the relevant goals consumers have in recycling. It identified
how specific and more immediate goals are linked to more abstract values. The most
important lower-order goals identified were “avoid filling up landfills,” “reduce waste,”
“reuse materials,” and “save the environment.” These were linked to the abstract values
of “promote health/avoid sickness,” “achieve life-sustaining ends,” and “provide for
future generations.”
Another study reported that the perceived effort involved in recycling was the
best predictor of whether people would go to the trouble; this pragmatic dimension
outweighed general attitudes toward recycling and the environment in predicting
intention to recycle.115 One way to ease the pain is to reward consumers for recy-
cling. The H&M store chain sponsors a garment recycling program: Customers can
bring any garment from any brand in any condition into an H&M store. For every bag
of clothes donated, H&M gives customers a 15 percent discount on the next item
they buy.116
Research shows that if the marketer can match elements of the message to make
them easier for consumers to cognitively process, consumers will be more likely to
Marketers are coming up with new and

innovative way to recycle products. Matt &
Nat is a Montreal-based company that
produces vegan bags with linings made WE NOW
from 100 percent recycled plastic bottles. RECYCLE 1M+
Courtesy of Matt & Nat PLASTIC BOTTLES
A YEAR
mattandnat.com
recycle. In one study that examined the curbside recycling behaviours of residents in
Consumers Calgary, the researchers varied whether a door hanger communicated a loss frame
in Focus (focusing on what would be lost if consumers did not recycle) or a gain frame (focus-
ing on what would be gained if consumers did recycle). They found that consumers
As if disposing of other kinds of waste wasn’t think about losses in very specific and concrete terms. When loss frames were com-
bad enough, one consequence of our infatua- bined with very concrete and detailed information regarding how to recycle (e.g., what
tion with new technology is figuring out what to materials to include, how to put out the cart), the message was easier to process and
do with the stuff that quickly becomes obso- people were more likely to recycle. By contrast, gain frames tend to involve more
lete. Now even discarded smartphones are abstract thinking. Gain frames worked best when combined with abstract information
becoming a problem as customers rapidly regarding the more general question of why people should recycle (e.g., to benefit the
switch between mobile services and upgrade to environment).118
new models. One popular solution seems to be
to ship unwanted electronic waste such as old
computer monitors and circuit boards to devel- Lateral Cycling
oping countries. As much as 50 to 80 percent
Interesting consumer processes occur during lateral cycling, in which already-
of electronics waste collected for recycling in
purchased objects are sold to others or exchanged. Many purchases are second-hand
North America is placed on container ships and
rather than new. The reuse of other people’s things is so important in our throwaway
sent to China, India, Pakistan, or other devel-
society because, as one researcher put it, “there is no longer an ‘away’ to throw
oping countries, where it is reused or recycled
things to.”119
under largely unregulated conditions. Recy-
cling industries in these places often use
Flea markets, garage sales, Craigslist, bartering for services, hand-me-downs, and
young children to handle cathode ray tubes the black market all represent important alternative marketing systems that operate in
filled with lead and other toxic substances. The addition to the formal marketplace. These outlets provide consumers with opportuni-
European Union is so concerned about the ties to buy and sell items related to popular cultural events and people to which they
problem that it is moving toward requiring have long-term attachments. How do we bring ourselves to part with these “precious”
manufacturers to take cradle-to-grave respon- items? Some researchers examined the ways consumers practise divestment rituals, in
sibility for their products.117 which they take steps to gradually distance themselves from things they treasure so
that they can sell them or give them away (more on rituals in Chapter 14). As they
observed people preparing to sell their items at garage sales, the researchers identified
the following rituals:
• Iconic transfer ritual: Taking pictures and videos of objects before selling them
• Transition-place ritual: Putting items in an out-of-the way location, such as a
garage or an attic, before disposing of them
• Ritual cleansing: Washing, ironing, and/or meticulously wrapping the item120
The Internet has revolutionized the lateral cycling process, as millions of people
flock to eBay to buy and sell their “treasures.” And entrepreneurs keep coming up with
new ways to facilitate online bartering. Online forums such as Kijiji and Craigslist have
made this an increasingly popular consumer trend. The site Freecycle.org has been
promoted in cities across Canada. On this site everything offered or taken is free.
The site’s mandate is to encourage reuse of products in ways that keep perfectly good,
reusable materials out of landfills.
If our possessions do indeed come to be a part of us, how do we bring ourselves to

part with these precious items? The way we divest ourselves of our things may make a Consumers
in Focus
statement (think about throwing out things an ex-partner gave you). One study found
that people who are very attached to their “stuff” may engage a professional organizer
to help them de-clutter and simplify their lives; in essence the organizer is an interme-
The courtship process often involves gift giv-
diary who helps the person detach from reminders of his or her former life so that he
ing from men to women—but what happens
or she can move on.121
when the relationship ends? The founders of
Although traditional marketers have not paid much attention to used-product ExBoyfriendJewelry.com provide a market for
sellers, factors such as concern about the environment, demands for quality, and cost jilted women who want to make some money
and fashion consciousness are conspiring to make these “secondary” markets more and perhaps vent about their ex-partners. The
important.122 Other growth areas in lateral cycling include student markets for used site proclaims, “You don’t want it. He can’t
computers and textbooks, and ski swaps at which millions of dollars’ worth of used have it back.” Users sell, auction, trade, or
ski equipment is exchanged. simply give away the refuse of their former
A new generation of second-hand store owners is developing markets for every- romances—but they also have to share the
thing from used office equipment to cast-off kitchen sinks. Many are not-for-profit ven- story behind every gift.
tures started with government funding. Habitat for Humanity has “ReStores” across
Canada (www.habitat.ca). They accept and recycle household items such as appli-
ances, cupboards, doors, windows, and so on. Anyone doing renovations can buy
these used items and support the organization at the same time. These efforts remind
us that recycling is actually the last step in the familiar mantra of the environmental
movement: reduce, reuse, recycle. Only if no use can be found for an item should it be
shredded and made into something else.123
Chapter Summary
The outcome of an actual transaction is influenced by many on the type of “performance” he or she witnesses. This eval-
factors over and above the qualities of the product or uation can be influenced by the actors (salespeople), the
service. setting (the store environment), and the props (store dis-
plays). A store image, like a brand personality, is determined
• The act of purchase can be affected by many factors.
by a number of factors, such as perceived convenience,
These include the consumer’s antecedent state (mood),
sophistication, knowledge of salespeople, and so on.
whether the consumer is under time pressure or not, and
disposition toward shopping. Time is an important In addition to what shoppers already know or believe about a
resource that often determines how much effort and product, information provided in the store or on a website
search will go into a decision. can strongly influence their purchase decisions.
• The usage context of a product can be a basis for segmen- • Because many purchase decisions are not made until the
tation. Consumers look for different product attributes consumer is actually in the store, point-of-purchase (POP)
depending on the uses to which they intend to put their stimuli are important sales tools. These include product
purchases. The presence or absence of other people—and samples, elaborate package displays, place-based media,
the types of people they are—can also affect a consum- in-store promotional materials, and product recommenda-
er’s decisions. tions. POP stimuli are particularly useful in stimulating
• In many cases, retailing is like theatre; that is, the consum- impulse buying, where a consumer yields to a sudden
er’s evaluation of stores, websites, and products may depend urge for a product.
A salesperson can be the crucial link between interest in a price, brand name, and product performance. Satisfac-
product and its actual purchase. tion is often determined by the degree to which a prod-
uct’s performance is consistent with the consumer’s prior
• The consumer’s encounter with a salesperson is a com- expectations of how well it will function.
plex and important process. The outcome can be affected
by such factors as the salesperson’s similarity to the Getting rid of products when they are no longer needed or
customer and his or her perceived credibility. wanted is a major concern to both marketers and public
policy makers.
Marketers need to be concerned about a consumer’s
• Product disposal is an increasingly important problem.
evaluations of a product after the person buys it as well as
Recycling is one option that will continue to be stressed
before.
as consumers’ environmental awareness grows. Products
• Consumer satisfaction is determined by the person’s over- may also be introduced by consumers into secondary mar-
all feeling toward the product after purchase. Many fac- kets during a process of lateral cycling, which occurs
tors influence perceptions of product quality, including when objects are sold second hand or bartered.
Key Terms
Activity stores p. 290 Gemba p. 296 Sharing economy p. 297
Atmospherics p. 289 Impulse buying p. 291 Shopping orientation p. 285
Being space p. 288 Lateral cycling p. 300 Showrooming p. 287
Co-consumers p. 279 Minipreneurs p. 288 Store image p. 288
Collaborative consumption p. 297 Point-of-purchase (POP) stimulus p. 292 Time poverty p. 281
Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction Pop-up stores p. 288 Total quality management
(CS/D) p. 293 Pretailer p. 287 (TQM) p. 296
Divestment rituals p. 300 Queuing theory p. 283 Unplanned buying p. 291
Exchange theory p. 292 Relationship marketing p. 277
Expectancy disconfirmation Retail theming p. 288
model p. 294
Review Questions
1. What is the situational self-image? Give an example of 6. What are some important pros and cons of e-commerce?
this phenomenon. 7. List three factors that help to determine store image.
2. Describe the difference between density and crowding. 8. What is the difference between unplanned buying and
Why is this difference relevant in purchase environments? impulse buying?
3. What is time poverty, and how can it influence our pur- 9. How do consumers’ prior expectations about product
chase decisions? quality influence their satisfaction with the product after
4. What are the two dimensions that determine whether we will they buy it?
react positively or negatively to a purchase environment? 10. List three actions consumers can take if they are dissat-
5. List three separate motivations for shopping, giving an isfied with a purchase.
example of each. 11. What is lateral cycling, and why is it important to marketing?
Discuss 3. What are some of the positive and negative aspects of requir-
ing employees who interact with customers to wear some
1. Is the customer always right? Why or why not?
kind of uniform, or of mandating a dress code in the office?
2. Discuss some of the motivations for shopping described 4. Think about exceptionally good and bad salespeople you
in this chapter. How might a retailer adjust its strategy have encountered in the past. What qualities seem to
to accommodate these motivations? differentiate them?
5. Discuss the concept of timestyle. Based on your own Experiential Exercises

experiences, how might consumers be segmented in
12. Conduct naturalistic observation at a local mall. Sit in
terms of their timestyles?
a central location and observe the activities of mall
6. Several men’s clothing retailers nationwide now provide employees and patrons. Keep a log of the non-retailing
free booze to their male clientele to encourage them to activities you observe (e.g., special performances,
hang out in their stores.124 Is it ethical to encourage exhibits, socializing). Do these activities enhance or
customers to get wasted before they shop? detract from business conducted at the mall? As malls
become more like high-tech game rooms, how valid is
7. How is the Internet changing the buying behaviour of
the criticism that shopping areas are encouraging more
consumers? Trends such as the sharing economy and
loitering by teenage boys, who don’t spend a lot in
creative ways of recycling create many opportunities for
stores and simply scare away other customers?
marketers. Can you identify some?
13. Select three competing clothing stores in your area and
8. Some retailers work hard to cultivate a certain look or
conduct a store image study for each. Ask a group of
image, and they may even choose employees who fit
consumers to rate each store on a set of attributes, and
this look. Abercrombie & Fitch, for example, seems to
plot these ratings on the same graph. Based on your
link itself to a clean-cut, all-American image. At one
findings, are there any areas of competitive advantage or
point a lawsuit claimed that Abercrombie & Fitch sys-
disadvantage you could bring to the attention of store
tematically “refuses to hire qualified minority appli-
management?
cants as brand representatives to work on the sales
floor and discourages applications from minority appli- 14. What applications of queuing theory can you find
cants” (Abercrombie replied that it has “zero tolerance employed among local services? Interview consumers
for discrimination”).125 And we know that the Hooters who are waiting in lines to determine how this experi-
restaurant chain is notorious for its attractive female ence affects their satisfaction with the service.
waitresses. Should a retailer have the right to recruit
15. New interactive tools are being introduced that allow
employees who are consistent with its image even if
surfers on sites such as Lands’ End (www.landsend.com)
this means excluding certain types of people (e.g.,
to view apparel product selections on virtual models in
non-Caucasians, men) from the sales floor?
full, 360-degree rotational view. In some cases the
9. The mall of the future will most likely be less about pur- viewer can modify the models’ bodies, faces, skin
chasing products than about exploring them in a physi- colouring, and hairstyles. In others, the consumer can
cal setting. This means that retail environments will project his or her own likeness into the space by scan-
have to become places that can build brand image ning a photo into a “makeover” program. Visit Lands’
rather than simply sell products. What are some strate- End or another site that offers a personalized manne-
gies stores can use to enhance the emotional/sensory quin. Surf around. Try on some clothes. How was your
experiences of their customers? experience? How helpful was the mannequin? When you
shop for clothes online, would you rather see how they
10. The store environment is heating up, as more and more
look on a body with dimensions the same as yours, or on
companies put their promotional dollars into point-of-
a different body? What advice can you give website
purchase efforts. Shoppers are now often confronted
designers who are trying to personalize these shopping
with visual programming at the checkout counter, com-
environments by creating lifelike models to guide you
puter monitors attached to their shopping carts, and so
through the site?
on. We’re increasingly exposed to ads in non-shopping
environments. Do you feel that these innovations are 16. Interview people who are selling items at a flea market
overly intrusive? At what point might shoppers “rebel” or garage sale. Ask them to identify some items to which
and demand some peace and quiet while shopping? Do they have a strong attachment. Then see if you can
you see any market potential in the future for stores that prompt them to describe one or more divestment rituals
countermarket by promising a hands-off shopping envi- they went through as they prepared to offer these items
ronment? for sale.
11. Court cases in recent years have attempted to prohibit 17. Identify three people who own an electric coffeemaker
special-interest groups from distributing literature in and then “go to the gemba” by observing them as they
shopping malls. Mall managers claim that these centres actually prepare coffee at home. Based on what you
are private property. On the other hand, these groups observe, what recommendations might you make to the
argue that the mall is the modern-day version of the designer of a new coffeemaker model that would improve
town square and as such is a public forum. What is the customers’ experience with the product?
current status of the mall as a public forum? Do you
agree with this concept?
Changing disposal habits with recycled materials. The operation sought a minimal
Terryl Plotnikoff had just finished reading the student intern c arbon footprint, and every employee enjoyed the creative
report on how her company, Canadian Mattress Recycling and ongoing challenge of reducing the impact of consump-
(http://canadianmattressrecycling.com), might expand its busi- tion. Initial success in all aspects of the business had
ness in other cities across Canada. She wondered if the report inspired Terryl to seek new opportunities.
was too optimistic: Outside of big cities such as Toronto, Mon- Already she had seen some success in expanding her
treal, and Vancouver, would consumers be interested in paying business into recycling metal appliances and furniture. How-
a company like hers to take away their used mattresses for ever, she wondered whether expansion in the core competency
reuse and recycling? In Vancouver, where her business was of mattress recycling made more sense strategically. As a first
started in 2011, a decision by city officials to ban mattresses step, Terryl had commissioned a student summer intern to
from landfills and garbage dumps created a business opportu- investigate possibilities. The intern’s report indicated that
nity that had met with great success. Would she be able to Canadians in general were very open to recycling behaviours,
replicate her business model in cities that didn’t have this type but typically didn’t want to pay for it and definitely weren’t
of civic support? excited about changing behaviours if it involved significant
effort and changes in their consumption patterns.
Mattress Recycling Terryl wondered how this information might be useful in
formulating her growth strategies. She wondered whether
Mattress recycling is a relatively new industry in North
moving into other Canadian cities was a viable growth strat-
America; most recycling organizations having entered the
egy. Larger cities such as Calgary, Winnipeg, Ottawa, or Hal-
marketplace only in the past few years. The business model
ifax seemed like obvious choices, because they would
typically involves used-mattress pickup from either homes or
probably map behaviours seen in Toronto and Vancouver,
institutions (e.g., hotels, university residences, hospitals) for a
but what about smaller cities and towns? Would consumers
fee. Alternatively, consumers can drop off their used mat-
in smaller population centres be interested in this type of
tresses at the local recycler for a reduced fee. The mattresses
recycling? Perhaps the fact that these communities typically
are then separated out into their material components—cot-
had fewer issues and less pressure with respect to waste
ton, felt, wood, metal, plastics, even coconut fibre—which are
management meant that the need for this type of recycling
then sold off to a variety of manufacturing entities to use as
initiative was moot. Further, Terryl wondered how critical
raw material. It is estimated that approximately 99 percent of
civic policy was in fostering a business climate in which she
box springs and mattresses can be recycled, thus preventing
could succeed. Did the consumer need to be prodded into
hundreds of thousands of pounds of material from ending up
recycling behaviour, or had Canadian society matured to the
in the landfill.
point that consumers would naturally seek out her business
In Canada, mattress recycling businesses have been
regardless of civic policies?
started in Montreal (Matt Canada), Toronto (Recover Canada),
Setting the report down on her desk, Terryl turned to her
and Vancouver (Canadian Mattress Recycling and Mattress-
computer to begin mapping out the new strategy that would
recyling.ca). In every case, the businesses have met with
guide her organization into the future.
success and growth. For example, in metro Vancouver the
recycling depots handled over 47 000 mattresses and box 1. How have disposal behaviours changed in Canada? Do
springs in the first few years they had been open. City officials you think there are differences in behaviour across prov-
indicated their satisfaction with these businesses, holding inces and in rural versus urban centres? What do you
them out as a great example of public policy and private busi- anticipate for the future?
ness working together to maximize reuse, recycling, and 2. Should Terryl expand her operations across Canada? If so,
resource recovery. Indeed, these businesses had created how should she proceed?
more than 45 jobs locally and had significantly reduced both 3. What is the role of public policy here? Do you agree with
landfill waste and illegal dumping. the notion that government should play an active role in
guiding sustainable consumption behaviours among the
Expanding the Business population? Why or why not? Does Terryl need favourable
Terryl was interested in growing and expanding the busi- government policy to succeed? Explain.
ness. A passionate advocate of sustainability, she had built a 4. How would you convince consumers to adopt specific
business that sought to recycle nearly 100 percent of every- recycling behaviours? What positioning strategy/messag-
thing that moved through the door. Equipment, supplies, ing would you utilize? What barriers exist here? How would
even warehouse staff overalls had been pre-owned or made you overcome them?
No te s
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(November 10, 2007): B6–7. 81. Lan Jiang, JoAndrea Hoegg, Darren W. Dahl, and Amitava Chattopadhyay, “The
Persuasive Role of Incidental Similarity on Attitudes and Purchase Intentions in a
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59. Philip Kotler, “Atmospherics as a Marketing Tool,” Journal of Retailing (Winter Ugly: Influence of Aesthetics on Product Feature Judgments,” Journal of Consumer
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(April 9, 1988). Negotiations in Buyer-Seller Interactions,” in Advances in Consumer Research 12,
61. John Pierson, “If Sun Shines In, Workers Work Better, Buyers Buy More,” The Wall eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Morris B. Holbrook (Provo, UT: Association for
Street Journal (November 20, 1995): B1 (2 pp.). Consumer Research, 1985): 443–449.
84. Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr., et al., “The Determinants of Salesperson Performance: A 97. Mary C. Gilly and Betsy D. Gelb, “Post-purchase Consumer Processes and the
Meta-analysis,” Journal of Marketing Research 22 (May 1985): 103–118. Complaining Consumer,” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (December 1982):
323–228; Diane Halstead and Cornelia Dröge, “Consumer Attitudes toward
85. Siew Meng Leong, Paul S. Busch, and Deborah Roedder John, “Knowledge Bases and
Complaining and the Prediction of Multiple Complaint Responses,” in Advances in
Salesperson Effectiveness: A Script-Theoretic Analysis,” Journal of Marketing
Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (Provo,
Research 26 (May 1989): 164; Harish Sujan, Mita Sujan, and James R. Bettman,
UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 210–216; Jagdip Singh, “Consumer
“Knowledge Structure Differences between More Effective and Less Effective
Complaint Intentions and Behavior: Definitional and Taxonomical Issues,” Journal of
Salespeople,” Journal of Marketing Research 25 (February 1988): 81–86; Robert
Marketing 52 (January 1988): 93–107.
Saxe and Barton Weitz, “The SOCCO Scale: A Measure of the Customer Orientation of
Salespeople,” Journal of Marketing Research 19 (August 1982): 343–351; David M. 98. Gary L. Clark, Peter F. Kaminski, and David R. Rink, “Consumer Complaints: Advice
Szymanski, “Determinants of Selling Effectiveness: The Importance of Declarative on How Companies Should Respond Based on an Empirical Study,” Journal of
Knowledge to the Personal Selling Concept,” Journal of Marketing 52 (January 1988): Services Marketing 6(1) (Winter 1992): 41–50.
64–77; Barton A. Weitz, “Effectiveness in Sales Interactions: A Contingency 99. Alan Andreasen and Arthur Best, “Consumers Complain—Does Business Respond?”
Framework,” Journal of Marketing 45 (Winter 1981): 85–103. Harvard Business Review 55 (July/August 1977): 93–101.
86. Jagdish M. Sheth, “Buyer–Seller Interaction: A Conceptual Framework,” in Advances 100. Tibbett L. Speer, “They Complain because They Care,” American Demographics (May
in Consumer Research (Cincinnati, OH: Association for Consumer Research, 1976): 1996): 13–14.
382–386; Kaylene C. Williams and Rosann L. Spiro, “Communication Style in the
101. Ingrid Martin, “Expert–Novice Differences in Complaint Scripts,” in Advances in
Salesperson–Customer Dyad,” Journal of Marketing Research 22 (November 1985):
Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (Provo, UT:
434–442.
Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 225–231; Marsha L. Richins, “A
87. Marsha L. Richins, “An Analysis of Consumer Interaction Styles in the Marketplace,” Multivariate Analysis of Responses to Dissatisfaction,” Journal of the Academy of
Journal of Consumer Research 10 (June 1983): 73–82. Marketing Science 15 (Fall 1987): 24–31.
88. www.cbc.ca/arts/music/story/2009/07/08/united-breaks-guitars.html, accessed 102. John A. Schibrowsky and Richard S. Lapidus, “Gaining a Competitive Advantage by
July 1, 2009. Analyzing Aggregate Complaints,” Journal of Consumer Marketing 11(1) (1994):
15–26.
89. Rama Jayanti and Anita Jackson, “Service Satisfaction: Investigation of Three
Models,” in Advances in Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and 103. “A Guide to Customer Service,” Report on Small Business, The Globe and Mail
Michael R. Solomon (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 603–610; (August/September 2008): 45–47.
David K. Tse, Franco M. Nicosia, and Peter C. Wilton, “Consumer Satisfaction as a 104. Material adapted from a presentation by Glenn H. Mazur, QFD Institute, 2002.
Process,” Psychology & Marketing 7 (Fall 1990): 177–193.
105. http://trendwatching.com/trends/transumers.htm.
90. Bruce Cooil, Timothy L. Keiningham, Lerzan Aksoy, and Michael Hsu, “A Longitudinal
106. L. Van Boven and T. Gilovich, “To Do or to Have? That Is the Question,” Journal of
Analysis of Customer Satisfaction and Share of Wallet: Investigating the Moderating
Personality and Social Psychology 85 (2003): 1193–1202.
Effect of Customer Characteristics,” Journal of Marketing 71 (January 2007): 67–83.
For a study that looks at consumer variables moderating this relationship, see 107. Cf. also Marsha L. Richins, “When Wanting Is Better Than Having: Materialism,
Kathleen Seiders, Glenn B. Voss, Dhruv Grewal, and Andrea L. Godfrey, “Do Satisfied Transformation Expectations, and Product-Evoked Emotions in the Purchase
Customers Buy More? Examining Moderating Influences in a Retailing Context,” Process,” Journal of Consumer Research 40(1) (2013): 1–18.
Journal of Marketing 69 (October 2005): 26–43. 108. Russell W. Belk, “The Role of Possessions in Constructing and Maintaining a Sense
91. Robert Jacobson and David A. Aaker, “The Strategic Role of Product Quality,” Journal of Past,” in Advances in Consumer Research 17, eds. Marvin E. Goldberg, Gerald
of Marketing 51 (October 1987): 31–44. For a review of issues regarding the Gorn, and Richard W. Pollay (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1989):
measurement of service quality, see J. Joseph Cronin, Jr. and Steven A. Taylor, 669–676.
“Measuring Service Quality: A Re-examination and Extension,” Journal of Marketing 109. David E. Sanger, “For a Job Well Done, Japanese Enshrine the Chip,” The New York
56 (July 1992): 55–68. Times (December 11, 1990): A4.
92. Anna Kirmani and Peter Wright, “Money Talks: Perceived Advertising Expense and 110. Jacob Jacoby, Carol K. Berning, and Thomas F. Dietvorst, “What about Disposition?”
Expected Product Quality,” Journal of Consumer Research 16 (December 1989): Journal of Marketing 41 (April 1977): 22–28.
344–353; Donald R. Lichtenstein and Scot Burton, “The Relationship between
111. Ron Nixon, “Food Waste Is Becoming Serious Economic and Environmental
Perceived and Objective Price-Quality,” Journal of Marketing Research 26 (November
Issue, Report Says,” The New York Times (February 25, 2015), www.nytimes.
1989): 429–443; Akshay R. Rao and Kent B. Monroe, “The Effect of Price, Brand
com/2015/02/26/us/food-waste-is-becoming-serious-economic-and-
Name, and Store Name on Buyers’ Perceptions of Product Quality: An Integrative
environmental-issue-report-says.html?_r=1.
Review,” Journal of Marketing Research 26 (August 1989): 351–357.
112. Brian Wansink, S. Adam Brasel, and Steven Amjad, “The Mystery of the Cabinet
93. Shelby Hunt, “Post-transactional Communication and Dissonance Reduction,” Castaway: Why We Buy Products We Never Use,” Journal of Family and Consumer
Journal of Marketing 34 (January 1970): 46–51; Daniel E. Innis and H. Rao Unnava, Sciences 92(1) (2000): 104–107.
“The Usefulness of Product Warranties for Reputable and New Brands,” in Advances
in Consumer Research 18, eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (Provo, 113. Jennifer Lach, “Welcome to the Hoard Fest,” American Demographics (April 2000): 8–9.
UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 317–322; Terence A. Shimp and 114. “Finally, Something at McDonald’s You Can Actually Eat,” Utne Reader (May/June
William O. Bearden, “Warranty and Other Extrinsic Cue Effects on Consumers’ Risk 1997): 12.
Perceptions,” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (June 1982): 38–46.
115. Debra J. Dahab, James W. Gentry, and Wanru Su, “New Ways to Reach Non-recyclers:
94. Ibid.; Robert M. Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into An Extension of the Model of Reasoned Action to Recycling Behaviors,” in Advances
Values (New York: Bantam Books, 1974). in Consumer Research 22, eds. Frank R. Kardes and Mita Sujan (Provo, UT:
95. Gilbert A. Churchill, Jr., and Carol F. Surprenant, “An Investigation into the Association for Consumer Research, 1995): 251–256.
Determinants of Customer Satisfaction,” Journal of Marketing Research 19 116. Alicia Ciccone, “H&M Launches Garment Recycling Program Across All Markets,”
(November 1983): 491–504; John E. Swan and I. Frederick Trawick, “Disconfirmation Brandchannel (February 21, 2013), www.brandchannel.com/home/post/2013/02/21/
of Expectations and Satisfaction with a Retail Service,” Journal of Retailing 57 (Fall HM-Garment-Recycling-Program-022113.aspx.
1981): 49–67; Peter C. Wilton and David K. Tse, “Models of Consumer Satisfaction 117. John Markoff, “Technology’s Toxic Trash Is Sent to Poor Nations,” The New York Times
Formation: An Extension,” Journal of Marketing Research 25 (May 1988): 204–212. on the Web (February 25, 2002); “Recycling Phones to Charities, Not Landfills,” The
For a discussion of what may occur when customers evaluate a new service for New York Times on the Web (October 26, 2002).
which comparison standards do not yet exist, see Ann L. McGill and Dawn
Iacobucci, “The Role of Post-experience Comparison Standards in the Evaluation of 118. K. White, R. MacDonnell, and D.W. Dahl, “It’s the Mindset That Matters: The Role of
Unfamiliar Services,” in Advances in Consumer Research 19, eds. John F. Sherry, Jr. Construal Level and Message Framing in Influencing Consumer Efficacy and
and Brian Sternthal (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1992): 570– Conservation Behaviors,” Journal of Marketing Research 48(3) (2011): 472–485.
578; William Boulding et al., “A Dynamic Process Model of Service Quality: From 119. John F. Sherry, Jr., “A Sociocultural Analysis of a Midwestern American Flea Market,”
Expectations to Behavioral Intentions,” Journal of Marketing Research 30 (February Journal of Consumer Research 17 (June 1990): 13–30.
1993): 7–27.
120. John L. Lastovicka and Karen V. Fernandez, “Three Paths to Disposition: The
96. Jagdish N. Sheth and Banwari Mittal, “A Framework for Managing Customer Movement of Meaningful Possessions to Strangers,” Journal of Consumer Research
Expectations,” Journal of Market Focused Management 1 (1996): 137–158. 31 (March 2005): 813–823.
121. Russell W. Belk, Joon Yong Seo, and Eric Li, “Dirty Little Secret: Home Chaos and 123. “New Kind of Store Getting More Use out of Used Goods,” Montgomery Advertiser
Professional Organizers,” Consumption, Markets, and Culture 10 (June 2007): 133–140. (December 12, 1996): 7A.
122. Allan J. Magrath, “If Used Product Sellers Ever Get Organized, Watch Out,” Marketing 124. Ray A. Smith, “Belly Up to the Bar and Buy Some Jeans,” The Wall Street Journal
News (June 25, 1990): 9; Kevin McCrohan and James D. Smith, “Consumer Interactive Edition (April 2, 2009).
Participation in the Informal Economy,” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 125. Shelly Branch, “Maybe Sex Doesn’t Sell, A&F Is Discovering,” The Wall Street Journal
15 (Winter 1990): 62. Interactive Edition (December 12, 2003).
C HAPTER
11
Group Influence
and Social Media
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that other people and groups often 5 Understand that marketers are using a variety of

influence our decisions about what to buy. techniques to harness the power of consumer word
of mouth.
2 Understand that we are motivated to buy or use

products in order to be consistent with what other 6 Understand that online technologies and social

people do. media can accelerate the impact of word-of-mouth
communication and can affect the way in which
3 Understand that group contexts can have distinct companies interact with consumers.

influences on how we make consumer decisions.
4 Understand that word of mouth about products (good

and bad) is often more influential than the
advertising we see.
REFERENCE GROUPS CO 1
Humans are social animals. We all belong to groups, try to please others, and take cues
about how to behave by observing the actions of those around us. In fact, our desire to “fit
in” or to identify with desirable individuals or groups is the primary motivation for many
of our purchases and activities. We will often go to great lengths to please the members of
a group whose acceptance we covet, or our reference groups.1
A reference group is “an actual or imaginary individual or group conceived of
as having significant relevance upon an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or
behaviour.”2 Reference groups influence consumers in three ways. These influences—
informational, utilitarian, and value-expressive—are described in Table 11–1. People
buy products to associate with particular groups and even to bond with fellow
consumers. For example, riders of Harley-Davidson motorcycles feel a bond with
others who also own a Harley. The publisher of American Iron, an industry magazine,
observed, “You don’t buy a Harley because it’s a superior bike, you buy a Harley to be
a part of a family.”3
This chapter focuses on how other people, whether co-workers, friends, family, or just
casual acquaintances, influence our purchase decisions. It considers how our preferences
are shaped by our group memberships, our desire to please or be accepted by others, or the
actions of famous people whom we’ve never even met. It explores why some people are
more influential than others in affecting consumers’ product preferences and how market-
ers go about finding those people and enlisting their support in the persuasion process.
Finally, it explores how social media are an effective and efficient mechanism for enabling
social influence to be realized in the marketplace.
310 S E C T I O N I V Consumers in Their Social and Cultural Settings
TABLE 11–1
Three Forms of Reference Group Influence

Informational influence The individual seeks information about various brands from an association of professionals or an
independent group of experts.
The individual seeks information from those who work with the product in a profession.
The individual seeks brand-related knowledge and experience (such as how brand A’s performance
compares with brand B’s) from those friends, neighbours, relatives, or work associates who have
reliable information about the brands.
The brand the individual selects is influenced by observing a seal of approval from an indepen-
dent testing agency (such as Good Housekeeping).
The individual’s observation of what experts do (e.g., observing the type of vehicle race-car drivers
drive or the brand of washer/dryer repairpersons buy) influences his or her choice of a brand.
Utilitarian influence The individual’s decision to purchase a particular brand is influenced by the preferences of fellow
work associates, in hopes that he or she satisfies their expectations.
The individual’s decision to purchase a particular brand is influenced by the preferences of people
with whom he or she has social interaction.
The individual’s decision to purchase a particular brand is influenced by the preferences of family
members.
The desire to satisfy the expectations of others has an impact on the individual’s brand choice.
Value-expressive influence The individual feels that the purchase or use of a particular brand will enhance the image others
have of him or her.
The individual feels that those who purchase or use a particular brand possess the characteristics
that he or she would like to have.
The individual sometimes feels that it would be nice to be like the type of person that advertise-
ments show using a particular brand.
The individual feels that the people who purchase a particular brand are admired or respected by
others.
The individual feels that the purchase of a particular brand would help show others what he or
she is or would like to be (such as an athlete, successful businessperson, good parent).
Source: Based on C. Whan Park and V. Parker Lessig, “Students and Housewives: Differences in Susceptibility to Reference Group Influence,” Journal of Consumer Research 4 (September 1977): 102.
CO 2 Types of Reference Groups

Although two or more people are normally required to form a group, the term refer-
ence group is often used a bit more loosely to describe any external influence that
provides social cues.4 The referent may be a cultural figure and have an impact on
many people, or it may be a person or group whose influence is confined to the con-
sumer’s immediate environment. Reference groups that affect consumption can
include parents, fellow motorcycle enthusiasts, the Liberal Party, the Toronto Raptors,
or fellow fans of a musical artist such as Drake.
Some people influence us simply because we feel similar to them. Have you ever
experienced a warm feeling when you pulled up at a light next to someone driving the
same car as yours? One reason we feel a bond with fellow brand users is that we feel
attracted to people similar to ourselves. That may explain why we feel a connection to
others who happen to share our name as well. Research on the “name-letter effect”
finds that, other things being equal, we like others who share our names or even ini-
tials better than those who don’t. When researchers look at large databases such as
Internet phone directories or social security records, they find that Johnsons are more
C H A P T E R 1 1 Group Influence and Social Media 311
likely to wed Johnsons, women named Virginia are more likely to live in (and move to)
Virginia, and people whose surname is Lane tend to have addresses that include the Consumers
word lane, not street.5
Obviously, some groups and individuals exert a greater influence than others and In Focus
for a broader range of consumption decisions. For example, our parents may play a
We tend to think of running as something you
pivotal role in forming our values related to many important issues, such as attitudes
do on your own, but today you’re much more
about marriage or where to go to university. This type of influence is normative influ-
likely to run with a group. People train with
ence; that is, the reference group helps to set and enforce fundamental standards of friends and participate in charity runs
conduct. In contrast, a Weight Watchers group might exert comparative influence, in together. Many of us are moving away from
which decisions about specific brands or activities are affected.6 running alone at home; sales of home cardio
equipment like treadmills are way down.
FO R MA L VE RS U S IN F O RMA L GR O U P S Instead people gravitate toward group
A reference group can take the form of a large, formal organization that has a recog- activities, such as running clubs sponsored by
nized structure, complete with a charter, regular meeting times, and officers; or it can The Running Room, or toward competitive
be small and informal, such as a group of friends or students living in a student resi- activities like Tough Mudder events. New
dence. Marketers tend to be more successful at influencing formal than informal Balance, the shoe manufacturer, is picking up
on this trend with its “Runnovation” campaign
groups because they are more easily identifiable and accessible.
that focuses on running as a social activity.
However, as a rule it is small, informal groups that exert a more powerful influence
One print ad carries the headline “Redefine
on individual consumers. These groups tend to be more involved in individuals’ day-
Girls’ Night Out” and shows a group of women
to-day lives and to be more important to them; as a result, these groups are high in
running together: “Some go out. Others go out
normative influence. Larger, formal groups tend to be more product- or activity-specific
and make excellent happen. The night is yours.
and thus are high in comparative influence.
This is Runnovation.”
This advertisement from Bell highlights

the importance of membership reference
groups in influencing consumers’ decisions.
Courtesy of Bell Canada
Expand your social circle.
35
The Fab 10 plan from Bell gives you unlimited nationwide calling
$ /MO.
to 10 lucky friends.1 Plus, you get unlimited local evenings and
weekends starting at 6 p.m., unlimited text, picture and video
FAB 10
messaging, and more.2 There’s never been a better time to get
PROMO PLAN
on the best network, with the largest high-speed coverage and
the fastest speeds across Canada.3
Available at the following Bell stores:
Barrie Barrie Barrie

44 Cedar Point Drive 632 Yonge Street Barrie Power Centre
705 739-0270 705 719-7886 705 735-4481
Offer ends October 6, 2011. Available with compatible devices within network coverage areas available from Bell Mobility where technology permits. Paper bill charge ($2/mo.) applies unless you register for e-bill and cancel your paper bill. Other monthly fees, e.g., 911 (New
Brunswick: $0.53, Nova Scotia: $0.43, P.E.I.: $0.50, Quebec: $0.40), and one-time device activation ($35) apply. Upon early termination, price adjustments apply; see your Service Agreement for details. 30 days advance notice of termination required where not prohibited by law.
Subject to change without notice. Taxes extra. Other conditions apply. (1) Applies to local and Canadian long distance calls made to and from ten numbers chosen by the customer. (2) Weeknights Mon-Thur, 6pm-7am; Weekends Fri 6pm-Mon 7am. Sent messages include
domestic text messages and exclude international, roaming, alerts, premium text messages and messages sent with an instant messaging application. Roaming messages include international GSM, CDMA and U.S. CDMA messages. Received messages include domestic, international,
roaming and service-related messages from Bell and exclude premium, alerts or dial-up messages. Out of bundle charges may apply. (3) With compatible devices. Based on comparison of national networks: (a) fastest network in more places, according to tests of average
upload and download speeds in large urban centres across Canada (b) largest network, based on total square kms of coverage, and (c) average call failure rate on par, based on tests including network access failures, blocked calls and dropped calls in large urban centres
across Canada; all on the shared HSPA+ (4G) network available from Bell, vs. Rogers HSPA/HSPA+ network. Excludes roaming partners’ HSPA and GSM/EDGE coverage in certain parts of Manitoba. Speed may vary due to topography, environmental conditions, device type and
other factors. See bell.ca/network for details.
Harley-Davidson has done an excellent job of

creating a sense of community around the
brand by organizing group events where
Harley-Davidson owners can ride together.
World Ride is an annual event that brings
thousands of Harley-Davidson motorcycle
riders together in a collective effort to
celebrate the motorcycle-riding experience.
Courtesy Deeley Harley-Davidson Canada
B R A N D C O MMU N ITIES
Portalxbox Some marketing researchers are embracing a perspective on reference groups as they
identify groups built around shared allegiance to a product or an activity. A brand
community is a set of consumers who share a set of social relationships based on usage
of or interest in a product. Unlike other kinds of communities, these members typi-
cally don’t live near each other and meet only for brief periods at organized events
called brandfests, such as those sponsored by Jeep or Harley-Davidson. These events
help owners “bond” with fellow enthusiasts and strengthen their identification with
the product as well as with others who share their passion.
Brand communities can also form when consumers come together for a particular
activity around a brand (such as running through a Running Room clinic) or when
consumers commiserate about a brand or activity online (such as yoga on Lulule-
mon’s interactive blog site). Researchers find that people who participate in these
types of brand communities feel more positive about the products as a result, which
enhances brand loyalty. They are more forgiving than others of product failures or
lapses in service quality and less likely to switch brands even if they learn that com-
peting products are as good or better. Furthermore, these community members
become emotionally involved in the company’s welfare, and they often serve as brand
missionaries by carrying its marketing message to others.7
M E MB E R S H IP VER SU S ASPIR ATIO N AL R EFER EN CE G R O U PS

Although some reference groups consist of people the consumer actually knows, oth-
ers comprise people the consumer can either identify with or admire. Not surpris-
ingly, many marketing efforts that specifically adopt a reference-group appeal
concentrate on highly visible, widely admired figures (such as athletes or actors).
Aspirational reference groups comprise idealized figures, such as successful busi-
nesspeople, athletes, or performers. One study that included business students who
aspired to the “executive” role found a strong relationship between products the stu-
dents associated with their ideal selves (see Chapter 5) and those products they
assumed would be owned or used by executives.8
Membership reference groups involve other consumers who belong to the same
groups as we do. Examples include our circle of friends, family, classmates, or team-
mates from our soccer club. We often conform to what those from membership groups
are doing because of a sense of similarity and connectedness to them. For this reason
many promotional strategies include “ordinary” people whose consumption activities
provide informational social influence.
The likelihood that people will become part of a consumer’s identified reference
group is affected by several factors, including the following: Marketing
• Propinquity (physical nearness): As physical distance between people decreases Insight
and opportunities for interaction increase, relationships are more likely to form.
An early study on friendship patterns in a housing complex showed propinquity’s One real-life experiment demonstrates the
strong effects: Residents were much more likely to be friends with the people next potential social value of harnessing reference-
group power. For years a local Municipal Utility
door than with those who lived only two doors away. And people who lived next
District tried various tactics to goad people
to a staircase had more friends than those at the ends of a hall (presumably they
into using less energy, such as awarding
were more likely to “bump into” people using the stairs).9 Physical structure has
rebates to residents who buy energy-saving
a lot to do with who we get to know and how popular we are.
appliances. These efforts weren’t working too
• Mere exposure: We come to like people or things simply as a result of seeing them well, so the district tried something new: It told
more often, which is known as the mere exposure effect.10 Greater frequency of people how their energy consumption com-
contact, even if unintentional, may help to determine a person’s set of local refer- pared to their neighbours’. Thirty-five thousand
ents. The same effect holds when evaluating works of art or political candidates.11 randomly selected customers received state-
• Group cohesiveness: The degree to which members of a group are attracted to ments that rated their energy use compared to
each other and value their group membership is called cohesiveness. As the value 100 of their neighbours who lived in homes of a
of the group to the individual increases, so too does the likelihood that the group similar size. The relatively energy-efficient cus-
tomers earned two smiley faces on their state-
will guide consumption decisions. Smaller groups tend to be more cohesive,
ments, and those whose usage was higher
because it is more difficult to relate to larger groups of people. By the same token,
than average opened their envelopes to see
groups often try to restrict membership to a select few, which increases the value
frowns (they had to delete the frown part after
of membership to those who are admitted. Exclusivity of membership is a benefit
customers got too upset). After six months, the
often touted by credit-card companies, book clubs, and so on, even though the
utility found that customers who got these
actual membership base might be fairly large. report cards reduced energy use by 2 percent.
Some universities employ a similar tech-
nique when they create a competition among
student residences to determine which resi-
dence hall does the best job of conserving
resources. Students who live in a “green dorm”
can access a website that tells them how much
power their specific suite uses compared to the
other suites in the building. Peer pressure is
powerful!12
Dos Equis has successfully used a non-

celebrity aspirational referent in its “Most
Interesting Man in the World” campaign
(#staythirstymyfriends).
© Michael Lewis/Corbis Outline
P O S IT IV E VER SU S N EG ATIVE R EFER EN CE G R O U PS

Consumers Reference groups may exert either a positive or a negative influence on consump-
in Focus tion behaviours. In most cases, consumers model their behaviour to be consistent
with what they think the group expects of them. In some cases, though, a consumer
Most consumers admire their aspirational refer- may try to distance him- or herself from other people or groups that function as
ence groups only from afar, but more and more dissociative reference groups—groups (or group members) the consumer wants to
of them are shelling out big bucks to get up avoid association with.13 He or she may carefully study the dress or mannerisms of
close and personal with their heroes. Fantasy a disliked group (e.g., “nerds,” “druggies,” “preppies”) and scrupulously avoid
camps today are a $1 billion industry as people buying anything that might identify him or her with that group. The motivation to
pay for the chance to hang out—and play distance ourselves from a negative reference group can be as or more powerful
with—their idols. Baseball camps that mix than the desire to please a positive group.14 That’s why advertisements occasion-
retired players with fans have been around for ally show an undesirable person using a competitor’s product to subtly make the
many years, but now other camps are springing
point that the target of the message can avoid winding up like that kind of person
up to let people mingle with their favourite
by staying away from that product. Today, others have adapted this avoidance-
hockey players or poker players. At one camp, 80
group appeal to point out the ways we define ourselves by not consuming some
people each paid about $8000 to jam with rock
products or services. For example, in response to Old Spice’s popular campaign for
legends including Nils Lofgren, Dickey Betts,
men’s products, Axe released the tagline “For men who would rather be with a
and Roger Daltrey. One enthusiastic novice
woman than on a horse.”
gushed afterward, “We all grow up with heroes
and never get to share a moment with them. In one study, males avoided the dissociative associations of a steak called “the
But I got to live out my fantasy.”17 Check out ladies’ cut,” opting for the larger “house cut” steak instead. When the same smaller
www.rockcamp.com to see for yourself. steak was called the “chef’s cut,” no differences in preferences for the small versus the
large steak were observed.15 In another study, students in one student residence began
wearing Livestrong bracelets to support a cancer-related charity. However, when stu-
dents in the dorky, academic dorm down the street were given the same bracelets to
wear, students in the first dorm quickly gave them up.16
AN T IB R A N D CO MMU N ITIES
The Web encourages the rise of a new kind of avoidance group—antibrand
communities. These groups also coalesce around a celebrity, store, or brand—but in
this case they’re united by their disdain for it. The Rachael Ray Sucks community on
the blogging and social networking site LiveJournal claims more than 1000 members
who don’t hesitate to post their latest thoughts about the various shortcomings,
flaws, and disagreeable traits of the (otherwise popular) television food personality.
They criticize Ray’s overuse of chicken stock, her kitchen hygiene, her smile (posters
like to compare it to the Joker’s smile of Batman fame), her penchant for saying
“Yum-o!,” and so on. The community has a basic rule for membership: “You must be
anti-Rachael!”18
One team of researchers who study these communities observes that they tend to
attract social idealists who advocate non-materialistic lifestyles. After the researchers
interviewed members of online communities who oppose companies like Walmart,
Starbucks, and McDonald’s, they concluded that these antibrand communities pro-
vide a meeting place for those who share a moral stance, a support network to achieve
common goals, a means for coping with workplace frustrations (many members actu-
ally work for the companies they are bashing), and a hub for information, activities,
and related resources.19
When Reference Groups Are Important

Reference-group influences are not equally powerful for all types of products and con-
sumption activities. For example, the purchase of products that are not very complex,
that are low in perceived risk, and that can be tried prior to purchase are less suscep-
tible to personal influence.20 In addition, the specific impact of reference groups may
vary. At times they might determine the use of certain products rather than others
(eating junk food or health food), while at other times they might have specific effects
As I See It
As social media conversations required to do so. And, while it was hoped that they would com-
grow exponentially, so does ment favourably about the phone, no guidelines were given
marketers’ desire to harness about the content of their comments.
the information that is trans- We studied what the bloggers wrote on their blogs before,
mitted about their products. during, and after the campaign, as well as the responses their
To do so, they increasingly turn postings received from their readers. Our analysis led us to
Courtesy of Dr. Sarah Wilner
to word-of-mouth (WOM) mar- find that context, character, and community count. Bloggers’
keting, also known as buzz or own life stories and the type of blog they wrote—for example,
viral marketing—the inten- tech reviews or “mommy blogs”—attracted an audience that
tional influencing of consumer- often became its own micro-community. This online commu-
to-consumer communication nity’s norms, in turn, affected both what the bloggers said
by professional marketers— about a seeded product and how their comments were
Dr. Sarah J.S. Wilner, Wilfrid Laurier and it’s big business. received. Specifically, as bloggers transformed the commer-
University WOM, also referred to as cial ideas they were given by marketers into information that
“amplified” word of mouth, is would be valuable to their specific blogging community, the
distinguished from naturally occurring or “organic” word of word of mouth they created was actually co-created by their
mouth by marketers’ attempts to encourage or accelerate con- audiences’ expectations and reactions, a phenomenon we call
sumer conversations. According to the Word of Mouth Marketing “networked narratives.”
Association, ways of amplifying word of mouth include creating Word-of-mouth campaigns such as this give important insight
opportunities or spaces for consumers to share information into consumers’ behaviour in relation to marketers. While word of
(such as contests, referral tools, or online community sites); pro- mouth has been traditionally defined by its non-commercial
viding opinion leaders or brand advocates with information they motives (we trust our friends’ advice precisely because we believe
can share with other consumers; and providing product samples it is offered in our best interests), consumers drafted into the role
or experiences with individuals who are likely to talk to influence of marketer by being offered products or other benefits are caught
others, a practice known as “product seeding.” in a potentially awkward place between the power of (commercial)
My colleagues and I studied one such seeding campaign, in influence and the desire for community acceptance and apprecia-
which a prominent global technology manufacturer asked a buzz tion. Our study suggests that for consumers, successfully navigat-
marketing agency to give its latest model of camera-equipped ing such inevitable role tension involves maintaining consistency
mobile phone and accessories to 90 Canadian bloggers. The between the type and tone an individual influencer already uses in
bloggers were selected for the relevance of their blog content conveying information to his or her community and the word of
(e.g., some were photography enthusiasts while others were mouth communicated in the course of a campaign. Marketers, on
technology hobbyists); the popularity of their blogs (as measured the other hand, should consider the relationship a communicator
in the number of unique visitors each day); and their geographic has with his or her community as well as his or her expertise in the
location (six cities across Canada). In accordance with ethics product category. Pushing consumers against his or her commu-
standards established by the association and its members, the nity’s norms may produce backlash against the message and/or
bloggers were encouraged to blog about the phone, but not the product.
Source: Adapted from Robert V. Kozinets, Kristine DeValck, Andrea Wojnicki, and Sarah J.S. Wilner, “Networked Narratives: Understanding Word-of-Mouth Marketing in Online
Communities,” Journal of Marketing 74(2) (2010): 71–89.
on brand decisions within a product category (wearing Levi’s or 7 For All Mankind
jeans, drinking Molson or Alexander Keith’s).
Two dimensions that influence the degree to which reference groups are impor-
tant are whether the purchase is to be consumed publicly or privately and whether it
is a luxury or a necessity. As a rule, reference-group effects are more robust for pur-
chases that are (1) luxuries (such as sailboats) rather than necessities, since products
purchased with discretionary income are subject to individual tastes and preferences
and necessities do not offer this range of choice; and (2) items that are socially con-
spicuous or visible to others (such as handbags or clothing), since consumers are not
swayed as much by the opinions of others if their purchases will never be observed by
FIGURE 11–1
Relative Reference-Group Influence on Purchase Decisions
Weak reference Strong reference

group influence (–) group influence (+)
on product purchase on product purchase
PUBLIC NECESSITIES PUBLIC LUXURIES

Strong reference
Influence: Weak for product Influence: Strong for
group influence
and strong for brand product and for brand
(+) on brand
Examples: Wristwatch, Examples: Golf clubs,
selected
automobile, suit snow skis, sailboat
PRIVATE NECESSITIES PRIVATE LUXURIES

Weak reference
Influence: Weak for product Influence: Strong for
group influence
and weak for brand product and weak for brand
(–) on brand
Examples: Mattress, floor Examples: TV, video game,
selected
lamp, refrigerator trash compactor
Source: Adapted from William O. Bearden and Michael J. Etzel, “Reference Group Influence on Product and Brand Purchase Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Research (September 1982): 185. Reprinted with
permission by The University of Chicago Press.
anyone but themselves.21 The relative effects of reference-group influences on some

specific product classes are shown in Figure 11–1.
The Power of Reference Groups

Why are reference groups so persuasive? The answer lies in the potential power
they wield over us. Social power refers to “the capacity to alter the actions of oth-
ers.”22 To the degree that you are able to make someone else do something, whether
he or she does it willingly or not, you have power over that person. The following
classification of power bases can help us distinguish among the reasons a person
can exert power over another, the degree to which the influence is allowed volun-
tarily, and whether this influence will continue to have an effect in the absence of
the power source.23
RE F E R E N T PO WER
If a person admires the qualities of an individual or a group, he or she will try to
imitate those qualities by copying the referent’s behaviours (e.g., choice of cloth-
ing, cars, and leisure activities) as a guide to forming consumption preferences.
Prominent people in all walks of life can affect people’s consumption behaviours
by virtue of product endorsements. Referent power is important to many marketing
strategies because consumers voluntarily change behaviours to please or identify
with a referent.
IN F O R MAT IO N PO WER
A person can have information power simply because he or she knows something oth-
ers would like to know. For example, popular fashion bloggers who are seen as high in
expertise often possess power because of their ability to compile and disseminate
information that can make or break individual designers or companies. People with
The Running Room leverages the power of

positive membership reference groups to
motivate consumers to exercise.
Courtesy of Running Room Canada Inc.
information power are able to influence consumer opinion by virtue of their (assumed)
access to the “truth.”
LE G I TIMATE P O W E R
Sometimes people are granted power by virtue of social agreements, such as that given
to police officers and politicians. The legitimate power conferred by a uniform is
recognized in many consumer contexts, including teaching hospitals, where medical
students don white coats to enhance their aura of authority with patients.24 This form
of power may be “borrowed” by marketers to influence consumers. For example, an ad
featuring a model wearing a white doctor’s coat can add an aura of legitimacy or
authority to the presentation of the product.
EXP E RT P OWE R
Expert power is derived from possessing a specific knowledge or skill. Consumers are
often influenced by experts who are assumed to be able to evaluate products in an objec-
tive, informed way. The power of celebrity experts can be measured by their visibility on
talk shows, lecture circuits, and so on. Prominent economists, for example, can receive
between $5000 and $20 000 for a speech, depending on their level of perceived expertise.
R E WA RD P OWE R
When a person or group has the means to provide positive reinforcement (see
Chapter 3)—a stimulus that increases a behaviour or response—that entity will have
power over a consumer to the extent that this reinforcement is valued or desired.
The reward may be tangible, as occurs when an employee is given a raise, or
intangible, as when social approval or acceptance is exchanged in return for
moulding one’s behaviour to conform to a group or buying the products expected of
group members.
CO E R C IVE P OWE R
Although coercive power is often effective in the short term, it does not tend to pro-
duce permanent attitudinal or behavioural change. Surveillance of some sort is usu-
ally required to make people do something they do not wish to do. Fortunately,
coercive power is rarely employed in marketing situations. However, elements of this
power base are evident in fear appeals, in intimidation in personal selling, and in
some campaigns that emphasize the negative consequences that might occur if people
do not use a product.
Fitbit encourages consumer conformity by

suggesting that consumers can fit in with
what their family and friends are doing.
Fitbit’s platform also uses social
comparison to others with similar fitness
goals in order to motivate consumers to
improve their own performance.
AP Photo/Richard Drew
Conformity
Conformity refers to a change in beliefs or actions as a reaction to real or imagined
group pressure. In order for a society to function, its members develop norms, or infor-
mal rules, that govern behaviour. If such a system of agreements did not evolve, chaos
would result. Imagine the confusion if a simple norm such as stopping for a red traffic
light did not exist. Although norms change slowly over time, there is general agree-
ment within a society about which ones should be obeyed, and we adjust our way of
thinking to conform to these norms.
We conform in many small ways every day—even though we don’t always real-
ize it. Unspoken rules govern many aspects of consumption. In addition to norms
regarding the appropriate use of clothing and other personal items, we conform to
rules that include gift giving (we expect birthday presents from loved ones and get
upset if they do not materialize), gender roles (men are often expected to pick up the
bill on a first date), and personal hygiene (we are expected to shower regularly to
avoid offending others).
The pressure to conform conflicts with another motivation we’ve already dis-
cussed: the need to be unique. How can we reconcile these two goals? One study sug-
gests that we try to have it both ways: We line up with a group on one dimension, such
as choosing a popular brand, but we differentiate ourselves on another by choosing a
unique attribute such as colour.25
Within limits, people often approve of others who exhibit nonconforming behav-
iour. This may be because we assume that someone who makes unconventional
choices is more powerful or competent, so he or she can afford to go out on a limb.
Researchers term this the red sneakers effect (to describe a brave person who sports a
pair of red kicks in a professional setting). Indeed, they find that nonconforming
behaviours under some conditions do lead to more positive impressions—but these
disappear when observers are unsure why the brave soul is violating a norm or if they
decide the violator is not doing it intentionally (i.e., he or she is just clueless).26
Although we observe conformity in many settings (just remember high school!),
we don’t mimic others’ behaviours all the time. What makes it more likely that we’ll
conform?27 These are some common factors:
• Cultural pressures: Different cultures encourage conformity to a greater or lesser
degree. Japanese society, for example, is characterized by the dominance of
Neutrogena highlights the effectiveness of

the product by utilizing the expert power
of dermatologists.
© Myrleen Pearson/Alamy Stock Photo
collective well-being and group loyalty over individual needs. While North
Americans like to say “The squeaky wheel gets the grease,” in Japan a popular
expression is “The nail that stands up gets hammered down.” In one study, groups
of passengers who arrived at an airport were asked to complete a survey and
offered a handful of different-coloured pens to use—for example, four orange and
one green. People of European descent more often chose the one pen that stood
out, while Asians chose the colour that was like the majority of others.28
• Fear of deviance: The individual may have reason to believe that the group will
apply sanctions to punish behaviour that differs from the group’s. It is not unusual
to observe adolescents shunning a peer who is “different,” or a corporation pass-
ing over a person for promotion because he or she is not a “team player.”
• Commitment: The more a person is dedicated to a group and values membership
in it, the more motivated he or she will be to follow the dictates of the group.
Rock groupies and followers of television evangelists may do anything that is
asked of them, and terrorists are willing to die for their causes. According to the
principle of least interest, the person or group who is least committed to staying
in a relationship has the most power, because that party won’t be susceptible to
threatened rejection.29
• Group unanimity, size, and expertise: As groups gain in power, compliance
increases. It is often harder to resist the demands of a large number of people than
those of just a few, and this difficulty is compounded when the group members
are perceived as knowing what they are talking about.
• Susceptibility to interpersonal influence: This trait refers to an individual’s need
to identify with or to enhance his or her image in the opinion of significant others.
The Gap utilizes social influence and

conformity by showing images of attractive,
like-minded people fitting in and enjoying
themselves.
AP Photo/Seth Wenig
This enhancement process is often accompanied by the acquisition of products

the person believes will impress his or her audience and by the tendency to learn
about products by observing how others use them.30 Consumers who are low on
this trait have been called role-relaxed; they tend to be older and affluent and to
have high self-confidence.
• Environmental cues: One study reported that people are more likely to conform
when they make decisions in a warm room. Apparently the warmth caused partici-
pants to feel closer to other decision makers, and this feeling led them to assume
that the others’ opinions were more valid. In one part of the study, the researchers
analyzed betting behaviour at a racetrack over a three-year period. Sure enough,
people were more likely to bet on the “favourite” horse on warmer days.31
Social Comparison
Informational social influence implies that sometimes we look to the behaviour of
others to provide a yardstick about reality. Social comparison theory suggests that
consumers will often compare themselves to others in ways that increase the stabil-
ity of their self-evaluation, especially when objective evidence is unavailable.32
Such stylistic decisions as tastes in music and art are assumed to be a matter of indi-
vidual choice, yet people often believe that some types are “better” or more “cor-
rect” than others.33 If you have ever been responsible for choosing the music to play
at a party, you can probably appreciate the social pressure involved in choosing the
right mix.
Although people often like to compare their judgments and actions with those of
others, they tend to be selective about precisely whom they will use as benchmarks. Marketing
Similarity between the consumer and others used for social comparison boosts
confidence that the information is accurate and relevant (though we may find it more
Insight
threatening to be outperformed by someone similar to ourselves).34 We tend to value One criticism of focus groups that provide feed-
the views of obviously dissimilar others only when we are reasonably certain of back from consumers is that participants who
our own.35 listen to what others say in the group may
In general, people tend to choose a co-oriented peer, or a person of equivalent change their opinions on the basis of this tem-
standing, when undergoing social comparison. For example, a study of adult cosmet- porary group influence. Experimental evidence
ics users found that women were more likely to seek information about product underscores how powerful this effect can be.
choices from similar friends to reduce uncertainty and to trust the judgments of simi- These studies replicated the live-feedback
lar others.36 The same effects have been found for evaluations of products as diverse as graphs that networks sometimes use to report
audience responses during political debates;
men’s suits and coffee.37
marketing research firms also use this dial-
testing format when they ask focus groups to
G R O U P E FFE C T S O N C ON S U ME R B E H AV IO U R CO 3
evaluate TV shows and commercials. In one
With more people in a group, it becomes less likely that any one member will be sin- study that mimicked American Idol, several hun-
gled out for attention. People in larger groups or those in situations wherein they are dred college students watched performances as
unlikely to be identified tend to focus less attention on themselves, so normal restraints fake audience feedback appeared on the screen.
on behaviour are reduced. You may have observed that people sometimes behave When the feedback was negative, their evalua-
more wildly at costume parties or on Halloween night than they do normally. This tions of the contestants dipped also. In a similar
phenomenon is known as deindividuation, in which individual identities get sub- study, participants watched an excerpt of a
merged within a group. 1984 debate between presidential candidates
There is some evidence that decisions made by groups differ from those that Ronald Reagan and Walter Mondale. Respon-
would be made by each individual. In many cases group members show a greater will- dents who saw screen feedback that favoured
ingness to consider riskier alternatives following group discussion than they would if Reagan were 2.8 times more likely to say they
each member made his or her own decision with no discussion. This change is known would have voted for him while those who saw
as the risky shift.39 similar feedback in favour of Mondale were
1.8 times more likely to say they would have
Several explanations have been advanced to explain this increased riskiness. One
voted for the Democratic candidate.38
possibility is that, as more people are involved in a decision, each individual is less
accountable for the outcome, so diffusion of responsibility occurs.40 Another explana-
tion is called the value hypothesis. In this case, riskiness is a culturally valued charac-
teristic, and social pressures operate on individuals to conform to attributes valued
by society.41
Evidence for the risky shift is mixed. A more general effect appears to be that
group discussion tends to increase decision polarization. Whichever direction the
group members were leaning toward before discussion began—toward a risky choice
or a conservative one—becomes even more extreme after discussion. Group discus-
sions regarding product purchases tend to create a risky shift for low-risk items, but
they yield even more conservative group decisions for high-risk products.42
Even shopping behaviour changes when people do it in groups. For example,
people who shop with at least one other person tend to buy more, make more
unplanned purchases, and cover more areas of a store than those who go alone.43 Consumers
These effects are due to both normative and informational social influence. Group
members may be convinced to buy something to gain the approval of the others, or in Focus
they may simply be exposed to more products and stores by pooling information
One implication of consuming in group con-
within the group. For these reasons retailers would be well advised to encourage
texts is that it can lead to social loafing effects.
group shopping activities.
Social loafing refers to the fact that people do
Home shopping parties, epitomized by the “Tupperware party,” capitalize on
not devote as much effort to a task when their
group pressures to boost sales.44 A company representative makes a sales presenta-
contribution is part of a larger group effort.
tion to a group of people who have gathered in the home of a friend or an acquain- Wait staff are painfully aware of social loafing:
tance. This format is effective because of informational social influence: Participants People who eat in groups tend to tip less per
model the behaviour of others who can provide them with information about how to person than those who eat alone. For this rea-
use certain products, especially because the home party is likely to be attended by a son, many restaurants automatically tack on a
relatively homogeneous group (e.g., neighbourhood homemakers) that serves as a fixed gratuity for groups of six or more.
valuable benchmark. Normative social influence also operates because actions are
publicly observed. Pressures to conform may be particularly intense and may esca-
late as more and more group members begin to “cave in” (a process sometimes called
the bandwagon effect).
In addition, deindividuation or the risky shift may be activated: As consumers
get caught up in the group, they may find themselves willing to try new products
they would not normally consider. These same dynamics underlie one wrinkle on
the Tupperware home-selling technique: the Botox party. The craze for Botox injec-
tions that paralyze facial nerves to reduce wrinkles (for three to six months anyway)
is being fuelled by gatherings where dermatologists or plastic surgeons redefine the
definition of house calls. For patients, mixing cocktail hour with cosmetic injec-
tions takes some of the anxiety out of the procedure. Egged on by the others at the
party, as many as 10 patients can be dewrinkled in an hour. An advertising execu-
tive who worked on the Botox marketing strategy explained that the appeal of the
membership reference group is more effective than the traditional route of using a
celebrity spokesperson to tout the injections in advertising: “We think it’s more
persuasive to think of your next-door neighbor using it.”45 The only hitch is that
after you get the injections, your face is so rigid that your friends can’t tell whether
you’re smiling.
One way groups can influence decisions is via the roles they play within the group
itself.46 When collective buying decisions are made, such as when a family purchases
a television or an organization purchases a photocopier, the group must select an
option that serves everyone’s needs. Depending on the decision, the choice may
include some or all of the group members, and different group members play impor-
tant roles in what can be a complicated process. These roles include the following:
• Initiator: The person who brings up the idea or identifies a need
• Gatekeeper: The person who conducts the information search and controls the
flow of information available to the group
• Influencer: The person who tries to sway the outcome of the decision; some
people may be more motivated than others to get involved, and participants also
possess different amounts of power to get their point across
• Buyer: The person who actually makes the purchase; the buyer may or may not
actually use the product
• User: The person who actually consumes the product or service
This advertisement from Alexander Keith’s

suggests consumers should conform to what
their friends are doing and “share over ice.”
© 2012 Keith’s Brewery
Consider a household purchasing a new family computer. It turns out that 18-year-
old Jack is the initiator—he nags his parents, saying that they need a newer computer
so he can do research for school. However, Alison, a 9-year-old, is an influencer—she
wants to make sure the computer is compatible with the games she wants to play on it.
Ella is Jack and Alison’s grandma, who often makes dinner for the family. She is a
user, who wants to make sure the computer is portable so she can download and read
recipes in the kitchen. Mom is the gatekeeper—she is going to take everyone’s needs
into account and will likely select which computer to buy and find out where to get it
at the best price. Dad, however, is the buyer—he will be the one to cough up the cash
to actually make the purchase.
Resisting Conformity
Many people pride themselves on their independence, unique style, or ability to
resist the best efforts of salespeople and advertisers to sell products to them.47
Indeed, individuality should be encouraged by the marketing system: Innovation
creates change and demand for new products and styles. It is important to distin-
guish between independence and anticonformity, in which defiance of the group is
the actual object of behaviour.48 Some people will go out of their way not to buy
whatever happens to be in at the moment. Indeed, they may spend a lot of time and
effort ensuring that they will not be caught in style. This behaviour is a bit of a
paradox, since to be vigilant about not doing what is expected, one must always be
aware of what is expected. In contrast, truly independent people are oblivious to
what is expected.
People have a deep-seated need to preserve freedom of choice. When they are
threatened with a loss of this freedom, they try to overcome this loss. This negative
emotional state is called reactance. 49 For example, efforts to censor books, TV
shows, or styles of music because some people find the content objectionable may
result in an increased desire for these products by the public.50 Similarly, extremely
overbearing promotions that tell consumers they must or should use a product
may wind up losing more customers in the long run—even those who were already
loyal to the advertised brand!
OPINION LEADERSHIP
As Cold Stone Creamery expands to Japan, the ice cream store projects a somewhat
different image than it has in North America. The chain wants to be ultra-cool as it
generates a buzz among fashion-conscious “office ladies”—as the Japanese call young,
single, female professionals. These women are very influential in Japan; their reac-
tions to a new product can make or break it. To woo this group, Cold Stone sponsored
a fashion show for young women (assuming the models can fit into the dresses after
sampling a few of the chain’s caloric creations), and fashion magazines staged photo
shoots at the stores.51
Although consumers get information from personal sources, they do not usually
ask just anyone for advice about purchases. If you decide to buy a new stereo speakers,
you will most likely seek advice from a friend who knows a lot about sound systems.
This friend may own a sophisticated system, or she may subscribe to specialized
magazines such as Stereo Review and spend her free time browsing through electronics
stores. However, you may have another friend who has a reputation for being stylish
and who spends his free time reading Gentleman’s Quarterly and shopping at trendy
boutiques. You might not bring up your stereo problem with him, but you may take
him with you to shop for a new fall wardrobe.
Everyone knows people who are knowledgeable about products and whose advice
others take seriously. These individuals, or opinion leaders, are frequently able to
influence others’ attitudes or behaviours.52 Clearly, some people’s recommendations
carry more weight than others. Opinion leaders are extremely valuable information
sources because they possess the social power we discussed earlier in the chapter. In
addition, opinion leaders are valuable sources of information:
• They are technically competent and possess expert power.53
• They prescreen, evaluate, and synthesize product information in an unbiased
way, so they possess knowledge power.54
• They tend to be socially active and highly interconnected in their communities.55
They are likely to hold office in community groups and clubs and to be active
outside the home. As a result, opinion leaders often have legitimate power by vir-
tue of their social standing.
• They tend to be similar to the consumer in terms of their values and beliefs, so
they possess referent power. Note that although opinion leaders are set apart by
their interest or expertise in a product category, they are more convincing to the
extent that they are homophilous rather than heterophilous. Homophily refers to
the degree to which two individuals are similar in terms of education, social sta-
tus, and beliefs.56
• Opinion leaders are often among the first to buy new products, so they absorb
much of the risk. This experience reduces uncertainty for others who are not as
courageous. And although company-sponsored communications tend to focus
exclusively on the positive aspects of a product, this hands-on experience makes
opinion leaders more likely to impart both positive and negative information
about product performance.
H O W IN F L U EN TIAL IS AN O PIN IO N LEAD ER ?

When marketers and social scientists initially developed the concept of the opinion
leader, it was assumed that certain influential people in a community would exert an
overall impact on group members’ attitudes. Later work, however, began to question
Consumers the assumption that there is such a thing as a generalized opinion leader—somebody
In Focus whose recommendations are sought for all types of purchases. Very few people are
capable of being expert in a number of fields. Sociologists distinguish between those
It’s not unusual to observe herding behaviour who are monomorphic, or experts in a limited field, and those who are polymorphic,
among consumers as they blindly mimic what or experts in several fields.57 Even the opinion leaders who are polymorphic tend to
others in their group do. Information cascades concentrate on one broad domain, such as electronics or fashion.
can bias what people choose as they take
TYPES OF OPINION LEADERS Early conceptions of the role of the opinion leader also
their cues from what others select rather than
assumed a static process: The opinion leader absorbs information from the mass media
choosing what they genuinely like. In a study
that looked at how an individual’s music pref- and in turn transmits these data to opinion receivers. This view has turned out to be
erences depend upon knowing what other peo- overly simplified; it confuses the functions of several different types of consumers.
ple choose, test subjects listened to 72 songs Opinion leaders may or may not be purchasers of the products they recommend.
by new bands. A control group made their own As we will see in Chapter 15, early purchasers are known as innovators. Opinion lead-
individual judgments about which songs to ers who are also early purchasers have been called innovative communicators. One
select, but in other groups the participants study identified a number of characteristics of college men who were innovative com-
could see how many people downloaded par- municators for fashion products. These men were among the first to buy new fashions,
ticular songs. This feedback made a huge dif- and their fashion opinions were incorporated by other students into their own cloth-
ference in what people chose. For example, if a ing decisions. Other characteristics of these men included the following:59
song spiked early in the study and respondents • They were socially active.
could see that a lot of people chose it, many
• They were appearance-conscious and narcissistic (i.e., they were quite fond of
more people jumped on the bandwagon and
downloaded it as well. And it turns out that themselves and self-centred).
these cascades occurred regardless of whether • They were involved in music culture.
people genuinely liked the songs: The same • They were heavy magazine readers, including Sports Illustrated.
thing happened when the subjects were given
• They were likely to own more clothing and a broader range of styles than other
false information about which songs a lot of
students.
other people were downloading.58
• Their intellectual interests were relatively limited.
A recent reexamination of the traditional perspective on opinion leadership

reveals that the process isn’t as clear-cut as some researchers thought.60 The original
framework is called the two-step flow model of influence. It proposes that a small
group of influencers are responsible for dissemination of information, since they can
modify the opinions of a large number of other people. But when the researchers ran
extensive computer simulations of this process, they found that the influence is driven
less by influentials and more by the interaction among those who are easily influenced;
they communicate the information vigorously to one another and they also participate
in a two-way dialogue with the opinion leader as part of an influence network. These
conversations create cascades of information, which occurs when a piece of
information triggers a sequence of interactions (much like an avalanche). One study
tracked, on an hourly basis, the rate at which 50 million Facebook users installed 2700
apps. The researchers found clear evidence of an information cascade: Once an app
was installed about 55 times in one day, its popularity took off. As Facebook friends
got notified when someone installed the app, this feedback in turn prompted them to
do it as well.61
Consumers who are expert in a product category may not actively communicate
with others, while other consumers may have a more general interest in being involved
in product discussions. A consumer category called the market maven has been pro-
posed to describe people who are actively involved in transmitting marketplace infor-
mation of all types. Market mavens are not necessarily interested in certain products
and may not necessarily be early purchasers of products. They come closer to the func-
tion of a generalized opinion leader, because they tend to have a solid overall knowl-
edge of how and where to procure products.62 The following scale items, to which
respondents indicate how much they agree or disagree, have been used to identify
market mavens:
1. I like introducing new brands and products to my friends.
2. I like helping people by providing them with information about many kinds of
products.
3. People ask me for information about products, places to shop, or sales.
4. If someone asked me where to get the best buy on several types of products, I
could tell him or her where to shop.
5. My friends think of me as a good source of information when it comes to new
products or sales.63
Think about a person who has information about a variety of products and likes to
share this information with others. This person knows about new products, related
websites, sales, stores, and so on, but does not necessarily feel he or she is an expert on
one particular product. How well would you say this description fits you?
In addition to everyday consumers who are influential in affecting others’ pur-
chase decisions, a class of marketing intermediary called the surrogate consumer is an
active player in many categories. A surrogate consumer is a person who is hired to
provide input into purchase decisions. Unlike the opinion leader or market maven,
the surrogate is usually compensated for this involvement.
Interior decorators, stockbrokers, professional shoppers, or university consul-
tants can all be thought of as surrogate consumers. Whether or not they actually make
the purchase on behalf of the consumer, surrogates’ recommendations can be enor-
mously influential. The consumer in essence relinquishes control over several or all
decision-making functions, such as information search, evaluation of alternatives, or
the actual purchase. For example, a client may commission an interior decorator to
redo her house, while a broker may be entrusted to make crucial buy/sell decisions
on behalf of investors. The involvement of surrogates in a wide range of purchase
decisions tends to be overlooked by many marketers, who may be mistargeting their
communications to end consumers instead of the surrogates who are actually sifting
through product information.64
Identifying Opinion Leaders

Because opinion leaders are so central to consumer decision making, marketers are
quite interested in identifying influential people for a product category. In fact, many
ads are intended to reach these influentials rather than the average consumer, espe-
cially if the ads contain a lot of technical information.
Unfortunately, since most opinion leaders are everyday consumers and are not
formally included in marketing efforts, they are harder to find. A celebrity or an
influential industry executive is, by definition, easy to locate. He or she has national
or at least regional visibility. In contrast, most opinion leaders tend to operate at the
local level and may influence five to ten consumers rather than an entire market seg-
ment. In some cases, companies have been known to identify influentials and involve
them directly in their marketing efforts, hoping to create a “ripple effect” as these
consumers sing the company’s praises to their friends. Opinion leaders are increas-
ingly having an impact in online settings, too. In one example, Lord and Taylor stra-
tegically sent 50 influential fashion bloggers the same dress (and paid them to talk
about it).65 The result? The dress sold out in days. We will discuss the influence of
online opinion leaders (such as YouTubers and bloggers) more when we discuss
social media below.
T H E S E L F -D ESIG N ATIN G METH O D

The most commonly used technique to identify opinion leaders is simply to ask indi-
vidual consumers whether they consider themselves to be opinion leaders. This is
called the self-designating method.
Although respondents who report a greater degree of interest in a product cate-
gory are more likely to be opinion leaders, the results of surveys intended to identify
self-designated opinion leaders must be viewed with some skepticism. Some people
have a tendency to inflate their own importance and influence, while others who
really are influential might not admit to this quality.66 Just because we transmit advice
about products does not mean other people take that advice. For someone to be con-
sidered a bona fide opinion leader, his or her advice must actually be heard and heeded
by opinion-seekers.
An alternative to self-designation is to select certain group members (key infor-
mants) who are then asked to identify opinion leaders. The success of this approach
hinges on locating those who have accurate knowledge of the group and on minimiz-
ing their response biases (e.g., the tendency to inflate one’s own influence on the
choices of others).
Although the self-designating method is not as reliable as a more systematic analy-
sis (in which individual claims of influence can be verified by asking others whether
the person is really influential), it does have the advantage of being easy to administer
to a large group of potential opinion leaders. In some cases not all members of a com-
munity are surveyed. An updated version of the original measurement scale developed
for self-designation of opinion leaders is shown in Figure 11–2.67
S O C IO ME T RY
The popular play and movie Six Degrees of Separation is based on the basic prem-
ise that everyone on the planet indirectly knows everyone else—or at least knows
people who know them. Indeed, it is estimated that the average person has 1500
acquaintances and that any two people in the world could be connected by five to
six intermediaries.68
Sociometric methods, which trace communication patterns among group mem-
bers, allow researchers to systematically map out interactions that take place among
group members. People who tend to be sources of product-related information can be
identified by asking group members whom they go to for product information.
Although this method is the most precise, it is very hard and expensive to implement
FIGURE 11–2
A Revised and Updated Version of the Opinion Leadership Scale
Please rate yourself on the following scales relating to your interactions with friends and neighbours regarding __________.
1. In general, do you talk to your friends and neighbours about __________?
very often never
5 4 3 2 1
2. When you talk to your friends and neighbours about __________ do you:
give a great deal of information give very little information
5 4 3 2 1
3. During the past six months, how many people have you told about a new _________?
told a number of people told no one
5 4 3 2 1
4. Compared with your circle of friends, how likely are you to be asked about new __________?
very likely to be asked not at all likely to be asked
5 4 3 2 1
5. In discussion of new __________, which of the following happens most?
you tell your friends about __________ your friends tell you about __________
5 4 3 2 1
6. Overall, in all of your discussions with friends and neighbours, are you:
often used as a source of advice not used as a source of advice
5 4 3 2 1
Source: Adapted from Terry L. Childers, “Assessment of the Psychometric Properties of an Opinion Leadership Scale,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (May 1986): 184–188; Leisa Reinecke Flynn, Ronald E.
Goldsmith, and Jacqueline K. Eastman, “The King and Summers Opinion Leadership Scale: Revision and Refinement,” Journal of Business Research 31 (1994): 55–64.
since it involves very close study of interaction patterns in small groups. For this rea-
son, sociometric techniques are best applied in closed, self-contained social settings,
such as hospitals, prisons, and army bases, in which members are largely isolated
from other social networks.
Many professionals and services marketers depend primarily on word of mouth
to generate business. In many cases consumers recommend a service provider to a
friend or a co-worker, and in other cases other businesspeople make recommenda-
tions to their customers. Only 0.2 percent of respondents in one study reported
choosing physicians based on advertising; advice from family and friends was the
most widely used criterion.69 LinkedIn is an example of a social media platform that
has utilized this approach in the marketplace. Individuals can recommend their co-
workers on the site to others and can write testimonials that validate abilities and
work experience.
Sociometric techniques don’t just look at who talks to (or texts) whom; they
also consider the type of relationships among members of a social network. Tie
strength refers to the nature of the bond between people. It can range from strong
primary (e.g., one’s spouse) to weak secondary (e.g., an acquaintance whom one
rarely sees). Although strong ties are important, weak ties are as well because they
perform a bridging function. This type of connection allows a consumer access
between subgroups. For example, you might have a regular group of friends that is
a primary reference group (strong ties). If you have an interest in tennis, one of
these friends might introduce you to a group of people in her dorm who play on the
tennis team. As a result, you gain access to their valuable expertise through this
bridging function. This referral process demonstrates the strength of weak ties.
We use sociometric analyses to better understand referral behaviour and to
locate strengths and weaknesses in terms of how one’s reputation flows through a
community.70 To understand how a network guides what we buy, consider a study
researchers conducted among women who lived together in a sorority house. They
found evidence that subgroups, or cliques, within the sorority were likely to share
preferences for various products. In some cases, the sisters even shared their choices
of “private” (i.e., socially inconspicuous) products (probably because of shared
bathrooms in the sorority house).
CO 4 WORD-OF-MOUTH COMMUNICATION
A lot of product information is conveyed by individuals to other individuals on an
informal basis. Word-of-mouth communication (WOM) is product information trans-
mitted by individuals to individuals. Despite the huge sums of money marketers pump
into lavish ads, WOM is far more powerful: It influences two-thirds of all consumer
goods sales.71 Because we get the word from people we know, WOM tends to be more
reliable and trustworthy than recommendations we get through more formal market-
ing channels. And, unlike advertising, WOM is often backed up by social pressure to
conform with these recommendations.72
If you think carefully about the content of your own conversations in the course of
a normal day, you will probably agree that much of what you discuss with friends,
family members, or co-workers is product-related. Whether you compliment someone
on her dress and ask her where she bought it, recommend a new restaurant to a friend,
or complain to your neighbour about the shoddy treatment you got from an investment
advisor, you are engaging in word-of-mouth communication. Marketers have been
aware of the power of WOM for many years, but recently they’ve been more aggressive
about trying to promote and control it, instead of sitting back and hoping people will
like their products enough to talk about them.
An example of this is the Facebook “Like” button, which allows users to share
content with friends in their network. When the user clicks it on a site, a link to that
site appears on his or her friends’ news feeds. This capability has facilitated WOM by
Marketing making it very easy for consumers to share things they find on the Web with others.
Insight You can “like” companies, products, commercials, ideas, pretty much anything, and
ensure that your friends get to hear about it!
Do you yelp? The name Yelp (www.yelp.com)
was originally thought of as a short form of
traditional Yellow Pages, which reveals the ini- Factors Encouraging WOM
tial ambition of the website—a share of the
$100 billion spent every year on local advertis- WOM is especially powerful when the consumer is relatively unfamiliar with the
ing.75 The company was started in 2004 by product category. Such a situation would be expected in the case of new products or
two ex-employees of PayPal who lost their those that are technologically complex. As one example, the strongest predictor of a
jobs when it was sold to eBay. Today it operates person’s intention to buy a residential solar water-heating system was found to be the
in cities all over North America. Not only does number of solar-heating users the person knows.73
Yelp give information on local businesses, it Product-related conversations can be motivated by a number of factors:74
also gives guidelines on what to tip for various • A person might be highly involved with a type of product or activity and take
services. A customer review on Yelp can trans- pleasure in talking about it. Computer hackers, avid birdwatchers, and “fashion
form a local business overnight, whether to the
plates” seem to share the ability to steer conversations toward their particular
skies of success or the cellars of despair. Elite
interests.
yelpers—those who post their names and yelp
often—can get invited to exclusive events, and • A person might be knowledgeable about a product and use conversations as a
even determine the fate of a new restaurant. way to let others know it. Thus, word-of-mouth communication sometimes
Now that’s group influence! enhances the ego of the individual who wants to impress others with his or her
expertise.
• A person might initiate such a discussion out of a genuine concern for someone
else. We are often motivated to ensure that people we care about buy what is good
for them, do not waste their money, and so on.
Negative WOM
Word of mouth can cut both ways for marketers. Informal discussions among consum-
ers can make or break a product or store. And negative word of mouth is weighted
more heavily by consumers than are positive comments.
According to one study, 90 percent of unhappy customers will not do business
with the offending company again. Especially when making a decision about trying a
product innovation, the consumer is more likely to pay attention to negative informa-
tion than positive information and to relate news of this experience to others.76 Nega-
tive WOM has been shown to reduce the credibility of a firm’s advertising and to
influence consumers’ attitudes toward a product as well as their intention to buy it.77
Dell found this out the hard way when bloggers denounced the computer maker’s
quality and service levels; then the popular media picked up this discontent and
magnified it.
Buzz Building CO 5
Buzz marketing refers to activities undertaken by marketers to encourage consumers

to spread WOM about the brand. In the “old days,” here’s how a toy company would
launch a new product: Unveil a hot holiday toy during a spring trade fair, run a
November–December saturation TV ad campaign during cartoon prime time to sell
the toy to kids, then sit back and watch as desperate parents scramble through the Consumers
aisles at Toys “R” Us. Then you just wait for the resulting media coverage to drive
still more sales.
In Focus
Fast forward to a more current strategy: A Hong Kong company called Silverlit It is now becoming increasingly easy for con-
Toys makes the $30 Picoo Z helicopter. At one point a Google search for the term sumers to spread negative WOM online. Many
“Picoo” produced more than 109 000 hits, and many of those links pointed to major dissatisfied customers and disgruntled former
online global gift retailers such as Hammacher-Schlemmer and Toys “R” Us. Do you employees create websites simply to share
think this huge exposure was the result of a meticulously planned promotional strat- their tales of woe with others. A website for
egy? Think again. By most accounts, a 28-year-old tech worker in Chicago started the people to complain about the Dunkin’ Donuts
Picoo Z buzz when he bought his helicopter after he read about it on a hobbyist mes- chain got to be so popular that the company
sage board. A few months later he uploaded his homemade video of the toy on bought it in order to control the bad press it
YouTube. Within two weeks, 15 of his friends had bought the toy and in turn posted got. A man created the site because he couldn’t
their own videos and pointed viewers to the original video. Internet retailers that troll get skim milk for his coffee.78 An in-depth
online conversations for fresh and exciting buzz identified the toy and started adding study of 40 complaint websites such as
their own links to the clips. Within a few short months there were hundreds of Picoo walmartsucks.com identified three basic
Z videos and more than a million people viewed them (you can find one at www. themes:79
youtube.com/watch?v=y6t1R3yB-cs). As marketers increasingly recognize the power 1. Injustice—Consumer protestors frequently
of WOM to make or break a new product, they are coming up with new ways to get talk about their fruitless attempts to con-
tact the company.
consumers to help them sell it.
2. Identity—Posters characterize the violator
Procter & Gamble has a business unit called Tremor to spread the word about its
(often top management) as evil rather than
products among young people. Tremor has recruited almost 300 000 youth between
as simply incompetent.
the ages of 13 and 19 to deliver endorsements in school cafeterias, at sleepovers, and
3. Agency—Individual website creators try to
by cell phone and email. These kids are being tapped to talk up just about everything,
create a collective identity for those who
from movies and music to milk and motor oil—and they do it for free. Tremor looks for
share their anger with a company. They
young people with a wide social circle and the gift of the gab. To register, youth fill out evoke themes of crusade and heroism to
a questionnaire that asks them, among other things, how many friends, family mem- rally others to believe that they have the
bers, and acquaintances they communicate with every day. (“Tremorites” have an power to change a status quo in which
average of 170 names on their buddy lists; a typical teen has 30.) P&G rewards the kids companies can wrong consumers without
for their help by sending them exclusive music mixes and other trinkets, such as retribution.
shampoo and cheap watches.80
If you have bought a cell phone recently, you might have been influenced by
one of the many paid brand influencers on your campus. Influencer campaigns give
product details that are too complex to explain over a YouTube or TV ad. And brand
influencers are not limited to university campuses and cell phone purchasers. Other
companies using this tactic include Canadian Tire, Holt Renfrew, and the Canadian
Football League.81
CR O WD P O WER
One way marketers are building buzz is by using social influence to impact the
creation of the product itself. A key change in the way some new media compa-
nies approach their business is to think of it as marketing strategy by committee.
The wisdom of crowds perspective (from a book by that name) argues that under
the right circumstances groups are smarter than the smartest people in them. If
this is true, it implies that large numbers of (non-expert) consumers can predict
successful products.82
Social networking sites have the power to let their members dictate purchase
decisions. At Threadless.com, customers rank T-shirt designs ahead of time and the
company prints the winning ideas. Every week contestants upload designs to the
site, where about 700 compete to be among the six designs that the company will
print during that time. Threadless visitors score designs on a scale of 0 to 5, and the
staff selects winners from the most popular entrants. The six lucky artists each get
$2000 in cash and merchandise. More importantly, Threadless sells out of every
shirt it offers. This business model has made a small fortune for a few designers
whom “the crowd” particularly likes. One pair of Chicago-based artists sold $16 mil-
lion worth of T-shirts. To keep the judges and buyers coming back, the owners offer
rewards—upload a photo of yourself wearing a Threadless T-shirt and you get a store
credit of $1.50. Refer a friend who buys a T-shirt and you get $3. The site sells more
than 1500 T-shirts in a typical day.83
GU E R R IL L A MAR K ETIN G
Another way of building buzz is through guerrilla marketing—promotional strategies
that use unconventional locations and intensive word-of-mouth campaigns to push
products. Lyor Cohen, former CEO of the Def Jam hip-hop label and now with Warner
Music Group, built his business using street marketing tactics. To promote hip-hop
albums, Def Jam and other labels start building a buzz months before a release, leaking
Offsetters’ campaign during the Vancouver advance copies to DJs who put together mix tapes to sell on the street. If the kids seem
2010 Olympics is an excellent example of to like a song, street teams then push it to club DJs. As the official release date nears,
guerilla marketing.
www.offsetters.ca
these groups of fans start slapping up posters around the inner city. They plaster
telephone poles, sides of buildings, and car windshields with promotions announcing
the release of new albums.84
Today, many organizations are buying into guerrilla marketing strategies. These
tactics are relatively affordable (compared to traditional print and television advertis-
ing) and they do an excellent job of getting the consumer’s attention! For example,
UNICEF’s Dirty Water campaign placed vending machines across cities in North
America and offered a wide range of “dirty water” flavours that would be available in
developing nations. Passersby were shocked to see options such as “Malaria” and
“Typhoid” waters. The technique was innovative and low-cost, but it really got atten-
tion from both the public and the media.85
In another example, Offsetters, a Vancouver-based carbon offsetting company,
engaged in a variety of successful guerilla marketing tactics during the 2010 Vancouver
Olympics. For example, selected city benches read “Life Jackets Under Seat. Stop Global
Warming,” and a lifeguard was stationed in the middle of an urban area of Vancouver.
This was done in a humorous and entertaining way, so that it generated a buzz about the
company and its cause.
VI R A L MA RKE TIN G
One last way marketers are creating buzz is through viral marketing, the strategy of
getting customers to sell or promote a product on behalf of the company that creates it.
This approach is particularly well suited to the Web, since emails and messaging cir-
culate so easily. According to McKinsey and Company, up to 50% of consumer pur-
chases are directly influenced by word-of-mouth communications spread from
consumer to consumer.86 Group-buying sites such as Groupon and Living Social
encourage consumers to go viral with the message by inviting them to share their daily
deal with friends. In fact, if you refer enough friends and they opt in for the deal, you
can get yours for free!
SOCIAL MEDIA AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR CO 6
One domain in which social influence is particularly pervasive is social media.

Social media refers to forms of electronic communication (e.g., social networking
platforms and microblogging) through which users create online communities to
share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content.87 Sometimes people
define social media in terms of hardware (like Samsung smartphones) or software
(like Snapchat), but really it’s first and foremost about online community: the collec-
tive participation of members who together build and maintain a site.88 Many of us
become so enmeshed in these online social communities that we feel the need to
check them constantly to be sure we stay on top of what our (online) friends are up
to 24/7. Do you know anyone like that? Some refer to this compulsion as FOMO (fear
of missing out). Certainly there are advantages to always feeling connected, but per-
haps the downside is a vague feeling of regret or inadequacy that lurks in the back-
ground in case we chose not to be somewhere—or even worse, that we weren’t
invited in the first place!89
Whether we feel left out or not, it seems clear that our passion for social media
exerts a big impact on our emotions and experiences during the course of a typical day.
Indeed, one study even found that people on Twitter tend to follow others who share
their mood: People who are happy tend to retweet or reply to others who are happy,
while those who are sad or lonely tend to do the same with others who also post nega-
tive sentiments.90 When users interact with close friends with whom they have strong
ties, their self-esteem increases. The flip side to this story: A rise in self-esteem reduces
self-control so that users who tap into their social networks more exhibit a higher body
mass index and higher levels of credit card debt!91
Online Social Networks and Online Communities

Let’s take a closer look at the social fabric of social media. Each application consists of
a social network: a set of socially relevant nodes connected by one or more relations.92
Nodes are members of the network (e.g., the more than 1 billion Facebook users).
Members (whom we also refer to as network units) are connected by their relation-
ships (or ties) with each other. Relationships are based on various affiliations such as
kinship, friendship and affective ties, shared experiences, and shared hobbies and
interests. When we think of community, we tend to think of people, but in principle
members of a network can be organizations, articles, countries, departments, or any
other definable unit. A good example is your university’s alumni association. Social
networks are sometimes called social graphs, though this term might also refer to a
diagram of the interconnections of units in a network.
Nodes in a network experience interactions; these are behaviour-based ties
such as talking with each other, attending an event together, or working together. If
you chat online with a prospective dating partner on Match.com, you are a node
engaging in an interaction with another node. And, if that actually works out and
you participate in Pinterest and share your wedding photographs on the site, you
engage in interactions with other nodes who also have an interest in getting hitched.
Interactions are participative in nature—they are shared activities among members
in the network.
Flows occur between nodes. Flows are exchanges of resources, information, or
influence among members of the network. On Facebook you share news, updates
about your life, opinions on favourite books and movies, photos, videos, and notes. As
you share content, you create flows from among those in your network. In social media
these flows of communication go in many directions at any point in time and often on
multiple platforms—a condition we term media multiplexity. Flows are not simply
two-way or three-way; they might be sent toward an entire community, a list or group
within a network, or several individuals independently. Flows of communication also
occur outside the community platform. While the online community may exist within
a webspace, the flows of communication may extend to other domains such as emails,
text messages, virtual worlds, and even face-to-face meetups, in which members of an
online network make plans to actually get together.
For marketers, flows are especially important, because they are the actionable
components of any social network system in terms of the sharing of information, deliv-
ery of promotional materials, and sources of social influence. The extent of this social
influence (in which one person’s attitudes or behaviours change as a result of others’
attempts) varies according to the power or attractiveness of other nodes.
Successful online communities possess several important characteristics:
• Standards of behaviour: Rules that specify what members can and can’t do on the
site. Some of these rules are spelled out explicitly (e.g., if you buy an item on
eBay, you agree that you have entered into a legal contract to pay for it), but many
are unspoken. A simple example is discouragement of the practice of flaming,
when a POST CONTAINS ALL CAPITAL LETTERS TO EXPRESS ANGER.
• Member contributions: A healthy proportion of users need to contribute content.
If not, the site will fail to offer fresh material and ultimately traffic will slow. Par-
ticipation can be a challenge, though. Remember the 80/20 Rule we discussed
way back in Chapter 1? It applies to online consumption as well. The fact is that
most members of an online community are lurkers: That’s kind of a creepy term,
but it just means they absorb content that others post rather than contributing
their own. Researchers estimate that only 1 percent of a typical community’s users
regularly participate, and another 9 percent do so only intermittently. The remain-
ing 90 percent just observe what’s on the site, so they don’t add a lot of value—
other than adding to the number of “eyeballs” the site can claim when it tries to
convince advertisers to buy space.
How can a site convert lurkers into active users? The easier it is to participate,
the more likely it is that the community can generate activity among a larger pro- Consumers
in Focus
portion of visitors. In part, this means ensuring that there are several ways to par-
ticipate that vary in ease of use. Facebook is an example of an online community
that has figured out how to offer several forms of participation. Members can post
A social game is a multiplayer, competitive,
status updates (very easy), make comments, upload pictures, share notes and
goal-oriented activity with defined rules of
links, play social games, answer quizzes, decorate their profiles, upload videos,
engagement and online connectivity among a
and create events (a bit harder), among other forms of participation. community of players. Successful mobile
• Degree of connectedness: Powerful groups are cohesive; this means the mem- games like FarmVille and Angry Birds boast
bers identify strongly with them and are highly motivated to stay connected. millions of avid followers. These applications
Online groups may be even more cohesive than physical groups, even though usually incorporate one or more elements of
many of the members will never meet one another in person. For example, com- game design, such as leaderboards that indi-
pared to the “six degrees of separation” norm we discussed, researchers estimate cate how each player is doing relative to others
that Facebook’s members on average have only four degrees of separation from in the game and badges that show the com-
each other. While some users have designated only one friend and others have munity the challenges the player has mastered
thousands, the median is about 100 friends. The researchers found that most so far.
pairs of Facebook users could be connected through four intermediate users, MMORPGs—massive multiplayer online
and that this number shrank to three within a single country (even the United role-playing games—take this to a higher level
and truly encompass the social aspects of
States). Because many of us devote so much time and energy to our online group
gaming.93 World of Warcraft is one of the larg-
relationships, connectedness also reflects our real-world relationships (it’s com-
est MMORPGs, with millions of players from
mon for people to learn that their partner has broken up with them only after
around the world; other popular ones include
they see a change in “relationship status” on Facebook!). One study that ana-
Haven and The Sims. The money people spend
lyzed 1.3 million Facebook users and about 8.6 billion links among them
in virtual worlds like these grows rapidly.
reported that couples who are in a relationship are more likely to stay together if
Indeed, digital virtual consumption (DVC) may
they share a lot of mutual Facebook friends—and they’re more likely to break up well be the next frontier of marketing. Today in
within a few months if this indicator dips sharply. Canada alone, 52 percent of gamers, or over
• Network effects: The quality of the site improves as the number of users increase. 8 million people, buy virtual goods for the
For example, Amazon’s ability to recommend books to you based on what other characters they play in online games.94 Thou-
people with similar interests buy gets better as it tracks more and more people sands of in-world residents design, create, and
who enter search queries. purchase clothing, furniture, houses, vehicles,
and other products their avatars need—and
many do it in style as they acquire the kind of
Digital Opinion Leaders “bling” they can only dream about in real life.
Some forward-thinking marketers understand
Quick, what’s your Klout Score? Klout claims to precisely measure just how influential
that these platforms are the next stage they
each of us is in cyberspace. The site assesses more than 12 billion pieces of data every
can use to introduce their products into peo-
day to compute a score from 0 to 100 for anyone who is online. Several indicators go
ple’s lives, whether real or virtual. Today, for
into this number, including the ratio of comments or retweets a person generates
example, people who play The Sims can import
compared to the amount of content he or she posts as well as the relative influence of actual pieces of furniture from IKEA into their
the people who share this content. Not surprisingly, celebrities including Justin Bieber virtual homes.
and Zooey Deschanel boast very high Klout scores, but plenty of influential individuals
in other walks of life (including marketing) do too. Now Klout for Business allows
brands to identify consumers with high scores so that they can try to enlist them in
Klout uses social media analytics to provide

a metric that reflects consumers’ degree of
online social influence. The program creates
a score from 1 to 100 based on the size of
the individual’s social network(s) and how
other users interact with the individual’s
communications and content online.
Courtesy of © Klout, Inc.
spreading digital word of mouth about their brands. The matchmaking service Tawkify
uses Klout scores as well—to pair people up for dates.95
Earlier in the chapter we saw that opinion leaders are people who are more influ-
ential than most when they recommend purchases to others. In online groups, opinion
leaders are sometimes called power users.96 They have a strong communications net-
work that gives them the ability to affect purchase decisions for a number of other
consumers, directly and indirectly.
Much like their offline counterparts, power users are active participants at work
and in their communities. Their social networks are large and well developed. Others
trust them and find them to be credible sources of information about one or more spe-
cific topics. They tend to have a natural sense of intellectual curiosity, which may lead
them to new sources of information. And they post an awful lot of brand-related con-
tent. Indeed, it is estimated that it is this influential 6.2 percent of social media users
who are responsible for about 80 percent of these brand mentions. Such influencers
have been called mass connectors.97
There’s no doubt that many of us love to share the news with others; news about
new styles, new music, and especially new stuff we’ve bought. Of course, we do this
in the form of online reviews in forums like Yelp or Trip Advisor. Online opinion lead-
ers in these areas have led to a surge in the popularity of haul videos that feature a
proud fashionista describing clothing items she just bought, and unboxing videos that
illustrate in painstaking detail exactly how to remove electronics products from their
boxes and assemble them for use. Indeed, some of these online opinion leaders on
forums such as YouTube have been given celebrity-like status, and some have even
gotten endorsement deals from companies such as Pepsi, L’Oréal, and Durex.98
Chapter Summary
Consumers don’t make purchase decisions in a vacuum. Consumers often seek out others who share similar interests
They are often heavily influenced by others whose opinions in products or services.
and product choices exert various kinds of power over them.
• Brand communities unite consumers who share a com-
• Consumers belong to or admire many different groups mon passion for a particular product. Brandfests, orga-
and are often influenced in their purchase decisions by a nized by companies to encourage this kind of community,
desire to be accepted by others. Individuals or groups can build brand loyalty and reinforce group membership.
whose opinions or behaviour are particularly important
are called reference groups. Both formal and informal We may be motivated to buy or use products to be consistent
groups influence an individual’s purchase decisions, with what other people do.
although the impact of reference-group influence is • We conform to the desires of others for two basic reasons.
affected by such factors as the conspicuousness of the Some people model their behaviour after others because
product and the relevance of the reference group for a they take that behaviour as evidence of the correct way to
particular purchase. act; these people are conforming because of informa-
• Individuals hold influence in a group to the extent that tional social influence. Other people conform to satisfy
they possess social power. Types of social power include others’ expectations or to be accepted by the group;
information power, referent power, legitimate power, these individuals are affected by normative social influ-
expert power, reward power, and coercive power. ence. Group members often do things they would not do
as individuals because their identities become merged advertising. Product-related information tends to be
with the group; they become deindividuated. exchanged in casual conversations. The use of crowd
power, guerilla marketing, and viral marketing are all
Certain people are particularly likely to influence others’ strategies to try to accelerate the WOM process.
product choices.
• Although WOM is often helpful for making consumers
• Opinion leaders who are knowledgeable about a product aware of products, it can also hurt companies when dam-
and whose opinions are highly regarded tend to influence aging product rumours or negative WOM occurs.
others’ choices. Specific opinion leaders are somewhat
hard to identify, but marketers who know their general Social networking has changed the way companies and
characteristics can try to target them in their media and consumers interact.
promotional strategies. Other influencers include market • Social networking, where members post information and
mavens, who have a general interest in marketplace activ- make contact with others who share similar interests and
ities, and surrogate consumers, who are compensated for opinions, changes the way we think about marketing. As
their advice about purchases. the Internet continues to develop, companies and con-
sumers interact directly. The “wisdom of crowds” per-
The things that other consumers tell us about products (both
spective argues that, under the right circumstances,
good and bad) are often more influential than the advertising
groups are smarter than the smartest people in them. If
we are exposed to about those products.
this is true, it implies that large numbers of consumers
• Much of what we know about products is learned through can predict successful products.
word-of-mouth communication (WOM) rather than formal
Key Terms
Antibrand communities p. 314 Influence network p. 325 Social comparison theory p. 320
Aspirational reference group p. 312 Influencer p. 322 Social game p. 333
Badges p. 333 Initiator p. 322 Social graphs p. 332
Brand community p. 312 Leaderboards p. 333 Social loafing p. 321
Buyer p. 322 Lurkers p. 332 Social media p. 331
Buzz marketing p. 329 Market maven p. 325 Social network p. 332
Cascades p. 325 Mass connectors p. 334 Social power p. 316
Comparative influence p. 311 Media multiplexity p. 332 Sociometric methods p. 326
Conformity p. 318 Membership reference groups p. 312 Strength of weak ties p. 328
Decision polarization p. 321 MMORPGs p. 333 Surrogate consumer p. 325
Deindividuation p. 321 Negative word of mouth p. 329 Ties p. 332
Digital virtual consumption Nodes p. 332 Tie strength p. 327
(DVC) p. 333 Normative influence p. 311 Two-step flow model of influence p. 325
Dissociative reference groups p. 314 Norms p. 318 Unboxing videos p. 334
Flaming p. 332 Opinion leaders p. 323 User p. 322
Flows p. 332 Power users p. 334 Viral marketing p. 331
Gatekeeper p. 322 Reactance p. 323 Virtual goods p. 333
Guerrilla marketing p. 330 Red sneakers effect p. 318 Wisdom of crowds p. 330
Haul videos p. 334 Reference group p. 309 Word-of-mouth communication
Home shopping parties p. 321 Risky shift p. 321 (WOM) p. 328
Review Questions
1. Name two dimensions that influence whether reference 3. Which groups tend to be more powerful influences on
groups have an impact on an individual’s purchase behaviour: large, formal groups or small, informal groups?
decisions. Why?
2. List three types of social power, giving an example of 4. What is a brand community, and why is it of interest to
each. marketers?
5. Explain the difference between a membership and an 14. Is there such a thing as a generalized opinion leader?
aspirational reference group, giving an example of each. Why or why not?
6. Name one factor that makes it more likely that a person 15. What is the relationship between an opinion leader and
will become part of a consumer’s membership reference an opinion seeker?
group.
16. What is the difference between a market maven and a
7. Define deindividuation, and give an example of this surrogate consumer?
effect.
17. How can marketers use opinion leaders to help them pro-
8. What is the risky shift, and how does it relate to going mote their products or services?
shopping with friends?
18. What are sociometric techniques? Under what conditions
9. What is the difference between normative and informa- does it make sense to use them?
tional social influence?
19. What is word of mouth, and why is it more powerful than
10. Define conformity, and give three examples of it. Name
advertising?
three reasons why people conform.
20. Which is more powerful: positive or negative word of
11. What is social comparison? What type of person do we
mouth? Why?
usually choose to compare ourselves to?
21. Describe some ways marketers are using the Internet to
12. What is the difference between independence and anti-
encourage positive WOM.
conformity?
13. What is an opinion leader? Give three reasons why opin- 22. What is viral marketing? Guerrilla marketing? Give an
ion leaders are powerful influences on consumers’ opin- example of each.
ions. What are some characteristics of this type of 23. What is a Klout Score? Do you think this is important for
person? marketers? Why or why not?
Discuss watching television by 10 minutes, and shortens sleep

by 8.5 minutes per day.100 What’s your perspective
1. Although social networking is currently red-hot, might
on this issue? Does the increasing use of the Internet
its days be numbered? Many people have concerns
have positive or negative implications for interpersonal
about privacy issues. Others feel that platforms such
relationships in our society?
as Facebook are too overwhelming. As one media exec-
utive comments, “Nobody has 5000 real friends. At 3. When the Word of Mouth Marketing Association recently
the end of the day it just becomes one big cauldron of announced a new set of rules and guidelines for word-
noise.”99 What’s your stand on this? Can we have too of-mouth advertising, the trade group maintained that
much of a good thing? Will people start to tune out all marketers must make sure that people who talk up
these networks? products or services disclose whom they are working
for. They must also use real consumers, not actors,
2. The average Internet user in North America spends more
who discuss what they really believe about a prod-
than three hours a day online, much of that time being
uct.101 What do you think of “stealth” campaigns like
devoted to work and more than half of it to communica-
this? Should marketers be required to disclose their
tions. Researchers report that the Internet has displaced
true intentions when they try to initiate positive word of
television watching and a range of other activities. Inter-
mouth?
net users watch television for 1 hour and 42 minutes per
day, as against the national average of 2 hours. One 4. The adoption of a certain brand of shoe or apparel by
study reported increasing physical isolation among Inter- athletes can be a powerful influence on students and
net users; the study created a controversy and drew angry other fans. Should high school and university coaches
complaints from some users who insisted that the time be paid to determine what brand of athletic equipment
they spent online did not detract from their social rela- their players will wear?
tionships. However, the researchers said they had now 5. The strategy of viral marketing gets customers to sell a
gathered further evidence showing that Internet use product to other customers on behalf of the company.
has lowered the amount of time people spend socializ- That often means convincing your friends to climb on
ing with friends—and even sleeping. According to the the bandwagon, and sometimes you get a cut if they
study, an hour of time spent using the Internet reduces wind up buying something. Some might argue that this
face-to-face contact with friends, co-workers, and family means you’re selling out your friends (or at least selling
by 23.5 minutes, lowers the amount of time spent to your friends) in exchange for a piece of the action.
Others might say you’re just sharing the wealth with 10. Conduct a sociometric analysis within your dormitory or
those you care about.102 Have you been involved in viral neighbourhood. For a product category such as music or
marketing by passing along names of your friends or cars, ask each individual to identify other individuals
sending them to a website such as Gmail? If so, what with whom they share information. Systematically trace
happened? How do you feel about this practice? all of these avenues of communication and identify
6. Are home shopping parties that put pressure on friends opinion leaders by locating individuals who are repeat-
and neighbours to buy merchandise ethical? edly named as providing helpful information.
11. See if you can demonstrate the risky shift. Get a group
Experiential Exercises of friends together, and ask each to privately rate the
likelihood on a scale from one to seven that they would
7. The power of unspoken social norms often becomes try a controversial new product (e.g., a credit card that
obvious only when these norms are violated. To witness works with a chip implanted in a person’s wrist). Then
this result first-hand, try one of the following: Stand fac- ask the group to discuss the product and rate the idea
ing the back wall in an elevator; serve dessert before the again. If the average rating changes from the first one,
main course; offer to pay cash for dinner at a friend’s you’ve just observed a risky shift.
home; tell someone not to have a nice day.
12. Trace a referral pattern for a particular service provider
8. Identify a set of avoidance groups for your peers. Can (such as a hairstylist) by tracking how clients came to
you identify any consumption decisions that you and choose that individual. See if you can identify opinion
your friends make with these groups in mind? leaders who are responsible for referring several clients to
9. Identify fashion opinion leaders on your campus. Do the businessperson. How might the service provider take
they fit the profile discussed in this chapter? advantage of this process to grow his or her business?
Social Media at Lululemon Athletica has become extremely effective as a brand marker. The first
Yoonji Shim was thrilled with her new promotion at Lululemon. retail store opened in the year 2000 in a beach area in
She started working for the athletic apparel company after fin- Vancouver called Kitsilano. From this humble beginning,
ishing her bachelor of commerce degree five years earlier and there are now over 300 Lululemon retail stores spread across
had already been promoted a couple of times. In her new posi- Canada, the United States, Europe, Asia, and Australia.
tion, she would be taking responsibility for the social media Further, the company broadened from yoga wear to offer all
strategy of the company. Lululemon had a strong reputation as types of athletic apparel to customers (running wear, cycling
an effective digital marketer and was one of the pioneers in wear, swimwear, etc.). In 2015, Lululemon reported net
effectively leveraging social media to enhance the business. revenues of close to $1.8 billion.
Yoonji knew she would be expected to continue building on In the mind of the company, Lululemon has grown to
this success, and her challenge was to maintain the current become a yoga-inspired athletic apparel retailer that encour-
momentum in the space and better capitalize on new social ages people to live long, healthy, fun lives. It creates and sells
media and opportunities. products that help keep people active and stress free, and by
doing so hopes to make the world a better place.
Lululemon Athletica History

Lululemon Athletica was founded in 1998 by Chip Wilson, an Social Media and Lululemon
accomplished entrepreneur who had built companies in the In Yoonji’s opinion, the social media strategy at Lululemon had
surf, skate, and snowboard industries. After completing his grown organically. It had evolved over time to mirror its cus-
first yoga class, Chip was inspired to build a yoga-based athletic tomers’ behaviours and match their interests. Each social
apparel company that would produce and sell clothing for media platform Lululemon embraced was built to create com-
individuals looking for a better workout experience. Focusing munity with its customers. It clearly hoped to inspire, educate,
on technical fabrics and functional designs, Chip built a and create conversations with its customers, and it was effec-
successful yoga clothing movement using feedback from yoga tive in doing so. Yoonji knew that the company believed social
instructors who were asked to try the products and provide media could facilitate its vision by encouraging healthier life-
their insights. styles and challenging customers to set new goals and objec-
The Lululemon name was decided by a survey of tives. In many ways, the social media experience was an
100 people who rated 20 prospective brand names and extension of what the company hoped customers experienced
20 logos. The distinctive Lululemon logo is a stylized “A” that in an actual store visit.
Yoonji conducted a quick audit of the major social media all channels, the company directly involved its customers in
platforms Lululemon was currently cultivating. She found the assessing and promoting its products. The conversation was
following activity: always inclusive, and Lululemon welcomed feedback in all
Facebook—Lululemon had a very active Facebook page, forms and was dedicated to responding to customers in a
with over 220 000 unique visitors and more than 1 135 000 timely manner. Interestingly, Yoonji noted that Lululemon was
likes recorded. The page was updated regularly with brand- effective in engaging prospective customers through its social
generated content that resonates with the target market. media efforts. The content in each of the channels provided
Twitter—The company had made over 80 000 tweets and inspiration and education to individuals who might not yet
counted over 750 000 followers. Although the Twitter feed have purchased a Lululemon product or visited a Lululemon
occasionally featured promotional tweets, most of the tweets store.
were inspirational, quirky, and refreshing.
Instagram—Lululemon had 1620 posts on the platform Next Steps
with over 900 000 followers. Lululemon’s feed contained Yoonji was excited about the next steps she might take. She had
images of inspiring places and active pursuits. been asked to first assess the success of the recently mounted
Pinterest—Twenty-three boards had been cultivated with website Heylululemon.com, which was a relatively new effort by
over 1800 pins and 2 million followers. Many of the unique the company to foster customer conversation and co-creation
boards displayed Lululemon wear for various pursuits, from efforts. Customers could provide suggestions on products, ask
figure skating to running. questions, and post ideas that the entire Lululemon community
YouTube—With 32 000 subscribers, Lululemon had could comment on. Was the new site garnering enough traffic?
posted over 300 videos—some of which had reached over Was it a positive venue for the community to have conversa-
2 million views. The company used YouTube to provide a mix tions? How could this site interact with the more traditional
of inspirational videos, but they also had a humorous and social media platforms—was synergy possible? Perhaps more
playful twist that resonated well with consumers. broadly, what was the next big thing in social media? Lululemon
While many companies have been criticized for simply was an organization that had been at the forefront in this space,
pasting in the same content across different social media and Yoonji knew she needed to be on top of any new trends the
platforms, Lululemon had been lauded for having a true Lululemon customer might be embracing.
“multi-platform” content strategy, which means it was doing a
1. What is your opinion about Lululemon’s social media
nice job of posting unique content across various platforms in
efforts? How much of the company’s success is attribut-
a way that told a consistent brand story. Each platform was
able to its social media activity?
approached such that the effort matched the specific cus-
tomers who utilized the channel. It was clear that each of 2. How would you handle Yoonji’s first assignment? What
these mediums was successful in its own right. Yoonji could would be your criteria in assessing the Heylululmon.com
see that Lululemon used the platforms where its customers site? What recommendations would you make?
were and had built a community in each channel where it 3. What new social media trends would you advise Lululemon
could foster relationships with its customers. However, across to get involved in? Why?
No tes
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Consumer Susceptibility to Interpersonal Influence,” Journal of Consumer A Role Analysis,” Psychology & Marketing 6 (Spring 1989): 51–68.
Research 9(3) (1989): 183–194; Lynn R. Kahle, “Observations: Role-Relaxed 56. Everett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations, 3rd ed. (New York: Free Press, 1983).
Consumers: A Trend of the Nineties,” Journal of Advertising Research (March/April
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Consumers: Empirical Evidence,” Journal of Advertising Research 35(3) (May/June 58. Cass R. Sunstein and Reid Hastie, “Making Dumb Groups Smarter,” Harvard
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31. Xun Huang, Meng Zhang, Michael K. Hui, and Robert S. Wyer, Jr., “Warmth and smarter; Matthew J. Salganik, Peter Sheridan Dodds, and Duncan J. Watts,
Conformity: The Effects of Ambient Temperature on Product Preferences and “Experimental Study of Inequality and Unpredictability in an Artificial Cultural
Financial Decisions,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 24(2) (2014): 241–250. Market,” Science 311 (February 10, 2006): 854–856.
32. Leon Festinger, “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes,” Human Relations 7 59. Steven A. Baumgarten, “The Innovative Communicator in the Diffusion Process,”
(May 1954): 117–140. Journal of Marketing Research 12 (February 1975): 12–18.
33. Chester A. Insko et al., “Conformity as a Function of the Consistency of Positive 60. Duncan J. Watts and Peter Sheridan Dodds, “Influentials, Networks, and Public
Self-Evaluation with Being Liked and Being Right,” Journal of Experimental Social Opinion Formation,” Journal of Consumer Research 34 (December 2007): 441–458.
Psychology 19 (1983): 341–358. 61. Tanya Irwin, “Study: Facebook Users Show ‘Herding Instinct,’” Marketing Daily
34. Abraham Tesser, Murray Millar, and Janet Moore, “Some Affective Consequences of (October 12, 2010).
Social Comparison and Reflection Processes: The Pain and Pleasure of Being Close,” 62. For discussion of the market maven construct, see Lawrence F. Feick and Linda L.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54(1) (1988): 49–61. Price, “The Market Maven,” Managing (July 1985): 10. Although it is possible to
35. L. Wheeler et al., “Factors Determining the Choice of a Comparison Other,” Journal of identify market mavens within a study population using this type of scale, to date no
Experimental Social Psychology 5 (1969): 219–232. clear demographic profile that characterizes this type has been identified.
36. George P. Moschis, “Social Comparison and Informal Group Influence,” Journal of 63. Lawrence Feick and Linda Price, “The Market Maven: A Diffuser of Marketplace
Marketing Research 13 (August 1976): 237–244. Information,” Journal of Marketing 51 (January 1987): 83–87.
64. Michael R. Solomon, “The Missing Link: Surrogate Consumers in the Marketing 81. Hollie Shaw, “‘The Influencers’ at Work among Students,” The Globe and Mail (March
Chain,” Journal of Marketing 50 (October 1986): 208–218. 13, 2009): B4.
65. Lauren Tuck, “50 Bloggers Wear the Same Dress, Sells Out Within Days,” Yahoo! 82. Jeff Surowiecki, The Wisdom of Crowds (New York: Anchor, 2005); Jeff Howe, “The
Style (April 2, 2015), www.yahoo.com/style/50-bloggers-wear-the-same-dress-sells- Rise of Crowdsourcing,” Wired (June 2006), www.wired.com/wired/archive/14.06/
out-within-115319182708.html. crowds.html, accessed October 3, 2007.
66. William R. Darden and Fred D. Reynolds, “Predicting Opinion Leadership for Men’s 83. Mark Weingarten, “Designed to Grow,” Business 2.0 (June 2007): 35–37.
Apparel Fashions,” Journal of Marketing Research 1 (August 1972), 324–328. 84. Sonia Murray, “Street Marketing Does the Trick,” Advertising Age (March 20, 2000):
A modified version of the opinion leadership scale with improved reliability and s12.
validity can be found in Terry L. Childers, “Assessment of the Psychometric
Properties of an Opinion Leadership Scale,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 85. Jasmin Malik Chua, “UNICEF’s ‘Dirty Water’ Vending Machine Has 8 Flavors of
(May 1986): 184–188. Disease,” Inhabitat (July 23, 2010), http://inhabitat.com/unicefs-dirty-water-
vending-machine-offers-8-flavors-of-disease.
67. Several studies have provided updates on the content and validity of the original
King and Summers scale. The scale presented here reflects two changes from the 86. http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/marketing_sales/a_new_way_to_measure_
original scale: (1) the response format has been changed to a uniform five-point word-of-mouth_marketing
format; and (2) one of the original items has been dropped because of low reliability. 87. www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social%20media
See Terry L. Childers, “Assessment of the Psychometric Properties of an Opinion
88. The material in this section is adapted from Tracy Tuten and Michael R. Solomon,
Leadership Scale,” Journal of Marketing Research 23 (May 1986): 184–188; Ronald
Social Media Marketing (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pearson, 2012).
E. Goldsmith and Rene Desborde, “A Validity Study of a Measure of Opinion
Leadership,” Journal of Business Research 22 (1991): 11–19; Leisa Reinecke Flynn, 89. Jenna Wortham, “Feel Like a Wallflower? Maybe It’s Your Facebook Wall,” The New
Ronald E. Goldsmith, and Jacqueline K. Eastman, “The King and Summers Opinion York Times (April 9, 2011), www.nytimes.com/2011/04/10/business/10ping.html?_
Leadership Scale: Revision and Refinement,” Journal of Business Research 31 r=0; Lizzie Crocker, “Are Twentysomethings Too Afraid of Missing Out?” The Daily
(1994): 55–64. Beast (November 9, 2012), www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/11/09/are-
twentysomethings-too-afraid-of-missing-out.html.
68. Dan Seligman, “Me and Monica,” Forbes (March 23, 1998): 76(2).
90. Nick Bilton, “Twitter Users Congregate Based on Mood, Study Says,” The New York
69. “Referrals Top Ads as Influence on Patients’ Doctor Selections,” Marketing News
Times (March 16, 2011), http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/03/16/twitter-users-
(January 30, 1987): 22.
congregate-based-on-mood-study-says.
70. Peter H. Reingen and Jerome B. Kernan, “Analysis of Referral Networks in
91. Keith Wilcox and Andrew T. Stephen, “Are Close Friends the Enemy? Online Social
Marketing: Methods and Illustration,” Journal of Marketing Research 23
Networks, Self-Esteem, and Self-Control,” Journal of Consumer Research, 2013,
(November 1986): 370–378.
vol. 40, 1: 90–103.
71. John Gaffney, “Enterprise Marketing: The Cool Kids Are Doing It. Should You?”
92. Alexandra Marin and Barry Wellman, “Social Network Analysis: An Introduction,”
Asiaweek (November 23, 2001): 1.
in Handbook of Social Network Analysis (London: Sage, 2010).
72. Johan Arndt, “Role of Product-Related Conversations in the Diffusion of a New
93. Apperley, “Genre and Game Studies: Toward a Critical Approach to Video Game
Product,” Journal of Marketing Research 4 (August 1967): 291–295.
Genres.”
73. Dorothy Leonard-Barton, “Experts as Negative Opinion Leaders in the Diffusion of a
94. “Infographic: The Canadian Games Market,” (May 12, 2003), www.newzoo.com/
Technological Innovation,” Journal of Consumer Research 11 (March 1985): 914–926.
infographics/infographic-the-canadian-games-market.
74. James F. Engel, Robert J. Kegerreis, and Roger D. Blackwell, “Word of Mouth
95. http://klout.com/home; Samantha Murphy Kelly, “Klout for Business Aims to
Communication by the Innovator,” Journal of Marketing 33 (July 1969): 15–19.
Help Brands Reach Social Influencers,” Mashable (March 30, 2013), http://
75. Jeffrey M. O’Brien, “Effective Business Paradigm Shifts,” Fortune (July 23, 2007): mashable.com/2013/03/20/klout-for-business/?utm_medium=email&utm_
88–94. source=feedburner&utm_campaign=Feed%3A+Mashable+%28Mashable%29;
76. Richard J. Lutz, “Changing Brand Attitudes through Modification of Cognitive Brian Anthony Hernandez, “Dating Site Finds You a Mate Based on Your Klout
Structure,” Journal of Consumer Research 1 (March 1975): 49–59. For some Score,” Mashable (April 16, 2012), http://mashable.com/people/brian-anthony-
suggested remedies to bad publicity, see Mitch Griffin, Barry J. Babin, and Jill S. hernandez.
Attaway, “An Empirical Investigation of the Impact of Negative Public Publicity on 96. Ed Keller and Jon Berry, The Influentials (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2003).
Consumer Attitudes and Intentions,” in Advances in Consumer Research 18, eds.
Rebecca H. Holman and Michael R. Solomon (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer 97. “Introducing Peer Influence Analysis: 500 Billion Peer Impressions Each Year,”
Research, 1991): 334–341; Alice M. Tybout, Bobby J. Calder, and Brian Sternthal, Empowered (April 20, 2010), http://forrester.typepad.com/groundswell/2010/04/
“Using Information Processing Theory to Design Marketing Strategies,” Journal of introducing-peer-influence-analysis.html.
Marketing Research 18 (1981): 73–79. 98. Adam Popescu, “The Fast-Growing, Profitable Market for Kid ‘Influencer’
77. Robert E. Smith and Christine A. Vogt, “The Effects of Integrating Advertising and Endorsements on Twitter, Instagram, Vine, YouTube, and Pinterest,” Fast Company
Negative Word-of-Mouth Communications on Message Processing and Response,” (March 26, 2014), www.fastcompany.com/3028278/the-fast-growing-profitable-
Journal of Consumer Psychology 4(2) (1995): 133–151; Paula Fitzgerald Bone, market-for-teenage-influencer-endorsements-on-twitter-instagram-; Tim Nudd,
“Word-of-Mouth Effects on Short-Term and Long-Term Product Judgments,” Journal “YouTube Star Hannah Witton Gives Candid Advice About Sex in Durex Campaign,”
of Business Research 32 (1995): 213–223. Adweek (April 24, 2015), www.adweek.com/adfreak/youtube-star-hannah-witton-
gives-candid-advice-about-sex-durex-campaign-164283.
78. “Dunkin’ Donuts Buys Out Critical Web Site,” The New York Times (August 27, 1999),
www.nytimes.com. For a discussion of ways to assess negative WOM online, cf. 99. Quoted in Suzanne Vranica, “Ad Houses Will Need to Be More Nimble, Clients Are
David M. Boush and Lynn R. Kahle, “Evaluating Negative Information in Online Demanding More and Better Use of Consumer Data, Web,” The Wall Street Journal
Consumer Discussions: From Qualitative Analysis to Signal Detection,” Journal of (January 2, 2008): B3.
EuroMarketing 11(2) (2001): 89–105. 100. John Markoff, “Internet Use Said to Cut into TV Viewing and Socializing,” The New
79. James C. Ward and Amy L. Ostrom, “Complaining to the Masses: The Role of Protest York Times on the Web (December 30, 2004).
Framing in Customer-Created Complaint Web Sites,” Journal of Consumer Research 101. Suzanne Vranica, “Getting Buzz Marketers to Fess Up,” The Wall Street Journal
33(2) (2006): 220. (February 9, 2005): B9.
80. Melanie Wells, “Wabbing,” Forbes (February 2, 2004): 84–88; Jeff Leeds, “The Next 102. Thomas E. Weber, “Viral Marketing: Web’s Newest Ploy May Make You an Unpopular
Hit Song? Ask P&G,” The New York Times on the Web (November 8, 2004). Friend,” The Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition (September 13, 1999).
C HA P TER
12
Income, Social Class, and
Family Structure
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that income patterns and social class 4 Understand that individuals’ desire to make a

influence how we spend our money. statement about their social class, or the class to
which they aspire to belong, influences the products
2 Understand that we group consumers into social they like and dislike.

classes that say a lot about where they stand in
society. 5 Understand that there are a variety of ways to assess

and measure social class.
3 Understand that class structures differ across the

world. 6 Understand that household structure, family age,

and family life cycle are factors that can influence
consumption patterns.
IT’S NOT JUST MONEY

There are many ways to spend money, and a wide gulf exists between those who have
it and those who do not. Perhaps an equally wide gulf exists between those who have
had money for a long time and those who “made it the hard way”—by earning it! This
chapter begins by considering briefly how general economic conditions affect the way
consumers allocate their money. Then, reflecting the adage “The rich are different,” it
will explore how people who occupy different positions in society consume in very
different ways.
Whether a skilled worker or a child of privilege, a person’s social class has a profound
impact on what he or she does with money and on how consumption choices reflect the
person’s “place” in society. As this chapter illustrates, these choices play another role as
well. The specific products and services we buy are often intended to make sure other
people know what our social standing is—or what we would like it to be. Products are
frequently bought and displayed as markers of social class; they are valued as status sym-
bols. This is especially true in large, modern societies where behaviour and reputation can
no longer be counted on to convey one’s position in a community.
Income Patterns CO 1
Many Canadians would probably say that they don’t make enough money, but in reality
the average Canadian’s standard of living is relatively high by international standards and
continues to improve. In Canada, the average family income increased from about $68 860
in 2008 to $74 540 in 2012.1 Just compare this to the fact that nearly half the world’s popu-
lation, 2.8 billion people, survive on less than $2 a day.2 Even in the wake of the recession
that began in 2008, Canada is the only G7 nation to have fully recovered in terms of
342 S E C T I O N I V Consumers in their Social and Cultural Settings
employment and GDP. Our resilience in response to the recession has been attributed
to a sound financial system.3
One reason for increases in income over time in Canada is that there has been a
larger proportion of people of working age participating in the labour force. Further-
more, many of their jobs are in high-paying occupations, such as medicine and archi-
tecture, which used to be dominated by men. Although women are still a minority in
most professional occupations, their ranks continue to swell. Mothers with preschool
children are the fastest-growing segment of working people. Among about 24 percent
of Canadian couples, it is the wives’ paycheques that are propelling the couples up the
income ladder. Nearly 30 percent of wives in dual-earner couples without children
earn more than their spouses.4 Despite the positive implications of an increasing num-
ber of females in the workforce, in Canada the female-to-male earnings ratio (based on
hourly wage) is 0.855, which means that on average a woman earns 85.5 cents for
every dollar a man brings home.5
Another factor that determines who gets a bigger piece of the pie is education.
Although paying for university often entails great sacrifice, it still pays off in the
long run. Between 1999 and 2013, the proportion of Canadian adults who had a
college diploma or a university degree rose from 39 percent to 60 percent. As
might be expected, employment prospects increase with educational attainment.
In 2014, Canada’s employment rate for adults who had not completed secondary
education was 60 percent. The rate for graduates of college and university pro-
grams was 74 percent.6 In addition, graduates from university programs earned
70 percent more on average than did those who only graduated from high school
or trade/vocational programs.7
To Spend or Not to Spend: That Is the Question

Consumer demand for goods and services depends on both the ability to buy and the
willingness to buy. Although demand for necessities tends to be stable over time,
other expenditures can be postponed or eliminated if people don’t feel that now is a
good time to spend money.8 For example, a person may decide to “make do” with a
current clunker for another year rather than buy a new car right away. Even busi-
nesses, such as warehouse clubs that sell staples by the case, feel the pain when shop-
pers postpone their purchases; stores such as Costco post big losses when people no
Education is strongly linked to a higher

standard of living. People who earn a uni-
versity degree are likely to earn much more
during their lives than those who do not.
Digital Vision/Getty Images, Inc.
C H A P T E R 1 2 Income, Social Class, and Family Structure 343
longer buy their discounted jewellery and clothing, even though sales of paper towels
and pickles hold steady.9
Discretionary income is the money available to a household over and above that
required for a comfortable standard of living. As might be expected, discretionary
income increases as overall income goes up and as debt and tax burdens are relieved.
As the population ages and income levels rise, the typical household changes the way
it spends its money. The most noticeable change is that a much larger share of the
budget is spent on shelter and transportation, and less on food and apparel. (Note: It is
not that higher income households buy less food and clothing; the proportion of
dollars that goes toward these categories decreases.) These shifts are due to factors
such as increased home ownership and the need for working wives to pay commuting
and employment costs. On a more cheerful note, households are spending more now
on entertainment, reading, and education than in the past.
I ND I VIDUA L ATT IT U D E S T O WA R D MO N E Y
Of course, not everyone has the same attitudes about money and its importance. We all
know tightwads who hate to part with even a penny (and who actually experience
emotional pain when they hand over their cash), and spendthrifts who enjoy nothing
more than buying everything in sight. Research on this issue finds that tightwads out-
number spendthrifts. Men are more likely than women to be tightwads, as are older
people and those with more education. How do we tell a tightwad from someone
who’s just being frugal? One of the researchers puts it this way: “The evidence sug-
gests that frugality is driven by a pleasure of saving, as compared with tightwaddism,
which is driven by a pain of paying.”10
In the wake of the 2008 recession, many consumers are experiencing doubts
about their individual and collective futures and are anxious about holding on to
what they have. A consumer’s anxieties about money are not necessarily related to
how much he or she actually has; acquiring and managing money is more a state of
mind than of wallet. Perhaps this is part of the appeal of Julien’s Patisserie Bakery
and Café in Chester, Nova Scotia, a million-dollar business that has been supplying
high-quality/highly priced French-style breads and pastries to Nova Scotians for
20 years. Its nod to the recession was a one-kilogram “economy loaf” made from a
mix of rye, bran, and molasses and priced at under $4.11
Contrary to popular wisdom, not everyone suffers in a recession—and consumers
don’t uniformly cut back on their spending. Many of them just reallocate their priori-
ties (and perhaps buy less on credit). On the other hand, the more than 74 million
credit cards in circulation among Canadian adults may allow them to forget they’re
actually spending money. Debt, which in the past was associated with indulgent shop-
ping behaviour, has become a “normal” feature of society.12
Many companies are incorporating consumer attitudes toward money into their
retailing practices in a practical way. Walmart conducted a year of intensive research
on its customers to better understand how they think about money and brand names.
Consumers’ attitudes about money influence

many things, including who they are roman-
tically compatible with. Creditscore.com
uses consumers’ credit scores to “match”
potential romantic partners.
Creditscoredating.com, image and logo trademark of
Green Walk Media Group, LLC. All rights reserved. “Where
good credit is sexy” trademark of Creditscoredating.com,
a Green Walk Media Group Company. All rights reserved.
This advertisement from Interac encourages

consumers to be conservative in their
spending via credit and to instead pay
by debit.
© 2014 Acxsys Corporation. ®, TM Trademarks of
Interac Inc. Used under license.
The company now organizes its products around the shopper groups it identified,
which Walmart says represent the majority of its business. A separate team services
each group across five so-called “power” product categories: food, entertainment,
apparel, home goods, and pharmeuticals.13 The three groups are as follows:
1. Brand aspirationals: People with low incomes who are obsessed with brand
names, such as KitchenAid
2. Value-price shoppers: Those who like low prices and cannot afford much more
Pricing 3. Price-sensitive affluents: Wealthier shoppers who love deals
Clearly, money has many complex psychological meanings; it can be equated
with success or failure, social acceptability, security, love, freedom, and yes, even sex
appeal.14 One study that approached money as a social resource explored some inter-
esting links between our need for acceptance and our feelings about cash. In one case,
participants were led to believe that they had either been rejected by a group or
accepted by it. Then they completed a number of measures that reflected their desire
for money. Those who were rejected by the group expressed a greater desire for money.
At another stage, subjects counted either real money or pieces of paper and then expe-
rienced physical pain. Those who counted money reported they felt less pain than did
those who just counted paper!15
In his book Better Happy Than Rich?, Michael Adams examines attitudes of
Canadians toward money and the meaning of life. Segmenting by social values and age,
he concludes that those with more money generally report higher levels of happiness
than those with less money. However, it is not money per se or the buying power that
money supports that Canadians value, but the freedom (i.e., personal autonomy) that
money affords. Of course, there are happy people who have very little money and well-
off people who are miserable.16 Other work suggests it is not how much money you have
that makes you happy, but rather how you spend it. As we learned earlier, spending on
experiences can make people happier than spending on material goods. Also, spending
on other people makes people experience more happiness.17
Consumer Confidence
The field of behavioural economics, or economic psychology, is concerned with
the “human” side of economic decisions. Beginning with the pioneering work of
psychologist George Katona, this discipline studies how consumers’ motives and
their expectations about the future affect their current spending, and how these
individual decisions add up to affect a society’s economic well-being.18
Consumers’ beliefs about what the future holds are an indicator of consumer
confidence, which reflects the extent to which people are optimistic or pessimistic
about the future health of the economy and how they predict they’ll fare down the
road. These beliefs influence how much money consumers will pump into the
economy when making discretionary purchases.
Many businesses take forecasts about anticipated spending very seriously, and
periodic surveys attempt to take the pulse of the Canadian consumer. For instance, the
Conference Board of Canada conducts a survey of consumer confidence. Types of
questions posed to consumers in these surveys include the following:19
• Would you say you and your family are better or worse off financially than a year ago?
• Will you be better or worse off a year from now?
• Do you plan to buy a car in the next year?
When people are pessimistic about their prospects and about the state of the econ-
omy, they tend to cut back their spending and take on less debt. On the other hand,
when they are optimistic about the future, they tend to reduce the amount they save,
take on more debt, and buy discretionary items. Thus, the overall savings rate is influ-
enced by (1) consumers’ pessimism or optimism about their personal circumstances
Mastercard’s “Priceless” campaign counter-

acts low consumer confidence by encouraging
consumers to make meaningful choices with
their spending.
Theo Wargo/Getty Images for MasterCard
(e.g., fear of being laid off versus a sudden increase in personal wealth from an inheri-
tance), (2) national and world events (e.g., the election of a new prime minister or a
recession), and (3) cultural differences in attitudes toward saving.20
According to the Conference Board of Canada, one factor that appears to dampen
consumer confidence is increasing gas prices.21 However, it’s not a simple, or neces-
sarily a pessimistic, outlook. Increasing prices may steer Canadian consumers away
from purchasing gas-guzzling vehicles but toward purchasing small cars, away from
gas stations and toward alternative transit, or away from air travel and toward one-
stop shopping at big-box stores and RV vacations.22 Interestingly, in the most recent
recession Canadians scaled back in various ways, but they did so astutely and with
less anxiety than in other parts of the world.23 And a survey of young urban Canadians
(18–34 years old) showed that they remain optimistic. The vast majority intended to
spend the same amount or more on groceries, video games, movies, fitness, cell
phones, cable and Internet services, and clothing and accessories.24
SOCIAL CLASS CO 2
We divide all societies into “haves” and “have nots” (though the amount people “have”
is relative). A consumer’s standing in society, or social class, is determined by a complex
set of variables that include income, family background, education, and occupation.
The place a person occupies in the social structure is an important determinant
not just of how much money is spent but also how it is spent. Some people are sur-
Marketing prised that those who clearly have a lot of money do not seem to flaunt it. This under-
Insight stated way of living is a hallmark of so-called old money; people who have had it for a
long time don’t need to prove they’ve got it. In contrast, consumers who are relative
It’s naive to think that everyone reacts the
newcomers to affluence might allocate the same amount of money very differently.
same way to an economic downturn. The U.K.-
based firm M&C Saatchi conducted research to
identify eight specific consumer segments that
Picking a Pecking Order
display different attitudes and behaviours
toward spending and saving money:25 In many animal species a social organization is developed whereby the most assertive
1. C rash dieters (26%): Try to cut out all non- or aggressive animals exert control over the others and have the first pick of food,
essential spending until things improve. living space, and mating partners. Chickens, for example, develop a clearly defined
2. Scrimpers (13%): Want to maintain their life- dominance–submission hierarchy. Within this hierarchy, each hen has a position in
style and are reluctant to make sacrifices, so which she is submissive to all the hens above her and dominates all the ones below
will trade down to less expensive brands but her (hence the origin of the term pecking order).26
do not stop buying what they like. People are not much different. They also develop a pecking order, in that they are
3. A bstainers (15%): Postpone big purchases ranked in terms of their relative standing in society. This standing determines their access
but look to buy things on credit and pay to resources such as education, housing, and consumer goods. People try to improve their
later. ranking by moving up in the social order. This desire to improve our lot in life, and often
4. B alancers (9%): Sacrifice purchases in to let others know we have done so, is at the core of many marketing strategies.
some categories to buy things in others. Just as marketers try to carve society into groups for segmentation purposes, soci-
5. T reaters (12%): Know they have to cut back ologists have developed ways to describe meaningful divisions of society in terms of
but have trouble budgeting, so when they people’s relative social and economic resources. Some of these divisions involve polit-
do reward themselves they economize with ical power, whereas others revolve around purely economic distinctions. Karl Marx,
small treats.
the nineteenth-century economic theorist, felt that position in a society was deter-
6. J ustifiers (12%): Will spend, but need a
mined by a person’s relationship to the means of production. The “haves” control
good reason to buy something, such as a
resources and use the labour of others to preserve their privileged positions. The “have
new model or a deal.
nots” depend on their own labour for survival, so these people have the most to gain
7. O striches (9%): In denial; mostly younger
by changing the system.27 The German sociologist Max Weber showed that the rank-
consumers who continue to buy as long as
ings people develop are not one-dimensional; some rankings involve prestige or
their credit cards hold out.
8. V ultures (4%): Circle the market, looking to “social honour” (he called these status groups), some focus on power (or party), and
snap up deals as businesses offer bargain- some revolve around wealth and property (class).28
basement prices. We use the term social class more generally to describe the overall rank of people
in a society. People who belong to the same social class have approximately equal
social standing in the community. They work in roughly similar occupations, and they
tend to have similar lifestyles by virtue of their income levels and common tastes.
These people tend to socialize with one another and share many ideas and values
regarding the way life should be lived.29 Indeed, “birds of a feather do flock together.”
We tend to marry people similar in social class to ourselves, a tendency sociologists
call homogamy or “assortative mating.”30
Social class is as much a state of being as it is of having. Class is also a matter of
what you do with your money and how you define your role in society. Although we
may not like the idea that some members of society are better off or “different” from
others, most consumers do acknowledge the existence of different classes and the
effect of class membership on consumption. As one wealthy woman observed when
asked to define social class:
I would suppose social class means where you went to school and how far.
Your intelligence. Where you live. . . . Where you send your children to school.
The hobbies you have. Skiing, for example, is higher than the snow-mobile. . . .
It can’t be [just] money, because nobody ever knows that about you for sure.31
In school, some kids get all the breaks. They have access to many resources, such
as special privileges, fancy cars, large allowances, or dates with other popular class-
mates. At work, some co-workers get promoted to high-prestige jobs with higher sala-
ries and perks, such as a parking space, a large office, or the keys to the executive
washroom.
In virtually every context, some people rank higher than others. Patterns of social
arrangements evolve whereby some members get more resources than others by vir-
tue of their relative standing, power, or control in the group.32 The process of social
stratification refers to this creation of artificial divisions, “those processes in a social
system by which scarce and valuable resources are distributed unequally to status
positions that become more or less permanently ranked in terms of the share of valu-
able resources each receives.”33 We see these distinctions both in real life and online
as the reputation economy takes shape—this term refers to the “currency” people
earn when they post comments online and others recommend their comments.34
AC HI EVE D VE RS U S A S C R IBE D S TAT U S

Think back to groups to which you have belonged. You’ll probably agree that in many
instances some members seem to get more than their fair share of goodies, while
other individuals are not so lucky. Some of these resources may have gone to people
who earned them through hard work or diligent study or achieved status. Adrienne
Stringer, founder of Molly Maid Home Care Services, once quipped, “Every hair in
my mink coat represents a toilet I’ve cleaned.”35 But someone may have gotten the
goodies because she was lucky enough to be born with “a silver spoon in her mouth.”
Such good fortune that one is born into reflects ascribed status. Some socialites, such
as Paris Hilton and Kim Kardashian, have been criticized because their fame seems to
have more to do with ascribed status than with their talent or hard work.
Whether rewards go to “the best and the brightest” or to someone who happens
to be related to the boss, allocations are rarely equal within a social group. Most
groups exhibit a structure, or status hierarchy, in which some members are somehow
better off than others. They may have more authority or power, or other members may
simply like or respect them.
Social Mobility
Take a moment to think about this: The 80 richest people in the world are worth
$1.9 trillion—about the same amount shared by the 3.5 billion people who are in the
bottom half of the world’s income. The most affluent 1 percent of people worldwide
control more than half the globe’s total wealth.36 Today one of the biggest issues
we hear about is income inequality: the extent to which resources are distributed
unevenly within a population. One consequence of this problem is that consumers

worry more about “falling behind” if a breadwinner loses his or her job or the family
can no longer afford the cost of housing, transportation, and other necessities. To what
degree do people tend to change their social classes? In some societies, such as India,
social class is very difficult to change, but in Canada change is possible. Social mobility
refers to the “passage of individuals from one social class to another.”37
Horizontal mobility occurs when a person moves from one position to another
that is roughly equivalent in social status; for instance, a nurse becomes an elementary
school teacher. Downward mobility is, of course, movement none of us wants, but
unfortunately we observe this pattern when displaced workers are forced to go on
social assistance or people join the ranks of the homeless.38
Despite this discouraging trend, demographics decree that there must be upward
mobility in our society. The middle and upper classes reproduce less (i.e., have fewer
children per family) than the lower classes (an effect known as differential fertility),
and they tend to restrict family size to below replacement level (i.e., often having
only one child). Therefore, so the reasoning goes, positions of higher status over time
must be filled by those of lower status.39 One well-cited report found that among
developed Western countries, Canada was fifth in terms of the amount of observed
intergenerational mobility.40 The top three countries for encouraging mobility were
Denmark, Austria, and Norway, whereas Britain had the least amount of intergenera-
tional mobility of the developed countries. Another report found that Canadians had
The Chanel brand conveys elegance and

sophistication, something that appeals to
upper-class consumers as well as middle-
class consumers who have aspirations
toward social mobility.
© Splash News/Corbis
a 29 percent chance of being in the same class as their father, which indicates a fair
degree of intergenerational mobility.41
CLA S S S TRUC TU R E IN C A N A DA
Canada, in theory, does not have a rigid, objectively defined class system. Nevertheless,
Canadians tend to maintain a somewhat stable class structure in terms of income distri-
bution. Unlike some other countries, however, what does change are the groups (ethnic
and religious) that occupy different positions within this structure at different times.42
The most influential and perhaps earliest attempt to describe Canadian class structure
was proposed by sociologist Bernard Blishen in 1958. Blishen constructed an occupa-
tional class scale incorporating assumptions about the educational, income, and pres-
tige levels attached to each occupation. The index was improved through further work
by various researchers, and the final version recognizes gender differences affecting
occupational and social status.43
Among consumer researchers in the United States, an alternative view of social
class was proposed by Richard P. Coleman, who built on the work of earlier research-
ers, notably W. Lloyd Warner.44 Their classifications imply (in ascending order) some
judgment of desirability in terms of access to resources, such as money, education,
and luxury goods.
CLA S S S TRUC TU R E A R OU N D T H E WO R L D CO 3
Every society has some type of hierarchical class structure, which determines people’s
access to products and services. Let’s take a look at a few.
CHINA In China, an economic boom is rapidly creating a middle class of about 100 to
150 million people that analysts project to grow to 700 million by 2020.45 During the
Cultural Revolution, Mao’s Red Guards seized even the smallest possessions—a pocket
watch or silk scarf—as evidence of “bourgeois consciousness.” Change came rapidly
in the early 1990s, after Mao’s successor, Deng Xiaoping, uttered the phrase that
quickly became the credo of the new China: “To get rich is glorious.”
Because costs are low, a family with an annual income below the North American
poverty line can enjoy middle-class comforts, including stylish clothes, personal
computers, and cell phones.46 Wealthier Chinese entrepreneurs can indulge in Cuban
Cohiba cigars that sell for $25 each, a quarter of the average Chinese labourer’s monthly
wage. In bustling Shanghai, “yuppies” drop off their kids for golf lessons; visit Maserati
and Ferrari showrooms; buy some luxury items from Louis Vuitton, Hugo Boss, or Prada;
then pick up some Häagen-Dazs before heading to an Evian spa to unwind. One cultural
difference that might help to account for this love of branded goods is that Asians tend
to be highly sensitive to cues that communicate social standing, and well-known brand
names help to manage this impression. Indeed, researchers report that Asian immigrants
and Asian–North Americans prefer branded goods to generic products.47
Nike, which Chinese consumers in a survey named China’s “coolest brand,”
profits mightily from the rise of the Chinese middle class. Nike shoes are a symbol of
success, and the company is opening an average of 1.5 new stores a day in China. The
company worked for a long time to attain this status; it started by outfitting top Chinese
athletes and sponsoring all the teams in China’s pro basketball league. Still, becoming
a fashion icon (and persuading consumers to spend twice the average monthly salary
for a pair of shoes) is no mean feat. So Nike affiliated with the NBA (which had begun
televising games in China), bringing players such as Michael Jordan for visits. Slowly
but surely, in-the-know Chinese came to call sneakers “Nai-ke.”48
JAPAN Japan is a highly brand-conscious society in which upscale designer labels are
incredibly popular. Although the devastation wrought by the 2011 tsunami has damp-
ened demand for luxury goods among many Japanese, their love affair with top brands
started in the 1970s when the local economy was booming and many Japanese could
buy Western luxury accessories for the first time. Some analysts say Japan’s long slump
since that time may be fostering a psychological need to splurge on small luxuries to
give Japanese consumers the illusion of wealth and forget their anxieties about the
future. Single working women are largely responsible for fuelling Japan’s luxury-goods
spending (about three-quarters of Japanese women aged 25 to 29 are employed outside
the home). Often, these women save money by living with their parents, leaving them
with cash on hand to spend on clothes, accessories, and vacations.49
MIDDLE EAST In contrast to the Japanese, few Arab women work. This makes a search
for the latest in Western luxury brands a major leisure activity for those with money.
Dressing rooms are large, with antechambers to accommodate friends and family
members who often come along on shopping sprees. A major expansion of Western
luxury brands is under way across the Middle East, home to some of the fashion indus-
try’s best customers. High-end retailers, such as Saks Fifth Avenue and Giorgio Armani,
operate opulent stores to cater to this growing market. However, fashion retailers must
take cultural and religious considerations into account. Missoni makes sure that col-
lections include longer pants and skirts, and evening gowns with light shawls to cover
heads or bare shoulders. And advertising and display options are more limited: Erotic
images don’t work. In the strict religious culture of Saudi Arabia, mannequins can’t
reveal a gender or human shape. At Saks’s Riyadh store, models are headless and don’t
have fingers. Half of the two-level store is off limits to men.50
THE UNITED KINGDOM England is an extremely class-conscious country, and, at least

until recently, inherited position and family background predetermined consumption
patterns. Members of the upper class were educated at schools such as Eton and
Oxford. We can still find remnants of this rigid class structure: “Hooray Henrys”
(wealthy young men) play polo at Windsor, and hereditary peers still dominate the
House of Lords.
However, the supremacy of inherited wealth appears to be fading in Britain’s tra-
ditionally aristocratic society as British entrepreneurs such as Richard Branson (of the
Virgin empire) redefine the economy. And the United Kingdom, which was particu-
larly hard hit by a recession much like that which occurred in the United States, puts
a new emphasis on frugality that has altered people’s priorities. In addition, populist
outrage grew after it came to light in 2009 that legislators had billed the government
for excessive expenses; among other abuses, British taxpayers had footed a £2000 bill
for one member of parliament to clean the moat surrounding his castle.51
Some big marketers, such as Unilever and Groupe Danone, have set their sights on a
more lower-class group the British call chavs—young, lower-class men and women who
Consumers mix track suits with flashy brands and accessories from big names such as Burberry. Their
style icons include soccer star David Beckham and his wife, Victoria. Despite the group’s
In Focus alleged tackiness, marketers like chavs, because they spend a lot of their disposable
income on fashion, food, and gadgets. France’s Danone, which makes HP Sauce, a condi-
Have you ever received poor service from a lux-
ment the British have poured over bacon sandwiches and fries for a century, launched a
ury branded retailer? Similar to a famous scene
series of ads playing up to the chav culture. One featured a brawl over the sauce at a wed-
in the movie Pretty Woman where Julia Roberts
ding buffet; another included soccer players’ glammy wives mingling cattily at a party.52
receives a rude reaction from two salespeople,
Danone found “chavvy” people on the streets of Liverpool to star in the ads.
most of us can relate to a time when someone
gave us poor service. Interestingly, recent INDIA India’s economy is booming, and many higher-end global brands are prized by
research has shown that rude salespeople can
affluent consumers—even though nearly half of India’s population lives on less than
sometimes motivate us to buy more! Why?
$1.25 a day. Brands such as Gucci, Jimmy Choo, and Hermès are scrambling to open
When we as consumers aspire to the brand
stores in high-end hotels or new super-luxury malls, where management often stations
(i.e., when we want the symbol of a higher
guards at the doors to keep the destitute outside.54
social class), we become even more motivated
One of Bollywood’s biggest stars, Shahrukh Khan, is a “brand ambassador” for
to purchase (and achieve that marker) when
TAG Heuer watches, which cost thousands of dollars. He gives them away on the
we are treated as if we don’t qualify for it. Of
course, this effect doesn’t happen for con- Indian version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?—the show that also formed the basis
sumption of non-aspirational goods. As the for the hit movie Slumdog Millionaire. India’s ascendancy is fairly recent; for decades
famous quote from Groucho Marx says, “I don’t after the country became independent from Britain its economy was socialistic and
want to belong to any club that would have me traditional. Today, young consumers watch MTV, read international fashion maga-
as a member.”53 zines, and embrace the power of plastic: credit-card spending in India has been rising
by 30 percent a year.55
B LUR RING S OC IA L C L A S S L IN E S
It’s getting more difficult to clearly link certain brands or stores with a specific class.
Marketplace changes make it harder for the casual observer to accurately place a con-
sumer in a certain class merely on the basis of the products he or she buys. That’s
As I See It
In 2009, already more than nine-point scale from 1 (€0–€50) to 9 (over €400); this made
one in four Canadians were them feel that they had enough monetary resources because their
obese. 1 There is an estab- answers were at the top of the scale. Those in the relatively poor
lished link between obesity condition received the nine-point scale from 1 (€0–€500) to 9
Courtesy of Dr. Sandra Laporte
and poverty in society. Neigh- (over €400 000). Offering responses at the bottom of the scale
bourhoods with decreased eco- made them feel relatively poor. This second group preferred the
nomic resources have higher higher-calorie option in hypothetical choices between equally
rates of obesity,2 and findings tasty dish alternatives, and actually ate more M&M’s or brownies
from the American National when real food intake was measured.
Health and Nutrition Examina- Furthermore, we provide evidence that feeling poor directly
tion Survey (NHANES) show makes people want to eat more (caloric) food because of the
Sandra Laporte, HEC Montreal that low-income children and energy value. That is, we test the idea that a lack of monetary
adolescents are more likely to resources increases the desire for caloric resources because
be obese than their higher-income counterparts. money and food are functionally interchangeable. For example,
Various factors have been shown to contribute to the link in one of our studies, feeling poor increased the preference for a
between low income and obesity. For example, low-income con- mix of dried fruit and nuts only when we labelled it “Power Mix”
sumers report greater barriers to physical activity, have less access and described it as “containing a lot of energy,” but not when
to stores with healthy food, can more readily afford cheap energy- we depicted the very same food item as a “Very Tasty Gourmet
dense foods, and may be less knowledgeable about healthy life- Mix.” This result shows that people feeling poor consume more
styles.3 However, when my co-author Barbara Briers and I examined (caloric) food because they value energy and not good taste.
purchase records from a European GfK consumer panel who Understanding better the qualitative nature of the link
scanned their purchases at home, we found that their household between feeling poor and higher caloric intake can guide us to
revenues were negatively related to the share of higher-calorie prod- new insights for public policy and managerial practices encour-
ucts purchased in several food categories consumed on a daily aging people who feel poor to make healthier food choices. For
basis, even after controlling for education level and average price example, marketing practices that stress the “super size” of
per food unit spent per household in every category.4 food portions with words like big, giant, and maxi may be very
Our research proposes that there is another, more psycho- effective in triggering people who desire money to actually con-
logical determinant of the low income–obesity link. In support, sume these meals, because these labels also underline the
both neurological and behavioural research indicates that money energetic content of these dishes. Counterintuitively, our
and food may be closely related in perception. For instance, hun- research seems to imply that advertising the good taste of food
ger and olfactory food cues motivate people to hold on to their products rather than their size might be less harmful for people
money, while conversely, money cues induce people to eat more who lack monetary resources. In the same vein, better stressing
in a taste test.5 The effect of feeling poor on food intake has, the energy content of healthy foods may be a way to counteract
however, never been investigated, nor has the exact nature of this the perception of laypeople that healthy products will not pro-
money–food association. In a series of experimental studies, we vide necessary energy.6 Perhaps thus positioning fruit and veg-
induced subjective poverty by asking participants to indicate the etables as energy providers instead of as healthy foods may
combined amount of money in their chequing and savings contribute to substituting these food categories for unhealthy
accounts. Participants in the relatively rich condition viewed a ones in consumers’ share of wallet.
1 Obesity in Canada, joint report from the Public Health Agency of Canada and the Canadian Institute for Health Information, 2011.
2 Jennifer L. Black and James Macinko, “Neighborhoods and Obesity,” Nutrition Reviews 66 (January 2008): 2–20.
3 Adam Drewnowski and Nicole Darmon, “Food Choices and Diet Costs: An Economic Analysis,” Journal of Nutrition 135(4) (2005): 900–904; S.W. Keith, D.T. Redden, P.T.
Katzmarzyk, M.M. Boggiano, E.C. Hanlon, R.M. Benca, D. Ruden, A. Pietrobelli, J.L. Barger, K.R. Fontaine, C. Wang, L.J. Aronne, S.M. Wright, M. Baskin, N.V. Dhurandhar,
M.C. Lijoi, C.M. Grillo, M. DeLuca, A.O. Westfall, and D.B. Alison, “Putative Contributors to the Secular Increase in Obesity: Exploring the Roads Less Traveled,” International
Journal of Obesity 30 (2006): 1585–1594.
4 Barbara Briers and Sandra Laporte, “A Wallet Full of Calories: The Effect of Financial Dissatisfaction on the Desire for Food Energy,” Journal of Marketing Research 50(6)
(2013): 767–781.
5 Barbara Briers, Mario Pandelaere, Siegfried Dewitte, and Luk Warlop, “Hungry for Money: The Desire for Caloric Resources Increases the Desire for Financial Resources and
Vice Versa,” Psychological Science 17 (November 2006): 939–943.
6 Stacey R. Finkelstein and Ayelet Fishbach, “When Healthy Food Makes You Hungry,” Journal of Consumer Research 37 (March 2010): 357–367.
Brands such as Zara appeal to the “mass

class” of global consumers who demand
relatively high quality, fashionable products
at affordable prices.
Andrey Rudakov/Bloomberg via Getty Images
because a lot of “affordable luxuries” are now within reach of many consumers who
could not have managed to acquire them in the past.
Profound changes in global income distribution are driving this shift. Think of
how many university students you know who buy pricey clothes and entertainment,
then eat Kraft Dinner for supper. To make things even more confusing, a wealthy fam-
ily may buy its wine at Costco and its bath towels at Walmart—and proudly gloat
about the steals they got.56 Luxury brands are slashing prices to attract more custom-
ers, while mass-market brands are moving upscale; for example, Disney’s new Disney
Couture line sells cashmere sweaters “inspired by Tinker Bell” and a $1400 sequinned
Mickey Mouse T-shirt from Dolce & Gabbana.57
Traditionally, it was common to find a huge gulf between the rich and the poor—
you were either one or the other. Today, rising incomes in many economically devel-
oping countries, such as South Korea and China, coupled with decreasing prices for
quality consumer goods and services level the playing field. Even in times of eco-
nomic recession more and more consumers around the globe are participating in the
global economy. The biggest emerging markets go by the acronym BRIC, which
stands for Brazil, Russia, India, and China. These four countries today account for
25 percent of the world’s gross national income, but analysts project they will over-
take the European and American economies within 20 years.58 Other areas that have
been identified as promising emerging markets include South Korea, Qatar, and
United Arab Emirates.59
This change fuels demand for mass-consumed products that still offer some
degree of panache. Companies such as H&M, Zara, easyJet, and L’Oréal provide
creature comforts to a consumer segment analysts label the mass class. This seg-
ment comprises the hundreds of millions of global consumers who now enjoy a
level of purchasing power that enables them to afford high-quality products—
except for big-ticket items such as university educations, housing, or luxury cars.
The mass-class market, for example, spawned several versions of affordable cars:
Latin Americans have their Volkswagen Beetle (affectionately called el huevito, the
little egg); Indian consumers have their Maruti 800 (selling for as little as $5720);
and the Fiat Palio, the company’s “world car,” targets people in 40 countries world-
wide and is especially prevalent in emerging economies such as Brazil, Argentina,
India, China, and Turkey.60
Components of Social Class

When we think about a person’s social class, we consider a number of pieces of informa-
tion. Two major ones are occupation and income. A third related factor is educational
attainment, which is related strongly to income and occupation.
O C C U PATIONA L P RE S T IG E
In a system in which we define people to a great extent by what they do for a living,
occupational prestige is one way we evaluate their “worth.” Occupational prestige is
the notion that some occupations are more respected and held in higher regard than
others. Hierarchies of occupational prestige tend to be quite stable over time and
across cultures. Researchers find similarities in occupational prestige in countries as
diverse as Brazil, Ghana, Guam, Japan, and Turkey.61
A typical ranking includes a variety of professional and business occupations at
the top (e.g., chief executive officer of a large corporation, physician, and university
professor), whereas jobs that hover near the bottom include shoe shiner, ditch digger,
and garbage collector. Because a person’s occupation tends to be linked strongly to his
or her use of leisure time, allocation of family resources, aesthetic preferences, and
political orientation, many social scientists consider it the single best indicator of
social class.
I NC O ME
The distribution of wealth is of great interest to social scientists and marketers, because
it determines which groups have the greatest buying power and market potential. As
might be expected, wealth is not distributed evenly across the classes. Income dispari-
ties shown as ratios (i.e., the top income group divided by the lowest or middle income
group) reveal that, depending on the year, families in the top 20 percent received
between 7.2 and 9.4 times more than families in the bottom 20 percent in the period
1976 to 2011.62 However, as we have seen, income per se is often not a very good indi-
cator of social class, because the way we spend money is more telling than how much
we spend. Still, people need money to obtain goods and services to express their
tastes, so obviously income is still important. Canadian consumers are getting both
wealthier and older, and these changes will continue to influence consumption prefer-
ences. For example, in a study of environmental consumer behaviour commissioned
by Cossette, Canadians with higher education and income were found to be engaged in
the most meaningful environmental action.63
Via Rail appeals to younger consumers who

want the lifestyle of travelling, yet are still
very price conscious.
VIA Rail Canada Inc.
H O W IN C O ME R ELATES TO SO CIAL CLASS

Although we equate money with class, the precise relationship between other aspects
of social class and income is not clear and is an issue hotly debated among social
scientists.64 The two are by no means synonymous, which is why many people with
a lot of money try to buy their way into a higher social class. One problem is that,
even if a family adds one or more wage earners and increases its household income,
each additional job is likely to be of lower status than the primary wage-earner’s job.
In addition, these members don’t necessarily pool their earnings toward the common
good of the family.65
So which is a better predictor of consumer behaviour? The answer depends partly
on the type of product we sell: Do people buy it largely for its functional value (what
it does) or for its symbolic value (the impression it conveys to others)?
• Social class is a better predictor of purchases that have symbolic aspects but low-
to-moderate prices (e.g., cosmetics and liquor).
• Income is a better predictor of major expenditures that do not have status or
symbolic aspects (e.g., major appliances).
• Both social class and income data are needed to predict purchases of expensive,
symbolic products (e.g., cars and homes).
CO 4 HOW SOCIAL CLASS AFFECTS PURCHASE

DECISIONS
Class Differences in World View
World view is one way to differentiate among social classes. To generalize, the world of
the working class (i.e., the lower-middle class) is more intimate and constricted. For
example, working-class men are likely to name local sports figures as heroes and are
less likely to take long vacations to out-of-the-way places.66 Among the working class,
immediate needs such as a new refrigerator tend to dictate buying behaviour, whereas
the higher classes focus more on long-term goals, such as saving for university tuition
or retirement.67
Working-class consumers depend heavily on relatives for emotional support and
tend to orient themselves in terms of the local community rather than the world at
large. They are more likely to be conservative and family-oriented. Maintaining the
appearance of one’s home and property is a priority, regardless of the size of the house.
One study that looked at social class and how it relates to consumers’ feelings of
empowerment reported that lower-class men aren’t as likely to feel they have the
power to affect their outcomes. Respondents varied from those who were what the
researcher calls potent actors (those who believe they have the ability to take actions
that affect their world) to impotent reactors (those who feel they are at the mercy of
their economic situations). This orientation influenced consumption behaviours; for
example, the professionals in the study who were likely to be potent actors set them-
selves up for financial opportunity and growth; they took very broad perspectives on
investing and planned their budgets strategically.68
Although they would like to have more in the way of material goods, working-
class people do not necessarily envy those who rank above them in social standing.69
They may not view the maintenance of a high-status lifestyle as worth the effort. As
one blue-collar consumer commented, “Life is very hectic for those people. There are
more breakdowns and alcoholism. It must be very hard to sustain the status, the
clothes, the parties that are expected. I don’t think I’d want to take their place.”70
This person may be right. Although good things appear to go hand in hand with
higher status and wealth, the picture is not that clear. The social scientist Emile
Durkheim observed that suicide rates are much higher among the wealthy; he wrote
The Winners Canada mantra “Find Fabulous

for Less” encourages consumers to pay less
for designer brands.
Courtesy of Winners
in 1897, “The possessors of most comfort suffer most.” 71 Durkheim’s wisdom may
still be accurate today. Many well-off consumers seem to be stressed or unhappy
despite or even because of their wealth, a condition some call affluenza.72
Many marketers try to target affluent, upscale markets. This practice often makes
sense, because these consumers obviously have the resources to spend on costly prod-
ucts that command higher profit margins. However, it is a mistake to assume that we
should put everyone with a high income into the same market segment. As noted ear-
lier, social class involves more than absolute income. It is also a way of life, and factors
including where they got their money, how they got it, and how long they have had it
significantly affect affluent consumers’ interests and spending priorities.73
Interestingly, many affluent people don’t consider themselves too rich. One ten-
dency noticed by many researchers is that they indulge in luxury goods while pinch-
ing pennies on everyday items—buying shoes at upscale stores and deodorant at
Walmart, for example.74 Nevertheless, Canadian businesses such as Birks and Bernard
Callebaut cater successfully to consumers seeking premium or luxury products. And
Winners, with more than 200 stores in Canada, makes designer labels and luxurious
items accessible to the middle-market consumer. Other marketers are creating entry-
level products at lower price points and are using merchandise approaches that offer
luxury at every price point.75
SRI Consulting Business Intelligence, now called Strategic Business Insights (the
research firm that developed VALS, as discussed in Chapter 6), divides consumers
into three groups on the basis of their attitudes toward luxury:
1. Luxury is functional: These consumers buy things that will last and have endur-
ing value. They conduct extensive prepurchase research and make logical deci-
sions rather than emotional or impulsive choices.
2. Luxury is a reward: These consumers tend to be younger than the first group but
older than the third group. They often use luxury goods to say, “I’ve made it.” The
desire to be successful and to demonstrate their success to others motivates these
consumers to purchase conspicuous luxury items, such as high-end cars and
homes in exclusive communities.
3. Luxury is indulgence: This group is the smallest of the three and tends to include
younger consumers and slightly more males than the other two groups. To these
consumers, the purpose of owning luxury items is to be extremely lavish and self-
indulgent. This group is willing to pay a premium for goods that express its indi-
viduality and make others take notice. These consumers have a more emotional
approach to luxury spending and are more likely than the other two groups to
make impulse purchases.76
Rolex conveys a sense of sophistication

and luxury that appeals to upper-class
consumers.
Spencer Platt/Getty Images
Consumers
in Focus
Twenty-five Canadians were billionaires in 2014.
Some, such as the Thomson media family, come
from old money, while others, such as Frank H.
Sobey (think Sobey grocery stores), accumulated
There’s no telling what can become luxury. Consider 10 Thousand BC, a glacial
their impressive net worth recently. And they hail
water from British Columbia that dates back to 10 000 BC. It comes in a corked, foil-
from all regions of Canada—from the Irving
wrapped glass bottle and has been described as the “most luxurious” among almost 80
family in eastern Canada to Jimmy Pattison in
offerings at Via Genova Café, a water bar located in a ritzy community of Chappaqua,
western Canada—and from a diverse array of
industries, including the circus (such as Guy New York. But don’t worry if you can’t afford the $30-per-litre price tag or if this type
Laliberté of Cirque du Soleil).78 of product does not appeal to your sense of environmental responsibility. Canada’s tap
Taddingstone Consulting profiled Canadian water is consistently ranked as among the best in the world, with water in British
millionaires into three groups: massmillionaires, Columbia, Quebec, and Saskatchewan ranked at the top of the list.77
with $1 million to $5 million; pentamillionaires, People who have had money for a long time use their fortunes a lot differently.
with $5 million to $10 million; and decamillion- “Old money” families (e.g., the Bronfmans, Westons, Killams, McCains) live pri-
aires, with more than $10 million. They enjoy at marily on inherited funds. Mere wealth is not sufficient to achieve social promi-
least two of the following leisure activities: golf, nence in these circles. You also need to demonstrate a family history of public
skiing, boating, tennis, running, and fishing. service and philanthropy, and tangible markers (e.g., Ivey Business School or
These discriminating shoppers appreciate exclu- Zwicker’s Gallery) that enable you to achieve a kind of immortality.82 Old-money
sivity and optimal customer service.79 consumers distinguish themselves in terms of ancestry and lineage rather than
Opera is another leisure pursuit of the afflu- wealth.83 And they are secure in their status. In a sense, they have been trained
ent. Canada’s 647 000 opera fans tend to be their whole lives to be rich.
female (57 percent), older (40 percent are over In contrast to people with old money, today there are many people—including
50), well read (32 percent are heavy magazine high-profile billionaires such as Bill Gates, Mark Cuban, and Richard Branson—who
readers), and well educated (they are twice as are “the working wealthy.”84 The myth in which a person goes from rags to riches
likely as the average Canadian to be university through hard work and a bit of luck is still a powerful force. Although many do in fact
graduates). They also like to cycle (33 percent),
become “self-made millionaires,” they often encounter a problem after they become
ice-skate (24 percent), golf (23 percent), play
wealthy and change their social status. The label nouveaux riches describes consum-
tennis, downhill-ski (21 percent each), and
ers who recently achieved their wealth and who don’t have the benefit of years of
garden and entertain at home (50 percent
training to learn how to spend it.
for each).80
Pity the poor nouveaux riches; many suffer from status anxiety. They monitor
What do rich Canadians worry about? Census
the cultural environment to ensure that they are doing the “right” thing, wearing the
research found that almost one-quarter of
Canadians worth more than $10 million were “right” clothes, being seen at the “right” places, using the “right” caterer, and so
concerned that their children and grandchildren on.85 Their flamboyant consumption can thus be viewed as a form of symbolic self
would squander the family assets, and about completion, because they believe they have “class” to make up for an internal lack
one-third worried that they would not be able to of assurance about the “correct” way to behave.86 In major Chinese cities such as
maintain their lifestyle.81 Shanghai, for example, some people have taken to wearing pyjamas in public as a
way to flaunt their newfound wealth. As one consumer explained, “Only people in
cities can afford clothes like this. In farming villages, they still have to wear old
work clothes to bed.”87 Consumers
in Focus
“What Do You Use That Fork For?” Taste
About one-third of Canada’s 1.5 million working-
Cultures, Codes, and Cultural Capital
class youth (aged 18 to 25 years) are actually
A taste culture differentiates people in terms of their aesthetic and intellectual prefer- “gold-collar aspirationalists,” according to a
ences. This concept helps to illuminate the important yet sometimes subtle distinc- study by Synovate. They buy products, such as
tions in consumption choices among the social classes. For example, a comprehensive fashions, premium alcohol, and cell phones, to
analysis of social-class differences using data from 675 000 households supports the define who they are. They will buy $230 skin
mass-class phenomenon we discussed before: Differences in consumption patterns creams, $500 handbags, $300 sunglasses, and
between the upper and upper-middle classes and between the middle and working expensive coffees.
classes are disappearing. However, strong differences still emerge in terms of how con- How can these young earners of less than
sumers spend their discretionary income and leisure time. Upper- and upper-middle- $30 000 per year afford these high-end pur-
chases? Most live at home, do not have student-
class consumers are more likely to visit museums and attend live theatre; middle-class
loan debt (unlike their university counterparts),
consumers are more likely to go camping and fishing. The upper class is more likely to
and are not saving to buy a home (unlike blue-
listen to all-news programs, while the middle classes are more likely to tune in to
collar youth); in other words, they have very high
country music.88
discretionary income. Premium products with
Some social critics don’t like the taste culture perspective because, they charge,
celebrity endorsements are very appealing to
it’s elitist. Judgments of the relative artistic value of Beethoven versus Jay Z aside, it is
this gold-collar class.90
very helpful to recognize that we segment ourselves in terms of our shared tastes in
literature, art, music, leisure activities, and home decoration. Indeed, all of the thou-
sands of online brand communities we discussed in Chapter 11 are living evidence
that we do this all the time!
In one of the classic studies of social differences in taste, researchers catalogued
homeowners’ possessions while asking more typical questions about income and
occupation. Specific “clusters” of furnishings and decorative items that seemed to
appear together with some regularity were identified. These clusters appeared to
depend on the consumer’s social status. For example, religious objects, artificial flow-
ers, and still lifes tended to be found together in relatively lower-status living rooms,
while a cluster containing abstract paintings, sculptures, and modern furniture was
more likely to appear in a higher-status home.89
ONLINE SOCIAL CAPITAL

Typically, a community is healthier and more desirable when it is able to offer a lot
of social capital as an inducement for people to join. This is true in the online
world as well. You can think of this as a big, beefy nightclub bouncer who decides
who he will admit past the velvet rope. In the online world, bloggers acquire social
capital when a lot of other people start to rate their posts highly and perhaps re-
tweet them.91 And, like exclusive country clubs, online gated communities that
selectively allow access to some people may offer a high degree of social capital to
the lucky few who pass the test. Consider, for example, “exclusive” dating sites like
HotEnough.org that (at least allegedly) weed out unattractive people. The site’s
homepage claims, “Through our screening process, we have filtered the masses
leaving only your area’s most attractive, fit, trendy singles and have now included
an exclusive section for our 40+ singles, the ‘BABY BOOMER SECTION.’ Hot
Enough offers three tiers of hotties, so if you’re fit and trendy, then rest assured
there is a place for you.”92
We often associate status symbols with luxury products, but the reality is that
consumers are very good at latching on to all sorts of things that enable them to pro-
claim their place in a pecking order. In cyberspace, Twitter enables actors, politicians,
and athletes to build and grow their following through social commentary.
Let’s use Foursquare as an example to understand how online social capital

works. People visit Foursquare because they can check in at locations and announce
their arrivals to their community of friends. Some check-ins can earn badges and
coupons from participating retailers. The more people get involved, the more valu-
able the community. And involvement grows according to activities that partici-
pants value. For instance, people into Foursquare crave the status of being “mayor”
of a location such as their local Starbucks. As long as people value this title, the
Foursquare community will attract enthusiastic participants. If and when people
move on to something else, the social capital that flows from being a “mayor” will
slow to a trickle. At that point, we’re on to the next hot site (social media platforms
are like other fashion products that often ebb and wane in popularity—more about
that in Chapter 15). As it declines, the community experiences a big dropoff in par-
ticipation, adherence to norms, perceived reputation, and trust among members.93
Think MySpace or Friendster to understand how platforms can lose their cool
almost overnight.
STATUS SYMBOLS
We all tend to evaluate ourselves, our professional accomplishments, our appearance,
Cadillac
and our material well-being relative to others. The popular phrase “keeping up with
the Joneses” (in Japan it’s “keeping up with the Satos”) refers to a desire to compare
your standard of living with that of your neighbours—and exceed it if you can.
Often it’s not enough to have wealth or fame—what matters is that you have
more of it than others. One study demonstrated that how we assign value to loyalty
programs (e.g., when airlines award you special status according to the number of
miles you fly) is at least in part based on our level in the hierarchy relative to other
members. Participants were accorded “gold status” in either a program in which
they were in the only tier or one in which there was also a silver tier. Although both
groups were “gold,” those in the program that also offered a lower level felt better
about it.94
A major motivation to buy and display what we buy is not to enjoy these items,
but rather to let others know that we can afford them. In other words, these products
Mercedes positions itself as a status

symbol.
Marco Destefanis/Pacific Press/LightRocket via Getty
Images
function as status symbols. The popular bumper sticker “He who dies with the most
toys wins” summarizes the desire to accumulate these “badges of achievement.” Sta-
tus seeking is a significant source of the motivation to procure appropriate products
and services that we hope will let others know we’ve “made it.” One study demon-
strated how people turn to status symbols to prop up their self-concepts, especially
when they feel bad or uncertain about other aspects of their lives. When subjects in
auctions were made to feel that they had little power, they spent more to purchase
items to compensate for this deficit.95
Luxury goods often serve as status symbols, but the proliferation of inexpensive
counterfeit products threatens to diminish their value (“Hey buddy, wanna buy a ‘gen-
uine’ Rolex for $20?”). Fakes are a major headache for many manufacturers, especially
in Asia: Officials in China estimate that 15 to 20 percent of the products made there are
counterfeit.96 One question is: How do people who bought the real thing react when
they see imitations of their prized handbags or watches parading by them on the street?
Researchers who interviewed consumers who purchased luxury fashion brands in
India and Thailand identified three coping strategies:
1. Flight: They stop using the brand because they don’t want to be mislabelled as a
lesser-status person who buys fake brands.
2. Reclamation: They go out of their way to emphasize their long relationship with
the brand but express concern that its image will be tarnished.
3. Abranding: They disguise their luxury items in the belief that truly high-status
people do not need to display expensive logos—while those who do betray their
lower status.97
The particular products that count as status symbols vary, of course, across cul-
tures and locales. For example, in Indonesia, as in many countries, a cell phone is a
status symbol—but instead of a sleek iPhone, a decade-old Nokia model that users call
“the Brick” is the one to have. This smartphone never took off in the West; its bulky
design makes it look dated. But in Jakarta, its heft is what people like about it. At a
whopping half-pound it doesn’t fit into a pocket, so it’s very visible when models,
politicians, and other celebrities cart it around with them. Nokia even sells a gold-
plated version for $2500. In the world of status symbols, anything goes as long as oth-
ers don’t have it.98
The social analyst Thorstein Veblen first discussed the motivation to consume for
the sake of consuming at the turn of the twentieth century. Veblen felt that a major role
of products was invidious distinction—to inspire envy in others through the display
of wealth or power.
Veblen coined the term conspicuous consumption to refer to people’s desire to
provide prominent, visible evidence of their ability to afford luxury goods. The
material excesses of his time motivated Veblen’s outlook. Veblen wrote in the era of
the American robber barons, when the likes of J.P. Morgan and William Vanderbilt
built massive financial empires and flaunted their wealth as they competed to
throw the most lavish parties. Some of these events were legendary, as described in
this account:
There were tales, repeated in the newspapers, of dinners on horseback; of
banquets for pet dogs; of hundred-dollar bills folded into guests’ dinner
napkins; of a hostess who attracted attention by seating a chimpanzee at her
table; of centerpieces in which lightly clad living maidens swam in glass
tanks, or emerged from huge pies; of parties at which cigars were
ceremoniously lighted with flaming banknotes of large denominations.99
Sounds as if they really lived it up back in the old days, right? Perhaps the more
things change the more they stay the same. The wave of corporate scandals over the past
decade involving companies such as AIG, Enron, WorldCom, and Lehman Brothers
infuriated many consumers as they discovered that some top executives lived it up even
as other employees were being laid off. One account of a US$1 million birthday party
the chief executive of Tyco threw for his wife sounds eerily similar to a robber baron
shindig: The party reportedly had a gladiator theme and included an ice sculpture of
Michelangelo’s David with vodka streaming from his penis into crystal glasses. The
company also furnished the executive’s New York apartment with “essentials,” such as
a US$6000 shower curtain, a US$2200 gilt wastebasket, and a US$17 100 “travelling
toilette box.”100
This phenomenon of conspicuous consumption was, for Veblen, most evident
among what he termed the leisure class, people for whom productive work is taboo. In
Marxist terms, such an attitude reflects a desire to link oneself to ownership or control
of the means of production rather than to the production itself. Those who control
these resources, therefore, avoid any evidence that they actually have to work for a
living, as the term the idle rich suggests.
To Veblen, wives were an economic resource. He criticized the “decorative” role
of women as rich men showered them with expensive clothes, pretentious homes, and
a life of leisure as a way to advertise their own wealth. (Note that today he might have
argued the same for a smaller number of husbands.) Fashions such as high heels, tight
corsets, billowing trains on dresses, and elaborate hairstyles all conspired to ensure
that wealthy women could barely move without assistance, much less perform manual
labour. Similarly, the Chinese practice of foot binding severely handicapped women,
who had to be carried from place to place.
Consumers engage in conspicuous consumption as a way to display status
markers, yet the prominence of these markers varies from products with large rec-
ognizable emblems to those with no logo at all. Those “in the know” can often
recognize a subtle status marker when another member of their elite group displays
it, such as the distinctive design of a bag or watch—these are “quiet signals.” In
contrast, some people may feel the need to almost hit others over the head with
their bling; they use “loud signals.” One set of researchers labels these differences
brand prominence. They assign consumers to one of four consumption groups
(patricians, parvenus, poseurs, and proletarians) based on their wealth and need for
status. In analyzing data on luxury goods, the authors find that brand prominence is
valued differently by different classes of people. Brands like Louis Vuitton, Gucci,
and Mercedes vary in terms of how blatant their status appeals (e.g., prominent
logos) are in advertisements and on the products themselves. Thinking back to our
discussion about “old” versus “new money” earlier in the chapter, for example, it’s
Consumers not surprising that those who are wealthier and don’t have a high need for status
in Focus (patricians) rely on “quiet signals” and will likely be put off by excessive displays.
Status brands need to understand these distinctions, because their customers
Men as trophies? In recent years the tables have may or may not value products with explicit logos and other highly visible cues
turned as older women—who increasingly that signal conspicuous consumption.101 Figure 12–1 summarizes these four
boast the same incomes and social capital as consumption groups.
their male peers—seek out younger men as Veblen’s inspiration came from anthropological studies he read of the Kwakiutl
arm candy. These so-called cougars are every- Indians, who lived in the Pacific Northwest. At a potlatch ceremony, the host
where; surveys estimate that about one-third of showed off his wealth and gave extravagant presents to the guests. The more he
women over age 40 date younger men. One self- gave away, the greater his status. Sometimes the host would use an even more
professed cougar explained the appeal: “The
radical strategy to flaunt his wealth: He would publicly destroy some of his property
mentality of having a youthful person on your
to demonstrate how much he had. And the plot thickens. Because guests had to
arm who makes you feel good, who makes you
reciprocate by giving a gift of equal value, the host could humiliate a poorer rival
feel ageless, makes you feel desired and desir-
with an invitation to a lavish potlatch. The hapless guest would eventually be
able.” This trend gets carried to the next level at
forced into bankruptcy because he needed to give away as much as the host, even
an annual speed-dating event that pairs rich
though he could not afford it. If this practice sounds “primitive,” think for a moment
older women with hot younger guys. The “sugar
mamas” have to be over age 35 and earn at about many modern weddings. Parents commonly invest huge sums of money to
least $500 000 a year or have a minimum of throw a lavish party and compete with others for the distinction of giving their
$4 million in liquid assets. A matchmaker daughter the “best” or most extravagant wedding, even if they have to dip into their
selected 20 “boy toys” out of 5000 men who retirement savings to do it.
applied to meet the cougars.102 Like the potlatch ritual, in modern times our desire to convince others that we
have a surplus of resources creates the need for us to exhibit the evidence that we do.
FIGURE 12–1
Status Signal Preferences
Parvenu
Patrician Parvenus associate with
other haves and want to
Haves
Patricians signal to each

other. They use quiet dissociate themselves from
signals. have-nots. They use loud
signals.
Wealth
Have-nots
Proletarian
Proletarians do not Poseur
engage in signalling. Poseurs aspire to be haves.
They mimic the parvenus.
Low High
Needs for Status
Light arrows denote associations
Dark arrows denote dissociations
Accordingly, we may prioritize consumption activities that use up as many resources

as possible in non-constructive pursuits. This conspicuous waste, in turn, shows oth-
ers that we have assets to spare. Veblen noted that, “we are told of certain Polynesian
chiefs, who, under the stress of good form, preferred to starve rather than carry their
food to their mouths with their own hands.”103
As the competition to accumulate status symbols escalates, sometimes the best
tactic is to switch gears and go in reverse. One way to do this is to deliberately avoid
status symbols—that is, to seek status by mocking it. Social scientists call this sophis-
ticated form of conspicuous consumption parody display.104 Popular examples of
parody display are frayed edges on denim clothing, unbuttoned cuffs on shirts, and
wines with irreverent labels, such as Blasted Church, Painted Turtle, Dirty Laundry,
and Laughing Stock, so named for the locales or the inclinations of the purchasers.105
Thus, “true” status is shown by the adoption of product symbolism that is deliberately
irreverent or unfashionable.
HOW DO WE MEASURE SOCIAL CLASS? CO 5
Because social class is a complex concept that depends on a number of factors, it is

not surprising that social scientists disagree on the best way to measure it. Early
measures included the Index of Status Characteristics and the Index of Social Posi-
tion developed by August Hollingshead. 106 These indices combined individual
characteristics (e.g., income and type of housing) to arrive at a label of class stand-
ing. The accuracy of these composites is still a subject of debate among researchers;
one study claimed that for segmentation purposes, raw education and income mea-
sures work, as well as composite status measures. 107 Blishen’s Socioeconomic
Index for Occupations in Canada may be used when occupation is the most appro-
priate variable to use to collect information on socioeconomic status.108 An alterna-
tive is to adapt Coleman’s approach, shown in Figure 12–2, which explicitly
FIGURE 12–2
Example of a Computerized Status Index
Interviewer circles code numbers (for the computer) which in his/her judgment best fit the respondent and family. Interviewer
asks for detail on occupation, then makes rating. Interviewer often asks the respondent to describe neighbourhood in own words.
Interviewer asks respondent to specify income—a card is presented to the respondent showing the eight brackets—and records
R’s response. If interviewer feels this is overstatement or understatement, a “better judgment” estimate should be given, along
with explanation.
EDUCATION: Respondent Respondent’s Spouse

Elementary or middle school (8 yrs or less) –1 –1
–2 R’s –2 Spouse’s
Some high school (9 to 11 yrs)
Graduated high school (12 yrs) –3 Age –3 Age
Some post—high school (business, nursing, technical, one year college) –4 ____ –4 ____
Two, three years of university—possibly Associate of Arts degree –5 –5
Graduated four-year university (B.A./B.Sc.) –7 –7
Master’s or five-year professional degree –8 –8
Ph.D. or six/seven-year professional degree –9 –9
OCCUPATION PRESTIGE LEVEL OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD: Interviewer’s judgment of how head of household rates in
occupational status.
(Respondent’s description—asks for previous occupation if retired, or if R. is widow, asks husband’s: __________)
Chronically unemployed—“day” labourers, unskilled; on welfare –0
Steadily employed but in marginal semi-skilled jobs; custodians, minimum-pay factory help,
service workers (gas attendants, etc.) –1
Average-skill assembly-line workers, bus and truck drivers, police and firefighters, route
delivery people, carpenters, brickmasons –2
Skilled craftspeople (electricians), small contractors, factory supervisors, low-pay salesclerks,
office workers, postal employees –3
Owners of very small firms (2–4 employees), technicians, salespeople, office workers, civil
servants with average-level salaries –4
Middle management, teachers, social workers, lesser professionals –5
Lesser corporate officials, owners of middle-sized businesses (10–20 employees), moderate-
success professionals (dentists, engineers, etc.) –7
Top corporate executives, “big successes” in the professional world (leading doctors and lawyers),
“rich” business owners –9
AREA OF RESIDENCE: Interviewer’s impressions of the immediate neighbourhood in terms of its reputation in the eyes
of the community.
Inner city area: people on relief, common labourers –1
Strictly working class: not slummy but some very poor housing –2
Predominantly blue-collar with some office workers –3
Predominantly white-collar with some well-paid blue-collar workers –4
Better white-collar area: not many executives, but hardly any blue-collar either –5
Excellent area: professionals and well-paid managers –7
“Wealthy” or “society”-type neighbourhood –9
TOTAL SCORE _______
TOTAL FAMILY INCOME PER YEAR:
Under $9000 –1 $60 000 to $69 999 –7
$10 000 to $19 999 –2 $70 000 to $79 999 –8
$20 000 to $29 999 –3 $80 000 to $89 999 –9
$30 000 to $39 999 –4 $90 000 and over –10 Estimated Status __________
$40 000 to $49 999 –5 $100 000 and over –11
$50 000 to $59 999 –6
(Interviewer’s estimate: ___________________ and explanation _______________________________________)

R’s MARITAL STATUS: Married ____ Divorced/Separated ____ Widowed ____ Single ____ (CODE: ____)
Source: Adapted from Richard P. Coleman, “The Continuing Significance of Social Class to Marketing,” Journal of Consumer Research 10
(December 1983): 265–280. Reprinted with permission of The University of Chicago Press.
includes four variables: education, occupational prestige, area of residence, and

family income.
Problems with Measures of Social Class

Market researchers were among the first to propose that we can distinguish people
from different social classes from one another. Some of these class distinctions still
exist but others, including brand preferences, have changed.109 Unfortunately, many
of these measures are badly dated and are not as valid today.110
One reason is that most social scientists designed measures of social class with
the traditional nuclear family in mind; this unit included a male wage earner in the
middle of his career and a female full-time homemaker. These measures have trouble
accounting for two-income families, young singles living alone, or households headed
by women, which are so prevalent today.
One problem with assigning people to a social class is that they may not be
equal in their standing with respect to all of the relevant dimensions. A person
might come from a low-status ethnic group but have a high-status job, whereas
another may live in a fancy part of town but not have finished high school. Social
scientists use the concept of status crystallization to assess the impact of social-
class inconsistency.111 The logic is that when these indicators are not consistent,
stress occurs because the rewards from each part of such an “unbalanced” per-
son’s life are variable and unpredictable. People who exhibit such inconsistencies
tend to be more receptive to social change than those whose identities are rooted
more firmly.
A related problem occurs when a person’s social-class standing creates expecta-
tions that can’t be met. Some people find themselves in the not unhappy position of
making more money than we expect of those in their social class. This means they
are overprivileged, a condition we define as having an income at least 25 to 30 per-
cent greater than the median for one’s class.112 In contrast, underprivileged consum-
ers, who earn at least 15 percent less than the median of their social class, must
often allocate a big chunk of their income toward maintaining the impression that
they occupy a certain status. For example, some people speak of being “house-poor”;
they pay so much for a lavish home that they can’t afford to furnish it. Traditionally,
it has been assumed that husbands define a family’s social class whereas wives have
to live it; women get their social status from their husbands.113 Indeed, the evidence
indicates that physically attractive women tend to “marry up” in social class to a
greater extent than attractive men do. Women trade the resource of sex appeal, his-
torically one of the few assets they were allowed to possess, for the economic
resources of men.114
We must strongly question the accuracy of this assumption in today’s world.
Many women now contribute equally to the family’s well-being and work in positions
of comparable or even greater status than their spouses. Employed women tend to
average both their own and their husband’s respective positions when estimating
their own subjective status.115 Nevertheless, a prospective spouse’s social class is
often an important “product attribute” when someone in the “marriage market” eval-
uates their options.
Problems with Social Class Segmentation:

A Summary
Social class remains an important way to categorize consumers. Many marketing
strategies do target different social classes. However, for the most part marketers fail
to use social class information as effectively as they could because of the following
reasons:
• They ignore status inconsistency.

• They ignore intergenerational mobility.
• They ignore subjective social class (i.e., the class with which a consumer identi-
fies rather than the one to which he or she actually belongs).
• They ignore consumers’ aspirations to change their class standing.
• They ignore the social status of working wives.
FAMILY STRUCTURE CO 6
In addition to variables like income and social class, a family’s other elements such as
the life stage of the family, the size of the family, and how family members interact
with one another can influence consumer behaviour.
Marketers are finding many different ways to

appeal to families with younger children,
including varying the form of the product
itself.
Daniel Acker/Bloomberg via Getty Images
Household Structure
It is not unusual to read in newspapers and magazines about “the death of the family
unit.” While married couples accounted for 91.6 percent of census families in 1961, by
2014 this proportion had declined to 40 percent.116 Although it is true that the propor-
tion of people living in a traditional family structure consisting of a married couple
with children has declined, many other types of families are growing in number rap-
idly. For example, by 2012 the proportion of census families that were common-law
had increased to 9.2 percent.117 Further, some experts argue that as traditional family
living arrangements have waned, people are putting even greater emphasis on the
roles of siblings, close friends, and other relatives in providing companionship and
social support.118 Some are even joining “intentional families,” groups of unrelated
persons who meet regularly for meals and spend holidays together.119 For some peo-
ple the act of meeting together to consume homemade food plays a central role in
defining “family”; it is a symbolic way to separate a family unit from other social
groups by allowing the cook(s) to personalize the meal and express affection via the
effort that went into preparing the feast.120
According to Statistics Canada, which conducts the national census every five
years, household living arrangements refers to “whether or not the person lives with
another person or persons and, if so, whether or not he or she is related to that person
or persons.”121 A census family is defined as “a married couple and the children,
if any, of either or both spouses; a couple living common law and the children, if any,
of either or both partners; or, a lone parent of any marital status with at least one
child living in the same dwelling. . . . A couple may be of opposite or same sex. . . .
Grandchildren living with their grandparent(s) but with no parents present also
constitute a census family.”122 Although Statistics Canada and survey firms compile a
massive amount of data on family households, certain categories are of particular
interest to marketers.
The extended family was once the most common family unit. It consists of three
generations living together and often includes grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cous-
ins. As evidenced by TV families of the 1950s, the nuclear family—a mother and a
father and one or more children—became the model family unit over time. Although
people may continue to conjure up an image of the typical family based on old shows,
demographic data show that this image of the family is no longer a realistic picture.
There’s no doubt that the way we think about family is evolving. Well over 1.8
million Canadians were divorced as of 2014,123 and about 10.3 percent of one-family
households are lone-parent.124 Divorces and separations are an accepted part of our
culture, and marital breakups are an ever-present theme in popular books, music, and
movies.125 These changes in consumers’ family structure often represent opportuni-
ties for marketers as purchasing patterns change and people make new choices about
products and brands.126
Ironically, although many pronounce the traditional family dead, it appears to be
making a bit of a comeback among young couples. About 35 percent of Canadian moth-
ers stay at home. Indeed, in the 88 percent of two-parent families in which one parent
stays at home, it is the mother.127 In general, the trend of taking time off from work to
raise small children is concentrated among the best-educated and highest-achieving
women. Staying at home appeals to those who have the luxury to do so. People in this
age group consider balancing home and work their biggest challenge, and they also see
it as a higher priority than earning a mega-income or an impressive title.128
Family Age
Most Canadians younger than 24 years have never been married or in a common-law
relationship. However, as might be expected, the 35–64 age group has the greatest
number of marriages and common-law relationships; about 75 percent of Canadians in
this age range are married.129 An important reason for these trends is that people are
waiting longer to get married.130 Indeed, in 2008, the average age at first marriage was
31.1 years for men and 29.1 years for women. Compare this to the 1960s, when the age
at first marriage was just over 22 years for women and 25 years for men! This has
implications for businesses ranging from catering to cutlery. For example, because
couples generally marry later and many have already acquired basic household items,
there is a movement toward giving non-traditional items as wedding gifts, such as
home electronics and computers. A recent trend involves purchasing experiences as
wedding gifts, such as a portion of the honeymoon, a hot-air-balloon ride, or cooking
classes.131 Depending on where the family is in its life stage, differing goods and ser-
vices will be particularly appealing. Understanding the family life stage helps market-
ers understand how to position anything from baby food to retirement programs.
Family Size
In 1971, the average Canadian family comprised close to 4.0 people, but in 1997 that
slipped to 3.0, where it has remained.132 In 2011, households consisting of one person
accounted for 27.6 percent of all households; about a three-fold increase from 9.3 percent
in 1961. During the same period, the share of large households comprising five people
or more decreased from 32.3 percent in 1961 to 8.4 percent in 2011. Family size is
dependent on factors such as educational level, the availability of birth control, and
religion.133 The total fertility rate (TFR) is “the average number of children that would
be born per woman if all women lived to the end of their childbearing years and bore
children according to a given fertility rate at each age.”134 Marketers keep a close eye
on the population’s birth rate to gauge how the pattern of births will affect demand for
products in the future. The fertility rate increased dramatically in the late 1950s and
early 1960s, the period of the so-called baby boomers. It declined in the 1970s and
began to climb again in the 1980s as boomers began to have their own children in a
“baby boomlet,” and then fell again. In 2011, the TFR was 1.61, significantly below the
replacement rate of 2.1 needed to maintain a stable Canadian population.135
Worldwide, surveys show that almost all women want smaller families today. This
trend is a problem for European countries whose fertility rates have plummeted over
the last few decades. Ironically, although populations are booming in some develop-
ing parts of the world, industrialized countries face future crises because there will be
relatively fewer young people to support their elders. For population levels to remain
Canada’s Wonderland appeals to different

forms and sizes of the modern family,
including those with children of varying
ages.
© Oleksiy Maksymenko Photography/Alamy Stock Photo
Consumer
Insight
The number of same-sex households increased
to 64 575 in 2011 (compared to 45 000 in constant, the total fertility rate needs to be 2.1, so that the two children can replace
2001). With same-sex households becoming their parents. That’s not happening in places such as Spain, Sweden, Germany, and
increasingly common, more marketers are tar- Greece, where the fertility rate is 1.4 or lower. In contrast, the United States has a
geting them as a family unit; www.gaywed- 2.0 rate, which demographers attribute to greater immigration.
dings.com and www.twobrides.com offer Some countries are considering a variety of measures to encourage people to have
wedding decorations and gifts.137 And compa- more children. For example, Spain is weighing the options of cheaper utility bills for
nies that make products such as baby food and large families, assistance for young couples trying to afford homes, and the creation of
children’s clothing are starting to advertise in hundreds of thousands of new preschools and nursery schools.136
Gay Parent, a gay parenting magazine.138
Many people share a living arrangement
known as “POSSLQ,” which stands for Persons Non-traditional Household and Family Structures
of Opposite Sex Sharing Living Quarters. These
Statistics Canada, as mentioned earlier, considers any occupied dwelling as a house-
changes are part of a broader shift toward non-
hold, regardless of the relationships among people living there. Thus, one person
family and child-free households.139 Child-free
living alone, three roommates, or two lovers (straight or gay) constitutes a house-
couples are an attractive market segment for
hold. Less traditional households increased rapidly in the 1990s.141 There were
some companies (obviously not for ones such as
Gerber, though). Two-income couples without 9.4 million census families in Canada in 2011, a 5.5 percent increase from 2006.
children tend to be better educated than two- Married-couple families accounted for 67 percent of families (down from 68.6 percent
income couples with children; for example, the in 2006) and common-law families accounted for 16.7 percent (up from 15.5 percent
child-free are more likely to have professional or in 2006), surpassing the number of lone-parent families, which accounted for 16.3 per-
managerial occupations.140 cent (up from 15.9 percent in 2006).142 In 2011, 5 587 165 people aged 15 years and over
did not live in census families, representing about one-fifth of this age group. The largest
category of these living arrangements was living alone, which accounted for
13.5 percent of the population aged 15 and over, up from 12.5 percent in 2001.143 Marketing
One-person households provide opportunities for new products to be developed,
such as Pommery POP Champagne, sold in single servings, which is a hit in Canada
Insight
as well as in England, France, and Hong Kong.144 Over 20 percent of all children There are more than 5 million dogs and 7 million
live in lone-parent families, and nearly 20 percent of lone-parent families are run cats in Canada.146 Many pet owners consider
by men, a 14.6 percent increase since 2001.145 their furry friends to be members of the family
and call themselves “Mommy” or “Daddy” when
W HO ’S LIVING AT H O M E ? talking to their animals.147 Many people assume
pets share our emotions; perhaps that’s why
Although traditional families are shrinking, in other cases the traditional extended many pets are given presents on holidays and
family is very much a reality. Many adults care for their own parents as well as for birthdays.148 And this passion for pets is not
their children. Some label middle-aged people the sandwich generation, because they confined to Canada: In France there are twice as
must attend to those above and below them in age. many dogs and cats as children.149
In addition to dealing with live-in parents, many adults are surprised to find that The inclusion of pets as family members
their children are living with them longer or are moving back in.152 As an Argentinian creates many marketing opportunities. Listed
jeans ad asks, “If you are over 20 and still live with your parents, this is wrong. Isn’t it below are examples of some attempts to cater
high time you started looking for an apartment for them?” Demographers call the return- to people’s pet attachments:
ees boomerang kids.153 In 2011, 42.5 percent of young adults aged 20 to 29 lived at home • T hree Dog Bakery in Vancouver opened for
(up from 32.1 percent in 1986), and boomerang kids represented 24 percent of this group. business in 1989. Its “paw”sion for canines
Lone-parent families are more likely than two-parent families to have older children at has led it to offer fresh-baked treats, such
home; in 2006, over 20 percent had children 25 and older living with them.154 as Drooly Dream Bars and Muddy Paws, as
Canadian young men are far more likely than young women to live with their par- well as a DOGalog from which consumers
ents. In 2011, 46.7 percent of men in their twenties lived in the parental home com- can fill a Shopping Basset.
pared to 37.9 percent of women in this age group. This could be because women tend • Starwood Hotels and Resorts, which owns
to form unions at younger ages than men and, therefore, leave home at an earlier age to 293 hotels in Canada and the United
establish their own households. Young adults who do leave the nest to live by them- States, caters to dogs through a program
selves are relatively unlikely to return, whereas those who move in with roommates based on its “Pets Can Stay” standards.
are more likely to come back. And young people who move in with a romantic partner • In Toronto, Mona’s Dog Boutique caters to
are more likely than average to end up back home if the relationship fails!155 If this discerning clients who range from empty
trend continues, it will affect a variety of markets, because boomerang kids spend less nesters to gay couples to single women,
on housing and staples and more on discretionary purchases such as entertainment. and Dogfather & Co. features dog models
on miniature billboards located in parks
and other doggy places.150
The Family Life Cycle • Companies that make human products,
such as Gucci, Juicy Couture, Harley-
Many factors affect what a family spends, including the number of people (children Davidson, and IKEA, also sell products for
and adults) in the family, their ages, and whether one, two, or more adults are pets—from shampoos to nail polish to gold-
employed outside the home. Two especially important factors that determine how a plated bowls. Harley-Davidson started its
couple spends time and money are (1) whether they have children and (2) whether the pet collection after it noticed that customers
woman works outside the home. Families with working mothers, for example, must at rallies and other events bring along their
often make allowances for expenses such as daycare, a work wardrobe for the woman, dogs—some ride shotgun in the motorcy-
and home-cleaning services. cles’ saddle bags or side cars. Customers
Because they recognize that family needs and expenditures change over time, mar- can buy denim and leather jackets for their
keters apply the family life cycle (FLC) concept to segment households. The FLC com- pets, as well as riding goggles, bandanas,
bines trends in income and family composition with the changes these demands place spiked leather collars, and even squeaky
upon this income. As we age, our preferences and needs for products and activities tend toys shaped like oil cans.151
to change. Twenty-somethings spend less than average on most products and services
because their households are small and their incomes are low, especially today. Income
levels tend to rise (at least until retirement), so people can afford more over time. Older
consumers spend more per capita on luxury items, such as gourmet foods and upscale
home furnishings.156 In addition, many purchases that must be made at an early age do
not have to be repeated very often. For example, we tend to accumulate durable goods,
such as large appliances, and replace them only when necessary.
A life-cycle approach to the study of the family assumes that pivotal events alter
role relationships and trigger new stages of life that alter our priorities. These events
include couples moving in together, the birth of a first child, the departure of the last
child from the house, the death of a spouse, retirement of the principal wage earner,
and divorce.157 As people move through these life stages, we observe significant
changes in expenditures in leisure, food, durables, and services, even after the figures
have been adjusted to reflect changes in income.158
FA MILY L IFE CYCLE EFFECTS O N B U YIN G

It’s particularly useful to get a handle on longitudinal changes in priorities when we
want to predict demand for specific product categories over time. For example, the
money spent by a couple with no children on dining out and on vacations will probably
be diverted for quite different purchases after the birth of a child. Ironically, although
the entertainment industry focuses on winning the hearts and wallets of young consum-
ers, it’s mature consumers who have become North America’s true party animals.159
Researchers have proposed a number of models to describe family life-cycle stages,
but their usefulness has been limited because, in many cases, they have failed to take into
account important social trends, such as the changing role of women, the acceleration of
alternative lifestyles, child-free and delayed-child marriages, and single-parent house-
holds. Baby showers, for example, may be considered a rite of passage to motherhood,
fatherhood, or parenthood, depending on the gender ideologies and work orientation of
one or both parents.160
080701Woodcraft_StyleAtHomeMast_Hitched:Layout 1 7/3/08 11:32 AM Page 1
This Woodcraft ad appeals to consumers at Living with Woodcraft

different stages of the family life cycle. Custom finished, custom sized, Canadian made solid wood furniture. Every day.
“Living with Woodcraft” courtesy of Woodcraft,

www.woodcraft.ca
Hitched .
Baby.
Three kids, two dogs and a cat.
Empty nest.
All our dining tables (in a setting for two into

fact, pretty well all our dinner for six in
furniture) can be custom moments, but if you
sized to fit your life. For need something really,
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We need to focus on four variables to describe these changes adequately: (1) age,
(2) marital status, (3) the presence or absence of children in the home, and (4) the chil-
dren’s ages. In addition, our definition of marital status (at least for analysis purposes)
must be relaxed to include any couple living together in a long-term relationship.
Thus, although roommates might not be considered “married,” a man and a woman
who have established a household would be, as would two homosexual men who
have a similar understanding. When we update our outlook, we identify a set of cate-
gories that include many more types of family situations.161
Consumers classified into these categories show marked differences in con-
sumption patterns.162 Young bachelors and newlyweds are more likely to engage in
exercise; go out to bars, concerts, movies, and restaurants; go dancing; and drink
alcohol. Perhaps reflecting the bounty of wedding gifts, newlyweds are the most
likely to own appliances, such as toaster ovens and electric coffee grinders. Couples
with children generally have higher expenses, such as for food and utility bills.
Families with young children are more likely to consume health foods, such as fruit,
juice, and yogurt, while those made up of single parents and older children buy
more junk food. The dollar value of homes, cars, and other durables is lowest for
bachelors and single parents, but it increases as people go through the full-nest and
childless-couple stages. Readership for magazines such as Canadian Family and
Today’s Parent and visits to parenting websites such as www.kaboose.ca and www.
sweetmama.ca are highest among households with young children.163 Babysitter
and daycare usage is, of course, highest among single-parent and full-nest house-
holds, while home-maintenance services (e.g., lawn-mowing) are most likely to be
used by older couples and bachelors.
Chapter Summary
Both personal and social conditions influence how we spend • Virtually all groups make distinctions among members
our money. in terms of relative superiority, power, and access to
valued resources. This social stratification creates a
• The field of behavioural economics studies how consumers
status hierarchy in which some goods are preferred
decide what to do with their money. Consumer confi-
over others.
dence—the state of mind consumers have about their own
personal situations, as well as their feelings about their • Although income is an important indicator of social class,
overall economic prospects—helps to determine whether the relationship is far from perfect. Factors such as place
they will purchase goods and services, take on debt, or of residence, cultural interests, and world view also deter-
save their money. mine social class.
• As income distributions change around the world, it is
We group consumers into social classes that say a lot about
getting more difficult to distinguish among members of
where they stand in society.
social classes. Many products succeed because they
• A consumer’s social class refers to his or her standing in appeal to a newly emerging group marketers call the mass
society. Factors including education, occupation, and class—people with incomes high enough to purchase
income determine the class to which we belong. luxury items, at least on a small scale.
A person’s desire to make a statement about his or her Factors related to household structure, family age, and
social class, or about the class to which he or she would family life cycle can influence consumption patterns
like to belong, influences the products he or she likes and
• Household and family structure are important demographic
dislikes.
dimensions, and our traditional notions about families are
• Conspicuous consumption, where a person flaunts his often outdated. Some of the most important demographics
or her status by deliberately using up valuable resources, for marketers to consider relate to family structure.
is one way to “buy up” to a higher social class. The nou- • A household is an occupied housing unit. The number and
veaux riches, whose relatively recent acquisition of the type of Canadian households are changing in many ways,
income rather than ancestry or breeding accounts for including delays in getting married and having children, and
their enhanced social mobility, are the most likely to use differences in the composition of family households, which
this approach. are increasingly headed by a single parent. New perspec-
• We use status symbols (usually scarce goods or services) tives on the family life cycle, which focus on how people’s
to communicate our standing to others. Parody display needs change as they move through different stages in their
occurs when we seek status by deliberately avoiding or lives, are forcing marketers to consider more seriously con-
mocking fashionable products. sumer segments such as homosexual, divorced, and childless
couples when they develop targeting strategies.
Key Terms
Behavioural economics p. 345 Female-to-male earnings ratio p. 342 Savings rate p. 345
Boomerang kids p. 367 Homogamy p. 347 Social class p. 346
Brand prominence p. 360 Household living arrangements p. 364 Social mobility p. 348
BRIC p. 352 Income inequality p. 347 Social stratification p. 347
Census family p. 364 Invidious distinction p. 359 Spendthrifts p. 343
Chavs p. 350 Mass class p. 342 Status crystallization p. 363
Conspicuous consumption p. 359 Nuclear family p. 364 Status hierarchy p. 347
Consumer confidence p. 345 Online gated communities p. 357 Status symbols p. 359
Discretionary income p. 343 Parody display p. 361 Taste culture p. 357
Extended family p. 364 Potlatch p. 360 Tightwads p. 343
Family life cycle (FLC) p. 367 Sandwich generation p. 367 Total fertility rate (TFR) p. 365
Review Questions
1. How have women contributed to the overall rise in income 12. How does the world view of blue-collar and white-collar
in our society? consumers differ?
2. Define discretionary income. 13. What is a taste culture?
3. How does consumer confidence influence consumer 14. What is cultural capital, and why is enrolling in an eti-
behaviour? quette class a way to accumulate it?
4. What is a pecking order? 15. How do you differentiate between “old money” and
5. What is social class? Is it different from income? If so, nouveaux riches consumers?
how? 16. What is conspicuous consumption? Give a current example.
6. What is the difference between achieved and ascribed 17. What is a current example of parody display?
status? 18. What are some problems associated with efforts to mea-
7. Describe what is meant by the term mass class, and sure social class?
explain what is causing this phenomenon. 19. What is a nuclear family, and how is it different from an
8. Define social mobility and the different forms it takes. extended family?
9. What one variable is the best indicator of social class? 20. How is a nation’s total fertility rate (TFR) calculated?
What are some other important indicators? What TFR is required to ensure that population size does
10. Why does earning more money often not result in a not decline?
corresponding change in social class? 21. Who are the boomerang kids?
11. Define status crystallization, and give an example. 22. What is the FLC, and why is it important to marketers?
Discuss to waste their precious resources on discretionary items?

Under what circumstances should we encourage or dis-
1. Sears and The Bay have made concerted efforts in recent
courage this segmentation strategy?
years to upgrade their images and appeal to higher-class
consumers. How successful have these efforts been? Do 8. Status symbols like Rolex watches or expensive cars are
you believe this strategy is wise? products we value because they show others how much
money or prestige we have. Do you believe that your
2. What consumption differences might you expect to
peer group values status symbols? Why or why not? If
observe between a family characterized as underprivi-
yes, what products do you think are status symbols for
leged and one whose income is average for its social
consumers your age?
class?
3. How do you assign people to social classes, or do you at
all? What consumption cues (e.g., clothing, speech, Experiential Exercises
cars) do you use to determine social standing? 9. Use the status index in Figure 12–2 to compute a social-
4. In today’s economy it’s become somewhat vulgar to class score for people you know, including their parents,
flaunt your money. Do you think this means that status if possible. Ask several friends (preferably from different
symbols such as luxury products are passé? Why or why places) to compile similar information for people they
not? know. How closely do your answers compare? If you find
5. Thorstein Veblen argued that women were often used as differences, how can you explain them?
vehicles to display their husbands’ wealth. Is this argu- 10. Compile a list of occupations, and ask a sample of stu-
ment still valid today? dents in a variety of majors (both business and non-
6. Given present environmental conditions and dwindling business) to rank the prestige of these jobs. Can you
resources, what is the future of “conspicuous waste”? detect any differences in these rankings as a function of
Can the desire to impress others with affluence ever be students’ majors?
eliminated? If not, can it take on another form? 11. Compile a collection of ads that depict consumers of
7. This chapter observes that some marketers are finding different social classes. What generalizations can you
“greener pastures” by targeting low-income people. How make about the reality of these ads and about the media
ethical is it to single out consumers who cannot afford in which they appear?
Canada Goose Company History

Janet Gannon looked at the two down jackets on her desk Canada Goose Expedition Clothing Outfitters (www.canada-
and gave a heavy sigh. The style, stitching, and even the goose.com) is a prominent Canadian manufacturer and retailer
brand logos on the front of the jacket looked almost identical of luxury cold-weather outerwear. Selling its products world-
to the new Canada Goose jackets that the company had just wide, the company utilizes the brand name “Canada Goose”
released a few months ago. Over the past few years, the and has been in business since 1957. Headquartered in
increase in counterfeit products that replicated the Canada Toronto, the company is led by Dani Reiss, the grandson of
Goose product line had become a real problem for the luxury company founder Sam Tick. The company produces and sells
manufacturer. Janet had been charged to meet this chal- a range of high-end fashion apparel (e.g., jackets, vests, hats,
lenge and had thus far been happy with the progress that gloves) that is dedicated to meeting extreme cold-weather con-
had been made, but as she looked at the latest knock-offs on ditions. A distinguishing characteristic of Canada Goose prod-
her desk she realized that counterfeiters were working just as ucts is the use of goose and duck down fill in the jackets (and
hard as she was to produce products that would fool con- other products). Further, the company utilizes coyote fur on
sumers into thinking they were buying the actual brand. the hoods of its jackets.
Most worryingly, they were producing counterfeit products The company has carefully cultivated its luxury image over
faster and with characteristics much closer to the actual the years. This positioning has been built on producing only
brand than previously. Janet wondered what she could do to the highest-quality fashion apparel and ensuring that the mate-
meet this continual challenge. rials and design decisions are never compromised. The pricing
strategy of the brand is also aligned with the luxury positioning; consumer. Canada Goose had also made a strong effort to
the products are retailed at a price premium compared to build awareness among its customers on the issue. A formal
other products competing in the same space. The brand has webpage that outlined concerns about counterfeiting, a spe-
benefited from celebrities choosing to wear the jacket, even cific listing of retailers and websites that sold counterfeit
though the company has not solicited their support. Celebri- goods, and instructions to consumers on how to contact
ties including Drake, Matt Damon, Emma Watson, and authorities concerning counterfeit goods had been posted.
Hayden Christensen have been seen in Canada Goose jack- Finally, the company had also shown a willingness to legally
ets, and the company’s product has been featured in movies pursue individuals and organizations that challenged its
including National Treasure and Whiteout. The jackets are brand. For example, Canada Goose had launched a lawsuit
standard issue for the United States Antarctic Program, and against International Clothiers Inc. for trademark infringement
are seen being worn by Artic pilots and participants in the in an effort to have it stop selling the counterfeits and destroy
Iditarod dog sled competition in Alaska. Wherever a demand remaining inventories.
arises for protection against severe cold weather, top quality, Janet knew these measures had made a difference, but
and iconic style, Canada Goose comes to mind. she wondered how much impact they had truly had. Looking
at the new counterfeit goods on her desk, she noted that one
The Counterfeiting Problem had only a crude version of the authenticating hologram
Like any other successful high-end fashion manufacturer, stitched into it. But she wondered how long it would be
Canada Goose faced serious threat from counterfeiters. before the counterfeiters were able to convincingly replicate
Beyond the obvious financial losses and potential brand dam- this brand marking. Was it going to be an effective prevention
age, the company identified other negative implications of the tool? More generally, Janet wondered what she could do next
growing problem of counterfeit products. Perhaps most con- to keep one step ahead of the counterfeiting threat.
cerning was the fact that fake Canada Goose jackets were 1. Why is counterfeiting such a serious problem for luxury
typically made with substandard materials, resulting in jackets goods manufacturers and retailers? Is this something
that offer poor protection from cold weather and can actually they should be concerned about? Why?
pose health risks. Further, the company believed counterfeit 2. How do counterfeit goods influence the status benefits
goods often supported illegal activities such as child labour, that luxury goods provide? How does the consumer
poor working conditions, and organized crime. The problem react to this characteristic of the marketplace?
was serious and demanded continual management action.
A number of approaches had been taken. Foremost, the 3. What is your reaction to Canada Goose and the efforts it
company had recently designed (in conjunction with OpSec— is making with respect to counterfeit goods? Is it doing
an anti-counterfeiting agency) a hologram that would be sewn enough?
into its branded products. This design element was difficult to 4. What is your recommendation to Janet? How can she
replicate and would establish a signal of authenticity for the meet the ever evolving challenge of counterfeit goods?
Note s
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(June 26, 2015), CANSIM table 111–0009, www.statcan.gc.ca/tables-tableaux/sum- Quarterly Journal of Economics 109(1) (February 1994): 111–147.
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briefingpapers/food/vitalstats.shtml. June 17, 2009.
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(January 13, 2011), www.theglobeandmail.com/report-on-business/economy/ Are Stingy Report Feeling Emotional Pain When Spending Money,” The Globe and
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cst01/labr69a-eng.htm. Web (March 2, 2007).
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Nike Figured Out China,” Time (November 2004): A10–A14; J. David Lynch,
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Surveys of Consumers,” Public Opinion Quarterly (1982): 340–352.
49. Sebastian Moffett, “The Japanese Paradox Pinched by Economic Slump, Women Buy
20. George Katona, “Consumer Saving Patterns,” Journal of Consumer Research 1 (June More Handbags from Vuitton, Prada, Hermes,” The Wall Street Journal Interactive
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13
C HAPTER
Subcultures
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that our memberships in age, regional, 4 Understand that marketers employ different tactics

and ethnic subcultures often guide our consumption when appealing to different age subcultures.
behaviours.
5 Understand that regional segmentation involves

2 Understand that our identification with dividing the market based on geographic location.

microcultures that reflect a shared interest in some
organization or activity influences what we buy. 6 Understand that many marketing messages appeal

to ethnic identity.
3 Understand that we have many things in common
7 Understand that the two largest ethnic groups in
with others because they are about the same age.
Canada are British and French, although other ethnic
subcultures are also important targets for marketers.
SUBCULTURES, MICROCULTURES,
AND CONSUMER IDENTITY
Group memberships within our society help to define us. A subculture is a group whose CO 1
members share beliefs and common experiences that set them apart from others. Every one
of us belongs to many subcultures related to our age, ethnic background, or the region of
Canada where we live or call home. Subcultural identification influences our everyday
experience and consumption preferences.
In addition to larger, demographically based subcultures (i.e., based on age, region,
ethnic background, etc.), an individual may identify with a microculture based on a life-
style or aesthetic preference (as we saw in Chapter 6). One example is mixed martial arts CO 2
(MMA) enthusiasts who share a passion for the fighting competitions that combine a vari-
ety of fighting disciplines (e.g., judo, karate, grappling). Consumers in this culture follow
the fighters, frequent MMA websites, often train themselves, buy MMA clothing, and
watch the fights in the Octagon whenever possible. Microcultures typically command
fierce loyalty: Star Trek fans are notorious for their devotion to the show. Whether fans of
MMA, Trekkies, or rally-car enthusiasts, every subculture and microculture exhibits its
own unique set of norms, vocabulary, and product insignia. A study of contemporary
“mountain men” in the western United States illustrates the binding influence of a micro-
culture on its members. Group members share a strong sense of identity that they express
through weekend retreats where they reinforce these ties by using authentic items such as
tipis, buffalo robes, buckskin leggings, and beaded moccasins to create a sense of commu-
nity among fellow mountain men.1
C H A P T E R 1 3 Subcultures 377
“Trekkies” represent a subculture

based on psychographic factors such
as lifestyles and attitudes.
Press Association via AP Images
In this chapter we’ll explore some of the important characteristics of key subcul-
tures, as well as how they define our identities and consumption patterns. In addition,
we’ll consider how marketers modify their strategies to appeal to members of different
subcultures based on age, geographic location, and ethnicity. For example, BMW,
which traditionally focused on 35- to 54-year-olds, campaigned through social media
to appeal to younger, 25- to 40-year-old car buyers.2
AGE AND CONSUMER IDENTITY CO 3
The era in which you grow up bonds you with the millions of others who come of
age during the same time period. Those kinds of bonds have recently motivated
North American fans to attend concerts by bands such as Fleetwood Mac, AC/DC,
Marketers often target consumers based on

subcultures, which can include subcultures
centred on gender, age, and even religious
background.
Courtesy of NOTW
and Pearl Jam. Obviously your needs and preferences change as you grow older,
often at around the same time as with others of your own age. For this reason, our
age is a big part of our identity. All things being equal, we are more likely than
not to have things in common with others of our own age than with those younger
or older.
CO 4 These similarities can create opportunities for marketers (ask any social media
executive) or they can raise red flags: Younger consumers, for example, don’t drink
nearly as much coffee on a daily basis as older people.3 In addition, a marketer needs
to communicate with members of an age group in their own language.
In this section, we’ll explore some of the important characteristics of various age
subcultures and consider how marketers modify their strategies to appeal to these
different groups.
Age Cohorts
An age subculture is based on an age cohort—that is, a group of consumers of the same
or approximate age who have undergone similar experiences. They share many com-
The Marketing Environment
mon memories about cultural heroes (e.g., Mario Lemieux versus Sidney Crosby),
important historical events (e.g., World War II versus the 2010 Vancouver Olympics),
and so on. Although there is no universally accepted way to divide up people into age
cohorts, each of us seems to have a very good idea of what we mean when we refer to
“my generation.”
Marketers often target products and services to a specific age cohort,4 because
our possessions play a key role in letting us identify with others of a certain age
and express the priorities and needs we encounter at each life stage. 5 The same
offering won’t appeal to people of different ages, nor will the language and images
that marketers use to reach them. In some cases, separate campaigns are devel-
oped to attract consumers of different ages. Although there is general consensus
when analysts describe age cohorts, the labels and cutoff dates they use to put
consumers into generational categories are subjective. One rough approximation
looks like this:6
• The Interbellum Generation: People born at the beginning of the twentieth century
• The Silent Generation: People born between the two World Wars
• The War Baby Generation: People born during World War II
• Baby Boomers: People born 1946–1964
• Generation X: People born 1965–1985
• Generation Y (Millennials): People born 1986–1999
• Generation Z: People born 2000 and later
Because consumers within an age group confront crucial life changes at roughly
the same time, the values and symbolism used to appeal to them can evoke powerful
feelings of nostalgia (see Chapter 3). Adults older than 30 are particularly susceptible
to this phenomenon.7 However, references to the past influence young people as well
as old. In fact, research evidence indicates that some people are more disposed to be
nostalgic than others, regardless of age. Table 13–1 shows a scale researchers use to
measure the impact of nostalgia on individual consumers.
Products evoke shared memories. As noted in Chapter 3, product sales can be
dramatically affected by linking brands to vivid memories and experiences, especially
for items that are associated with childhood or adolescence.8 Products such as the VW
Beetle enjoyed a comeback in the 1990s.9 Retro trends have also included skinny
jeans, headbands and scarves, the MINI Cooper, and the Vespa scooter.10 In one heart-
warming application of nostalgia to the marketing context, the old pop song “Lean on
Me” was very successfully used in a TV ad for the SickKids Foundation and Hospital
for Sick Children in Toronto.11
TABLE 13–1
The Nostalgia Scale

Scale Items
• They don’t make ’em like they used to.

• Things used to be better in the good old days.
• Products are getting shoddier and shoddier.
• Technological change will ensure a brighter future (reverse-coded).
• History involves a steady improvement in human welfare (reverse-coded).
• We are experiencing a decline in the quality of life.
• Steady growth in GNP has brought increased human happiness (reverse-coded).
• Modern business constantly builds a better tomorrow (reverse-coded).
Note: Items are presented on a nine-point scale ranging from strong disagreement (1) to strong agreement (9), and responses are summed.
Source: Morris B. Holbrook and Robert M. Schindler, “Age, Sex, and Attitude toward the Past as Predictors of Consumers’ Aesthetic Tastes for
Cultural Products,” Journal of Marketing Research 31 (August 1994): 416. Reprinted by permission of the American Marketing Association.
Although most products appeal to one age cohort or another, some marketers try
to woo people of different ages with a multigenerational marketing strategy; this This advertisement from Volkswagen Canada
means they use imagery that appeals to consumers from more than one generation. invokes retro associations in ways that
These companies recognize that older baby boomers (more on them later) have a appeal to baby boomers’ sense of nostalgia.
Courtesy of Volkswagen
youthful attitude, and many are quite comfortable with new technology. For exam-
ple, during the 2011 Super Bowl, Best Buy ran a commercial that featured Ozzy
Osbourne and Justin Bieber, something that generated buzz among tweens and their
baby boomer parents. However, a lot of young people are very sophisticated consum-
ers who don’t want companies to talk down to them. And as Youthography (a market
research firm) points out, even though consumers aged 18–34 are in different life
stages, they all put a high value on personal relationships, media, and technology.
They also tend to delay getting married and having children, so they have more
money to spend on lifestyle products.12
Children: Consumers in Training Consumer Behavior
Disney estimates the North American baby market, including staples like baby formula,
to be worth $36.3 billion annually. A representative of the Disney Baby program that New Toy Company Inspires Little Girls to
operates in 580 maternity hospitals in the United States visits a new mother and offers Build Houses
This public-service announcement for Kids

Help Phone appeals to kids and tweens by
showing the familiar image of a playground.
Photo courtesy of Kids Help Phone. All rights reserved.
a free Disney Cuddly Bodysuit, a variation of the classic Onesie. The rep provides
bedside demonstrations and asks mothers to sign up for email alerts from DisneyBaby.
com. As one company executive observes, “To get that mom thinking about her
family’s first park experience before her baby is even born is a home run.”13
Apps that appeal to children and tweens are

a big business for marketers.
Craig Mitchelldyer/AP Images for Boys and Girls Clubs of
America/CP Images
In Chapter 3 we discussed how people learn to be consumers. As you well know,

this process starts when we are very young. Parents often reward their kids with prod- Consumers
In Focus
ucts, and punish them by taking things away. This form of material parenting shapes
children’s behaviour. A recent study found that kids whose parents use products to
shape behaviour are more likely to be materialistic as adults.14
Marketers refer to kids aged 8 to 14 as tweens,
It’s a no-brainer that kids represent a huge market for toys, apparel, and even elec-
because they are “between” childhood and ado-
tronics. Already, more than half of kids aged 8 to 12—who have been dubbed
lescence, and they exhibit characteristics of
“tweens”—have their own cell phone, and there are numerous tablets designed for both age groups. Many marketers want to appeal
them as well.15 Kids also play a big role in many other household purchases. Parental to these consumers: In Canada they spend bil-
yielding occurs when a parental decision-maker “surrenders” to a child’s request.16 lions of dollars annually! Tweens are keen to
Yielding drives many product selections because about 90 percent of these requests experiment with products that make them
are for a specific brand. Researchers estimate that children directly influence over appear older, even though they may not be psy-
$453 billion worth of family purchases in a year in North America. They report that on chologically or physically ready. Abercrombie &
average children weigh in with a purchase request every two minutes when they shop Fitch crossed the line way back in 2002, when
with parents.17 In recognition of this influence, Mrs. Butterworth’s Syrup created a the clothing chain had to pull a line of thong
$6 million campaign to target kids directly with humorous ads that show the lengths underwear for young girls after many adults
to which adults will go to get the syrup bottle to talk to them. An executive who protested. Since that time, however, the line
worked on the campaign explained, “We needed to create the nag factor [where kids between childhood and adolescence continues
demand that their parents buy the product].”18 to blur. In 2005 the reported average age at
which women began to use beauty products
was 17. By 2009, that average had dropped
The Youth Market to 13. Another study found that 43 percent of
In 1956, the label teenager entered the general American vocabulary when Frankie 6- to 9-year-olds use lipstick or lip gloss, and
Lymon and the Teenagers became the first pop group to identify themselves with this 38 percent use hairstyling products.19
new subculture. Believe it or not, the concept of a teenager is a fairly new idea.
Throughout most of history, a person simply made the transition from child to adult,
and many cultures marked this abrupt change in status with some sort of ritual or cer-
emony, as discussed in Chapter 14.
The global youth market, which includes Gen Z and part of Gen Y, is massive. It
represents about $100 billion in spending power! Much of this money goes toward
“feel-good” products: cosmetics, posters, and fast food. Because teens are interested in
so many different products and have the resources to obtain them, many marketers
avidly court them.
As anyone who has been there knows, puberty and adolescence are both the best
of times and the worst of times. Many exciting changes happen as we leave the role of
child and prepare to assume the role of adult. These transitions create a lot of uncer-
tainty about the self, and the need to belong and to find one’s unique identity as a
person becomes pressing. At this age, our choices of activities, friends, and clothes are
crucial. Teens constantly search for cues for the “right” way to look and behave from
their peers and from advertising. Advertising to teens is typically action-oriented and
depicts a group of “in” teens who use the product.
Consumers in this age subculture have a number of needs (including some that
conflict with one another), such as experimentation, belonging, independence, respon-
sibility, and approval from others. Product usage is a significant medium that lets
them satisfy these needs. For example, many kids view smoking cigarettes as a status
activity because of the numerous movies they’ve seen that glorify this practice. In one
study, Grade 9 students watched original movie footage with either smoking scenes or
control footage with the smoking edited out. Sure enough, when the young viewers
saw the actors smoking, this enhanced their perceptions of smokers’ social stature and
increased their own intent to smoke. (The good news: When kids see an antismoking
advertisement before the film, these effects cancel out.)20
Teenagers in every culture grapple with fundamental developmental issues when
they transition from childhood to adult. Throughout history young people have coped
with insecurity, parental authority, and peer pressure (although each generation has
trouble believing it’s not the first!). According to Teenage Research Unlimited, the five
most important social issues for teens are AIDS, race relations, child abuse, abortion,
and the environment. Today’s teens often have to cope with additional family respon-
sibilities as well, especially if they live in nontraditional families where they have
significant responsibility for shopping, cooking, and housework. It’s hard work being
a teen in the modern world. The Saatchi & Saatchi advertising agency identified four
basic conflicts common to all teens:21
• Autonomy versus belonging: Teens need to acquire independence, so they try to
break away from their families. However, they need to attach themselves to a sup-
port structure, such as peers, to avoid being alone.
• Rebellion versus conformity: Teens need to rebel against social standards of
appearance and behaviour, yet they still need to fit in and be accepted by others.
They prize “in-your-face” products that cultivate a rebellious image.
• Idealism versus pragmatism: Teens tend to view adults as hypocrites, whereas
they see themselves as being sincere. They have to struggle to reconcile their view
of how the world should be with the realities they perceive around them.
• Narcissism versus intimacy: Teens tend to obsess about their appearance and
needs. However, they also feel the desire to connect with others on a meaningful
level.
These needs often collide, sometimes in unpleasant ways (there’s nothing more
venomous than a teenager who’s having a bad hair day!). One researcher explored the
role of ridicule as a mechanism through which adolescents exchange information
about consumption norms and values. He found that—often beginning in middle
school—adolescents use ridicule to ostracize, haze, or admonish peers who violate
consumption norms. One result of this painful process is that kids internalize their
peers’ stereotypes about aspirational and avoidance groups (remember Chapter 11)
and often significantly alter their consumption patterns to try to align themselves with
the former and distance themselves from the latter. For example, one of the kids in the
study quickly exchanged a pair of white sneakers for more stylish black ones after his
peers ridiculed him.22
Gen Z
Although estimates of when this generation begins vary, Gen Z typically describes
kids who were born beginning in the late 1990s to early 2000s, so they will start enter-
ing college and university in just a few years.23 They are accustomed to blurred gender
roles, where household responsibilities don’t split along traditional lines. And, of
course, they are digital natives, which means they grew up in a culture where technol-
ogy was always present. Given that they spend a big chunk of their time online, they
expect brands to engage them in two-way digital conversations.
Marketers are just starting to figure out what this new group of young consumers
will look like on the inside. They tend to be independent and gravitate to stores like
Free People rather than Abercrombie & Fitch.24 They learn about new styles via social
media, so they are equally at home watching The Hunger Games as they are listening
to Korean K-pop. Their idols are “self-made” Internet stars like the Swedish video
producer PewDiePie, who has the world’s most subscribed YouTube channel, and
Evan, a teenage video sensation who has 25 million followers of his own.
Gen Y
A brand overhaul by Pepsi that included its new smiley-face logo had the so-called
IMG World: Creating the College Experience
Gen Y age segment squarely in its sights. Young people have always been Pepsi’s life-
blood, starting with its tagline “You’re in the Pepsi Generation” that over time evolved
into “Generation Next” and “The Choice of a New Generation.” But that blood has
drained or thinned a bit over the past few years, as young people gravitate toward
energy drinks and fortified waters. The company’s research showed that this age
group—which also goes by the labels Millennials and echo boomers—is hopeful
about the future; almost all of them agree that it’s important to maintain a positive
outlook on life. Pepsi also found that 95 percent of Millennials have positive associa-
tions with the word change and that they link the word to others like new, progress,
hope, and excitement.25
Gen Yers were born approximately between 1984 and 2000. They already make up
close to 26 percent of the Canadian population,26 and they spend billions a year of
their own and their parents’ money. They are “jugglers” who value being both foot-
loose and connected to their “peeps” 24/7. Advertising agency Saatchi & Saatchi labels
this new kind of lifestyle connexity. To help Millennials feel connected with one
another, companies like Apple and Philips developed miniature devices such as the
iPod and MP3 key ring that store music and images for kids on the run—and they plug
directly into a USB port for up- and downloading. When Toyota developed its youth-
oriented Scion model, researchers learned that echo boomers practically live in their
cars; for example, one-quarter of Gen Yers keep a full change of clothes in their vehi-
cles. So Toyota’s designers made the Scion resemble a home on wheels, with fully
reclining front seats so that drivers can nap between classes and a 15-volt outlet so that
they can plug in their computers.27
Gen Yers love brands like Sony, Patagonia, Hollister, Aveda, and Apple. However, a
lot of marketers have run into trouble as they try to keep up with changes in their tastes.
This can be difficult because these consumers like to “trade up and down” (i.e., they
fluctuate between upscale brands and less expensive ones). That helps to explain why
both Louis Vuitton and Target make the list of their favourite brands.28 Another issue is
that apparel is no longer as important to this age group because tech has replaced cloth-
ing as the hot status item. As a magazine editor observed, “You try to get them talking
about what’s the next look, what they’re excited about purchasing in apparel, and the
conversation always circles back to the iPhone 6. Having a cool phone to show you’re
plugged in is a huge part of people’s style, a huge part of life these days.”29
A research firm analyzed data from several million Millennials and concluded
that three major forces have shaped their experience:30
1. Economy: The company identified a subgroup of ambitious go-getters. Women
in particular seem very aware of their “self-brand” and work hard to project a
Companies like ZipCar appeal to Generation Y

because they emphasize social sharing rather
than the ownership of material goods.
AP Photo/Jessie L. Bonner
By linking the brand to specific events,

Red Bull targets consumers based on both
lifestyle preferences and age cohort.
picturesbyrob/Alamy
professional image via clothing and home decor. Men tend to identify with a
“frat boy” culture and spend a lot of time and money on technology, gaming,
and sports. However, these Millennials are a minority. Many are stuck in “eco-
nomic purgatory”; they are overeducated but underemployed and focus on
economizing by living with roommates and clipping coupons. Even this more
frugal group, however, considers technology like smartphones a must-have.
2. Globalization: Millennials are eager to experience other cultures, but they do this in
different ways. Ironically, those who are underemployed and thus less invested in
their current jobs are more likely to travel to foreign countries. Many of those who
are on a desired career path settle for being “foodies” who like to patronize restau-
rants that serve exotic cuisine so that they can vicariously collect these experiences.
3. Social media: Gen Y is constantly open to public observation because every new
post or status update reveals something about themselves. Some are what the
report terms “exuberants,” who are avid posters and constantly blog about their
experiences. However, most are “collectors,” who passively absorb others’ experi-
ences. A smaller number—like YouTube star Bethany Mota—are digital gatekeep-
ers, who curate or edit style from a huge number of options, and then advise their
followers on what to buy.
Unlike their older siblings, Gen Yers tend to hold relatively traditional values,
and they prefer to fit in rather than rebel. They have grown up in a culture that
stresses teamwork—team teaching, team grading, collaborative sports, community
service, service learning, and student juries. Violent crime among teenagers is down
60 to 70 percent. The use of tobacco and alcohol is at an all-time low, as is teen preg-
nancy. Five out of ten echo boomers say they trust the government, and virtually all
of them trust Mom and Dad.31 The members of Generation Y are a reflection of the
Fashion apps appeal to young, fashion-

conscious female consumers.
Photo by Jeremy Durkin/REX /CP Images
sweeping changes in Canadian life that have occurred over the past 20 years. They
often grow up in non-traditional families; some were raised by a single parent, and
the vast majority of them have a working mother. And they volunteer: On average,
young Canadians aged 15 to 24 years have contributed 130 volunteer hours per
year—the highest participation rate among age groups!32
We’ve already discussed the overwhelming importance of the online world in the
lives of consumers, especially young ones. Millennials are the first generation to grow
up with computers at home, in a 500-channel TV universe. They are multitaskers who
easily engage their cell phones, music downloads, and IMs at the same time. They are
totally at home in a thumb culture that communicates online and by cell phone (more
likely via text and IM than by voice).
Within the Gen Y subculture, college and university students are a special seg-
ment. Advertisers spend millions every year to influence the purchases of university
students, who buy billions of dollars’ worth of products annually. Food service on
Canadian campuses is a multmillion-dollar-a-year industry, attracting fast-food pro-
viders such as Pizza Hut, Taco Bell, and Tim Hortons. After paying for books, room
and board, and tuition, the average student has extra cash and some free time. The
university market is also attractive to many companies because these novice consum-
ers are away from home for the first time, so they have yet to form unshakeable brand
loyalty to products such as cleaning supplies.
Nevertheless, university students pose a special challenge for marketers, because
they are hard to reach via conventional media such as television. Of course, mobile and
online advertising can be effective. Universities across Canada, such as the University of
Manitoba, Mount Allison University, York University, and Brock University, are paying
attention to (and getting attention for) their recruitment efforts to attract students to their
campuses.33 On the other end of a university education, Royal Bank of Canada appeals
to new graduates to think about retirement savings. Its campaign tagline, “Support a
Worthy Cause—You,” was supported by print ads (with a poster format that featured a
T-shirt design), online ads, text messaging, and TV commercials.34 Although they spend
much of their time on social media, about one-third of Millennials say they avoid adver-
tising on these sites. They would rather connect with brands by receiving product sam-
ples and attending sponsored events.35
Gen X
Generation X (sometimes called “baby busters”) consists of 6.5 million Canadians36
(the label comes from a best-selling novel in 1991 by that name). As a group they were
profoundly affected by the economic downturn in the first part of the 1990s. In Canada,
the experiences of Generation X may translate to the 3.7 million baby boomers born
between 1960 and 1966. Like the “true” baby busters, this subgroup felt the pressure of
the 1990 recession. However, unlike the younger members of Generation X, they are
likely to be less well positioned to participate in the new economy.37
Advertisers have tried to create messages that would appeal to the worldly
Generation X cohort. Many of them have referenced old TV shows or created vignettes
featuring dishevelled actors in turned-around baseball caps who were trying their best
to appear blasé. This approach actually turned off a lot of Gen Xers, because it implied
that they have nothing else to do but sit around watching old reruns. Subaru sponsored
one of the first commercials of this genre. It showed a sloppily dressed young man
who described the Impreza model as “like punk rock,” while denouncing the
competition as “boring and corporate.” The commercial did not play well with its
intended audience, and Subaru eventually switched advertising agencies.
Sandwiched between the substantially larger cohorts of the baby boomers and
Gen Y, Generation X is often said to be the overlooked generation. Given their smaller
numbers, they are not as heavily targeted by marketers as other age cohorts. However,
today Gen Xers have grown up and, in fact, members of this generation are responsible
for many culture-changing products and companies, including Google, YouTube, and
Amazon. The title of a book that laments the bad rap Gen X has received sums it up: X
Saves the World: How Generation X Got the Shaft but Can Still Keep Everything from
Sucking.38 Given their life stage, many Gen Xers are now parents, and this is juxta-
posed against the desire to stay young and connected to cool.39
The Mature Market

The number of Canadian consumers in each generation becomes difficult to calculate
in exact terms as we reconcile the age categories between each Canadian census and as
each generation makes the transition to each successive life stage. Sometimes
Brands offering cosmetic rejuvenation

services appeal to Gen Xers and baby
boomers as they get older.
© The Advertising Archives/Alamy
a generation even redefines what the “next” stage is all about. There is no better
example of an age subculture in transition than the baby boomers, who are redefining
what growing older means. For example, the traditional notion of retirement at age 65,
with its badge of honour for a “seniors’ discount,” is quickly disappearing; some baby
boomers take early retirement, some take on postretirement careers, and some plan to
continue working well past the traditional retirement age. To keep up with these
changes, CARP (Canadian Association for Retired Persons) invites membership from
people 50-plus, retired or not, and now refers to the 50-plus age group as zoomers
(“boomers with zip”), which is also the name of a magazine they gravitate toward.40
That zoomers will completely replace terms such as the mature market, older
consumers, the elderly, the grey market, and seniors is doubtful, so for the purposes of
our analyses, the terms will be used somewhat interchangeably. Let’s start by taking a
look at the changing face of the mature market through the eyes of baby boomers.
Baby Boomers
The baby boomer age cohort (Canadians born between 1947 and 1966) consists of the
9.7 million people (over 30 percent of the Canadian population) whose parents
established families following the end of World War II and during the 1950s, when
the peacetime economy was strong and stable. The sheer size of this age cohort has
helped to make it the source of many fundamental cultural and economic changes.41
Imagine a large python that has swallowed a pig; the pig moves down the length of
the python, creating a moving bulge as it goes—the baby boomers are like the pig in
the python.42
As teenagers in the 1960s and 1970s, the “Woodstock Generation” created a revo-
lution in style, politics, and consumer attitudes. As they aged, their collective will was
behind cultural events as diverse as student power, Expo 67, Trudeaumania, and hip-
pies in the 1960s, to grassroots democracy, employee empowerment, and yuppies in
the 1980s. Now that the “pig in the python” is older, baby boomers continue to influ-
ence popular culture.
By the time they reached the age of 30, older baby boomers (born between 1947
and 1959) were earning 30 percent more than their fathers did at that age.43 As baby
boomers grew older, they moved up to more responsible and lucrative jobs. Thus, con-
sumers on average are becoming older and wealthier. And now that some boomers are
retiring, they are starting to spend on luxury items such as pleasure boats. However,
one Canadian study found that 80 percent of baby boomers felt that marketers were
not interested in them and did not communicate effectively with them.44
Although youth always lures advertisers, many companies have reconsidered this
fixation in light of boomers’ huge spending power. An ad for the Toyota Highlander
that shows boomers whose nests are emptying declares, “For your newfound freedom,
it’s about how you are going to reinvent yourself for what could be 30 or 40 years of
retirement, which is very different from your parents and grandparents.”45 Even
mobile marketers, who typically blast messages to kids on their cell phones, are begin-
ning to target the middle-aged.46 Some magazines for this market are Forever Young,
Good Times (Le Bel Âge in French), Zoomer (with a membership to CARP), and More
for the 40-plus market.
In Canada, the proportion of people aged 45 to 64 among the working population
has reached 42.4 percent, a record proportion. This was well above the proportion of
28.6 percent observed in 1991. Thus, although baby boomers do purchase products we
expect mature consumers to buy (such as health care and financial planning products
and services), they are also actively participating in other sectors too. For example,
baby boomers account for over 50 percent of all cars purchased and all vacations
taken. More than 7 million are online. They control 77 percent of Canada’s wealth,
represent almost three-quarters of the households with $100 000-plus incomes, 47
wield 55 percent of Canada’s discretionary spending power, and hold 50 percent of the
credit cards.48 NADbank found that baby boomers purchase 62 percent of building
supplies, 60 percent of car supplies, and around 60 percent of fast-food/takeout as

well as airline tickets and travel accommodations sold online.49
The Grey Market

The old woman sits alone in her dark apartment while the television blares out a soap
opera. Once every couple of days she slowly and painfully opens her triple-locked
door with arthritic hands and ventures out to the corner store to buy essentials such as
tea, milk, and cereal, always being sure to pick the least expensive brand. Most of the
time she sits in her rocking chair, thinking sadly of her dead husband and the good
times they used to have together.
Is this the image you have of a typical older consumer? Until recently, many mar-
keters did. As a result they largely neglected these consumers in their feverish pursuit
of the youth market. But as our population ages and we live longer and healthier lives,
the game is changing rapidly. A lot of businesses are updating the old stereotype of the
poor recluse. The newer, more accurate image is of an active person who is interested
in what life has to offer and is an enthusiastic consumer with the means and willing-
ness to buy many goods and services.50 This market is growing even as you read this!51
Grey Power: Seniors’ Economic Clout

Think about this: The United Nations says that people older than 60 are the fastest-
growing age group on earth. There are over 700 million of them now, and there will be
2 billion by mid-century. The grey market usually refers to people aged 65 and older.
For many purposes these consumers are classified as “senior citizens” when they
reach the age of 65 and their Canada Pension Plan benefits begin.52 The number of
Canadians 65 and older increased 1.7 percent between 2011 and 2014 to approximately
5.5 million, and now makes up nearly one-sixth of the population.53 Statistics Canada
predicts that they will make up 28.5 percent of the population in 2021, and by 2031 they
will exceed the number of children! Among the provinces, Nova Scotia has the highest
proportion of seniors at almost 16.5 percent; Alberta has 10.8 percent, the lowest propor-
tion, but this number is growing because of the attraction of fewer taxes and more benefits
in that province. Yukon has 8.8 percent, Nunavut 3.2 percent, and Northwest Territories
5.6 percent of its population in the 65-plus age group.54
We’re living longer and healthier lives because of more wholesome lifestyles (at
least some of us), improved medical diagnoses and treatment, and changing cultural
expectations about appropriate behaviours for older consumers. Given the economic
clout of senior consumers, it’s often surprising how many marketers ignore them in
favour of younger buyers—even though they are among the most brand-loyal of any
consumer segment. Older consumers repurchase a brand more frequently, consider
fewer brands and dealers, and choose long-established brands more often.
Important industries that stand to benefit from the surging grey market include
exercise facilities, cruises and tourism, cosmetic surgery and skin treatments, and
“how to” books and university courses that offer enhanced learning opportunities. In
many product categories, seniors spend their money at an even greater rate than other
age groups: Householders aged 55 to 64 spend 15 percent more than average per cap-
ita. They shell out 56 percent more than the average consumer on women’s clothing,
and as new grandparents they actually spring for more toys and playground equip-
ment than people aged 25 to 44.55
Research confirms the popular wisdom that age is more a state of mind than of
body. A person’s mental outlook and activity level have a lot more to do with longevity
and quality of life than does chronological age, the actual number of years the person
has been alive. That’s why perceived age, or how old a person feels, is a better yardstick
to use. Researchers measure perceived age on several dimensions, including “feel-age”
(i.e., how old a person feels) and “look-age” (i.e., how old a person looks).56 The older
consumers get, the younger they feel relative to their actual age. For this reason, many
As I See It
What words come to mind marketing messages simple and present them in a slow manner so
when you hear the phrase that older adults will be able to recall the message.
“senior citizens”? Most peo- Research I have conducted with my colleagues indicates
ple’s answers are typically that older adults (ones not suffering from cognitive impairments)
along the lines of forgetful, tend to process information in a different manner than younger
Courtesy of Prof. Malcolm Smith
slow, cheap, frail, etc. These adults. While younger adults may recall more of the literal con-
negative stereotypes are per- tent of a text they have read, older adults tend to recall more
petuated in part by the adver- themes and the underlying messages.1 In fact, when both older
tising industry. One need and younger adults are asked to carry out a memory task relevant
only look through most maga- to their everyday life, our research shows that there are no age-
zines or watch television to related differences in recall of brand names or brand claims
Malcolm C. Smith see that most advertising is when advertising is on the radio,2 and there are no differences in
University of Manitoba usually aimed at youth or recall for content of pictures of tourist destinations in print ads.3
promotes youth as a goal we We have even found that if the participants are asked to verbally
should strive for. Even birthday cards devalue aging by telling recount what they have read, who the listener is can make a dif-
us that once we reach certain milestone birthdays, it’s all ference in performance. When the listener is a member of the
downhill. But businesses that follow this “youth craze” may be research team, the younger adults recall more of the content of
missing out on a ripe opportunity to attract a large and wealthy the text than the older adults. When the listener is a child, how-
pool of customers—the older consumer. ever, the younger and older adults’ recall is at the same level. As
Marketers may look to research for guidance on how to well, to make sure the child understands the message, the older
improve the effectiveness of their marketing strategies. Yet the group simplifies it more than the younger group, indicating that
vast majority of research in consumer behaviour is conducted on older adults may be more sensitive to the needs of the listening
university students. Based on these studies, researchers often audience.4
make global conclusions about how consumers react to advertis- What does all this mean for marketers? It might mean that
ing, service encounters, retail environments, pricing strategies, marketers do not need to keep their messages slow and simple.
etc., that may not work for other age groups. It might also mean that we need to be careful about what we
There is very little research that compares older and younger mean by memory: Is it the literal content or the underlying mes-
adults’ reactions to various marketing stimuli. The scant amount sage? With a growing aging population that is wealthier and
published has typically been carried out in a “laboratory” setting healthier than their predecessors, this could be an important
on a university campus, and a common finding is that older target market. Due to our lack of thorough understanding of how
adults recall less ad content than younger adults. Consequently, this age group reacts to advertising, as I see it, more research in
researchers often recommend that practitioners keep their this area is warranted.
1 Cynthia Adams, Malcolm C. Smith, Linda Nyquist, and Marion Perlmutter, “Adult Age-Group Differences in Recall for the Literal and Interpretive Meanings of Narrative
Text,” Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 52B(4) (1997): P187–P195.
2 Malcolm C. Smith and Mark R. Phillips, “Age Differences in Memory for Radio Advertisements: The Role of Mnemonics,” Journal of Business Research 53(2) (2001):
103–109.
3 Malcolm C. Smith and Kelly J. MacKay, “The Organization of Information in Memory for Pictures of Tourist Destinations: Are there Age-Related Differences?” Journal of
Travel Research 39 (February 2001): 261–266; Kelly J. MacKay and Malcolm C. Smith, “Destination Advertising: Age and Format Effects on Memory,” Annals of Tourism
Research 33(1) (2006): 7–24.
4 Cynthia Adams, Malcolm C. Smith, Monisha Pasupathi, and Loretta Vitolo, “Social Context Effects on Story Recall in Older and Younger Women: Does the Listener Make a
Difference?” Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences 57B(1) (2002): P28–P40.
marketers emphasize product benefits rather than age-appropriateness in marketing

campaigns because many consumers will not relate to products that target their
chronological age.57 Older people still crave beauty and vitality, and they admire
mature celebrities who have retained their vigour. That’s why Avon introduced its
Anew Platinum skincare line, targeted directly at women aged 60 and older, with
spokeswoman Jacqueline Bisset; Procter & Gamble’s Cover Girl uses 50-something
Ellen DeGeneres for its Simply Ageless line; and L’Oréal uses Diane Keaton, in her
sixties, for its Age Perfect, and Andie McDowell, in her fifties, for RevitaLift.58
Most mature consumers lead more active, multidimensional lives than we assume.
Many Canadians aged 55 years and older offer their services through voluntary organi-
zations, and many more volunteer informally, visiting the sick and elderly, shopping or
driving for others, and caring for children.59 In 2010, 36 percent of Canadians 65 years
and older spent 218 hours volunteering. Canadians between 55 and 64 had a volunteer
rate of 41 percent.60
It is also crucial to remember that income alone does not capture the spending
power of this group. Older consumers are finished with many of the financial obliga-
tions that siphon off the income of younger consumers. Most consumers over the age
of 65 own their own homes, and most of those homes are mortgage-free. In addition,
child rearing costs are over. As the popular bumper sticker proudly proclaims, “We’re
spending our children’s inheritance.” Canadians aged 65 to 74 spend the largest part
of their days (over seven hours for men and women) engaging in leisure activities.
Men and women aged 75 and older spend around eight hours a day in leisure.61
Products get a more sympathetic reception from mature consumers when they are
made in a way that’s sensitive to physical limitations. Packages are often awkward and
difficult to manage, especially for those who are frail or arthritic. Also, many serving
sizes are too big for people living alone, and coupons tend to be for family-sized prod-
ucts rather than for single servings. Some mature consumers have difficulty manipu-
lating pull-tab cans and push-open milk cartons. Ziploc packages and clear plastic
wrap can also be difficult to handle. Packages need to be easier to read, and they need
to be lighter and smaller. Finally, designers need to pay attention to contrasting
colours. A slight yellowing of the lens in the eye that happens as one ages makes it
harder to see background colours on packages. Discerning between blues, greens, and
violets becomes especially difficult. The closer identifying-type colours are to the
package’s or advertisement’s background colour, the less visible they are and the less
attention they will command.62
The needs of aging baby boomers and their parents are indeed pushing changes in
product design. The Canadian Standards Association developed voluntary “Design for
Aging Guidelines” to help companies design better products, services, and environ-
ments for Canada’s aging population. Cuisipro offers chic, user-friendly measuring
cups and spoons designed by Canadian Helen Kerr.63 Specialty hotels, such as Point
Pleasant Lodge located close to major health centres in Halifax, cater to people who
need medical attention and their support persons. Some specially equipped rooms
accommodate physically challenged guests.
Mature consumers also respond positively to ads that provide an abundance of
information. Unlike other age groups, these consumers are not usually amused or per-
suaded by image-oriented advertising. A more successful strategy involves advertising
that depicts mature consumers as well-integrated, contributing members of society,
with emphasis on expanding their horizons rather than clinging precariously to life.
For example, a Léger Marketing survey showed that seniors’ preferred images for RRSP
and investment ads include grandchildren, travel planning, and regular people talking
straight about investing.64
The seniors market is particularly well suited for segmentation because older
consumers are easy to identify by age and stage in the family life cycle. Many belong
to organizations catering to this segment. Some read magazines for mature consum-
ers and have their interests (e.g., in benefits plans) represented by CARP. CBC/Radio-
Canada is the first choice among seniors, who devote 25 percent of their listening time
to the station.65 In addition to chronological age and perceived age, marketers segment
older consumers in terms of the particular years a person came of age (his or her age
cohort), current marital status (e.g., widowed versus married), and a person’s health
and outlook on life.66 One study investigated what the authors call consumer identity
renaissance, which refers to the redefinition process people undergo when they retire.
The research identified two different types of identity renaissance: revived (revitaliza-
tion of previous identities) or emergent (pursuit of entirely new life projects). Even
though many retirees cope with losses (of professional identity, spouses, etc.), many of
them focus on moving forward. They engage in a host of related strategies including
affiliation, in which they reconnect with family members and friends (in many cases,
online), and self-expression, which may involve revisiting an activity they never had
time to adequately pursue when they were younger, learning new skills, or perhaps
moving into an urban area to re-engage with cultural activities.67
REGIONAL SUBCULTURES CO 5
Another type of subculture that can profoundly shape consumer behaviour stems
from geographic location. Given that Canada has ten provinces, three territories, two
official languages, three bordering oceans, eight mountain ranges, 9.98 million
square kilometres of land and water, six time zones, and 35.8 million residents,
there’s no denying it is one very big and unique country.68
Regional segmentation refers to segmenting the market according to geographic
location. Citizens of Canada share the same national identity, but the regions of Canada
differ in weather patterns, concentration and growth of their populations, age
composition, ethnic mix, resources, customs, and the availability of some diversions
over others, all of which affect regional lifestyles and product and service preferences.
Maritimers, for example, are noted in the tea industry for preferring the Red Rose
brand. However, it is probably fair to say that regional segments get far less attention
from Canadian marketers than other bases of segmentation, and the contrasts often
focus on the major urban centres in each region. Nevertheless, this section will explore
some of the potential for regional segmentation.
The four regions of Canada are often identified as Atlantic Canada (or the East
Coast), Quebec, Ontario, and the West. Sometimes the Maritime provinces are defined
as a region, and sometimes British Columbia is distinguished from the Prairie
provinces. The three northern territories are sometimes combined with the West,
but with the opening of the privately funded Northwest Territories Communication
Centre, the stage is set for a more distinct designation.69 The most appropriate regional
segmentation approach depends on the purpose of making the distinctions and
whether the distinctions provide marketing leverage.
If you’ve ever travelled to or lived in other parts of the country, you may have
experienced the weird feeling of being slightly “out of sync” with your environment.
The people might speak the same language, yet you might have difficulty understand-
ing some of the things they say. The co-branding strategy of WestJet and the tourism
campaign for Newfoundland and Labrador recognizes the emotional affinity consumers
can have to “their” region or province.70
Molson cuts across regional differences and

appeals to the Canadian sense of identity by
highlighting both a national pastime and a
common Canadian custom.
Molson Coors Canada
Canadian North appeals to consumers in

particular geographic regions of Canada.
THE CANADIAN PRESS IMAGES/Don Denton
Marketers need to identify products by names that are understood in regional

markets. Brands and store names may be confusing; some may be familiar and some
not. Atlantic Windows are manufactured by Atlantic Canadians to perform in Atlantic
Canada.71 Loblaw calls its stores in Atlantic Canada the Atlantic Superstore, whereas
in western Canada they are the Real Canadian Superstore.72 And some familiar items
may masquerade under different names. One person’s grinder is another’s hero is
another’s submarine sandwich is another’s hoagie. The following illustrates the poten-
tial for product-specific misnomers as identified by Dr. Charles Boberg, a linguistics
professor at McGill University:
• Most Canadians watch television while sitting on a couch, except on the Prairies,
where they sit on a chesterfield.
• Most Canadians get water from a faucet, except on the Prairies, where it comes from
a tap.
• Montrealers drink soft drinks; other Canadians drink pop.
• British Columbian and Atlantic Canadian children play on a teeter-totter; Montreal
kids play on a see-saw.
• Students in Atlantic Canada use scribblers and book bags, while Vancouver kids
use notebooks and backpacks.
• Eavestroughs keep the rain off the roof in Ontario, but in other parts of Canada
gutters do the trick.
• Fitness enthusiasts in British Columbia and on the Prairies wear runners, central
Canadians wear running shoes, and Atlantic Canadians wear sneakers.73
Cheeky humour may pull travellers toward

the mutual objectives of Newfoundland and
Labrador Tourism and WestJet.
Newfoundland and Labrador Tourism
This ad, part of a YellowPages campaign

that appeared on bus shelters in various
Canadian neighbourhoods, is a great
example of playing off the distinct tastes
of those who live in different geographic
regions across the country. This particular
ad appealed to residents in Kitsilano,
Vancouver.
Courtesy of Yellow Pages
Regional identification based on ethnic overtones is tied to some consumer

preferences and purchases and is perhaps most evident in the entertainment area.
Celtic music in its various forms is synonymous with the Atlantic Canadian culture,74
and Acadian music and cuisine are also associated with the Maritimes. Some
Acadian locales still host a Mi-Carême festival, which has its roots in medieval
France.75 The long-running Midnight Sun Film Festival, the Calgary Stampede, the
Natal Day Festival, and the Pacific National Exhibition all bespeak the attraction to
locals and tourists of regional symbols and lifestyles.
Magazines Canada uses the well-known

moose to suggest that consumers avoid
“danger” and “yield” to reading Canadian
content.
Magazines Canada ad created by Doug Agency
Some regions also have unique symbols that provide communication value for
marketers. Inuit art styles are associated with the North, as is the polar bear. The Sas-
quatch is used to promote Kokanee beer in British Columbia, and Bonhomme provides
the theme for a winter carnival in Quebec City.76
Cuisine and food preferences have regional connections as well. Cipaille and
poutine are associated with Quebec;77 salmon with British Columbia; beef with
Alberta; Oka cheese with Quebec; bakeapple with Newfoundland; and scallops with
Digby, Nova Scotia. New Brunswick has the highest consumption of sliced white
bread per capita, while Alberta leads the rest of the country in bubblegum sales.
Montreal is the undisputed bagel capital of Canada, while consumption of lobster is
most easily enjoyed in Atlantic Canada. And, for some reason, Winnipeg has been
named the Slurpee capital of Canada for 14 years in a row.78
CO 6 Ethnic Subcultures And

Consumer Identity
“New” Canadians have much in common with members of other ethnic groups who
live in Canada. They observe the same national holidays, their expenditures are
affected by the country’s economic health, and they may join together in rooting for
Canadian Olympians. Nonetheless, although Canadian citizenship provides the raw
material for some consumption decisions, other decisions are affected profoundly by
enormous variations in the social fabric of Canada.
Ethnic identity is often a significant component of a consumer’s self-concept. An
ethnic subculture is a self-perpetuating group of consumers who share common cul-
tural or genetic ties recognized by both its members and others as a distinct category.79
In some countries, such as Japan, ethnicity is almost synonymous with the domi-
nant culture, because most citizens claim the same homogeneous cultural ties
(although Japan has sizable minority populations, most notably people of Korean
ancestry). In a heterogeneous society such as Canada, many different cultures are rep-
resented, and some consumers may expend much effort to keep their ethnic identifica-
tions from being submerged into the mainstream dominant culture.
Insights into the definition of ethnicity can be gained from a comprehensive study
of the issues related to the measurement of English- and French-Canadian ethnicity that
was conducted by a group of researchers at Concordia University. In addition to a self-
identification measure, ethnic identity was measured by language use in various social
communication settings, religious beliefs, social interaction, upbringing/background,
and spouse’s ethnic identity. The study suggests that the best measure of ethnicity is
language use and the weakest measure is religion. However, language may not be the
most salient dimension of a particular subcultural group; for example, Jewish ethnicity
may be better defined by religious beliefs. The situation is complicated further when one
Although many Canadians enjoy the coun-

try’s winter weather, FlyHalifax.com knows
that sunny destinations beckon others.
Courtesy of Rapport Communications, Inc.
considers that many Canadians are bilingual. The 2011 census showed that 11.5 percent
of Canadians speak a language other than French or English in the home (this number
increased from 9.1 percent in 2006).80 Thus, at this time, self-identification may be the
best measure of various ethnicities.81
Marketers cannot ignore the growth in the stunning diversity of cultures that is
reshaping mainstream society. This important change encourages advertisers to
rethink their old strategies, which assumed that virtually all of their customers
were Caucasians who hailed from Western Europe. As one director of multicultural
marketing observed, “Marketing today is part anthropology.”82 Some Canadian
companies, notably banks and telecommunication companies, have had ethnic
marketing programs up and running for several years.83
Ethnicity and Marketing Strategies

Although some might feel uncomfortable with the notion that marketers should
explicitly take into account people’s ethnic differences when they formulate their
strategies, the reality is that these subcultural memberships do shape many attitudes,
values, activities, and preferences. Dimensions of ethnicity that are important to mar-
keters include heritage, life experiences, religion, and beliefs. Membership in ethnic
groups is often predictive of such consumer variables as level and type of media expo-
sure, food preferences, the wearing of distinctive apparel, political behaviour, leisure
activities, and willingness to try new products.84
It makes good business sense to cater to ethnic segments by (literally) speaking their
language when promoting products and services. The way marketing messages should be
structured depends on subcultural differences in how people communicate. Furthermore,
research evidence indicates that members of minority groups find an advertising spokes-
person from their own group to be trustworthy, and this enhanced credibility translates
into more positive brand attitudes.86 In a study by the Canadian Advertising Foundation,
46 percent of members of visible minorities said they were more likely to buy a product if
the ad included a visible minority. However, one study with students of English- and
French-Canadian backgrounds found that ethnic brand names lowered recall.87
Consumers
One important subcultural difference is how abstract or literal the group is. In Focus
Sociologists make a basic distinction: In a high-context culture, group members tend
The United States also has significant ethnic
to be tightly knit, and they infer meanings that go beyond the spoken word. Symbols
subcultures that lead to interesting marketing
and gestures, rather than words, carry much of the weight of the message. In contrast,
outcomes. For example, the popularity of some
people in a low-context culture are more literal. Compared with white Canadians of
graphic video games underscores the concern
Western European descent (who tend to be low-context), many minority cultures are
of critics who argue that these games play on
high-context and have strong oral traditions, so their members are more sensitive to
racial stereotypes, including images of African
nuances in advertisements that go beyond the message copy.88 American youths who commit violent street
Canadian advertisers are targeting ethnic consumers in two ways: (1) by fostering crimes. For example, Grand Theft Auto: San
inclusiveness through putting more individuals from visible minorities into main- Andreas is set in a city that resembles gang-
stream advertising, and (2) by “speaking” to specific ethnic groups in their mother ridden stretches of Los Angeles in the 1990s. It
tongue.89 Campbell Company, for example, has translated its well-known tagline, features a digital cast of African American and
“M’m! M’m! Good!” into Gujarati, Chinese, Hebrew, and French.90 Hispanic men, some of whom wear braided hair
Canadian marketers need to be cautious about when to segment markets by eth- and scarves over their faces and aim Uzis from
nicity, especially when more than 80 percent of Canadians with a home language low-riding cars. A recent study found that when
other than English or French watch prime-time television just like other Canadians. In white people played the game Saints Row 2
other words, marketers need to consider that being multicultural in Canada is becom- (which is similar to Grand Theft Auto) and were
ing mainstream and that ethnicity needs to be brought into mainstream ads,91 as the assigned a black avatar, they expressed more
following examples indicate: negative views of black people, were more likely
to associate them with weapons, and were more
• In trading areas where one ethnic group comprises at least 15 percent of the
likely to agree with statements like, “It’s really a
customer base, Loblaw develops a specific ethnic offering in each department.92
matter of some people not trying hard enough; if
• T & T Supermarket is the largest chain of Asian supermarkets in Canada, with blacks would only try harder they could be just
about 20 stores in Greater Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary, and Greater Toronto. as well off as whites.”85
To celebrate the opening of the sixteenth store in downtown Toronto, the store
Vancity recognizes the multiculturalism

present in Canada’s population and ensures
that its message is inclusive of various
communities in its target markets.
Courtesy of Vancity
gave out chopsticks and 10- and 18-pound bags of jasmine rice to those who
spent $28, $48, and $88, respectively.93
• Galleria Supermarket in Toronto targets the Korean market, but 40 percent of its
shoppers are from outside the community because of its tea shop, bakery,
restaurant, and English-speaking staff and tours.94
Products that companies market with an ethnic appeal are not necessarily intended
for consumption only by those in that ethnic subculture. De-ethnicitization occurs when
a product we formerly associated with a specific ethnic group detaches from its roots
and appeals to other subcultures. Think about the popularity of bagels, a Jewish staple
that is mass-marketed. Canada’s consumption of olive oil, a staple of Mediterranean
cooking for centuries, has more than doubled since the late 1980s, and curry flavours of
Indian cuisines are enjoyed widely.95 Many supermarkets carry coconut milk, basmati
rice, and ginger root as well as Mexican dinner kits.96 Thus, ethnic food is not only
widely accessible, it is increasingly embedded into our lives.97 De-ethnicitization can
also be seen in the hip-hop aesthetic, which is well entrenched with inner-city teens,
suburban youth, and even those over 40 who grew up with its influence.98
CO 7 Ethnic Groups in Canada

There is potential for 200-plus ethnic niche markets in Canada.99 Table 13–2 shows
that the two largest ethnic groups in Canada (by single origin) are British (7.7 percent)
and French (3.6 percent), which expands to 34.5 percent and 15.5 percent, respec-
tively, when considered with at least one other origin and no overlap with each
other.100 Table 13–2 shows that ethnic groups are generally concentrated geographi-
cally, providing an opportunity for target-marketing in a country with a widely dis-
persed population. In addition to Canada’s two official languages, Chinese, Punjabi,
Spanish, and German are the most dominant mother tongues.101 Table 13–3 shows the
most commonly spoken first languages across the provinces and territories. We will
spend some time discussing a few key ethnic subgroups: French Canadian, Chinese
Canadians, South Asian Canadians, and Canadians of Aboriginal origin.
F REN C H C AN AD IAN S
French Canadians are a significant subculture and account for about 16 percent of
the Canadian population based on ethnic origin. They form the second-largest ethnic
market in Canada, making up about 80 percent of the Quebec population and
30 percent of the New Brunswick (Acadian) population. They also account for a
significant number of residents in Ontario, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and the
TABLE 13–2
Ethnic Origins of the Canadian Population, 2011 Census

Ethnic Origin Number Percentage
Total Canadian Population 32 852 320 100.0

Total Single Origins 19 036 295 57.9
Total Multiple Origins 13 816 025 42.1
Canadian Alone 5 834 535 17.8
Canadian Alone or with Some Other Origin 10 563 805 32.2
Aboriginal Alone 628 460 1.9
Aboriginal with Some Other Origin 1 836 035 5.6
North American Indian 1 369 115 4.2
Métis 447 655 1.4
British alone (includes English, Scottish, Irish, 2 521 360 7.7
Welsh, Cornish, Manx, British Isles)
British alone or with Some Other Origin 11 343 710 34.5
French alone 1 170 620 3.6
French alone or with Some Other Origin 5 077 215 15.5
Total Responses
German 3 203 330 9.8

Italian 1 488 425 4.5
South Asian 1 615 925 4.9
Chinese 1 487 580 4.5
Ukrainian 1 251 170 3.8
Dutch 1 067 245 3.2
Polish 1 010 705 3.1
Russian 550 520 1.7
Filipino 662 600 2.0
Norwegian 452 705 1.4
Portuguese 429 850 1.3
Swedish 341 845 1.0
Spanish 368 305 1.1
Hungarian 316 765 0.96
Jewish 309 650 0.94
American 372 575 1.1
Greek 252 960 0.77
Jamaican 256 915 0.78
Danish 203 080 0.62
Vietnamese 220 425 0.67
Northwest Territories. In other words, the French-Canadian market provides the

advantage of geographic concentration. The market is even larger when extended
to include Canadians who are French-with-other-origins. On a day-to-day basis,
66.3 percent of Canadians speak English at home and 21 percent speak French.102
One study of English-Canadian, French-Canadian, and French young adults
found that fun and enjoyment in life/excitement was equal across all three cultures
(a big surprise!) and that English and French Canadians valued security and warm
TABLE 13–3
Dominant Mother Tongue 1 by Province and Territory, 2011 Census

English
English and French and French and
Province/ Non-official English and Non-official Non-official Non-official
Territory Total English French Language French Language Language Language
Canada 33 121 175 18 858 980 7 054 975 6 567 685 144 685 396 330 74 430 24 095
Newfoundland 509 950 497 565 2480 8790 465 585 45 25

and Labrador
Prince Edward 138 435 127 635 5195 4860 445 260 35 10
Island
Nova Scotia 910 615 836 090 31 110 37 090 3030 2855 315 130
New Brunswick 739 900 479 935 233 530 18 395 6580 1115 245 90
Quebec 7 815 955 599 230 6 102 210 961 700 64 800 23 435 51 640 12 950
Ontario 12 722 065 8 677 040 493 300 3 264 435 46 605 219 425 13 645 7610
Manitoba 1 193 095 869 990 42 090 256 500 3800 18 940 1425 365
Saskatchewan 1 018 310 860 500 16 280 129 035 1730 9,850 750 175
Alberta 3 610 180 2 780 200 68 545 698 930 8410 49 970 2945 1185
British Columbia 4 356 210 3 062 430 57 280 1 154 220 8600 68 800 3345 1530
Yukon 33 655 28 065 1455 3625 140 335 20 15
Northwest 41 035 31 375 1080 8045 75 445 15 5

Territories
Nunavut 31 765 8925 435 22 070 10 320 5 0
1 First language learned at home in childhood and still understood.
Source: Statistics Canada. “Population by Mother Tongue and Age Groups (Total), 2011 Counts, for Canada, Provinces and Territories,” http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2011/dp-pd/hlt-fst/lang/
Pages/highlight.cfm?TabID=1&Lang=E&Asc=1&PRCode=01&OrderBy=999&View=1&tableID=401&queryID=1&Age=1.
relationships with others. Of the 14 values studied, there were only two on which
the English and French Canadians differed: French Canadians put more emphasis on
being well respected and less on intellectual and cultural activities than English
Canadians. In terms of nearly 60 lifestyle and consumption habits, very few differ-
ences were found between English and French Canadians when demographics,
social class, and economic philosophies were controlled for.103
On the other hand, local heroes such as Jacques Villeneuve create demand for
race-car entertainment among young and old Quebecers. Jean Coutu continues to dom-
inate the drugstore market, and Cirque du Soleil (www.cirquedusoleil.com) attracts
local as well as national and international audiences. The French-Canadian market
seems to require more emphasis on moving positive attitudes and behaviour toward
environmentally friendly actions, while the English-Canadian market appears to need
messages that link their actions with an awareness of environmental issues so that
their environmentally friendly behaviours are likely to be sustained or expanded.104
C H INES E CAN AD IAN S

At over 1.48 million, Chinese Canadians are one of the fastest-growing minority groups
in Canada. They make up 21.1 percent of the visible minority population and 4 per-
cent of the total population.105 After English and French, Mandarin is the number-one
Because of their numbers and buying power,

Asian Canadians are often targeted by
marketers. However, it is important to keep
in mind that the term Asian refers to
multiple distinct ethnic groups.
Monkey Business/Fotolia
language that is spoken by those living in Canada.106 Canada’s Chinese population

comes from various areas, with roughly 60 percent from mainland China, 30 percent
from Hong Kong, and 10 percent from Taiwan.107 Marketers are just recognizing their
potential as a unique market segment. This subculture is attractive to marketers
because Asian Canadians are typically hardworking and many have above-average
incomes. Indeed, Chinese Canadians have the highest incomes of all visible minori-
ties.108 As one indication, readers of the nationally distributed Ming Pao Daily have
high family income and tend to be homeowners with a university education.109
The Chinese-Canadian market, however, is far from homogeneous. The attitudes
and behaviours of these consumers are influenced by age, education, gender, house-
hold composition, knowledge of English, length of time in Canada, reason for immigra-
tion, working status prior to and after immigration, family size, geographic location,
and marital and financial status.110 Studies in Vancouver found that Chinese Canadians
were more likely to be married, tended toward large traditional families, were more
likely to be owners of homes and consumer electronics, and played more lotteries and
consumed less alcohol than Vancouverites in general.111
Despite the potential, Asian Canadians are difficult to market to, because they
actually make up multiple distinct subgroups that are culturally diverse and speak
many different languages and dialects. The term Asian refers to 20 ethnic groups,
Chinese being the largest.112 Chinese Canadians still make up less than 5 percent of
the population, so mass-marketing techniques are often not viable to reach them.113
However, opportunities do exist. For example, realtors who do business in areas with
a high concentration of Asian-Canadian buyers are learning to adapt to their desire
for a house that offers a good feng shui environment (feng shui literally means “the
wind and the water”). And 90 percent of the 1.48 million Chinese Canadians live in
Canada’s six largest cities, notably Toronto (40 percent), Vancouver (31 percent),
Montreal (6 percent), and Calgary (5 percent).114
British Columbia has 24 Chinese media outlets (including 16 in Mandarin and 4 in
Cantonese)—two each of television and radio stations, and eight newspapers and maga-
zines.115 However, some attempts to translate advertising messages and concepts into
Asian media have backfired. Other advertisements have overlooked the complex differ-
ences among Asian subcultures, and some have been unknowingly insensitive to cultural
practices. The use of the colour red and Chinese characters, the careful use of numbers,
and the delivery of high-quality service are all appreciated by Asian consumers.116
A B ORIG IN AL CAN AD IAN S

Canadians of Aboriginal origin number almost 2 million. 117 They dominate the
population of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. About 50 percent of the
Aboriginal population is under 25 years of age.118 Little is known about their con-
sumer behaviour in a scientific sense; however, work is being done to adapt the
631 characters in 19 Aboriginal languages and five dialects so that communication
by computer is possible.119 Aboriginal Media Services has seven newspapers, as
well as 38 others representing various regions, and an Edmonton radio station
(CFWE), through which advertisers—Native and otherwise—can reach one of Can-
ada’s founding peoples.120 Aboriginal Canadians are responsive to advertising that
connects to their values.121 The Bank of Montreal, TD Canada Trust, and CIBC have
attracted Native and Métis customers by building relationships through activities
such as fishing with Native elders, taking Polaroid identification photographs,
offering cheques with images by young Native artists, and advertising in Native
people’s media (such as Windspeaker, Aboriginal Business, Inuit Art Quarterly,
and Aboriginal Voices).122
SOUT H A S IAN CAN AD IAN S

The 2011 census counted more than 1.6 million South Asian Canadians, a 19 percent
jump since 2006; they have surpassed the 1.48 million Chinese Canadians and the 1.49
million Italian Canadians to become the largest ethnic group other than French and
English. (South Asia includes India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Punjab, Tamil, Bangladesh,
etc.).123 South Asians make up 4 percent of the Canadian population and 25 percent of
all visible minorities in Canada. Over half live in Toronto124 and have an estimated
buying power of $12.6 billion in the Toronto market.125 Most live in the suburban areas
of Toronto and Vancouver.126
Generally, South Asians arrive in Canada with relatively high income and
education levels and are likely to speak English.127 To paint the Canadian South Asian
market with a broad brush and use adaptations of national creative is thought to be
folly. South Asians vary in value systems, culture-based psychographics, and factors
that influence their consumer choices. For example, 16 official languages are spoken
in India, and there are seven religious practices. 128 Examples of Canadian media
companies that specialize in the South Asian market include ATN (Asian Television
Network), which owns and operates 14 specialty channels and has alliances with
other broadcasters such as Star India Plus and Cricket Plus;129 ReD FM in the
Vancouver area;130 BC’s South Asian Post (in English); the Toronto Star’s Desi Life;131
SouthAsian.com, which attracts 1.6 million Canadian visitors a month; and MyBindi.
com, which reaches the vast majority of South Asians in the Greater Toronto Area as
well as other parts of North America.132
The Oscar-winning film Slumdog Millionaire has been a catalyst for bringing
Bollywood into the mainstream. Cinema ads intended to reach the family-oriented
audience were in English, such as the one run by Walmart that featured a South
Asian family who had recently immigrated to Canada. TELUS placed the BlackBerry
Curve into a Bollywood film, and Scotiabank sponsored a weekly broadcast of CBC’s
Hockey Night in Canada in Punjabi.133 Walmart Canada introduced a Bollywood
Signature line of traditional women’s wear. 134 And Scotiabank sponsors ethnic
festivals and concerts, volunteers as guests on South Asian radio stations, maintains
Scotiabank branches in India, and sponsors pre-immigration seminars in China.135
The Effect of Immigration on Canadian Diversity

Statistics Canada has estimated that the population of Canada, which numbered
just under 33.5 million in 2011, may grow to as many as 42 million by the year
2031.136 The 2011 census showed that approximately two-thirds of Canada’s total
Street signs in many languages, such as this

one in Ukrainian and English, acknowledge
the diverse ethnic profile of Canadians.
Courtesy of Judith Zaichkowsky
population growth between 2001 and 2011 was due to high levels of immigra-
tion,137 and much of this growth is accounted for by members of non-white ethnic
groups. Indeed, Canada accepts 1 million immigrants and refugees every four
years, by far the largest per capita rate of immigration in the world. In 2011, almost
6.8 million Canadians (26 percent of the population) were immigrants—that is, not
born in Canada.138
Combined, the three largest visible minority groups in 2011—South Asians,
Chinese, and blacks—accounted for 61.3 percent of the visible minority population.
They were followed by Filipinos, Latin Americans, Arabs, Southeast Asians, West
Asians, Koreans, and Japanese. 139 The vast majority of these consumers live in
Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal.140 Toronto is the most ethnically diverse city in
the world, with more than 45 percent of its population foreign-born (although
nearly 70 percent speak English at home). Almost 30 percent of Calgarians and
Montrealers, and 50 percent of Vancouverites, are first-generation immigrant
Canadians.
Australia is the only country more ethnically diverse than Canada.141 And ethnic
diversity is expected to increase, affecting not only demand in ethnic markets but also
the nature of overall demand. According to a global survey conducted by Léger Mar-
keting with Gallup researchers, 74 percent of Canadians consider immigration to be
good for their country; the world average is 43 percent.142
It’s best to market to new arrivals in their native languages. They tend to cluster
geographically, which makes them easy to reach. The local community is the pri-
mary source for information and advice, so word of mouth is especially important
(see Chapter 11). TD Bank Financial Group, for example, identified word of mouth as
one of its most important assets for attracting business from new Canadians. 143
Advertising themes that seem effective among recent immigrants are based on mes-
sages of comfort, familiarity, and appropriateness of language (in response to feel-
ings of fear and insecurity on coming to a new country). In one market study,
first- and second-generation Canadians were found to “highly value a good warranty
and the ability to return a product” as a manifestation of a cultural sensitivity to the
lack of trust in the conduct of business in their countries of origin.144 Due to the
forces of integration, English works well with first-generation Canadians.145
E T H N IC IT Y IS A M OVIN G TARG ET
Although ethnic marketing is in vogue in many firms, the process of actually defining
and targeting members of a distinct ethnic group is not always so easy. In the past decade
there has been a continuing decline in the proportion of Canadians of British and French
origin because of increasing immigration of other Europeans, Asians, and other non-
Europeans, stemming from various economic and political events throughout the world.
In addition, ethnic intermarriage has blurred ethnic boundaries, particularly, but not
solely, among first- and second-generation Canadians. Over 13 million Canadians
reported multiple ethnic origins in the 2006 census.146 Thus, it has become increasingly
difficult for marketing researchers and Statistics Canada to classify Canadians into neat
ethnic categories, and comparisons across time have to be done with special attention to
how ethnicity is operationalized for data collection.147
The steady increase in the number of mixed marriages is, however, creating oppor-
tunities for some marketers who wish to meet the needs of children raised in multicul-
tural families. Because many children are exposed to others from diverse cultural
backgrounds, some marketing executives feel that their attitudes will be quite different
from those of their parents. Encounters with diverse cultural traditions create the need
for products and services that allow consumers to celebrate multiple heritages, includ-
ing international festivals, language classes, camps with ethnic themes, and travel
products and services. Also, celebrations of the arrival, settlement, trials, and successes
of the first immigrants to Canada create marketing opportunities as their descendants
participate in events that identify the roots of their heritage.
Ethnic Stereotypes
A controversial TV commercial for Salesgenie.com that ran during Super Bowl XLII in
2008 illustrates how marketers (intentionally or not) use ethnic and racial stereotypes to
craft promotional communications. The spot featured two animated pandas who spoke
in heavy Chinese accents. After complaints from viewers, the company withdrew the
commercial.148 Many ethnic subcultures have powerful stereotypes that the general
public may associate with them. In these cases, outsiders assume that the members of a
group possess these traits. The same trait, unfortunately, can be cast as either positive or
negative by a communicator, depending on the communicator’s intentions and biases.
For example, the Scottish stereotype in Canada is largely positive, so we tend to look
favourably on their (supposed) frugality. 3M uses Scottish imagery to denote value (e.g.,
Scotch tape). However, the Scottish “personality” might carry quite different connota-
tions to the British or the Irish. One person’s “thrifty” is another’s “stingy.”
In the past, marketers used ethnic symbolism as shorthand to connote certain
product attributes. The images employed were sometimes crude and unflattering. For
example, negative cultural stereotyping of an Aboriginal person was the basis of a
complaint against a toy produced by Kinder Surprise chocolate eggs. The manufac-
turer sent an apology to John Joe Sark of the Mi’kmaq Grand Council for Prince Edward
Island and promised that the toy would be discontinued.149 The lesson to be learned
here is that marketers should be sensitive to how their communications might invoke
ethic stereotypes.
Chapter Summary
Some consumers identify with subcultures or microcultures on consumers’ perceived ages, which tend to be more
that share common characteristics and identities and youthful than their chronological ages. Marketers
that influence their consumption decisions. People have should also emphasize concrete benefits of products
many things in common with others who are about the because this group tends to be skeptical of vague,
same age. image-related promotions.
• Consumers who grew up at the same time share many

cultural memories because they belong to a common age
Marketing programs based on regional subcultures and the
cohort, so they may respond well to marketers’ nostalgia
Canadian identity are beginning to emerge.
appeals that remind them of these experiences. • The four regions of Canada are typically identified
as Atlantic Canada, Quebec, Ontario, and the West.
The youth market is often a key target of marketers. Although it gets less attention from Canadian market-
ers than other types of market segmentation, there is a
• The global youth market is massive and includes those
lot of potential for regional segmentation in Canada.
from Gen Z and Gen Y.
Regional differences across the country include the
• Gen Z are true digital natives, and they learn about styles t erminology used for various items (scribblers versus
through social media. notebooks), music, and cuisine and food preferences,
• Gen Y is sometimes referred to as the baby boom echo or among others.
the Millennial generation. It is of importance to marketers • Our memberships in regional subcultures often play a big
because of its relative size. Unlike their older siblings, role in guiding our consumption behaviours.
Gen Yers tend to hold relatively traditional values, and
they prefer to fit in rather than rebel.
Marketers often consider the role that ethnic subcultures
play in determining consumption.
Mature consumers will increase in importance as a market
segment. • The four largest ethnic subcultures in Canada are English,
French, South Asian, and Chinese Canadians, but con-
• Baby boomers are the most powerful age segment because
sumers with many diverse backgrounds are considered by
of their size and economic clout. Boomers continue to
marketers as well.
affect demands for housing, child care, automobiles,
clothing, and many other products. • Both French Canadians and Chinese Canadians tend to
be extremely family-oriented, and they are receptive to
• As the population ages, the needs of mature consumers
advertising that understands their heritage and reinforces
become increasingly important. Many marketers ignore
traditional family values.
this age segment because of the stereotype that they
are too inactive and spend too little. This stereotype is • Chinese Canadians are courted actively by marketers. The
no longer accurate. Many older adults are healthy, vig- size of this group is increasing rapidly, and they dominate
orous, and interested in new products and experi- some major markets.
ences—and they have the income to purchase them. • Care must be taken not to rely on inaccurate (and some-
Marketing appeals to this age subculture should focus times offensive) ethnic stereotypes.
Key Terms
Age cohort p. 378 Generation Y (Gen Y) p. 378 Multigenerational marketing
Baby boomer p. 378 Generation Z (Gen Z) p. 378 strategy p. 379
Chronological age p. 388 Grey market p. 388 Parental yielding p. 381
Connexity p. 383 High-context culture p. 395 Perceived age p. 388
Consumer identity renaissance p. 390 Interbellum generation p. 378 Regional segmentation p. 391
Digital natives p. 382 Low-context culture p. 395 Silent generation p. 378
Echo boomers p. 383 Material parenting p. 381 Subculture p. 376
Ethnic subculture p. 394 Microculture p. 376 Tweens p. 381
Generation X (Gen X) p. 378 Millennials p. 383 War baby generation p. 378
Review Questions
1. What is a subculture? How does it differ from a microculture? provide some examples of specific marketing attempts
2. What is an age cohort, and why is it of interest to that work or don’t work?
marketers? 7. What are some industries that stand to benefit most from
3. What are some of the most efficient ways for marketers to the increasing affluence and vitality of the grey market?
connect with university students? 8. What are some effective ways to segment the grey market?
4. List three basic conflicts youth face, and give an example 9. What are some ways in which regional subcultures are
of each. important to marketers?
5. Who are tweens and why are marketers interested in 10. Why are ethnic subcultures something marketers would
them? want to consider?
6. What advice would you give to a marketer who wants to 11. Why are Chinese Canadians an attractive market segment?
appeal to Gen Y? What are major dos and don’ts? Can you Why can they be difficult for marketers to reach?
Discuss 8. How do regional and national identification affect con-

sumer behaviour?
1. What are some possible marketing opportunities at
reunions? What effects might attending such an event 9. Some industry experts believe that it’s acceptable to
have on a consumer’s self-esteem, body image, and so appropriate symbols from another culture even if the
on? buyer does not know their original meaning. They argue
that even in the host society there is often disagreement
2. The chapter describes members of Generation Y as
about these meanings. What do you think?
much more traditional and team-oriented than Genera-
tion X. Do you agree? Why or why not? 10. Products can function as socialization agents for ethnic
groups. What examples can you find that serve this
3. Many parents worry about the time their kids spend
function? What special problems do these create for
online, but this activity may actually be good for them.
marketers?
A study by the MacArthur Foundation in the United
States claims that Web surfers gain valuable skills to 11. What are the anticipated effects of immigration patterns
prepare them for the future. The study also finds that on marketing activities in Canada in the next decade?
concerns about online predators are overblown; most
kids socialize with friends they know from other situa- Experiential Exercises
tions like school or camp. What’s your take on this? Are
12. Find good and bad examples of advertising that targets
concerns about excessive Web surfing overblown?
mature consumers. To what degree does the advertising
4. What are some of the positive and negative aspects of stereotype mature consumers? What elements of ads or
targeting university students? Identify some specific other promotions appear to determine their effective-
marketing strategies that you feel have been either suc- ness in reaching and persuading this group?
cessful or unsuccessful. What characteristics distin-
13. When is nostalgia an effective way to appeal to consum-
guish the successes from the failures?
ers? Can this technique backfire? Find ads that use a
5. Why have baby boomers had such an important impact nostalgia appeal, and critique their likely effectiveness.
on consumer culture?
14. Marketers of entrenched brands such as Nike, Pepsi,
6. How has the baby boom echo changed attitudes toward and Levi Strauss are tearing their hair out over Gen Y
childrearing practices and created demand for different consumers. Image-building campaigns (e.g., 50 Cent
products and services? endorsing Reebok) are not as effective as they once
7. Is it practical to assume that people aged 50 years and were. What advice would you give to a marketer who
older constitute one large consumer market? How can wants to appeal to Gen Y? What are the major dos and
marketers segment this age subculture? What are some don’ts? Can you provide some examples of specific
important variables to keep in mind when tailoring mar- marketing attempts targeted to Gen Y that worked or
keting strategies to mature consumers? didn’t work?
15. Identify current examples of marketing stimuli that agreement did you obtain among people? Compare the
depend on an ethnic or regional stereotype to communi- associations for an ethnic group held by actual members
cate a message. How effective are these appeals? of that group with those of non-members.
16. To understand the power of ethnic stereotypes, conduct 17. Locate one or more consumers (perhaps family mem-
your own poll. For a set of ethnic groups, ask people to bers) who have emigrated from their country of origin.
use the technique of free association to anonymously Interview them about how they adapted to their host
provide attributes (including personality traits and prod- culture. In particular, what changes did they make in
ucts) most likely to characterize each group. How much their consumption practices over time?
The Inuit and The North West Company The Inuit

Lily Lin put down the paper she had been reading at her desk in The Inuit are a group of indigenous peoples who inhabit the
the head office of the North West Company. The story she just Arctic regions of Greenland, Canada, the United States, and
finished reading had highlighted the growing concerns the Inuit Russia. They live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic, par-
people had with the pricing of products available for purchase ticularly around the Arctic Ocean. Inuit are the descendants of
in the three Canadian territories (i.e., the Northwest Territories, the Thule culture, who emerged from western Alaska after
Nunavut, and Yukon). A number of Inuit had vocally expressed crossing the land bridge from Asia and spread eastward across
their displeasure with the high prices that businesses were the Arctic. The Inuit have chiefly been fishers and hunters, and
charging for everything from fresh produce to apparel items. their traditional diet is typically very high in protein and fat. In
Lily knew this negative word of mouth might need to be fact, Inuit used to consume an average of 75 percent of their
addressed, since the North West Company was the largest daily energy intake from fat. Their culture is very distinctive in
retailer in the Canadian Arctic. Indeed, since she was a public many things, from transportation methods to language and art.
relations spokesperson for the company, the news media would Inuit introduced sealskin boats, which were extraordinarily
likely contact her for the company perspective on these issues. buoyant—the predecessor of the kayak. On land, the Inuit
used dog sleds for transportation.
The North West Company Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past
few decades, many traditions continue. The Inuktitut language
The North West Company (www.northwest.ca) is a grocery and
is still spoken in many areas of the Arctic and is common in
general merchandise retailer with numerous stores scattered in
media programming. Canada has adopted some of the Inuit
remote communities across northern Canada and Alaska. Primar-
culture as national symbols, for example using the cultural icon
ily operating under the name Northern Stores (also AC Value
of the Inukshuk as a symbol of the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Centre and Giant Tiger retail brands), the company had been
Respected art galleries display Inuit art and music recordings.
operating in the Arctic for decades. In fact, the company traces its
Storytelling specific to the Inuit culture has also been preserved.
history to the fur trading business in which it operated indepen-
Over the past few decades the Inuit have undergone an
dently in the eighteenth century. It was merged into the Hudson’s
identity struggle between their traditional heritage and the mod-
Bay Company in 1821 and was part of that company’s business
ern society their cultures have been forced to assimilate into in
portfolio until 1987, when it was relaunched as a publicly traded
order to maintain a livelihood. With current dependence on
company under the old name of the North West Company.
modern society for necessities (including governmental jobs,
The company, headquartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba,
food, aid, and medicine), the Inuit have had to come to terms
employs over 45 000 workers and is the largest employer of
with changes in their cultural heritage. They have had to adopt
Aboriginal people in the business sector. It’s also one of the
new consumption patterns and have experienced both positives
longest continuing retail operations in the world, with a num-
and negatives in doing so.
ber of stores having continuously served their communities for
over 300 years. These stores operate in communities that
have populations ranging from 500 to 7000 and that are typi- Pricing Problems
cally about 700 square metres in size. They are unique with Changes in consumption had led to the current hostility toward
respect to their merchandising, as they have to adapt the what some had called price-gouging of the Inuit people. Com-
product mix to each market served. Generally, the company munities had become outraged at the skyrocketing costs for
will offer food, family apparel, housewares, appliances, and basic groceries and necessities in Nunavut. With the prices
outdoor products. The company has also developed specific of red peppers starting at $16.89 per kilogram or a box of
logistical expertise in moving product to, and operating stores 84 diapers at $73, almost all imported goods had become
in, remote or difficult-to-serve locations. much more expensive in the past few years.
While there was a recognition that transportation and inven- blogs, and had even travelled to Ottawa, to voice their con-
tory costs were likely to increase the costs of goods sold in the cerns. The questions soon to come had to be handled correctly
North, there was a deeply held suspicion that the northern peo- and effectively.
ple were a captive market being taken advantage of. Publicly, 1. Is the Inuit subculture a regional or ethnic subculture?
the Inuit had been clear they wanted a solution to the issue and How would you categorize this group of people? Why?
didn’t see moving south to bigger population centres as a rea-
2. What specific needs does the Inuit subculture have? How
sonable option. Further, traditional hunting also didn’t make
are they different from those of other subcultures in
sense, as the costs had become prohibitive and global warming
Canada?
had caused movement in animal populations. Some had called
for increased competition so that people could shop compara- 3. Given the specific needs of the Inuit, how should the
tively and be offered lower prices. At minimum, people wanted North West Company market to this population? What
more information to understand how transportation costs were aspects of the marketing mix need to be shaped for this
impacting pricing, and what price fairness meant in the Arctic. market? In what ways?
Lily knew that the North West Company, as the primary 4. Do you feel the concerns expressed by the Inuit with
retailer in the Arctic, was at the centre of this issue. How to respect to product pricing are valid? How would you
handle the expressed concerns of these frustrated customers address this concern if you were business? Government?
was critical. Lily had noted that people had set up websites and The Inuit population?
No tes
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MEF. Ethnic Origin Responses (3), Age Groups (9) and Sex (3) for the Population 15 Years
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nt&SearchText=Canada&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&A1=Ethnic%20origin June 22, 2009.
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Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences 15(2) (June 1998): 113–127. 128. Sachi Mukerji, “Three Follies of Multicultural Marketing,” Marketing Magazine,
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14
C HAPTER
Cultural Influences on
Consumer Behaviour
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand that a culture is like a society’s 5 Understand that we describe products as either

personality, and that it shapes our identities as sacred or profane, and some products move back
individuals. and forth between the two categories.
2 Understand that values and norms distinguish 6 Understand that marketers need to carefully consider

cultures from one another. the usage of both language and symbols when
engaging in a cross-cultural marketing campaign.
3 Understand that myths and rituals differ across cultures,

and that marketers often capitalize on these. 7 Understand that when marketing across different

cultures, either a standardized strategy or a localized
4 Understand that many of our consumption strategy can be used.

activities—including holiday observances, grooming,
and gift giving—are rituals. 8 Understand that cultural tastes and influences can

spread across different countries and can sometimes
become integrated with local meanings.
UNDERSTANDING CULTURE CO 1
Culture, a concept crucial to the understanding of consumer behaviour, may be thought of as a

society’s personality. It includes both abstract ideas, such as values and ethics, as well as the
material objects and services that are produced or valued by a group of people, such as automo-
biles, clothing, food, art, and sports. Culture is the accumulation of shared meanings, rituals,
norms, and traditions among the members of an organization or a society.
Consumption choices simply cannot be understood without considering the cultural
context in which they are made: Culture is the “lens” through which people view prod-
ucts. Ironically, the effects of culture on consumer behaviour are so powerful and far-
reaching that this importance is sometimes difficult to grasp or appreciate. We do not
always appreciate this power until we encounter a different environment, where suddenly
many of the assumptions we had taken for granted about the clothes we wear, the food we
eat, and the way we address others no longer seem to apply.
A consumer’s culture determines the overall priorities he or she attaches to different
activities and products. It also mandates the success or failure of specific products and ser-
vices. A product that provides benefits consistent with those desired by members of a culture
at a particular time has a much better chance of attaining acceptance in the marketplace. For
example, North American culture began to emphasize the concept of a fit, trim body as an
ideal of appearance in the mid-1970s. The premium consumers put on thinness, which
stemmed from underlying values such as mobility, wealth, and a focus on the self, greatly
contributed to Miller’s success when the brewer launched its Lite beer. However, a decade
earlier, when Gablinger’s introduced a similar low-cal beer in the 1960s, the product failed.
C H A P T E R 1 4 Cultural Influences on Consumer Behaviour 411
This beverage was “ahead of its time” because North American beer drinkers during that
era (who were almost all men) weren’t worried about cutting down on calories.
The relationship between consumer behaviour and culture is a two-way street. On
the one hand, products and services that resonate with the priorities of a culture at any
given time have a much better chance of being accepted by consumers. On the other,
the study of new products and innovations in product design successfully produced
by a culture at any point in time provides a window into the dominant cultural ideals
of that period. Consider, for example, some of the following products that reflect
underlying cultural processes at the time they were introduced:
• The TV dinner, which hinted at changes in family structure
• Cosmetics made of natural materials that are not animal-tested, which reflected
consumers’ apprehensions about pollution, waste, and animal rights
• Condoms marketed in pastel carrying cases for female buyers, which signalled
changes in attitudes toward sexual responsibility and frankness
Aspects of Culture
Culture is not static. It is continuously evolving and synthesizing old ideas with new
ones. A cultural system consists of three functional areas:1
1. Ecology is the way in which a system is adapted to its habitat. This area is shaped
by the technology used to obtain and distribute resources (e.g., in industrialized
societies versus developing countries). The Japanese, for example, greatly value
products that are designed for efficient use of space because of the cramped condi-
tions in that island nation.2
2. Social structure is the way in which orderly social life is maintained. This area
includes the domestic and political groups dominant within the culture (e.g., the
nuclear family versus the extended family).
3. Ideology refers to the mental characteristics of a people and the way in which they
relate to their environment and social groups. This area revolves around the belief
that members of a society possess a common world view; that is, they share cer-
tain ideas about principles of order and fairness. They also share an ethos, or a set
of moral and aesthetic principles.
FACTORS THAT DIFFER ACROSS CULTURES

This section will highlight some key variables that tend to differ across cultures: val-
ues and norms, myths and rituals, and language. As we will see, understanding these
can be very important for marketers.
Values and Norms CO 2
VA LUE S
One key cultural dimension that distinguishes cultures is the values thought to be
important in a given culture. As we noted in Chapter 6, values refer to shared beliefs
shaped by individual, social, and cultural forces. Many values are universal. Most cul-
tures value family, health, happiness, and wisdom. What sets cultures apart is which
values are seen as being relatively more important—that is, which ones are more heav-
ily emphasized. An implication of this is that a marketing message that is appealing in
one culture might not be so appealing in another. For example, one study found that
North Americans have more favourable attitudes toward advertising messages that
focus on self-reliance, self-improvement, and the achievement of personal goals, as
opposed to messages stressing family integrity, collective goals, and the feeling of
harmony with others. Korean consumers exhibited the reverse pattern.3
This advertisement from Molson appeals to

values that are important to Canadians,
such as family, community, and
the outdoors.
Courtesy of Molson Coors Canada
Each culture is characterized in terms of its members’ endorsement of a value

system. Every individual within a given culture may not endorse these values
equally, but it is usually possible to identify a general set of core values in a culture.
American culture is often characterized by such core values as freedom, youthful-
ness, achievement, and activity. In contrast, most Japanese are happy to trade off a bit
of independence for security and a feeling of safety—especially when it comes to their
children. It’s common in Japan for communities to post guards along school routes and
for parents to place global positioning system (GPS) devices and safety buzzers in their
kids’ backpacks. Numerous indoor parks in Japan offer highly secure environments
to ease parents’ minds. A typical one, called the Fantasy Kids Resort, has uniformed
monitors, security cameras, and antibacterial sand. Visitors spray their stroller wheels
with antiseptic soap, and guards require identification from visitors before they are
admitted.4 Despite living under enormous stress and deprivation after the 2011 earth-
quake and tsunami, thousands of Japanese who were marooned in public shelters still
found ways to maintain order and hygiene to the extent possible.5
These differences in values often explain why marketing efforts that are a big hit
in one country can flop in another. In one example of this, Pepsodent tried to sell its
toothpaste in Southeast Asia by emphasizing that it “whitens your teeth.” The market-
ers later discovered that the local natives chew betel nuts to blacken their teeth, which
they find attractive.
One of the most widely used measures of cross-cultural values is an instrument
developed by Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher,6 that scores a country in terms of its
standing on five dimensions so that users can compare and contrast values (http://
geert-hofstede.com/national-culture.html):7
1. Power distance: The extent to which the less powerful members of organizations
and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed
unequally. High-power-distance countries tend to have a greater degree of inequal-
ity in society and organizations, while lower-power-distance countries tend to
have more equality. Some cultures (e.g., Japan) emphasize strict, vertical relation-
ships (i.e., higher power distance), while others, like Canada, stress a greater
degree of equality and informality (i.e., lower power distance).
2. Uncertainty avoidance: A society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. High-
uncertainty-avoidance cultures tend to dislike and avoid uncertain, novel, or
unusual situations. Low-uncertainty-avoidance cultures are more open to uncer-
tain events and outcomes. Japan, Arab countries, and some South and Central
American countries (such as Chile, Uruguay, and Guatemala) are relatively high
in uncertainty avoidance; Singapore, Vietnam, and Malaysia are relatively low.
3. Masculinity/femininity: The degree to which gender roles are clearly delineated:
Traditional societies are more likely to possess very explicit rules about the
acceptable behaviours of men and women, such as who is responsible for certain
tasks within the family unit. Highly masculine countries tend to value traits such
as assertiveness, dominance, and competition, and segregate gender roles. Femi-
nine cultures tend to value modesty, caring, and compassion, and show less dif-
ferentiation between the gender roles. Japan and South Africa are relatively high
in masculinity, while the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden are relatively high in
femininity.
4. Individualism/collectivism: The extent to which the welfare of the individual ver-
sus that of the group is valued. In a collectivist culture people subordinate their
personal goals to those of a stable in-group. In contrast, consumers in an individu-
alist culture attach more importance to personal goals, and people are more likely
to change memberships when the demands of the group (workplace, church, etc.)
become too costly. Whereas a collectivist society will stress such values as self-
discipline and accepting one’s position in life, people in an individualist culture
emphasize personal enjoyment, excitement, equality, and freedom. Some strongly
individualist cultures are Canada, the United States, Australia, Great Britain, and
the Netherlands. Venezuela, Pakistan, Taiwan, Thailand, Indonesia, and Portugal
are examples of strongly collectivist cultures.8
5. Long-term orientation: Long-term orientation tends to foster an orientation toward
future rewards, such as perseverance and thrift. Short-term orientation, on the
other hand, values virtues related to the past and present, including respect for
tradition, preservation of “face,” and fulfilling social obligations. Germany, South
Korea, and Japan are countries with a relatively strong long-term orientation.
African countries such as Egypt, Ghana, Morocco, and Nigeria tend to have a more
short-term orientation.
6. Indulgence versus restraint: This value, the newest addition to Hofstede’s list, is the
extent to which a society allows relatively free gratification of natural human drives
related to enjoying life and having fun. A culture high on restraint suppresses grati-
fication of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
These dimensions are useful to marketers who want to understand how members
of specific cultures may respond quite differently even though they encounter the
same situations or marketing messages. For example, researchers found that there is a
lower level of prosocial behaviour, such as donating to charities, in countries charac-
terized by lower power distance. They argue that because people expect and accept
greater levels of inequality among citizens, they don’t feel as much responsibility to
help others.9
NO R MS
Values are very general ideas about good and bad goals. From these flow norms, or rules
dictating what is right or wrong, acceptable or unacceptable. Some norms, called
enacted norms, such as the rule that a green traffic light means “go” and a red one
means “stop,” are explicitly decided upon. Many norms, however, are much more sub-
tle. These crescive norms are embedded in a culture, and discovered only through
interaction with other members of that culture. Crescive norms include the following:10
• A custom is a norm handed down from the past that controls basic behaviours,
such as division of labour in a household or the practice of particular ceremonies.
• A more is a custom with a strong moral overtone. A more often involves a taboo,
or forbidden behaviour, such as incest or cannibalism. Violation of a more often
meets with strong punishment from other members of a society.
• Conventions are norms regarding the conduct of everyday life. These rules deal
with the subtleties of consumer behaviour, including the “correct” way to furnish
one’s house, wear one’s clothes, host a dinner party, and so on.
All three types of crescive norms may operate to completely define a culturally
appropriate behaviour. For example, a more may tell us what kind of food is permissible
to eat. Mores vary across cultures, so a meal of dog might be taboo in Canada, but per-
fectly acceptable in Korea. In addition, while eating a steak is frowned upon by many of
those living in India, this is a perfectly acceptable meal to most North Americans. Cus-
toms dictate the appropriate hour at which the meal should be served. For example, in
Canada it is normal to begin dinner between 5 and 7 p.m., while in Spain it would be
unthinkable to start dinner before 9 p.m. Conventions tell us how to eat, including such
details as the utensils to be used, table etiquette, and the appropriate apparel to be worn
at dinnertime. In Canada it is common to eat dinner with a knife and fork, in Japan it is
common to use chopsticks, and in Morocco it is common to eat with one’s fingers (and
only those of your right hand!).
We often take these conventions for granted (again, until we travel to a foreign
country), assuming that they are the “right” things to do. And it is good to remember
that much of what we know about these norms is learned vicariously (see Chapter 3) as
we observe the behaviours of actors and actresses in TV commercials, sitcoms, print
ads, and other popular-culture media.
Given the sizable variations in tastes within Canada alone, it is hardly surprising
that people around the world have developed their own unique norms and prefer-
ences. For example, Europeans favour dark chocolate over milk chocolate, which they
regard as suitable only for children. Sara Lee sells its pound cake with chocolate chips
in the United States, with raisins in Australia, and with coconut in Hong Kong. Whisky
is considered a “classy” drink in France and Italy, but not in England. Crocodile bags
are popular in Asia and Europe, but not in the United States. Americans’ favourite tie
colours are red and blue, while the Japanese prefer olive brown.
Our food preferences say a lot about us, and many of our likes and dislikes are
learned responses to dishes that people who matter to us value—or don’t value. Saudis
consider sheep eyeballs a delicacy, whereas the Chinese prize a good snake dish.
People in Spain and Portugal consume 10 times the amount of fresh fish as those
in Austria or the United Kingdom, and the consumption of pork in Denmark is about
10 times that in France. Not surprisingly, the Irish eat a lot of potatoes—but not as
many as the Greeks. In contrast, Italians avoid the tuber; instead they consume
approximately four times more pasta per person than the Swiss, who are the second
most avid spaghetti eaters.11
A food culture is a pattern of food and beverage consumption that reflects the val-
ues of a social group. Because these patterns vary so dramatically, food companies
often find it rough going when they try to standardize their recipes. Sometimes these
preferences are based on tastes and tradition, but in other cases people in other coun-
tries differ in terms of their focus on health. In China, Cadbury Schweppes makes its
Cadbury milk chocolate less milky and less sweet than in the United Kingdom to suit
the low-dairy diet of most Chinese consumers, whereas Kraft adds calcium to the Ritz
crackers it sells in China to underscore the Chinese government’s focus on promoting
the need for consumers to get more calcium. Unilever actually had to reduce the size
of its Magnum chocolate-covered ice cream bars sold in China because consumers
there are more health-conscious than Europeans and resisted the bigger bar.
Marketers have to be aware of a culture’s values and norms regarding such sensi-
tive topics as taboos. Opals signify bad luck to the British, while hunting-dog or pig
emblems are offensive to Muslims. The Japanese are superstitious about the number
four. Shi, the word for four, is also the word for death. For this reason Tiffany sells
glassware and china in sets of five in Japan.
The consequences of ignoring cultural sensitivities can be costly. As an example,
consider problems a prominent multinational company such as McDonald’s encoun-
ters as it expanded globally—even though the iconic American chain’s worldwide
operations are far bigger than its domestic business:
• During the 1994 soccer World Cup, the fast-food giant reprinted the Saudi Arabian
flag, which includes sacred words from the Koran, on disposable packaging it
used in promotions. Muslims around the world protested this borrowing of sacred
imagery, and the company had to scramble to correct its mistake.
• In 2002, McDonald’s agreed to donate $10 million to Hindu and other groups as
partial settlement of litigation involving its mislabelling of french fries and hash
browns as vegetarian (it cooked them in oil tainted with meat residue).
• Also in 2002, the company abruptly cancelled its plans to introduce its new
McAfrika sandwich in its Norwegian restaurants. The CEO of McDonald’s in
Norway acknowledged on national television that introducing this menu item at
a time of growing famine in Africa was “coincidental and unfortunate.”
• In India, the company doesn’t sell any of its famous beef hamburgers. Instead, it
offers customized entrees such as a Pizza McPuff, McAloo Tikki (a spiced-potato
burger), Paneer Salsa McWrap, and even a Crispy Chinese burger to capitalize on
the great popularity of Chinese food in India. It makes its mayonnaise without
eggs, and all stores maintain separate kitchen sections for vegetarian and nonveg-
etarian dishes. Workers from the nonvegetarian section must shower before they
cross over to the other area.
• A McDonald’s ad in France created a stir because it featured the French hero
Asterix and his merry band of warriors eating in the restaurant (the character has
been the topic of numerous movies and an Asterix theme park is very popular).
Although the spot deliberately did not show the characters cramming burgers or
fries, some French bloggers were not amused.12
Myths and Rituals CO 3

Every culture develops stories and practices that help its members make sense of the
world. When we examine these activities in other cultures, they often seem strange or
even unfathomable. Yet our own cultural practices appear quite normal—even though
a visitor might find them equally bizarre.
To appreciate how “primitive” belief systems that some may consider irrational or
superstitious continue to influence our supposedly “modern,” rational society, consider
the avid interest of many consumers in magic. Marketers of health foods, anti-aging cos-
metics, exercise programs, and casinos often imply that their offerings have “magical”
properties that will ward off sickness, old age, poverty, or just plain bad luck. People by
the millions play their “lucky numbers” in the lottery and carry rabbits’ feet and other
amulets to ward off “the evil eye,” and many have “lucky” clothing or other items they
believe will bring them good fortune. Software developers even supply “wizards” that
help to guide the uninitiated through the arcane layers of their programs!
When the calendar hit July 7, 2007—7/7/07—many people scrambled to take
advantage of its link to lucky 777. Our culture associates the number seven with good
fortune (like the seven sacraments in Roman Catholicism), and marketers from
Walmart to Las Vegas casinos jumped on the bandwagon. The Mandalay Bay Casino
hosted a group wedding for more than 100 couples. The New York City Ritz-Carlton
even offered a Lucky Number 7 wedding package with a reception for 77, a seven-tier
wedding cake, and a seven-night honeymoon at any Ritz in the world for $77 777.13
These beliefs being culture-centric, they take on different forms around the world.
For example, in China eight is the luckiest number. The Chinese word for eight is ba,
which rhymes with fa, the Chinese character for wealth. It’s no coincidence that the
Summer Olympics in Beijing opened on 8/8/08 at 8 p.m.14
Let’s now go into more detail about myths and rituals, two aspects of culture com-
mon to all societies, from the ancients to the modern world.
M YTH S
Every society possesses a set of myths that define that culture. A myth is a story con-
taining symbolic elements that expresses the shared emotions and ideals of a culture.
The story often features some kind of conflict between two opposing forces, and its
outcome serves as a moral guide for people. In this way, a myth reduces anxiety by
providing consumers with guidelines about their world.
Kokanee beer appeals to consumers by

playing on the myth of the sasquatch.
THE CANADIAN PRESS/Jonathan Hayward
Most members of a culture learn these stories, but we usually don’t really think
about their origins. Consider, for example, a story familiar to all of us: Little Red Riding
Hood. This myth started as a peasants’ tale in sixteenth-century France, where a girl
meets a werewolf on her way to granny’s house (there is historical evidence of a plague
of wolf attacks during this time, including several incidents where men were put on
trial for transforming themselves into the deadly but mythical animals). The werewolf
has already killed granny, stored her flesh in the pantry, and poured her blood into a
bottle. Contrary to the version we know, when the girl arrives at the house she snacks
on granny, strips naked, and climbs into bed with the wolf!
This story first appeared in print in 1697; it was intended as a warning to the loose
ladies of Louis XIV’s court (the author puts the story’s lead character in red in this ver-
sion because the colour symbolized harlots). Eventually the Brothers Grimm offered
their own version in 1812, but they substituted violence for sex to scare kids into
behaving. And, to reinforce the sex-role standards of that time, in the Grimm version a
man rescues the girl from the wolf.15
An understanding of cultural myths is important to marketers, who in some cases
(most likely unconsciously) pattern their strategies after mythic structures. Consider,
for example, how a company such as McDonald’s takes on “mythical” qualities.16 The
“golden arches” are a universally recognized symbol, one virtually synonymous with
North American culture. They offer sanctuary to North Americans around the world,
who know exactly what to expect when they enter. Basic struggles involving good
versus evil are played out in the fantasy world created by McDonald’s advertising, as
when Ronald McDonald confounds the Hamburglar. McDonald’s even has a “semi-
nary” (Hamburger University), where inductees go to learn appropriate behaviours.
Corporations often have myths and legends as a part of their history, and some
make a deliberate effort to be sure newcomers to the organization learn them. Nike has
a history of designating senior executives as “corporate storytellers” who explain the
company’s heritage to other employees, including the hourly workers at Nike stores.
They tell stories about the founders of Nike, including the coach of the Oregon track
team who poured rubber into his family waffle iron to make better shoes for his team—
the origin of the Nike waffle sole. The stories emphasize the dedication of runners and
coaches involved with the company to reinforce the importance of teamwork. Rookies
even visit the tracks where the coaches worked to be sure they grasp the importance of
the Nike legends.17
Myths serve the following four interrelated functions in a culture:18
1. Metaphysical: They help to explain the origins of existence.
2. Cosmological: They emphasize that all components of the universe are part of a
single picture.
3. Sociological: They maintain order by authorizing a social code to be followed by
members of a culture.
4. Psychological: They provide models for personal conduct.
Myths can be analyzed by examining their underlying structures, a technique pio-
neered by the anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (no relation to the blue jeans com-
pany). Lévi-Strauss noted that many stories involve binary opposition, in which two
opposing ends of some dimension are represented (good versus evil or nature versus
technology).
MYTHS IN POPULAR CULTURE Although we generally equate myths with the ancient
Greeks or Romans, modern myths are embodied in many aspects of popular culture,
including comic books, movies, holidays, and, yes, even commercials. And research-
ers report that some people create their own consumer fairy tales; they tell stories that
include magical agents, donors, and helpers to overcome villains and obstacles as they
seek out goods and services in their quest for happy endings.19
Smart marketers are more than happy to help us live out these fairy tales. Consider
the popularity of the elaborate weddings Disney stages for couples who want to reenact
their own version of a popular myth: At Disney World, the princess bride wears a tiara
and rides to the park’s lakeside wedding pavilion in a horse-drawn coach, complete
with two footmen in grey wigs and gold lamé pants. At the exchange of vows, trumpets
blare as Major Domo (he helped the Duke in his quest to find Cinderella) walks up the
aisle with two wedding bands he gently places in a glass slipper on a velvet pillow.
Disney stages about 2000 of these extravaganzas every year. The company continues to
expand the appeal of this myth as it moves into the bridal gown business. It sells a line
of billowing princess gowns complete with crystal tiaras. Fairy-tale brides can walk
down the aisle costumed as Cinderella, Snow White, Belle, Sleeping Beauty, Jasmine,
or Ariel.20
Comic-book superheroes demonstrate how myths can be communicated to con-
sumers of all ages to teach a lesson about a culture. For example, Marvel Comics’
Spider-Man character tells stories about balancing the obligations of being a super-
hero with the need of his alter ego, Peter Parker, to do his homework. 21 Indeed,
some of these fictional figures represent a monomyth—a myth that is common to
many cultures.22 The most prevalent monomyth involves a hero who emerges from
the everyday world with supernatural powers and wins a decisive victory over evil
forces. He then returns with the power to bestow good things on his fellow people.
Rituals can include simple, repeated ways of

doing things, such the traditional way of
pouring a pint of beer.
Oli Scarff/Getty Images
CO 4 R IT U A L S
A ritual is a set of symbolic behaviours that occur in a fixed sequence and that
Tea for Two tend to be repeated periodically. 23 Although bizarre tribal ceremonies, perhaps
involving animal or virgin sacrifice, may come to mind when people think of ritu-
als, in reality many contemporary consumer activities are ritualistic. Interestingly,
researchers find that when people consume products like chocolate as part of a
ritual, they report that they enjoy them more than when they eat them without
such context.24
Rituals can occur at a variety of levels, as noted in Table 14–1. Some affirm
broad cultural or religious values, while others occur in small groups or even in
isolation. And rituals are not always set in stone; they can be modified to change
TABLE 14–1
Types of Ritual Experience

Primary Behaviour Source Ritual Type Examples
Cosmology Religious Baptism, meditation, mass
Cultural values Rites of passage Graduation, marriage
Cultural Festivals, holidays (Valentine’s Day)
Civic Parades, elections, trials
Group learning Group Business negotiations, office luncheons
Family Mealtimes, bedtimes, birthdays, Mother’s

Day, Christmas
Individual aims and emotions Personal Grooming, household rituals
Source: Dennis W. Rook, “The Ritual Dimension of Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research 12 (December 1985): 251–264. Reprinted
with permission of The University of Chicago Press.
with the times. A wedding ceremony is one of our most familiar rituals. If you’ve
ever planned or participated in a wedding, you’ll know that the many scripted
activities are serious stuff. They’re expensive, too: Canadians spend billions of dol-
lars a year on weddings, more than we spend on pets, coffee, toothpaste, and toilet
paper combined. The massive wedding industry continues to find new ways for
consumers to compete in their own potlatch ceremonies (see Chapter 12) to offer the
most lavish or novel attractions. Destination weddings, online gift registries, save-
the-date cards, chocolate fountains; you name it and someone will have it. A com-
pany called Anybots even rents robots to guests who can’t attend; the mechanical
wedding crashers boogie with the crowd and allow the absent revellers to videocon-
ference during the event. As we’ll see shortly, some rituals symbolize a transition
from one status to another. Certainly weddings do that, as two single people now
become a unit. Many parts of the ritual script hold great meaning, even if most of us
today don’t remember the original symbolism:25
• Giving away the bride: Years ago it was common for fathers to use daughters as
currency to pay off a debt or to appease a member of a more powerful tribe. The
bride wore a veil so that the payee would not refuse her as payment in case she
turned out to be less attractive than he desired.
• The best man: His original job was to stand next to the couple to be sure the bride
wasn’t kidnapped during the ceremony. He was chosen because he was “best”
with his sword. As well, bridesmaids were instructed to dress similarly to the
bride to confuse potential kidnappers and evil spirits.
• The tossing of the garter: At one time the bride and groom were expected to con-
clude the marriage ceremony and retire immediately to a nearby room to “close
the deal.” In order to make the consummation official, witnesses would crowd
around the nuptial bed and hope to grab a lucky piece of the bride’s gown as it
was ripped from her body. Over time, modesty prevailed and the guests had to Marketing
settle for a symbolic piece of her undergarments.
Insight
• Throwing rice: Rice is a symbol of fertility; this action is supposed to encour-
age the newlyweds to get busy and start producing offspring. More recently, Perhaps one of the most successful and suc-
many couples have replaced rice with butterflies or other items because of the cessfully exported ritual artifacts is the dia-
mond ring for engagements and weddings.
false rumour that birds who eat the rice will die when it expands in their
Until 1993, there was no such thing as a dia-
stomachs.
mond wedding band or engagement ring in
Many businesses owe their livelihood to their ability to supply ritual artifacts— China. Then, with the slogan Zuan shi heng jiu
items used in the performance of rituals—to consumers. Birthday candles, diplomas, yuan, yi ke yong liu chuan (loosely, “Diamonds
specialized foods and beverages (wedding cakes, ceremonial wine, or even hot dogs are forever, one piece will pass on from genera-
at the ballpark), trophies and plaques, band costumes, and retirement watches are all tion to generation”), retail sales of diamonds in
used in consumer rituals. In addition, consumers often employ ritual scripts that China skyrocketed. The Chinese have become
identify the artifacts, the sequence in which they are used, and who uses them. convinced that the jewellery purchase is a form
Examples include graduation programs and etiquette books. of saving and are now spending an average of
A study conducted by the BBDO Worldwide advertising agency illustrates the $600 on wedding diamonds.26 One marketing
close relationship between brands and rituals. It labels items we use to perform our campaign has done an excellent job in altering
perceptions of rituals around diamond rings. In
rituals fortress brands because once they become embedded in our ceremonies—
most cultures, it is typical for a male to buy a
whether we use them to brush our teeth, drink a beer, or shave—we’re unlikely to
female a diamond ring. As De Beers realized,
replace them. The study ran in 26 countries, and the researchers found that, over-
however, marketing only to males ignores an
all, people worldwide practise roughly the same consumer rituals. The agency
untapped half of the market—females. De
claims that 89 percent of people always use the same brands in their sequenced
Beers promoted the idea of the “right-hand
rituals; three out of four are disappointed or irritated when something disrupts
ring,” which was targeted at the financially
their ritual or their brand of choice isn’t available. For example, the report identi- well-off single woman, who could buy a ring for
fies one common ritual category it calls preparing for battle. For most of us this herself as a symbol of self-respect and inde-
means getting ready for work. Relevant rituals include brushing the teeth, taking a pendence. As might be expected, the campaign
shower or bath, having something to eat or drink, talking to a family member or was particularly effective in the United States,
partner, checking email, shaving, putting on makeup, watching TV or listening to where independence is an important value.27
the radio, and reading a newspaper.28
G R O O MIN G R ITU ALS

Whether it is brushing your hair 100 strokes a day or talking to yourself in the mirror,
virtually all consumers undergo private grooming rituals, sequences of behaviours
that aid in the transition from the private self to the public self or back again. These
rituals serve various purposes, ranging from inspiring confidence before confronting
the world to cleansing the body of dirt and other profane materials.
When consumers talk about their grooming rituals, some of the dominant themes
that emerge reflect the almost mystical qualities attributed to grooming products and
behaviours. Many people emphasize a before-and-after phenomenon, whereby the
person feels magically transformed after using certain products (similar to the
Cinderella myth).29
Some companies that make personal-care products understand the power of these
rituals and supply the artifacts we need to make them happen. Nair, the depilatory
cream maker, expanded its customer base when it targeted younger girls with its Nair
Pretty product—a market the industry calls “first-time hair removers.” Researchers
conducted focus groups with mothers and their daughters, where they learned that
“When a girl removes hair for the first time, it’s a life-changing moment.” Some of the
respondents actually held hair removal slumber parties, where the moms bought prod-
ucts for the teens to remove their hair. So, instead of focusing on boys or romance, ads
for Nair Pretty suggest that the depilatory cream is a stubble-free path to empower-
ment. “I am a citizen of the world,” reads the ad copy. “I am a dreamer. I am fresh. I am
so not going to have stubs sticking out of my legs.”30
G IF T-G IV IN G R ITU ALS

The promotion of appropriate gifts for every conceivable holiday and occasion pro-
vides an excellent example of the influence consumer rituals can exert on marketing
phenomena. In the gift-giving ritual consumers procure the perfect object (artifact),
meticulously remove the price tag (symbolically changing the item from a commod-
ity to a unique good), carefully wrap it, and deliver it to the recipient.31 In addition,
making gifts or cards further personalizes the gift-exchange process.
Marketing Gift giving is viewed by researchers primarily as a form of economic exchange,
Insight in which the giver transfers an item of value to a recipient, who in turn is obligated
to reciprocate. However, gift giving can also involve symbolic exchange, wherein
It’s no secret that a lot of guys are clueless when
the giver is motivated by unselfish factors, such as love or admiration, and does
it comes to choosing the right gifts for their sig-
not expect anything in return. Some research indicates that gift giving evolves as a
nificant others. Retailers say that while lingerie
form of social expression; it is more exchange-oriented (instrumental) in the early
is one of the most popular Christmas gifts for
women, it’s also most likely to be returned in stages of a relationship but becomes more altruistic as the relationship develops.32
January. The British retailer Marks & Spencer One set of researchers identified multiple ways in which giving a gift can affect
found that only a third of its female customers a relationship.
were happy with the underwear their partners Every culture prescribes certain occasions and ceremonies for giving gifts, whether
bought for them, and only a third of the men cor- for personal or professional reasons. The giving of birthday presents alone is a major
rectly identified their wife or girlfriend’s size or undertaking, and business gifts are an important component in defining professional
favourite colour. Marks & Spencer enlisted its relationships. Expenditures on business gifts are an important part of doing business,
sales force to enlighten male shoppers the and great care is often taken to ensure that the appropriate gifts are purchased (some-
month before Christmas. It deployed salesmen times with the aid of professional gift consultants). Most executives believe that corpo-
(figuring that men would prefer to talk to a man rate gift giving provides both tangible and intangible results, including improved
about such an intimate purchase) who wore employee morale and higher sales.33
purple sashes that say, “Stocking Fella—How The gift-giving ritual has three distinct stages:34
Can I Help?” to counsel the guys. They educate
1. During gestation, the giver is motivated by an event to procure a gift. This event may
the shoppers on buying strategies—such as
be either structural (i.e., prescribed by the culture, as when people buy Christmas
choosing shades like silver or brown, since men
presents) or emergent (i.e., the decision is more personal and idiosyncratic).
typically go straight to red items. Who said
buying a gift is easy?35 2. The second stage is presentation, or the process of gift exchange. The recipient
responds to the gift (appropriately or not), and the donor evaluates this response.
3. In the third stage, known as reformulation, the bonds between the giver and
receiver are adjusted (looser or tighter) to reflect the new relationship that emerges Marketing
after the exchange is complete. Negativity can arise if the recipient feels the gift is
inappropriate or of inferior quality. For example, the hapless husband who gives
Insight
his wife a vacuum cleaner as an anniversary present is asking for trouble, as is the For better or worse, the Web has transformed
new suitor who gives his girlfriend intimate apparel. The donor may feel the the age-old ritual of the buying of wedding
response to the gift was inadequate or insincere, or a violation of the reciprocity gifts. Numerous online gift registries take the
norm, which obliges people to return the gesture of a gift with one of equal guesswork out of buying that perfect toaster for
value.36 Both participants may feel resentful for being “forced” to participate in the new couple. These sites collect a referral
the ritual.37 fee from a retailer if a purchase is made.42
Although registries have been around since
In addition to expressing their feelings toward others through consumption,
the early 1930s, they used to be more subtle.
people commonly find (or devise) reasons to give themselves something as well. It is Competition for the matrimonial market is
common for consumers to purchase self-gifts as a way to regulate their own behav- fierce, so registry sites are scrambling to offer
iour. This ritual provides a socially acceptable way of rewarding themselves for good new incentives that will engage the engaged.
deeds, consoling themselves after negative events, or motivating themselves to At www.theknot.com the couple can even
accomplish some goal.38 Indeed, retailers report that it is becoming increasingly subsidize their honeymoon airfare: They earn
common for people to treat themselves while they are ostensibly searching for good- frequent-flyer points for every dollar their guests
ies for others. As one shopper admitted, “It’s one for them, one for me, one for spend on them. At www.weddingchannel.com,
them.”39 the lucky couple can create a personal wedding
page where they post directions and pictures,
CULTURA L DIFF E R E N C E S IN GIF T G IV IN G plan toasts and seating arrangements, and tell
stories about how they met. Guests pull updated
Not surprisingly, gift-giving rituals differ across cultures. Consider Japanese culture,
versions of a gift registry and purchase from
wherein the wrapping of a gift is as important as (if not more so than) the gift itself.
retailers directly through the website. The Wed-
The economic value of a gift is secondary to its symbolic meaning.40 To the Japanese,
ding Channel hopes to track its customers
gifts are viewed as an important aspect of one’s duty to others in one’s social group. (assuming they stay married) and create regis-
Giving is a moral imperative (known as giri). tries as they celebrate anniversaries and the
Highly ritualized gift giving occurs during the giving of both household/per- arrival of babies. One of the site’s executives
sonal gifts and company/professional gifts. Every Japanese person has a well-defined says, “Once I have you, unless you stop me, you
set of relatives and friends (usually 15 to 20) with whom he or she shares reciprocal are a demographic dream.”43
gift-giving obligations (kosai).41 Japanese tourists to Prince Edward Island, Banff, The proliferation of these registries is
Whistler, and Victoria are serviced by stores opened and operated by Japanese understandable, given that this business takes
nationals. It is not uncommon for tourists to purchase five to ten of the same items to in over US$19 billion a year. The average wed-
take home to Japan. ding party includes 12 people plus 150 guests.
Personal gifts are given in Japan on social occasions, such as funerals, to people On average, the bride and groom register for
who are hospitalized, to mark movements from one life stage to another (e.g., wed- more than 50 products and receive an average
dings and birthdays), and as greetings (e.g., when one is meeting a visitor). Com- of 171 wedding gifts.44 About half of couples
pany gifts are given to commemorate the anniversary of a corporation’s founding or register at a place where they’ve never shopped
the opening of a new building, and they are a routine part of doing business, as before, giving retailers a new customer base.
when rewards are given at trade meetings to announce new products. In keeping According to the publisher of the magazine
with the Japanese emphasis on saving face, though, presents are not opened in front Brides, “If you can hook this consumer when
of the giver, so that it will not be necessary to hide one’s possible disappointment she is in this life stage, you will fundamentally
with the present. brand her for life.” Wedding registries continue
to evolve; some couples have become so brazen
that they are requesting specific shares of stock
R E G I F TING THE U N WA N T E D (at www.oneshare.com), contributions to fund
It is estimated that the Brits waste about $5 billion a year on unwanted Christmas gifts, an around-the-world trip, or even mortgage
and that about one-third of these gifts end up being sold online, while 40 percent of payments on that new dream house.
them gather dust in the closet.45 These gifts and the remainder may end up being Of course, there are downsides to this new
regifted. Regifting—a word whose derivation has been traced to a 1995 Seinfeld epi- efficiency: Because the wedding couple speci-
sode—is emerging from the closet.46 Economic stressors and the desire to recycle are fies exactly what they want in advance, the
motivating the practice of passing things along. There are certain guidelines to regift- giver doesn’t really have to know very much
ing that must be adhered to, though: (1) Never regift something that has been used, about the recipients. Part of gift giving should
(2) remove all traces of the original wrapping before rewrapping, and (3) (this is key!) (continued on next page)
never return a gift to the person who gave it to you.
Path/File name Colour Space Effective PPi Path/File name Colour Space Effective PPi
TREEBigFinAL.PSD RgB 576 PPi
CP_PARCEL_Eng_BAR.Ai
CP_E_4C.Ai
news
t:10.34”
Canada Post links its brand to the widely

celebrated ritual of gift giving at Christmas.
Image courtesy of Canada Post Corporation. Used with
permission.
t:15.714”
There are millions of Canadians on our list.
In fact we’ll be delivering over one million parcels on many days in the weeks leading
up to Christmas. That’s more than anyone. We’ll deliver your purchases right to you
or to one of our 6,400 locations, with special weekend deliveries for the holiday season.
It’s our way of helping, in this busy time of year. Happy holidays from Canada Post.
Delivering the online world

TM
Now with Seasonal Weekend Deliveries. canadapost.ca/holiday
TM
Trademark of Canada Post Corporation.
CPC_130136P_MP_G.indd 1 11/28/13 2:39 PM
PRODuCTiOn nOTES
DO nOT PRinT
H O L ID AY R ITU ALS
APPROVALS BY DATE
LinkED TO SuPPLiED
Studio
Client: Canada Post Art Director: John Finn
Project: Million ParCels BlaCk Friday/CyBer Monday Copywriter: none Type Mgr.
On holidays, consumers step back from their everyday lives and perform ritualistic
Docket: CPC_13_0136_P Print Mgr: Pat MCkeen
Client Code: Proofreader
none Client Serv: elysia ravensCroFt
Built At: 100% Output At: 100% Colour: 4C Print Mgr. Title: there are Millions oF Canadians on our list.
Scale: 1” = 1” Fonts: tt slug otF, Frutiger lt std Pubs: Calgary herald, national Post, ottawa Citizen
behaviours unique to those times.47 Holiday occasions are filled with ritual artifacts
V.O.: 10.34” x 15.714” Trim: 10.34” x 15.714” Art Director
Safety: none Bleed: none
Copywriter
Region/Layer Code:
Date: 11-26-2013 1:09 PM Creative Dir.
and scripts and are increasingly cast by enterprising marketers as times for giving
Artist: Betty laM AD nuMBER/COMPOnEnT:
CPC_130136P_MP_g typesetting: optic nerve
This advertisement prepared by PuBLiCiS
LASER%
Acct. Mgmt.
none Client REVs PDF
gifts. The Thanksgiving holiday is filled with rituals; these0 scripts

Cyan, Magenta, yellow, BlaCk 1 include serving DuE DATE: nOV 29
(continued )
foods such as turkey and cranberry sauce that may be consumed only on that day and
be developing or reinforcing a symbolic rela-
complaints about how much one has eaten.
tionship, but now the process is much more
In addition to established holidays, new occasions are invented to capitalize on
automated. As one etiquette expert disdainfully
the need for cards and other ritual artifacts that will then have to be acquired.48 These
points out, in the old days people were sup-
cultural events often originate with the greeting-card industry, which conveniently
posed to be “zealous with creativity” when
stimulates demand for more of its products. Some recently invented holidays include
selecting a gift. “Now, it’s just gimme, gimme,
gimme with a dollar amount attached.” And in Secretaries’ Day and Grandparents’ Day.
many cases the registry is listed on the invita- Most cultural holidays are based on myths, and often real or imaginary characters
tion itself—a social no-no.49 Registries also (e.g., Cupid on Valentine’s Day) are at the centre of the stories. These holidays persist
eliminate the likelihood of getting homemade because their basic elements appeal to consumers’ deep-seated needs.50 Three of our
or creative gifts. holidays that are especially rich, both in cultural symbolism and in consumption
meanings, are Christmas, Halloween, and Valentine’s Day.
Bridal Fantasy magazine keeps consumers

up to date on the trendiest wedding rituals.
Bridal Fantasy Magazine, www.bridalfantasy.com,
Spring & Summer 2015; Photography: Romy Young
Studios; Model: Karin Pedersen
Fresh Blooming
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Wedding
17
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The Christmas holiday is bursting with myths and rituals, from adventures at the
North Pole to those that occur under the mistletoe. The meaning of Christmas has
evolved dramatically over the last few hundred years. Few Canadians know that Box-
ing Day is derived from old England, where the rich “boxed” their leftovers for the
poor the day after Christmas. One of the most important holiday rituals involves
Santa Claus, a mythical figure eagerly awaited by children the world over. In opposi-
tion to Christ, Santa is a champion of materialism. Perhaps it is no coincidence, then,
that he appears in stores and shopping malls—secular temples of consumption.
Whatever his origins, the Santa Claus myth serves the purpose of socializing children
by teaching them to expect rewards when they are good and that members of society
get what they deserve.
Halloween is a holiday that has evolved from a pagan religious observance to a
secular event. However, in contrast to Christmas, the rituals of Halloween (e.g., trick-
or-treating and costume parties) primarily involve non-family-members. It is an
unusual holiday, because its rituals are the opposite of those of many other cultural
occasions. Contrasting with Christmas, it celebrates evil instead of good and death
rather than birth, and it encourages revellers to extort treats with veiled threats of
“tricks” rather than rewarding only the good. Because of these oppositions, Halloween
has been described as an antifestival in which the symbols associated with other
holidays are distorted. For example, the Halloween witch might be viewed as an
This advertisement from Domino’s Pizza

links the product to a well-known holiday
ritual.
Courtesy of Domino’s Pizza Group PLC
inverted mother figure. The holiday also parodies the meaning of Easter, by stressing
the resurrection of ghosts, and of Thanksgiving, by transforming the wholesome
symbolism of the pumpkin pie into the evil jack-o-lantern.51 Furthermore, Halloween
provides a ritualized, and therefore socially sanctioned, context in which people can
act out uncharacteristic behaviours and try on new roles: Children can go outside after
dark, stay up late, and eat all the candy they like for a night. Halloween observances
among adults are booming, changing the character of this holiday. Halloween is now
the second most popular party night for adults (after New Year’s Eve), and one in four
grown-ups wears a costume.52
On Valentine’s Day, we relax our standards about sex and love and express feel-
ings we may hide during the rest of the year. (In Japan, it’s the women who send gifts
Marketing to the men.) A study that investigated Valentine’s Day rituals explored how marketing
Insight communications help to shape the holiday. The authors identified five familiar classes
of rituals:
The Chinese e-commerce giant Alibaba single- 1. Exchanging gifts and cards
handedly turned a minor holiday into a block- 2. Showing affection
buster sales event. Traditionally, unmarried
Chinese men gathered together each year on 3. Going out
November 11 to lament their single status on 4. Preparing and consuming food and drink
what was called Bachelors’ Day. They chose 5. Special attention to grooming and clothing
this date because the calendar shows it as
Many of their informants (primarily men) understood the holiday as an obliga-
11.11—four singles. Alibaba decided to turn
tory occasion for them to buy their partners expensive, “romantic” gifts. One guy
this day into an excuse for shopping, and, in
2009, it began to promote Singles’ Day. By posted this warning: “If you want her happy always remember: The gift has to shine
2014, this “anti-Valentine’s Day” surpassed or smell [good] or she should be able to wear it! Otherwise, you’re doomed.” Some
Black Friday as the most lucrative online shop- informants expressed negative associations with the holiday, including painful emo-
ping day. The company racked up $9 billion in tions because of broken relationships (or a lack of relationships altogether) and aver-
sales in a 24-hour period. That’s a lot of lonely sion to the “forced” consumption and artificial displays of affection the day requires.
bachelors.54 But, as much as some of us may grumble about it, this holiday ritual is too powerful
to ignore.53
R I TE S OF PA S S A GE
What does a dance for recently divorced people have in common with a fraternity Hell
Week? Both are modern rites of passage—rituals we perform to mark a change in
social status. Every society, both primitive and modern, sets aside times where such
changes occur. Some of these changes may occur as a natural part of consumers’ life
cycles (e.g., puberty or death), while others are more individual in nature (getting
divorced and reentering the dating market).
Much like the metamorphosis of a caterpillar into a butterfly, consumers’ rites of
passage consist of three phases.55 The first stage, separation, occurs when the indi-
vidual is detached from his or her original group or status (e.g., the university student
leaves home). Liminality is the middle stage, in which the person is literally between
statuses (the new arrival on campus tries to figure out what is happening during orien-
tation week). The last stage, aggregation, takes place when the person reenters society
after the rite of passage is complete (the student returns home for summer vacation as
a university “veteran”).
Rites of passage mark many consumer activities. A similar transitional state can
be observed when people are prepared for certain occupational roles. For example,
athletes and fashion models typically undergo a “seasoning” process. They are
removed from their normal surroundings (athletes are taken to training camps while
young models are often moved to Paris), indoctrinated into a new subculture, and then
returned to the real world in their new role.
This advertisement from M&M’S promotes

occasion usage related to Halloween rituals.
Courtesy of Mars, Incorporated and its affiliates c/o BBDO
Düsseldorf GmbH. M&M’S® is a trademark of Mars,
Incorporated and its affiliates.
CO 5 Sacred and Profane Consumption

Nike had to pull a new line of Pro Tattoo Tech Gear clothing for women after the news
came out that the graphics it used came from a sacred Samoan tattoo that only men
wear. Consumers started a Change.org petition online and bombarded the brand’s
Facebook page with negative comments.56
As we saw when considering the structure of myths, many types of consumer
activity involve the demarcation, or binary opposition, of boundaries, such as good
versus evil, male versus female, or even regular versus low-calorie. One of the most
important of these sets of boundaries is the distinction between the sacred and the
profane. Sacred consumption involves objects and events that are set apart from nor-
mal activities and are treated with some degree of respect or awe. They may or may
not be associated with religion, but most religious items and events tend to be regarded
as sacred. Profane consumption involves consumer objects and events that are ordi-
nary, everyday objects and events that do not share the “specialness” of sacred ones.
(Note that profane does not mean vulgar or obscene in this context.)
S acraliz ation
Sacralization occurs when ordinary objects, events, and people take on sacred
meaning to a culture or to specific groups within a culture. For example, events such
as the Stanley Cup Finals and people such as Elvis Presley have become sacralized
for some consumers.
Objectification occurs when sacred qualities are attributed to mundane items. One
way that this process can occur is through contamination, in which objects associated
with sacred events or people become sacred in their own right. This explains the
desire by many fans for items belonging to, or even touched by, famous people.
In addition to museum exhibits displaying rare objects, even mundane, inexpen-
sive things may be set apart in collections, where they are transformed from profane
items into sacred ones. An item is sacralized as soon as it enters a collection, and it
takes on a special significance to the collector that in some cases may be difficult for an
outsider to comprehend.
The contents of collections range from movie memorabilia, rare books, and auto-
graphs to Barbie dolls, Beatles memorabilia, and junk mail.57 Consumers are often
ferociously attached to their collections. This passion is exemplified by the comment
made in one study by a woman who collects teddy bears: “If my house ever burns
down, I won’t cry over my furniture, I’ll cry over the bears.”58 Collecting refers to the
systematic acquisition of a particular object or set of objects, and this widespread
activity can be distinguished from hoarding, which is merely unsystematic collect-
ing.59 Collecting typically involves both rational and emotional components, since
collectors are frequently transfixed by their objects while also carefully organizing and
exhibiting them.60
Sacred consumption events permeate many aspects of consumers’ experiences.
We find ways to set apart a variety of places, people, and events. In this section we’ll
consider some examples of ways that “ordinary” consumption is sometimes not so
ordinary after all.
SACRED PLACES Sacred places have been set apart by a society because they have
religious or mystical significance (Bethlehem, Mecca, Stonehenge) or because they
commemorate some aspect of a country’s heritage (the Kremlin, the Imperial Palace in
Tokyo, the Statue of Liberty). Remember that in many cases the sacredness of these
places is due to the property of contamination; that is, something sacred happened on
that spot, so the place itself takes on sacred qualities.
Still other places are created from the profane world and imbued with sacred qual-
ities. Grauman’s Chinese Theatre in Hollywood, where movie stars leave their foot-
prints in concrete for posterity, is one such place. Even the modern shopping mall can
be regarded as a secular “cathedral of consumption,” a special place where community
As I See It
Culture plays a powerful role reactions to a crowded retail environment. After watching the
in shaping consumer behav- same video of a crowded retailer, Canadian consumers who
iour. Not only does it influ- imagined entering the retail space reported perceiving lower lev-
ence the types of products els of personal space, privacy, and freedom of movement than
that we buy and how we con- Lebanese consumers. Asked to guess the number of people in
sume and dispose of these the retail setting, Canadian consumers again reported a higher
Courtesy of Mehdi Mourali
products, it also affects many number than did Lebanese consumers. Lebanese consumers not
of our most basic psychologi- only perceived a lower level of density but also reacted more
cal processes, including our positively to the crowded setting than did Canadian consumers.
perception of time and space. These findings can be explained by two complementary
Anthropologist Edward accounts. On the one hand, the Middle Eastern and Arabic cul-
Mehdi Mourali, University of Calgary Hall 1 provides an excellent tures are said to be high-contact cultures (i.e., cultures in
discussion of the various ways which there is a high degree of physical contact—embracing,
in which culture affects time perception. For example, he distin- touching, shaking hands). Such cultures generally prefer closer
guishes between monochronic cultures (e.g., Canada, the United interpersonal distances and more interaction than low-contact
States, and Northern Europe) and polychronic cultures (e.g., cultures (e.g., North America), which may explain Lebanese
Latin American, Arabic, and Asian cultures). Individuals in consumers’ more positive reactions to a crowded setting. On the
monochronic cultures tend to perceive time as a precious other hand, our findings may be partly attributed to more
resource that can be divided into small units. They value precise endemic differences between Canada and Lebanon. Canada is
scheduling and doing things one at a time. In contrast, individu- the second-largest country in the world (9 093 507 square kilo-
als in polychronic cultures tend to perform multiple tasks metres), with a relatively small population for its size (just over
simultaneously. They are more focused on establishing and 35 million). In contrast, Lebanon is a small country, almost
maintaining relationships, and are less concerned with prompt- 875 times smaller than Canada (10 400 square kilometres),
ness and the precise accounting of time. with a population of just over 5 million. The open space and
Our own research2 deals with the impact of culture on the relatively low density of population found in Canada may have
perception of space. In particular, we examined how Canadian certainly contributed to Canadian consumers’ lower tolerance
and Lebanese consumers may differ in their perceptions of and for crowds.
1 Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966).
2Frank Pons, Michel Laroche, and Mehdi Mourali, “Consumer Reactions to Crowded Retail Settings: Cross-cultural Differences between North America and the Middle-East,”
Psychology & Marketing 23(7) (2006): 555–572.
members come to practise shopping rituals. Theme parks are a form of mass-produced
fantasy that take on aspects of sacredness. In particular, Disney World and Disneyland
(and their outposts in Europe and Japan) are destinations for pilgrimages from consum-
ers around the globe. Disney World displays many characteristics of more traditional
sacred places. It is even regarded by some as having healing powers; a trip to the park
is the most common last wish for terminally ill children.61
In many cultures the home is a particularly sacred place. It represents a crucial
distinction between the harsh external world and consumers’ “inner space.” Consum-
ers all over the world go to great lengths to create special environments that allow
them to foster the quality of hominess. This effect is achieved by personalizing the
home as much as possible, using such devices as door wreaths, mantel arrangements,
and a “memory wall” for family photos.62 Even public places such as Starbucks cafés
strive for a home-like atmosphere that shelters customers from the harshness of the
outside world.
SACRED PEOPLE Two friends in San Francisco maintain Tumblr and Instagram sites—
#WWYW, or What Would Yeezus Wear—devoted to their idols, the glam couple Kim
Kardashian and Kanye West. They post paparazzi photos of the celebs’ outfits, then
add photos of themselves wearing the same things. Hundreds of fan clubs like Always
Elvis memorialize The King. Katy Perry has over 40 million “Katy Cats” followers on
Twitter.63 We idolize sacred people as we set them apart from the masses, and some-
Marketing times people come to believe that these individuals have “superhuman” abilities.
Insight Souvenirs, memorabilia, and even mundane items touched or used by sacred people
become valuable. Many businesses thrive on consumers’ desire for products associ-
Wedding rituals are going green, at least for ated with famous people. There is a bustling marketplace for celebrity autographs and
some brides and grooms who want to rewrite objects once owned by celebrities. Whether Princess Diana’s gowns or John Lennon’s
the script to embrace sustainable practices. guitars, these touched objects are often sold at auction for astronomical prices. Recent
Some couples calculate the mileage their research finds that the value of goods that were previously owned by a celebrity is
guests travel to attend the event and offset largely driven by a contagion effect, or a belief that the individual’s immaterial quali-
their carbon dioxide emissions with donations ties or “essence” can be transferred to the object through physical contact.64 For exam-
to programs that plant trees or preserve rain ple, objects that have had a greater degree of contact with the celebrity are seen as
forests. Others substitute hydrangeas, berries, being more valuable and desirable.
and other local and seasonal flowers for the
bride’s bouquet and table centrepieces instead SACRED EVENTS For many people, the world of sports is sacred and almost assumes
of burning up fuel to transport flowers from far- the status of a religion. The roots of modern sports events can be found in ancient reli-
away farms. A bride might choose a vintage gious rites, such as fertility festivals (e.g., the original Olympics).65 The sports pages
dress to avoid the waste of a wedding gown are like the scriptures (we describe ardent fans as reading them “religiously”); the sta-
she will never wear again. You can even select dium is a house of worship; and the fans are members of the congregation. Devotees
a caterer who serves organic food on biode- engage in group activities such as tailgate parties and the “wave,” where participants
gradable plates made of sugar cane fibre. At rise on cue and move their arms (as at a revival meeting), creating a wavelike motion
www.greenweddings.net or the Sierra Club’s around the stadium.
“The Green Life,” you can find even more advice Tourism is another example of a sacred, non-ordinary experience of extreme
for “ecosavvy brides and grooms.”66 importance to marketers. When people travel on vacation they occupy sacred time and
space. The tourist is continually in search of “authentic” experiences that differ from
his or her normal world.67 The tourism experience involves binary oppositions
between work and leisure and between being at home and being away; often norms
regarding appropriate behaviour are modified as tourists scramble after illicit or
adventurous experiences they would not dream of engaging in at home. This theme is
reflected in Club Med’s (www.clubmed.com) motto: “The antidote to civilization.”
The desire of travellers to capture these sacred experiences in objects forms the
bedrock of the souvenir industry, which may be said to be in the business of selling
sacred memories. Whether a shot glass from a casino in Vegas or an “I Love NY”
T-shirt, souvenirs represent a tangible piece of the consumer’s sacred experience.68
DESACRALIZATION Desacralization occurs when a sacred item or symbol is removed

from its special place or is duplicated in mass quantities, becoming profane as a result.
For example, souvenir reproductions of sacred monuments (such as the Eiffel Tower)
or artworks (such as the Mona Lisa), or clothing designers’ adaptations of important
symbols (such as the Canadian flag) eliminate their special aspects by turning them
into unauthentic commodities, produced mechanically and possessing relatively little
value.69
Religion itself has to some extent been desacralized. Religious symbols, such as
stylized crosses or New Age crystals, have moved into the mainstream of fashion jew-
ellery.70 Religious holidays, particularly Christmas, are regarded by many (and criti-
cized by some) as having been transformed into secular, materialistic occasions devoid
of their original sacred significance. Even the clergy are increasingly adopting secular
marketing techniques. Televangelists rely on the power of television, a secular
medium, to convey their messages. The Catholic Church successfully launched its
“Welcome Home” campaign, which generated some controversy for using a “secular”
advertising approach, in 2012.71
Language and Symbols CO 6
Clearly one factor that varies across cultures is language. The language barrier is one
obvious problem that marketers who wish to break into foreign markets must navi-
gate. Travellers abroad commonly encounter signs in tortured English, such as a note
to guests at a Tokyo hotel that proclaims, “You are invited to take advantage of the
chambermaid,” a notice at a hotel in Acapulco that reassures people that “The man-
ager has personally passed all the water served here,” or a dry cleaner in Majorca
who urges passing customers to “drop your pants here for best results.” And local
product names often raise the eyebrows of visiting North Americans who might
stumble on a Japanese coffee creamer called Creap, a Mexican bread named Bimbo,
or even a Scandinavian product to unfreeze car locks named Super Piss.
One technique marketers use to avoid this problem is back-translation, in which
the information is first translated from the original language into the target language and
then a different interpreter retranslates a translated ad back into its original language to
catch errors. Here are some errors that could have used a bit of back-translation:72
• The Scandinavian company that makes Electrolux vacuum cleaners sold them in
the United States with this slogan: “Nothing sucks like an Electrolux.”
• When Parker marketed a ballpoint pen in Mexico, its ads were supposed to say,
“It won’t leak in your pocket and embarrass you.” The translation actually said “It
won’t leak in your pocket and make you pregnant.”
• Fresca (a soft drink) is Mexican slang for lesbian.
• Ford discovered that a truck model it called Fiera means “ugly old woman” in
Spanish. Its Caliente model is slang for a streetwalker. In Brazil, Pinto is a slang
term for “small male appendage.”
• When Rolls-Royce introduced its Silver Mist model in Germany, it found that the
word mist translates as excrement. Similarly, Sunbeam’s hair-curling iron, called
the Mist-Stick, translates as manure wand. To add insult to injury, Vicks is German
slang for sexual intercourse, so the company had to change its name to Wicks in
that country.
• IKEA had to explain that the Gutvik children’s bunk bed is named “for a tiny town
in Sweden” after German shoppers noted that the name sounded a lot like a
phrase that means “good f***.” IKEA has yet to issue an explanation for its Fart-
full workbench or its Jerker computer table.73
A symbol refers to an object that represents something else. In Canada, for
example, an infant wearing the colour pink symbolizes that the baby is a girl. When
marketers consider entering different cultural markets, it is important that they
associate their brand with positive and appropriate symbols, and avoid associations
Chapman’s ice cream speaks to Canadians

by appealing to Canadian values and
identity, as well as playing on a norm in
Canadian language usage. Pretty clever, eh?
Courtesy of Chapman’s Ice Cream
with negative or inappropriate symbols. In China, for example, the colour red is
viewed positively, being associated with joy and good fortune. This is why companies
targeting Chinese markets often make liberal use of that colour.
A look at some marketing blunders highlights the importance of symbols. A lead-
ing golf ball manufacturer was disappointed when it could not penetrate the Japanese
market. The company later realized this was because it had packaged the golf balls in
sets of four. In Japan, as has been mentioned earlier, the number four is looked upon as
unlucky, in part because in its pronunciation it can be synonymous with the word for
death. The company was met with greater success after repackaging the golf balls in
sets of 8, a relatively lucky number in Japanese culture. Pepsi lost market share in
Southeast Asia when it changed its vending machines from deep blue to light blue.
Light blue is a symbol of death and mourning in Southeast Asia. When AT&T trans-
lated its popular “Thumbs-Up” campaign for the Russian and Polish markets, the com-
pany did not realize that the gesture depicted in the ads was viewed as obscene in
these cultures. The company realized its error and later reversed the gesture depicted
in ads, showing the back of the hand, not the palm.
The above examples attest to the fact that companies should research the cul-
tural meanings associated with different symbols when entering different cultural
markets. Symbolism plays an important role in cross-cultural analysis because dis-
tinct meanings are assigned to things such as colours, numbers, and gestures across
different cultures. Savvy marketers can apply the use of symbols in ways that create
positive associations around their brand. However, inappropriate use of symbols can
certainly backfire.
CO 7 MARKETING ACROSS CULTURES: THINK

GLOBALLY OR ACT LOCALLY?
As corporations increasingly find themselves competing in many markets around the
world, the dialogue has intensified regarding the necessity of developing separate mar-
Global Marketing
keting plans for each culture. A lively debate has ensued about the need to “fit in” to
the local culture versus the benefits of presenting a global marketing campaign that
does not alter much of the marketing mix across different cultures. Let’s briefly con-
sider each viewpoint.
Adopting a Standardized Strategy

As Procter & Gamble strategizes about the best way to speak to consumers around the
world, the company finds large segments in many countries who share the same out-
looks, style preferences, and aspirations. These include teenagers, working women
who juggle careers and families, and baby boomers. As the head of P&G’s global health
and feminine care division explains, “We’re seeing global tribes forming around the
world that are more and more interconnected through technology. If you focus on the
similarities instead of the differences [in these tribes], key business opportunities
emerge.” Brand managers, for example, find that teenage girls everywhere have the
same concerns and questions about puberty, so P&G can speak to them on its Being a
Girl.com site and make the same content available in 40 countries.74
Proponents of a standardized marketing strategy argue that many cultures, espe-
cially those of relatively industrialized countries, have become so homogenized that
the same approach will work throughout the world. By developing one approach for
multiple markets, a company can benefit from economies of scale, since it does not
have to incur the substantial time and expense of developing a separate strategy for
each culture.75 This viewpoint represents an etic perspective, which focuses on com-
monalities across cultures. An etic approach to a culture is objective and analytical; it
reflects impressions of a culture as viewed by outsiders.
This advertisement for Heineken emphasizes

the importance of using a standardized
strategy.
Heineken N.V.
Adopting a Localized Strategy

Unlike visitors to Disney World in Orlando, those who go to Disneyland Paris don’t
hear the voices of American movie stars narrating their guided tours. Instead, European
actors such as Jeremy Irons, Isabella Rossellini, and Nastassja Kinski provide commen-
tary in their native tongues. Disney learned the hard way about the importance of being
sensitive to local cultures after it opened its European park in 1992. The company got
slammed for creating an entertainment venue that recreated its American locations
without catering to local customs (such as serving wine with meals). Visitors to Disney-
land Paris from many countries took offence, even at what might seem small slights.
For example, initially the park sold only a French sausage, which drew complaints
from Germans, Italians, and others who believed their own local versions to be supe-
rior. As Disneyland Paris’s CEO explains, “When we first launched, there was the belief
that it was enough to be Disney. Now we realize that our guests need to be welcomed
on the basis of their own culture and travel habits.”76
Disney applied these lessons learned to Hong Kong Disneyland. Executives decided
to shift the angle of the front gate by 12 degrees after consulting a feng shui specialist,
who said the change would ensure prosperity for the park. Disney also put a bend in the
Starbucks largely uses a standardized

global marketing strategy, with its branding,
aesthetics, and product offerings being very
similar across different international
markets. However, it also recognizes the
importance of local tastes. The company
offers a menu of traditional Chinese teas
and popular treats such as mooncakes to
consumers in China. In Canada, it created
the True North Blend, which was named
by Canadians and caters to Canadian taste
buds (we prefer a lighter tasting roast!).
© Richard Ellis/Alamy
walkway from the train station to the gate, to make sure the flow of positive energy, or
chi, did not slip past the entrance and out to the China Sea. Cash registers are close to
corners or along walls to increase prosperity. The company burned incense as it finished
each building, and it picked a lucky day (September 12) for the opening. One of the park’s
main ballrooms measures exactly 888 square metres, because, as mentioned earlier, eight
is a number of fortune for the Chinese. And, since the Chinese consider the number four
bad luck, you won’t find any fourth-floor buttons in hotel elevators. Ironically, Disney
may be trying too hard: Activists raised a ruckus when the company announced it would
serve the traditional Chinese dish of shark’s fin soup at wedding banquets held in the
park. The species is endangered, and one group distributed T-shirts showing Mickey
Mouse and Donald Duck holding knives and leering over three bleeding sharks.77
Disney’s experience supports the view of marketers who endorse an emic
perspective, which focuses on variations within a culture. This perspective believes
that every culture is unique, with its own value system, conventions, and regulations,
along with a national character and a distinctive set of behaviours and personality
characteristics.78 An effective strategy must therefore be tailored to the sensibilities
and needs of each culture. An emic approach is subjective and experiential; it attempts
to explain a culture as experienced by insiders.
Sometimes this strategy involves modifying a product or the way it is positioned
to make it acceptable to local tastes. For example, the Chinese beer Tsingtao tried to
break into the Taiwanese market by airing a commercial featuring happy people kneel-
ing on tatami mats while a woman in a kimono sings a traditional Japanese tune in
Taiwanese dialect. This ad would never be accepted in Tsingtao’s home market, where
there is strong historical hostility toward Japan. In Taiwan, however, many associate
Japanese culture with high status.79
In some cases, consumers in one place simply do not like some products that are
popular elsewhere—or their different lifestyles require companies to adapt the way
Reference to the Great Wall of China (a

World Heritage Site), the colour (Asian Red),
and the brushstrokes of the lettering all
support the cultural positioning of Scotties
box design.
© Kruger Products L.P.
they make their products. IKEA finally realized that Americans weren’t buying
smaller European glasses because they add a lot of ice to their drinks. The Swedish Marketing
furniture chain also figured out that, compared to Europeans, Americans sleep in
bigger beds, need bigger bookshelves, and like to curl up on sofas rather than sit on
Insight
them.81 Listerine sells an alcohol-free version in Muslim countries where spirits are The Web makes it difficult to confine marketing
forbidden, and a green-tea flavoured mouthwash in Asia. Cheetos come in many messages to a local area. Absolut Vodka and
flavours around the world that have little to do with cheese, including seaweed its global advertising agency TBWA discovered
(Taiwan), avocado salad (Japan), ketchup (Canada), masala balls (India), and straw- this when they ran a print ad they intended only
berry yogurt (Vietnam).82 for readers in Mexico City. The ad was a local
execution of an international campaign called
“In an Absolut World” that included various
When Does Global Marketing Work Best? depictions of what an ideal world might look
like. In this case a map showed much of the
To determine whether to enter a foreign market and whether to use a standardized or
United States as part of Mexico. American
localized strategy, marketers will often conduct a cross-cultural analysis. This bloggers soon discovered the ad, and it wasn’t
involves examining the degree to which consumers of two or more cultures are differ- long before it enraged U.S. anti-immigration
ent or similar in terms of psychological, social, and cultural factors. Using our knowl- groups and made others call for an Absolut
edge of factors such as values and norms, myths and rituals, and language and symbols, boycott.80
we can be fairly confident that when marketing to countries that are more similar on
these dimensions it might be appropriate to use a more standardized campaign. On the
other hand, when the countries are quite different on these dimensions, it might be
appropriate to use a more individualized marketing approach. Take, for example,
Kellogg, which discovered that in Brazil people don’t typically eat a big breakfast—
they’re more likely to eat cereal as a dry snack. In another example, IKEA (www.ikea.
com) provides individualized websites with language and promotions tailored to
various countries. While patio season is being promoted on the Canadian site, curling
up on the couch is being promoted on the Australian sites—not so much due to differ-
ences in values, but because of the different seasons.
In fact, significant cultural differences even show up within the same country—
we certainly feel that we’ve travelled to different places as we move around the United
States, for example. Advertisers in Canada know that when they target consumers in
French-speaking Quebec their messages must be much different from those they
address to consumers in English-speaking regions. Ads in Montreal tend to be a lot
As part of its global marketing strategy,

McDonald’s appealed to different nations in
the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Not only did
McDonald’s enlist artists from 12 countries
(including Canada, Brazil, the United States,
Spain, and Germany) to redesign the pack-
aging on its french fries, but the boxes also
unlocked an app that allowed consumers to
play an augmented reality game of Futbol
(or soccer, for us Canadians).
Courtesy of McDonald’s
racier than those in Toronto, reflecting differences in attitudes toward sexuality

between consumers with French and those with British roots.
Some large corporations such as Coca-Cola have successfully crafted a single
international image. Still, even the soft drink giant must make minor modifications
to the way it presents itself in each culture. Although Coke commercials are largely
standardized, the company permits local agencies to edit them so that they highlight
closeups of local faces. To maximize the chances of success for these multicultural
efforts, marketers must locate consumers in different countries who nonetheless
share a common world view.83 This is more likely to be the case among people
whose frame of reference is relatively more international or cosmopolitan, or who
receive much of their information about the world from sources that incorporate a
worldwide perspective.
Who is likely to fall into this category? Two consumer segments are particularly
good candidates: (1) affluent people who are “global citizens” and who come into con-
tact with ideas from around the world through their travels, business contacts, and
media experiences; and (2) young people whose tastes in music and fashion are
strongly influenced by MTV and other media that broadcast many of the same images
to multiple countries. For example, viewers of MTV Europe in Rome or Zurich can
check out the same “buzz clips” as their counterparts in London or Luxembourg.
A large-scale study with consumers in 41 countries identified the characteristics
people associate with global brands, and it also measured the relative importance of
those dimensions when consumers buy products. The researchers grouped consumers
who evaluate global brands in the same way. They identified four major segments:
• Global citizens: The largest segment (55 percent of consumers) uses the global
success of a company as a signal of quality and innovation. At the same time, they
are concerned about whether companies behave responsibly on issues such as
consumer health, the environment, and worker rights.
• Global dreamers: The second-largest segment, at 23 percent, consists of consum-
ers who see global brands as quality products and readily buy into the myths
they author. They aren’t nearly as concerned with social responsibility as are the
global citizens.
• Antiglobals: Thirteen percent of consumers are skeptical that transnational com-
panies deliver higher-quality goods. They dislike brands that preach American
values, and they don’t trust global companies to behave responsibly. They try to
avoid doing business with transnational firms.
• Global agnostics: The remaining 9 percent of consumers don’t base purchase deci-
sions on a brand’s global attributes. Instead, they evaluate a global product by the
same criteria they use to judge local brands and don’t regard its global nature as
meriting special consideration.
CO 8 THE DIFFUSION OF CONSUMER CULTURE

ACROSS CULTURES
Coca-Cola is the drink of choice among young people in Asian countries, and McDonald’s
is their favourite restaurant. The National Basketball Association sells more than $500
million of licensed merchandise every year outside the United States. Patrons of the Star-
lite Urban Drive-In in London sit in rows of cars as they watch American “classics” like
Grease and Dirty Dancing while they chow down on burgers, meatloaf, and sweet potato
pie, followed by ice cream sundaes or chocolate brownies and cream.
Walk the streets of Lisbon or Buenos Aires, and the sight of Nike hats, Hollister
T-shirts, and True Religion jeans will accost you at every turn. The allure of North
American consumer culture spreads throughout the world—but with a lot of pushback
in many places.
Critics in other countries deplore the creeping Americanization of their cultures

because of what they view as excessive materialism. One French critic exemplified
this resistance to the diffusion of American culture by describing the Euro Disney
theme park as “a horror made of cardboard, plastic, and appalling colours—a con-
struction of hardened chewing gum and idiotic folklore taken straight out of a comic
book written for obese Americans.”
A survey in Beijing found that nearly half of all children under 12 think McDonald’s
is a domestic Chinese brand. The West (and especially the United States) is a net exporter
of popular culture. Many consumers equate Western lifestyles in general and the English
language in particular with modernization and sophistication, and numerous American
brands slowly but surely insinuate themselves into local cultures. Indeed, some global
brands are so widespread that many are only vaguely aware of their countries of origin.
In surveys, consumers routinely guess that Heineken is German (it’s really Dutch) and
that Nokia is Japanese (it’s Finnish).
American television inspires knockoffs around the world. But to be fair, many
U.S. viewers don’t realize that American reality show hits such as Big Brother and
American Idol started out as European concepts that U.S. producers imported. In
fact, the U.K. version of Big Brother briefly went off the air after a fight broke out
and housemates threatened to kill each other. The German version attracted accu-
sations of “shameless voyeurism” after a female contestant had her nipple pierced
on live TV—without anaesthetic. On the other hand, a Malaysian show that bor-
rows the American Idol format is called Imam Muda (Young Leader). Contestants
debate religious topics and recite passages from the Koran. The winner doesn’t get
a recording contract. Instead he receives a job as an imam, or religious leader, a
scholarship to study in Saudi Arabia, and an all-expenses-paid pilgrimage to
Mecca, Islam’s holiest city.
As the global consumption ethic spreads, rituals and product preferences in dif-
ferent cultures become homogenized. For example, in China, Christmas fever grips
China’s newly rising urban middle class as an excuse to shop, eat, and party. Some
people there snap up Christmas trees, ornaments, and other Christmas-related items.
Chinese consumers embrace Christmas because to them the holiday is international
and modern, not because it’s a traditional Christian celebration. The government
encourages this practice because it stimulates consumer spending. To make the holi-
day even merrier, China exports about $1 billion worth of Christmas products every
year, and its factories churn out $7.5 billion of the toys people worldwide put under
their trees.84
Creolization occurs when foreign influences integrate with local meanings. Modern
Christianity adapted the pagan Christmas tree into its own rituals. In India handicapped
beggars sell bottles of Coke from tricycles, and Indipop, a popular music hybrid, mixes
traditional styles with rock, rap, and reggae.85 Young Hispanic Americans bounce
between hip hop and Rock en Español, blend Mexican rice with spaghetti sauce, and
spread peanut butter and jelly on tortillas.86 In Argentina, Coca-Cola launched Nativa, a
soft drink flavoured with the country’s traditional yerba mate herbal tea, as part of a
strategy to broaden its portfolio with products it makes from indigenous ingredients.87
Chapter Summary
A culture is a society’s personality; our membership in a occur in popular culture. These include holiday obser-
particular culture plays a big role in shaping our identities vances, gift giving, and grooming.
as individuals. • A rite of passage is a special kind of ritual that involves the
• A society’s culture includes its values and ethics and the transition from one role to another. These passages typi-
material objects produced by its people. It is the accumu- cally entail the need to acquire products and services,
lation of shared meanings and traditions among members called ritual artifacts, to facilitate the transition. Modern
of a society. A culture can be described in terms of its rites of passage include graduations, initiations, weddings,
ecology (the way people adapt to their habitat), its social debutante balls, and funerals.
structure, and its ideology (including people’s moral and
We can describe products as either sacred or profane; it’s
aesthetic principles).
not unusual for some products to move back and forth
Myths are stories that express the shared ideals of a culture; between the two categories.
modern marketing messages are used to hand these stories • Consumer activities can be divided into sacred and profane
down to members of a culture. domains. Sacred phenomena are “set apart” from everyday
• Myths are stories containing symbolic elements that activities or products. People, events, or objects can
express the shared ideals of a culture. Many myths involve become sacralized. Sacralization occurs when sacred qual-
some binary opposition whereby values are defined in ities are ascribed to products or items owned by sacred
terms of what they are and what they are not (e.g., nature people. Objectification occurs when formerly sacred objects
versus technology). Modern myths are transmitted through or activities become part of the everyday, as when “one of
advertising, movies, and other media. a kind” works of art are reproduced in large quantities.
Many of our consumption activities, including holiday Cultural tastes and influences can spread across different
observances, grooming, and gift giving, are based on deeply cultures.
ingrained rituals. • Cultural diffusion can spread in ways that reaches other
• A ritual is a set of symbolic behaviours that occur in a countries.
fixed sequence and that tend to be repeated periodically. • This can sometimes occur in ways such that the original
Rituals are related to many consumption activities that product or idea becomes integrated with local meanings.
Key Terms
Antifestival p. 423 Ethos p. 411 Reciprocity norm p. 421
Binary opposition p. 417 Etic perspective p. 430 Rites of passage p. 425
Collecting p. 426 Food culture p. 414 Ritual p. 418
Collectivist culture p. 413 Fortress brand p. 419 Ritual artifacts p. 419
Convention p. 413 Gift-giving ritual p. 420 Ritual script p. 419
Core values p. 412 Hoarding p. 426 Sacralization p. 426
Creolization p. 435 Individualist culture p. 413 Sacred consumption p. 426
Cross-cultural analysis p. 433 Monomyth p. 417 Self-gifts p. 421
Culture p. 410 More p. 413 Symbol p. 429
Custom p. 413 Myth p. 415 Values p. 411
Desacralization p. 428 Norms p. 413
Emic perspective p. 432 Profane consumption p. 426
Review Questions
1. What do we mean by culture? How is it related to an 4. Define a rite of passage, giving two examples. Specify the
individual’s personality? stages involved.
2. Give examples of public versus private rituals. Name 5. What is the difference between sacred and profane
some ritual artifacts we use to perform these rituals. consumption?
3. Describe the three stages of the gift-giving ritual. 6. What is collecting, and how does it differ from hoarding?
Discuss (preferably when the date is over!) describing the spe-

cific behaviours each of you performed that made it
1. We might think of culture as a society’s personality. If
clear you were on a first date. What products and ser-
your culture were a person, how would you describe its
vices are affected by these norms?
personality traits?
10. Interview people you know about any “magic” items
2. This chapter argues that not all gift giving is positive. In
they own (e.g., a lucky charm, a St. Christopher’s medal,
what ways can this ritual be unpleasant or negative?
or some other object hanging from their rear-view mir-
3. For many people, Disneyland is a sacred place. Do you rors). Get them to describe their feelings about these
agree? Why or why not? objects and explain how they acquired their magical
4. Have you ever given yourself a gift? If so, why did you do properties. How would they feel if they lost these special
it, and how did you decide what to get? items?
5. Identify the ritual elements of a hockey game. 11. Identify modern-day myths that have been created by
6. Describe the three stages of the rite of passage associ- corporations. How do the companies communicate
ated with graduating from university. these stories to consumers?
7. “Christmas has become just another opportunity to 12. Interview people you know who collect some kind of
exchange gifts and stimulate the economy.” Do you object. How do they organize and describe their collec-
agree? Why or why not? tions? Do you see any evidence of sacred versus profane
distinctions? (For example, people who collect match-
8. Bridal registries lay out very clearly the gifts a couple
books might have sets they’ll actually use to light a can-
wants. How do you feel about this practice? Should peo-
dle, but other sets that can’t ever be touched.)
ple actually specify what you should buy for them, or
should a gift be a more personal expression? 13. Ask friends to describe incidents in which they received
a gift they thought was inappropriate. Why did they feel
this way, and how did this event influence their relation-
ship with the gift giver?
9. The next time you go out on a first date, identify the set
of crescive norms that are operating. Write a report
Sobeys (e.g., Sobeys, IGA, FreshCo, Foodland, Thrifty Foods) across

Lea Dunn started her career with Sobeys (www.sobeys.com) all 10 provinces. Founded in 1907 by John Sobey, the com-
15 years ago, after graduating from Memorial University with a pany is headquartered in Stellarton, Nova Scotia, and is part of
bachelor of commerce degree. She had risen in the ranks and the Empire Company family of businesses (which also includes
now found herself managing a team of buyers at the company Empire theatres and Genstar real estate). Annual sales have
head office. One of her young buyers had just emailed her a report approached $15 billion in recent years, and the company
on the profitability potential of a trend in food consumption called employs approximately 97 000 people.
farm-to-table, which had become popular in the restaurant indus- In an effort to differentiate itself from its largest competitor,
try. The central aspect of this food trend was the utilization of Loblaws, which focused on low pricing, Sobeys had decided to
locally sourced food ingredients in the preparation of meals and focus on building customer relationships through improved ser-
other food sales. While Sobeys had made it a goal to source some vice. An initiative entitled “Ready to Serve” concentrated on
of its product locally, there was some question about whether the improving customer service and involved changes to uniforms,
growth in this cultural food trend would translate into profitability in marketing communications, and store environment. Employees
the grocery market. Lea hoped this initial report would provide the were trained to be more customer-oriented and were required to
information she needed to make the appropriate decision on how greet, converse with, and assist customers whenever possible.
much effort should be directed toward the issue. This focus on the customer also led to improved product quality
and selection—Sobeys sought to be positioned as upscale com-
pared to its competitors. Greater product selection, a premium
The Company private-label brand named Compliments, and organic produce
Sobeys is the second-largest food retailer in Canada, with over were all examples of how the company had sought to improve
1300 supermarkets operating under different brand names the customer experience with respect to the products offered.
Farm-to-Table roducers, it had not been an imperative that the company had
p
As part of this product and service focus, Sobeys had been marketed on. Would the farm-to-table idea transfer to the grocery
mindful to keep current with food culture across the country. store? Certainly, in the past few years there had been a demand
For example, the increasing demand for quality ready-to-eat from consumers for free-range, organic, and environmentally
meals made fresh that busy families could pick up after work friendly food options. This need had translated into a profitable
or school led to an expansion of the types of meals offered in market segment that most supermarkets had pursued. Was this
store. It was this type of trend and change in eating culture that new trend an evolution in ideology for this segment?
Lea had asked her team to keep their eye out for. Indeed, Lea Lea could see some benefits in the idea, but she was also
knew that if Sobeys were to maintain its customer-focused mindful of the cost trade-offs that pursuing farm-to-table would
positioning in the marketplace, it needed to be a first mover on necessitate. Currently, the company was able to buy large quan-
any new food trend that gained momentum. tities of food products from industrial producers in California,
The emailed report she had received that morning identi- Florida, and other jurisdictions. A move to farm-to-table in buy-
fied one such trend. “Farm-to-table” (or “farm-to-fork”) is to a ing behaviour would mean losing the cost advantage the com-
movement concerned with producing food locally and delivering pany had developed over the past decade. What would that
that food to local consumers. This movement had developed in mean in the competitive marketplace? How best to balance the
conjunction with changes in attitudes among consumers with changing food trends and competencies the company had
respect to food safety, food freshness, sustainability, and com- worked hard to develop? Lea realized that this was going to be a
munity support. Advocates of the food trend pointed to the scar- complex decision with important implications for her team and
city of fresh ingredients, the poor flavour of food shipped from the company as a whole.
afar, the increase of genetically modified foods, the disappear- 1. How would you describe food culture in Canada? How
ance of small farms, and the dangers of a highly centralized food does it vary across different geographic areas? How does it
growing and distribution system as strong motivations for their differ across ethnic groups? Does it differ across different
support of the movement. Restaurants supporting the farm-to- eating occasions—that is, eating in a restaurant versus
table idea would buy their food ingredients directly from farmers, eating home-cooked meals?
usually locally. In some instances the restaurants and the farms
2. What do you think of the farm-to-table food trend? Is this a
would be owned and operated by the same people. It was
meaningful change in food culture in Canada?
argued that restaurants that chose to buy from local food pro-
ducers regularly provided healthier, better-quality meals. In the 3. What would you do if you were Lea? Would you seek to
past few years, the number of farm-to-table food providers had exploit this new trend and introduce the notion of farm-to-
grown substantially. table into the supermarket? How would you do so?
4. Thinking back to Chapters 12 and 13, do you think certain
Making a Decision subcultures or types of consumers might be more inclined
Reading about this cultural trend, Lea wondered how it would to jump on the farm-to-table trend? How might the trend
impact the food grocery marketplace. While the company be positioned differently to appeal to different subcultural
had always allocated some of its buying attention to local groups?
Notes
1. Clifford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cultures (New York: Basic Books, 1973); Marvin 7. Adapted from “What Are Hofstede’s Five Cultural Dimensions?” www.geert-hofstede.
Harris, Culture, People and Nature (New York: Crowell, 1971); John F. Sherry, Jr., “The com, accessed May 22, 2009.
Cultural Perspective in Consumer Research,” in Advances in Consumer Research 13,
8. Daniel Goleman, “The Group and the Self: New Focus on a Cultural Rift,” The New
ed. Richard J. Lutz (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1985): 573–575.
York Times (December 25, 1990): 37; Harry C. Triandis, “The Self and Social Behavior
2. William Lazer, Shoji Murata, and Hiroshi Kosaka, “Japanese Marketing: Towards a in Differing Cultural Contexts,” Psychological Review 96 (July 1989): 506; Harry C.
Better Understanding,” Journal of Marketing 49 (Spring 1985): 69–81. Triandis et al., “Individualism and Collectivism: Cross-cultural Perspectives on Self-
3. Sang-Pil Han and Sharon Shavitt, “Persuasion and Culture: Advertising Appeals in Ingroup Relationships,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54 (February
Individualistic and Collectivistic Societies,” Journal of Experimental Social 1988): 323.
Psychology 30 (1994): 326–350. 9. Karen Page Winterich and Yinlong Zhang, “Accepting Inequality Deters Responsibility:
4. Chisaki Watanabe, “Japanese Parents Embrace Ultra-secure Children’s Park,” How Power Distance Decreases Charitable Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Research
Philadelphia Inquirer (September 4, 2006): A2. 41(2) (2014): 274–293.
5. Jay Alabaster and Ryan Nakashima, “Japanese Comforted or Cramped in Evacuee 10. George J. McCall and J.L. Simmons, Social Psychology: A Sociological Approach
Shelters,” MSNBC.com (April 19, 2011), www.msnbc.msn.com/id/42672467/ns/ (New York: Free Press, 1982).
world_news-asia-pacific/t/japanese-comforted-or-cramped-evacuee-shelters, 11. “Euromonitor,” European Marketing Data and Statistics (1997): 328–331.
accessed May 10, 2011.
12. Charles Onians, “By Toutatis! Asterix McDonald’s Ad Irks French” (August 19, 2010),
6. Geert Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions,
www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hmwaTJFdWfl0_J3N6qe2YA6Vximw,
and Organizations across Nations (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001).
accessed April 28, 2011.
For a recent critique of this instrument, cf. Aron M. Levin, Irwin P. Levin, and Michael
P. Cook, “Measuring and Accounting for Cross-country Response Biases in Marketing 13. Laura Petrecca, “Ad Track: Marketers Bet on Lucky 777; That’s July 7, 2007,” USA
Food and Drink Products,” International Journal of Consumer Marketing, in press. Today (May 29, 2007), www.usatoday.com, accessed May 29, 2007.
14. Jim Yardley, “First Comes the Car, Then the $10,000 License Plate,” The New York 41. Robert T. Green and Dana L. Alden, “Functional Equivalence in Cross-cultural
Times on the Web (April 16, 2006). Consumer Behavior: Gift Giving in Japan and the United States,” Psychology &
15. Susannah Meadows, “Who’s Afraid of the Big Bad Werewolf?” Newsweek (August 26, Marketing 5 (Summer 1988): 155–168.
2002): 57. 42. Bob Tedeschi, “Letters to Santa Are No Longer Necessary,” The New York Times on
16. Conrad Phillip Kottak, “Anthropological Analysis of Mass Enculturation,” in the Web (November 15, 1999). For an exploration of the role of the bridal salon in
Researching American Culture, ed. Conrad P. Kottak (Ann Arbor, MI: University of the performance of wedding rituals, see Cele Otnes, “Friend of the Bride, and Then
Michigan Press, 1982): 40–74. Some: The Role of the Bridal Salon in Wedding Planning,” in Servicescapes: The
Concept of Place in Contemporary Markets, ed. John F. Sherry (Lincolnwood, IL:
17. Eric Ransdell, “The Nike Story? Just Tell It!” Fast Company 44(2) (January/February NTC Press, 1998): 228–258.
2000).
43. Wendy Bounds, “Here Comes the Bride, Just a Mouse Click Away,” The Wall Street
18. Joseph Campbell, Myths, Dreams, and Religion (New York: E.P. Dutton, 1970). Journal Interactive Edition (January 14, 1999).
19. Tina Lowrey and Cele C. Otnes, “Consumer Fairy Tales and the Perfect Christmas,” in 44. Cyndee Miller, “Nix the Knick-Knacks; Send Cash,” Marketing News (May 26, 1997):
Contemporary Consumption Rituals: A Research Anthology, eds. Cele C. Otnes and 1, 13.
Tina M. Lowrey (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003).
45. “Billions in Unwanted Gifts under British Trees, Survey Finds,” National Post
20. Merissa Marr, “Fairy-Tale Wedding? Disney Can Supply the Gown,” The Wall Street (December 4, 2007): A3.
Journal (February 22, 2007): B1; Lauram M. Holson, “For $38,000, Get the Cake, and
Mickey, Too,” The New York Times on the Web (May 24, 2003). 46. Leslie Ernest, “Passing on Unwanted Gifts Gains Ground, a Few Ground Rules Do
Apply,” Vancouver Sun (November 23, 2007): C6.
21. Jeff Jensen, “Comic Heroes Return to Roots as Marvel Is Cast as Hip Brand,”
Advertising Age (June 8, 1998): 3. 47. See, for example, Russell W. Belk, “Halloween: An Evolving American Consumption
Ritual,” in Advances in Consumer Research 17, eds. Richard Pollay, Jerry Gorn,
22. Jeffrey S. Lang and Patrick Trimble, “Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow? and Marvin Goldberg (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1990):
An Examination of the American Monomyth and the Comic Book Superhero,” Journal 508–517; Melanie Wallendorf and Eric J. Arnould, “We Gather Together: The
of Popular Culture 22 (Winter 1988): 157. Consumption Rituals of Thanksgiving Day,” Journal of Consumer Research 18
23. Dennis W. Rook, “The Ritual Dimension of Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer (June 1991): 13–31.
Research 12 (December 1985): 251–264; Mary A. Stansfield Tetreault and Robert E.
48. Rick Lyte, “Holidays, Ethnic Themes Provide Built-in F&B Festivals,” Hotel & Motel
Kleine III, “Ritual, Ritualized Behavior, and Habit: Refinements and Extensions of the
Management (December 14, 1987): 56; Megan Rowe, “Holidays and Special
Consumption Ritual Construct,” in Advances in Consumer Research 17, eds. Marvin
Occasions: Restaurants Are Fast Replacing Grandma’s House as the Site of Choice
Goldberg, Gerald Gorn, and Richard W. Pollay (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer
for Special Meals,” Restaurant Management (November 1987): 69; Judith Waldrop,
Research, 1990): 31–38.
“Funny Valentines,” American Demographics (February 1989): 7.
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Enhance Consumption,” Psychological Science 24(9) (2013): 1714–1721.
50. Bruno Bettelheim, The Uses of Enchantment: The Meaning and Importance of Fairy
25. Jenn Grabenstetter, “The Bizarre Origins of 8 Wedding Traditions,” Mental Floss
Tales (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976).
(June 23, 2008), http://mentalfloss.com/article/18915/bizarre-origins-8-wedding-
traditions; “Against the Grain,” Snopes.com, www.snopes.com/critters/crusader/ 51. Theodore Caplow, Howard M. Bahr, Bruce A. Chadwick, Reuben Hill, and Margaret M.
birdrice.asp. Williams, Middletown Families: Fifty Years of Change and Continuity (Minneapolis,
MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1982).
26. Robyn Meredith, “Wedded to the West,” Forbes (March 28, 2005): 77–78.
52. Andrea Adelson, “A New Spirit for Sales of Halloween Merchandise,” The New York
27. http://marketing-case-studies.blogspot.ca/2008/07/raise-your-right-hand-campaign.
Times (October 31, 1994): D1.
html; www.nytimes.com/2004/01/04/magazine/the-way-we-live-now-1-4-04-
consumed-the-right-hand-diamond-ring.html. 53. Angeline Close and George M. Zinkhan, “A Holiday Loved and Loathed: A Consumer
28. Karl Greenberg, “BBDO: Successful Brands Become Hard Habit for Consumers to Perspective of Valentine’s Day,” Advances in Consumer Research 33(1) (2006):
Break,” Marketing Daily (May 14, 2007), www.mediapost.com. 356–365.
29. Dennis W. Rook and Sidney J. Levy, “Psychosocial Themes in Consumer Grooming 54. Jennifer Booton, “Alibaba’s ‘Singles Day’ Sales Top $9 Billion, Bigger Than Black
Rituals,” in Advances in Consumer Research 10, eds. Richard P. Bagozzi and Alice Friday,” Market Watch (November 11, 2014), www.marketwatch.com/story/alibabas-
M. Tybout (Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1983): 329–333. singles-day-bigger-than-black-friday-2014-11-10.
30. Andrew Adam Newman, “Depilatory Market Moves Far beyond the Short-Shorts 55. Arnold Van Gennep, The Rites of Passage, trans. Maika B. Vizedom and Gabrielle L.
Wearers,” The New York Times (September 14, 2007). Caffee (1908; London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1960); Michael R. Solomon and
Punam Anand, “Ritual Costumes and Status Transition: The Female Business Suit
31. Russell W. Belk, Melanie Wallendorf, and John F. Sherry, Jr., “The Sacred and the as Totemic Emblem,” in Advances in Consumer Research 12, eds. Elizabeth C.
Profane in Consumer Behavior: Theodicy on the Odyssey,” Journal of Consumer Hirschman and Morris Holbrook (Washington, DC: Association for Consumer
Research 16 (June 1989): 1–38. Research, 1985): 315–348.
32. Russell W. Belk and Gregory S. Coon, “Gift Giving as Agapic Love: An Alternative to 56. Mark J. Miller, “Nike Pulls Tattoo-Inspired Line After Outcry from Samoan
the Exchange Paradigm Based on Dating Experiences,” Journal of Consumer Community,” Brandchannel (August 15, 2013), www.brandchannel.com/home/
Research 20(3) (December 1993): 393–417. post/2013/08/15/Nike-Pulls-Tattoo-Line-081514.aspx.
33. Alf Nucifora, “‘Tis the Season to Gift One’s Best Clients,” Triangle Business Journal 57. For an extensive bibliography on collecting, see Russell W. Belk et al., “Collecting
(December 3, 1999): 14. in a Consumer Culture,” in Highways and Buyways, ed. Russell W. Belk (Provo,
34. John F. Sherry, Jr., “Gift Giving in Anthropological Perspective,” Journal of Consumer UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1991): 178–215. See also Russell W.
Research 10 (September 1983): 157–168. Belk, “Acquiring, Possessing, and Collecting: Fundamental Processes in
35. Cecilie Rohwedder, “For a Delicate Sale, a Retailer Deploys ‘Stocking Fellas,’” Consumer Behavior,” in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives,
The Wall Street Journal (December 21, 2006): A1. eds. Ronald F. Bush and Shelby D. Hunt (Chicago: American Marketing
Association, 1982): 85–90; Werner Muensterberg, Collecting: An Unruly Passion
36. Daniel Goleman, “What’s under the Tree? Clues to a Relationship,” The New York (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994); Melanie Wallendorf and Eric J.
Times (December 19, 1989): C1. Arnould, “‘My Favorite Things’: A Cross-cultural Inquiry into Object Attachment,
37. John F. Sherry, Jr., Mary Ann McGrath, and Sidney J. Levy, “The Dark Side of the Gift,” Possessiveness, and Social Linkage,” Journal of Consumer Research 14 (March
Journal of Business Research 28 (November 1993): 225–244. 1988): 531–547.
38. David Glen Mick and Michelle DeMoss, “Self-Gifts: Phenomenological Insights 58. Quoted in Ruth Ann Smith, “Collecting as Consumption: A Grounded Theory of
from Four Contexts,” Journal of Consumer Research 17 (December 1990): 327; Collecting Behavior,” unpublished manuscript, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
John F. Sherry, Jr., Mary Ann McGrath, and Sidney J. Levy, “Monadic Giving: State University, 1994: 14.
Anatomy of Gifts Given to the Self,” in Contemporary Marketing and Consumer 59. Dan L. Sherrell, Alvin C. Burns, and Melodie R. Phillips, “Fixed Consumption
Behavior: An Anthropological Sourcebook, ed. John F. Sherry, Jr. (New York: Sage, Behavior: The Case of Enduring Acquisition in a Product Category,” in Developments
1995): 399–432. in Marketing Science 14, ed. Robert L. King (1991): 36–40.
39. Quoted in Cynthia Crossen, “Holiday Shoppers’ Refrain: ‘A Merry Christmas to Me,’” 60. Russell W. Belk, “Acquiring, Possessing, and Collecting: Fundamental Processes in
The Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition (December 11, 1997). Consumer Behavior,” in Marketing Theory: Philosophy of Science Perspectives, eds.
40. Colin Camerer, “Gifts as Economic Signals and Social Symbols,” American Journal Ronald F. Bush and Shelby D. Hunt (Chicago: American Marketing Association,
of Sociology 94 (supplement 1988): 5180–5214. 1982): 85–90.
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and Meanings,” in Interpretive Consumer Research, ed. Elizabeth C. Hirschman 76. Paulo Prada and Bruce Orwall, “Disney’s New French Theme Park Serves Wine—and
(Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research, 1989): 168–184. Better Sausage,” The Wall Street Journal Interactive Edition (March 12, 2002).
63. Karen Mizoguchi, “Keeping Up with Kimye! Two Fans of Kim Kardashian and Kanye
77. Laura M. Holson, “The Feng Shui Kingdom,” The New York Times on the Web (April
West Imitate the Fashion Icons by Posting Identical Outfit Pictures on Their Blog,”
25, 2005); Keith Bradsher, “Disneyland for Chinese Offers a Soup and Lands in a
Daily Mail (October 29, 2014), www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-2813529/Kim-
Stew,” The New York Times (June 17, 2005): A1 (2).
Kardashian-Kanye-West-fans-imitate-fashion-icons-posting-nearly-identical-outfit-
pictures-blog.html#ixzz3Y9ppUNMY; Always Elvis Fan Club, www.alwayselvisfanclub. 78. Terry Clark, “International Marketing and National Character: A Review and Proposal
com/about-alwayselvi.html; Gregory E. Miller and Carrie Seim, “The 10 Most Rabid for an Integrative Theory,” Journal of Marketing 54 (October 1990): 66–79.
Celebrity Fan Groups Online,” New York Post (March 4, 2014), http://nypost.com/ 79. Jason Dean, “Beer’s Taiwan Entry Tests Taste for Chinese Products,” The Wall Street
2014/03/04/which-celebrity-has-the-craziest-fans-on-twitter. Journal Interactive Edition (July 4, 2002).
64. George E. Newman, Gil Diesendruck, and Paul Bloom, “Celebrity Contagion and the 80. Laurel Wentz, “Americans Cry ‘Racism’ over Absolut Poster,” Advertising Age 6(2)
Value of Objects,” The Journal of Consumer Research 38 (August): 215–228. (April 14, 2008).
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Forces 60(2) (1981): 354–376; Daniel Q. Voigt, “American Sporting Rituals,” in Rites (New York: Allworth Press, 2001).
and Ceremonies in Popular Culture, ed. Ray B. Browne (Bowling Green, OH: Bowling
Green University Press, 1980): 125–140. 82. Rachel Abrams, “Adapting Listerine to a Global Market,” The New York Times
(September 12, 2014), www.nytimes.com/2014/09/13/business/adapting-
66. www.sierraclub.typepad.com/greenlife/2007/03/10_steps_to_a_g.html, accessed
listerine-to-a-global-market.html?ref=international&_r=0; Jeffrey Lin, “Cheetos
June 23, 2009; www.greenweddings.net, accessed June 23, 2009; Mireya Navarro,
Flavors from Around the World That Makes You Want to Give Up Your American
“How Green Was My Wedding,” The New York Times on the Web (February 11, 2007).
Citizenship,” Foodamentals (June 30, 2014), www.foodamentals.com/cheetos-
67. Dean MacCannell, The Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: flavors-from-around-the-world-that-makes-you-want-to-give-up-your-american-
Schocken Books, 1976). citizenship.
68. Russell W. Belk, Melanie Wallendorf, and John F. Sherry, Jr., “The Sacred and the 83. Shahrzad Warkentin, “What Can We Learn from Coca-Cola’s International Marketing
Profane in Consumer Behavior: Theodicy on the Odyssey,” Journal of Consumer Success?” Smartling (December 18, 2014), www.smartling.com/2014/12/18/what-
Research 16 (June 1989): 1–38. can-we-learn-from-coca-colas-global-marketing-success.
69. Ibid. 84. David Murphy, “Christmas’s Commercial Side Makes Yuletide a Hit in China,” The Wall
70. Deborah Hoffmann, “In Jewelry, Choices Sacred and Profane, Ancient and New,” Street Journal (December 24, 2002), www.wallstreetjournal.com, accessed December 24,
The New York Times (May 7, 1989). 2002.
71. CatholicsComeHome.org, “Catholics Come Home Launches New Website and 85. Miriam Jordan, “India Decides to Put Its Own Spin on Popular Rock, Rap and
Campaigns” (December 13, 2012), www.catholicscomehome.org/catholics-come- Reggae,” The Wall Street Journa l (January 5, 2000), www.wallstreetjournal.com,
home-launches-new-website-and-campaigns. accessed January 5, 2000; Rasul Bailay, “Coca-Cola Recruits Paraplegics for ‘Cola
War’ in India,” The Wall Street Journal (June 10, 1997).
72. Shelly Reese, “Culture Shock,” Marketing Tools (May 1998): 44–49; Steve Rivkin,
“The Name Game Heats Up,” Marketing News (April 22, 1996): 8; David A. Ricks, 86. Rick Wartzman, “When You Translate ‘Got Milk’ for Latinos, What Do You Get?”
“Products That Crashed into the Language Barrier,” Business and Society Review The Wall Street Journal (June 3, 1999).
(Spring 1983): 46–50. 87. Charles Newbery, “Coke Goes Native with New Soft Drink,” Advertising Age
73. Mark Lasswell, “Lost in Translation,” Business (August 2004): 68–70. (December 1, 2003): 34.
C H APTER
15
The Creation and Diffusion
of Culture
Chapter Objectives
1 Understand cultural production as a process by 5 Understand how new products, services, and ideas

which certain styles, products, and trends become spread through a population, and why different types
accepted by popular culture, while others die out. of people are more or less likely to adopt them.
2 Understand the distinction between high and low 6 Understand the way many people and organizations

culture. play a role in the fashion system that creates and
communicates symbolic meaning to consumers.
3 Understand in what way many modern marketers are

reality engineers. 7 Understand various models of fashion that can be

used to predict what products or ideas will catch on
4 Understand the diffusion of innovation as a process and which will not.

whereby a new product, service, or idea spreads
throughout a population.
CULTURAL SELECTION CO 1
This chapter considers how the culture in which we live creates the meanings for everyday
products and how these meanings move through a society to consumers. As Figure 15–1
shows, meaning transfer is largely accomplished by such marketing vehicles as the adver-
tising and fashion industries, which associate consumer goods with symbolic qualities.
These goods, in turn, impart their meanings to individual consumers who use these prod-
ucts to create and express their identities in their daily lives.1 Recall that in Chapter 1 we
learned that one of the fundamental premises of the modern field of consumer behaviour is
that people often buy products not for what they do, but for what they mean. Thus, this
closing chapter brings us full circle, back to the issues regarding the diverse meanings of
consumption considered in Chapter 1.
How Do We Know What’s “In”?

Tory Burch flats. Cage-free eggs. Kesha. High-tech furniture. Postmodern architecture. Vine
videos. Tablets. Emojis. Real Housewives. Selfies. Electric cars. Costa Rican ecotours. We World of
inhabit a world that brims with different styles and possibilities. The food we eat, the cars Warcrafters
we drive, the clothes we wear, the places we live and work, the music we listen to—the ebb
and flow of popular culture and fashion influences all of them.
At times, we may feel overwhelmed by the sheer number of choices available to us in
the marketplace. A person who wants to choose something as routine as a necktie or a
colour of lipstick may look at hundreds of alternatives! Despite this seeming abundance,
however, the options available to us at any point in time actually represent only a small
fraction of the total set of possibilities. Figure 15–2 shows that when we select certain
FIGURE 15–1
The Movement of Meaning
INSTRUMENTS DESTINATIONS
OF MOVEMENT OF MOVEMENT
Cultural Values and Symbols

Advertising and
Fashion Systems
Consumer Goods
Consumption
Rituals
Individual Consumer
Source: Adapted from Grant McCracken, “Culture and Consumption: A Theoretical Account of the Structure and Movement of the Cultural Meaning
of Consumer Goods,” Journal of Consumer Research 13 (June 1986): 72. Reprinted with permission of The University of Chicago Press.
alternatives over others—be they automobiles, dresses, computers, recording artists,

political candidates, religions, even research methodologies—our choice is the culmi-
nation of a complex filtration process that resembles a funnel. Many possibilities ini-
tially compete for adoption; most drop out of the mix as they make their way down the
path from conception to consumption. We call this winnowing-out process cultural
selection.
Our tastes and product preferences are not formed in a vacuum. Choices are
driven by the images presented to us in mass media, by our observations of those
around us, and by our desire to live in the fantasy worlds created by marketers. These
options are constantly evolving and changing. A clothing style or type of cuisine that
is “hot” one year may be “out” the next.
Hip hop was developed way back in 1968 by a DJ in the Bronx, New York. The
music and fashions that developed around it grew over the years and began to garner
mainstream status when Columbia Records bought the Def Jam record label in 1985.
By the mid-2000s, entrepreneurs had branched out into other categories, including
sports (Jay Z became part owner of what is now The Brooklyn Nets), beverages (Nelly
launched Pimp Juice, an energy drink), and fragrances (Queen by Queen Latifah, Pink
Friday by Nicki Minaj, Girl by Pharrell Williams). Ghostface Killah sold a $500 action
figure of himself; it came with a mixtape, a real 14k-gold chain, and a chalice lined
with Swarovski crystals. Eventually hip hop grew beyond its American roots as artists
in other countries (even an Aborigine in Australia) developed their own interpreta-
tions. The widespread adoption of hip-hop style illustrates some of the characteristics
of fashion and popular culture:
• Styles are often rooted in and reflect deeper societal trends (e.g., politics and
social conditions).
• Styles usually originate as an interplay between the deliberate inventions of
designers and businesspeople and the spontaneous actions of ordinary consum-
ers. Designers, manufacturers, and merchandisers who can anticipate what con-
sumers want will succeed in the marketplace. In the process, they also help to fuel
the fire by encouraging mass distribution of the item.
• These trends can travel widely, often between countries and continents.
• Influential people in the media play a large role in deciding which of these trends
will succeed.
C H A P T E R 1 5 The Creation and Diffusion of Culture 443
FIGURE 15–2
The Culture Production Process
CULTURE PRODUCTION PROCESS
Symbol Pool
Creative Managerial
Subsystem Subsystem
Culture
Consumer Innovation/Grassroots Movement

Production
System
Communications
Subsystem
Cultural Gatekeepers
Formal Gatekeepers Informal Gatekeepers
Casting Directors Opinion Leaders
Radio Programmers Friends
Textbook Authors Spouse
Retail Buyers Family Members
Restaurant Reviewers Neighbours
Consumer
Source: Adapted from Michael R. Solomon, “Building Up and Breaking Down: The Impact of Cultural Sorting on Symbolic Consumption,” in
Research in Consumer Behavior, eds. J. Sheth and E.C. Hirschman (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1988): 325–351.
• A style begins as a risky or unique statement by a relatively small group of people

and spreads as others become increasingly aware of the style and feel confident
about trying it.
• Most styles eventually wear out, as people continually search for new ways to
express themselves and marketers scramble to keep up with these desires.
• The cultural selection process never stops, so when styles become obsolete others
wait to replace them in popular culture.
Culture Production Systems

No single designer, company, or advertising agency is totally responsible for creating
popular culture. Every product, whether it be a hit song, a car, or a new clothing style,
requires the input of many different participants. The set of individuals and organiza-
tions responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product is a culture production
system (CPS).2
The nature of these systems helps to determine the types of products that eventu-
ally emerge from them. Important factors include the number and diversity of com-
peting systems and the amount of innovation versus conformity that is encouraged.
Power Pasta links its brand to elements of

popular culture.
Courtesy of Noah’s Ark Communications Ltd.
For example, an analysis of the country-and-western music industry has shown that
the hit songs it produces tend to be similar to one another during time periods when
it is dominated by a few large companies, whereas there is more diversity when a
greater number of producers are competing within the same market.3
A culture production system has three major subsystems: (1) a creative subsystem
responsible for generating new symbols or products; (2) a managerial subsystem
responsible for selecting, making tangible, mass-producing, and managing the distri-
bution of new symbols or products; and (3) a communications subsystem responsible
for giving meaning to new products and providing them with symbolic sets of attri-
butes that are communicated to consumers.
An example of the three components of a culture production system for a
music release is (1) a singer (e.g., Beyoncé, a creative subsystem); (2) a company
(e.g., Columbia Records, a managerial subsystem, distributes Beyoncé’s albums); and
(3) the advertising agencies and corporations such as PepsiCo that work with the
singer’s company, Parkwood Entertainment, to promote her music and arrange for
her appearances in venues like the Super Bowl and even on a limited-edition set of
Pepsi cans.4 Table 15–1 illustrates some of the many cultural specialists that create a
hit song.
CU LT U R A L G ATEK EEPER S
Many judges or “tastemakers” influence the products that are eventually offered to
consumers. These judges, or cultural gatekeepers, filter the overflow of information
and materials intended for consumers. Gatekeepers include movie, restaurant, and
car reviewers, interior designers, DJs, retail buyers, magazine editors, and increas-
ingly a fan base that obsessively follows and shares the latest gossip, styles, film
plots, and other pieces of popular culture. Collectively, this set of agents is known as
the throughput sector.5
Sites that encourage consumer input into what final products make it to market,
such as Threadless, ModCloth, and Quirky, illustrate the growing influence that cus-
tomers and fans play as cultural gatekeepers. As we saw in Chapter 11, they use a
crowdsourcing model that empowers buyers to determine what styles they should
actually manufacture and sell. Indeed, the fashion site Moda Operanda labels itself a
pretailer; it works with an exclusive base of fashionistas to encourage designers to
manufacture dress designs that appeared on catwalks so that they can be purchased by
people outside the fashion industry.6
TABLE 15–1
Cultural Specialists in the Music Industry

Specialist Functions
Songwriter(s) Compose music and lyrics; must reconcile artistic

preferences with estimates of what will succeed in the
marketplace.
Performer(s) Interpret music and lyrics; may be formed spontaneously,
or may be packaged by an agent to appeal to a predeter-
mined market.
Teachers and coaches Develop and refine performers’ talents.
Agent(s) Represent performers to record companies.
A&R (artist and repertoire) Acquire artists for label executive(s).
Publicists, image consultants, Create an image for the performer that is transmitted to
designers, stylists the buying public.
Recording technicians, producers Create a recording to be sold.
Marketing executives Make strategic decisions regarding performers’ appearances,
ticket pricing, promotional strategies, and so on.
Video director(s) Interpret the song visually to create a music video that will
help promote the album.
Music reviewers Evaluate the merits of a recording for listeners.
DJs, radio program directors Decide which songs will be given airplay and be placed in
the radio’s regular rotations.
We’ve already encountered numerous examples of the mini-revolution we call

consumer-generated content; companies today pay attention to everyday people’s
opinions when they design new products, create advertising messages, or improve
upon shopping experiences. The rise of social networking changes the basic process of
innovation. This shift from a top-down to a bottom-up process is a symptom of the
transition away from marketerspace, in which companies exert total control over the
market. Instead, we now live in consumerspace, in which customers act as partners
with companies to decide what the marketplace will offer.7
Companies such as Threadless illustrate the

growing influence that customers and fans
play as cultural gatekeepers. Threadless
uses a crowdsourcing model that empowers
consumers to determine what styles should
be manufactured and sold.
Courtesy of Threadless
This approach is most prevalent in high-tech industries that routinely invite

their most experienced and knowledgeable customers (or lead users) to suggest
ideas. Indeed, it’s common for these people to propose product improvements—
because they have to live with the consequences. According to one estimate, users
rather than manufacturers developed 70 percent of the innovations in the chemi-
cal industry!8
Other organizations, such as Starbucks and Procter & Gamble, utilize specific
websites to source customer input on product development efforts. My Starbucks
Idea (http://mystarbucksidea.force.com) is a website at which loyal Starbucks
customers can provide ideas and suggestions to the company on everything from
current product offerings to new product ideas that might be viable. At Innocen-
tive.com, Procter & Gamble posts current problems and roadblocks it has with new
products it is developing. Customers who can solve or help out on the identified
issue are financially compensated and receive social recognition for their ideas
and solutions.
CO 2 High Culture and Popular Culture

Question: What do Beethoven and Kanye West have in common? Although both the
famous composer and the hip-hop singer are associated with music, many would
argue that the similarity stops there. Culture production systems create many
diverse kinds of products, but some basic distinctions can be offered regarding their
characteristics.
One distinction can be made between arts and crafts.9 An art product is viewed
primarily as an object of aesthetic contemplation without any functional value. A craft
product (e.g., a ceramic ashtray or handcrafted fishing lure), in contrast, is admired
because of the beauty with which it performs some function. A piece of art is original,
subtle, and valuable and is associated with the elite of society. A craft tends to follow
a formula that permits rapid production. According to this framework, elite culture is
produced in a purely aesthetic context and is judged by reference to recognized clas-
sics. It is high culture—that is, “serious art.”10
To appreciate this distinction, consider the phenomenal success of the late artist
Thomas Kinkade. Ten million digital reproductions of his work have been sold. The
pictures are manufactured at a factory in California, where workers reproduce a digital
photograph of each original painting thousands of times onto thin plastic film that
they then glue to canvases. Then “highlighters” sit along an assembly line where they
dab oil paint onto set spots. Each of the 10 000 pieces the factory produces each month
is signed in ink containing drops of the artist’s blood, although he never actually
touched most of these works. Kinkade also licensed images that appear on coffee
mugs, La-Z-Boy recliners, and even a romance novel cover.11
The distinction between high and low culture—high art versus low art—is not
as clear as it may at first appear. In addition to the possible class bias that drives
such a distinction (i.e., we assume that the rich have culture while the poor do
not), high and low culture are blending in interesting ways. As well as selling
appliances, tires, and cereals by the case, the warehouse club Costco stocks fine
art, including limited-edition lithographs by Pablo Picasso, Marc Chagall, and Joan
Miró.12 Popular culture reflects the world around us, and this phenomenon touches
both rich and poor.
Marketers often incorporate high-art imagery to promote products. They may
sponsor artistic events to build public goodwill or feature works of art on shopping
bags.13 When observers from Toyota watched customers in luxury-car showrooms, the
company found that these consumers tended to view cars as art objects. This theme
was then used in an ad for the Lexus with the caption “Until now, the only fine arts we
supported were sculpture, painting, and music.”14
As I See It
There is a paradoxical relation- body, with essentially a visual, aural, olfactory, gustatory, and
ship between the art world and tactile cascade of sensory responses. In addition, bodies
the glamorous world of fashion. move, sense, touch, smell, taste, and act in conjunction with
Art (notwithstanding Andy thought and speech. By focusing on metaphors we are able to
Warhol) is generally viewed
show how perception and imagination are linked. In order to
as timeless and enduring, grasp how embodied cognition occurs over time within cul-
Courtesy of Annamma Joy
whereas, in its constant pursuit tural contexts that are, by nature, dynamic and ever-evolving,
of novelty, we know that fash- we also use the concept of conceptual integration, a blending
ion is not forever. The only con- of elements in one’s unique cognitive processes. How we
stant in the fashion world is respond to aesthetic stimuli is thus in part predetermined by
change, with everyone wanting our own personal stock of framing devices—a kaleidoscopic
Annamma Joy, Faculty of Management,
to be an innovator. Our research swirl of expectations, cultural beliefs, and predispositions,
UBC Okanagan
explores the ways in which coloured and shaped by our individual experiences within
consumers experience the aes- specific cultural contexts.
thetics of fashion and art. While the market only partly drives In our study of the aesthetics of luxury fashion and iden-
the art world, commerce reigns supreme in fashion, even as tity formation, 5 we investigate the phenomenon of luxury
the two worlds overlap, with luxury fashion designers such as clothing as wearable art, and its relationship to body image
Jean Paul Gaultier frequently, and perhaps deservedly, attain- and self-identity. Fashion might be viewed as performance;
ing the exalted status of artists. We investigate how consumers performance requires moving bodies such as the moving bod-
experience aesthetics as they do within both worlds, from the ies of models. How they sashay down the catwalk is as impor-
impact of advertising to that of deeply ingrained cultural asso- tant as how they look. However, research such as ours must
ciations, and their relationship to the body. Because sensory inevitably confront the ambivalence and tensions derived
perceptions and emotions are central to aesthetic judgment, from the intersections of the natural body, the idealized body,
the body itself must be key in any discussion regarding the and the imagined body. Often, models are blamed for acting
aesthetics of consumption. as role models for the general public, who in turn are vulner-
Following Holbrook and Hirschman’s 1982 study 1 on able to problems such as eating disorders. The relationship
hedonic experiences, aesthetic experiences became recog- between fashion and identity is complex, continuously chang-
nized as a valid area of research. Pine and Gilmore’s The ing, and enables us to express not only who we are but also
Experience Economy2 introduced the concept of experiential who we might become.6 It is this very ephemeral and dynamic
marketing, with its focus on transformative experiences. In character of identity change, however, that is required in a
most research on sensory experiences, “seeing” has gotten world in which sustainability has become a central concern.7
the most attention, although “hearing” comes in at second Fashion might be dismissed as trivial, but it creates empires
place; the two are generally considered higher-order senses. and it spreads.
Touch, taste, and smell, on the other hand, have been catego- Studies on fashion and art such as ours focus on consumer
rized as the “lower senses,” and were not really explored in experiences, and stand as a corrective to the producer’s per-
studies of the body and sensual experiences. While notewor- spective of consumption that dominates the discourse of experi-
thy studies of museum experiences have focused on “seeing” ence. Gauging holistically the ways consumers interact with the
as the primary mode of understanding art,3 in our own studies marketplace must inevitably lead researchers to the role of the
on art experiences 4 we suggest a different approach. In body. It is an elemental truth, yet one too often neglected: We
response to perceiving an object, consumers can summon a see not only with our eyes, but also with our entire beings,
variety of sensations, courtesy of their individual imagined including our deepest inner selves.
1Morris Holbrook and Elizabeth Hirschman, “The Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings and Fun,” Journal of Consumer Research 9 (September
1982): 132–140.
2 Joseph Pine and James Gilmore, The Experience Economy: Work Is Theatre and Every Business a Stage (Boston: Harvard Business School Press, 1999).
3 Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi and Rick Robinson, The Art of Seeing (Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum, 1990).
4Annamma Joy and John F. Sherry, Jr., “Speaking of Art as Embodied Imagination: A Multisensory Approach to Understanding Aesthetic Experience,” Journal of Consumer
Research 30 (2003): 259–282.
5Alladi Venkatesh, Annamma Joy, John F. Sherry, Jr., and Jonathan Deschenes, “The Aesthetics of Luxury Fashion, Body, and Identity Formation,” Journal of Consumer
Psychology 20(4) (2010): 459–470.
6 Ien Ang, “Identity Blues” in Without Guarantees: In Honor of Stuart Hall, eds. Paul Gilroy, Lawrence Grossberg, and Angela McRobbie (London: Verso, 2000).
7Annamma Joy, John F Sherry., Jr, Alladi Venkatesh, Jeff Wang, and Ricky Chan, “Fast Fashion, Sustainability, and the Ethical Appeal of Luxury Brands,” Fashion Theory:
The Journal of Dress, Body and Culture, in press.
C U LT U R A L FO R MU LAE
Moviegoers won’t be surprised to learn that there’s not that much new in theatres
today. The majority of blockbuster movies are sequels, prequels, or adaptations of suc-
cessful franchises that include Lego, Harry Potter, Star Wars, Marvel Comics, even Fast
and Furious. This is a steadily increasing trend: One analysis found that while in 1984
about 59 percent of movies from major studios were based upon original stories, today
this proportion is less than 25 percent.15 These sequels are popular, in part, because
they stick to a set of rules for the storyline that we know works. Many popular art
forms, such as detective stories or science fiction, generally follow a cultural formula,
where certain roles and props often occur consistently.16 Romance novels are an
extreme case of a cultural formula. Computer programs even allow users to “write”
their own romances by systematically varying certain set elements of the story.17
CO 3 Many of the environments in which we find ourselves, whether shopping malls,
sports stadiums, or theme parks, are composed at least partly of images and characters
drawn from products, marketing campaigns, or the mass media. Reality engineering
occurs as elements of popular culture are appropriated by marketers and converted to
vehicles for promotional strategies.18 It’s hard to know what’s real anymore; even
“used jeans” are created by applying chemical washes or using sandpaper and other
techniques to make a new pair of jeans look like they’re ready for retirement. The
industry even has a term for this practice that sums up the contradiction: new vin-
tage!19 Reality engineers have many tools at their disposal; they plant products in
movies, pump scents into offices and stores, attach video monitors in the backs of
taxicabs, buy ad space on police patrol cars, or film faked “documentaries” such as
The Blair Witch Project.20 This process is accelerating—historical analyses of Broad-
way plays, best-selling novels, and the lyrics of hit songs, for example, clearly show
large increases in the use of real brand names over time.21 Media images appear to
exert significant influence on consumers’ perceptions of reality, affecting viewers’
notions about such issues as dating behaviour, racial stereotypes, and occupational
status.22 Studies of the cultivation hypothesis, which suggests that the media has the
ability to distort consumers’ perceptions of reality, have shown that consumers who
watch a lot of television tend to overestimate the degree of affluence in the country.
These effects also extend to such areas as perceptions of the amount of violence in a
culture.23 The media also tends to exaggerate or distort the frequency of behaviours
such as drinking and smoking.24
Product Placement
When the new James Bond movie, Spectre, came out in 2015, the heroes and villains
chased one another in flashy cars that included an Aston Martin, Range Rover, and
Jaguar C-X75.25 A music video for the Jennifer Lopez song “Live It Up” (featuring
Pitbull) hyped Swarovski, Nokia, Ice Watches, and Beluga vodka. Apple took top
honours in 2014 movie product placements; its products appeared in about one-
quarter of all number-one box office hits during the year, which ran the gamut from
Birdman to Sex Tape. Target stores played a role in episodes of the CW’s Jane the
Virgin TV show, and a Toyota car was written into the plot of an episode of ABC’s
Modern Family.26
Product placement is the insertion of real products in movies, TV shows, books,
and plays. Many types of products play starring (or at least supporting) roles in our cul-
ture.27 For example, Lady Gaga prominently shows off a Virgin Mobile phone, Miracle
Whip dressing, and several other brands in her hit video “Telephone.”28 Today, real
products pop up everywhere. Many are well-established brands that lend an aura of
realism to the action, while others are upstarts that benefit tremendously from the expo-
sure. For example, in the movie version of Sex and the City, Carrie’s assistant admits
that she “borrows” her pricey handbags from a rental website called Bag Borrow or
Steal. The company’s head of marketing commented, “It’s like the Good Housekeeping
Seal of Approval. It gives us instant credibility and recognition.”29
Product placement is by no means a casual process: Marketers pay about

$25 billion per year to plug their brands in TV shows and movies. Several firms Consumers
in Focus
specialize in arranging these appearances; if they’re lucky they manage to do it on
the cheap when they get a client’s product noticed by prop masters who work on
the shows. For example, in a cafeteria scene during an episode of Grey’s Anatomy it
How are consumers affected by the strategic
was no coincidence that the character Izzie Stevens happened to drink a bottle of
placement of marketing messages? One of the
Izze Sparkling Pomegranate fruit beverage. The placement company that represents
most controversial intersections between mar-
PepsiCo paid nothing to insert the prop in this case, but it probably didn’t get off so keting and society occurs when companies pro-
easily when the new brand also showed up in HBO’s Entourage and CBS’s The Big vide “educational materials” to schools.33
Bang Theory.30 Many firms, including Nike, Hershey, Crayola,
Today, most major releases brim with real products, even though a majority of Nintendo, and Foot Locker, provide free book
consumers believe that the line between advertising and programming is becom- covers swathed in ads. Standard art supplies,
ing too fuzzy and distracting (though, as we might expect, concerns about this blocks, trucks, and dolls get supplemented
blurring of boundaries are more pronounced among older people than younger).31 with Milton Bradley and Care Bears work-
A study reported that consumers respond well to placements when the show’s plot sheets, Purell hand-cleaning activities, and
makes the product’s benefit clear. Perhaps the greatest product placement success Pizza Hut reading programs. Disney advertised
story was Reese’s Pieces; sales jumped by 65 percent after the candy appeared in its Little Einsteins DVDs for preschoolers on the
the film E.T.32 paper liners of examination tables in 2000
Some researchers claim that product placement aids consumer decision making pediatricians’ offices, and Hasbro introduced
because the familiarity of these props creates a sense of cultural belonging while gen- the Play-Doh McDonald’s Restaurant Playset
erating feelings of emotional security. Another study found that placements consis- (with which kids can “extrude Play-Doh shakes
tent with a show’s plot do enhance brand attitudes, but incongruent placements that and fries”) and the Play-Doh George Foreman
aren’t consistent with the plot affect brand attitudes negatively because they seem out Grill. Clearasil provides sample packets of its
of place.34 acne medication along with brochures to edu-
cate high school students about proper skin
care; the handouts also direct students to the
AD VE R GA MING Clearasil website, where they can register for
If you roar down the streets in the Need for Speed Underground 2 video racing game, music downloads and iPods.
you’ll pass a Best Buy store as well as billboards that hawk Old Spice and Burger King. Other companies contract with schools to
Chrysler devotes 10 percent of its overall marketing budget to planting Chryslers, run focus groups with their students during the
Jeeps, and Dodge cars in more than a dozen video games.35 school day to get reactions on new product
About three-quarters of consumers now play video games, yet to many marketers ideas. Some schools encourage kids to practise
the idea of integrating their brands with the stories that games tell is still a well-kept their math by counting Tootsie Rolls, and the
secret. Others, including Axe, MINI Cooper, and Burger King, have figured out the kids use reading software sporting the logos of
benefits of advertising in video games; they create game narratives that immerse play- Kmart, Coke, Pepsi, and Cap’n Crunch cereal.
ers in the action. Orbitz offers playable banner games that result in the highest click- Corporate involvement with schools is hardly
through rate of any kind of advertising the online travel site does. However, these new—in the 1920s, Ivory Soap sponsored
soap-carving competitions for students. But
linkages sometimes draw criticism if they seem to encourage violent behaviour.
the level of intrusion is sharply increasing as
Recently, as the game maker Electronic Arts took steps to launch its Medal of Honor
companies scramble to compensate for the
Warfighter game, the company put up a website that included links to the catalogues
decrease in children’s viewership of television
of the manufacturers of the real kinds of guns, knives, and combat-style gear the game
on Saturday mornings and weekday afternoons
includes, such as a powerful sniper’s rifle and accessories for assault weapons. After
and try to compete with videos and computer
gamers protested, EA disabled the links.36
games for kids’ attention. Many educators
Even so, it’s likely that the future is bright for advergaming, in which online argue that these materials are a godsend for
games merge with interactive advertisements that let companies target specific types resource-poor schools that otherwise could not
of consumers. These placements can be short exposures, such as a billboard that provide computers and other goodies to their
appears around a racetrack, or they can take the form of branded entertainment and students. However, concerned parents have
integrate the brand directly into the action. For example, a game that Dairy Queen complained about the invasion of branding into
helped to create, called DQ Tycoon, lets players run their own fast-food franchise. The their children’s education.
game requires players to race against the clock to prepare Peanut Buster Parfaits, take
orders, restock the refrigerator, and dip cones.37
Why is this new medium so hot?38
• Compared to a 30-second TV spot, advertisers can get viewers’ attention for a much
longer time. Players spend an average of 5 to 7 minutes on an advergame site.
• Physiological measures confirm that players are highly focused and stimulated
when they play a game.
• Marketers can tailor the nature of the game and the products in it to the profiles of
different users. They can direct strategy games to upscale, educated users, while
they can gear action games to younger users.
• The format gives advertisers great flexibility, because game makers now ship PC
video games with blank spaces in them to insert virtual ads. This allows advertis-
ers to change messages on the fly and pay only for the number of game players
who actually see them. Sony Corp. now allows clients to directly insert online ads
into PlayStation 3 games—the in-game ads change over time through a user’s
Internet connection.
• There’s great potential to track usage and conduct marketing research. For exam-
ple, an inaudible audio signal coded into Activision’s Tony Hawk’s Underground
2 skating game on PCs alerts a Nielsen monitoring system every time the test-game
players view Jeep product placements within the game.39
The popularity of user-generated videos on YouTube and other sites creates a
growing market in which advertisers can link ads to these sources as well. This strat-
egy is growing so rapidly that there’s even a new (trademarked) term for it—plinking:
the act of embedding a product or service link in a video.
CO 4 THE DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS

The originators of skateboarding in 1970s Southern California (who were portrayed in
the popular documentary Dogtown and Z-Boys) wouldn’t recognize the sport today. At
that time, boarders were outlaws; as one of the main characters in the film says, “We
get the beat-down from all over. Everywhere we go, man, people hate us.” Nowadays,
more kids ride skateboards than play basketball, and many of them snap up pricey
T-shirts, skate shoes, helmets, and other accessories. In fact, boarders spend almost
six times as much on “soft goods” such as T-shirts, shorts, and sunglasses (about
$4.4 billion in a year) than on hardcore equipment, including the boards themselves.40
The progression of skateboarding from a cult-like activity with rebellious under-
tones to a mainstream hobby mirrors the journey many products and services take
through popular culture. Diffusion of innovations refers to the process whereby a
new product, service, or idea spreads through a population. An innovation is any
product or service that consumers perceive to be new or novel in some way. It may
take the form of an activity (longboarding), a new clothing brand (Ironhead T-shirts),
a new manufacturing technique (the ability to design your own running shoe at Nike.
com), a new variation on an existing product (Parkay Fun Squeeze coloured marga-
rine in electric blue and shocking pink), a new way to deliver a product (ordering
groceries online and having Peapod deliver them to your home), or a new way to
The Toyota “Ideas for Good” campaign

encourages innovation by asking consumers
to submit ideas for new uses for Toyota’s
technologies. Check it out at www.toyota.
com/ideas-for-good.
Image provided courtesy of Toyota Motor Sales,
U.S.A., Inc.
package a current product (Campbell’s Soup at Hand microwaveable soup that comes
in a travel mug).41
If an innovation is successful (most are not!), it spreads through the population.
At first, only a trickle of people decides to try it. Then, more and more consumers
adopt it, until sometimes it seems almost everyone has it—if it’s a “hit.” The rate at
which a product diffuses varies. For example, in each case within 10 years after their
introduction, cable television was used by 40 percent of households, CDs by 35 per-
cent, answering machines by 25 percent, and colour TV sets by 20 percent. It took
radio 30 years to reach 60 million users and television 15 years to reach this number.
In contrast, within three years 90 million people were surfing the Web.42
The social media explosion takes the diffusion process to a whole new level. As
we’ve seen, the media democratization we witness today means there are fundamental
disruptions in the way consumers become aware of new products and the rate at which
these innovations reach their markets. In this section, we’ll step back and examine the
basic process of diffusion.
How Do We Decide to Adopt an Innovation? CO 5
A consumer’s adoption of an innovation resembles the decision-making sequence dis-

cussed in Chapter 9. The person moves through the stages of awareness, information
search, evaluation, trial, and adoption, although the relative importance of each stage
may differ depending on how much is already known about a product as well as
on cultural factors that may affect people’s willingness to try new things.43 A study of
11 European countries found that consumers in individualist cultures are more inno-
vative than consumers in collectivist cultures (see Chapter 14).44
However, even within the same culture not all people adopt an innovation at the
same rate. Some do so quite rapidly, and others never do at all. Consumers can be
placed into approximate categories based on their likelihood of adopting an innova-
tion. The categories of adopters, shown in Figure 15–3, can be related to phases of the
product-life-cycle concept used widely by marketing strategists.
As can be seen in the figure, roughly one-sixth of the population (innovators and
early adopters) are very quick to adopt new products, and one-sixth (laggards) very
slow. The other two-thirds are somewhere in the middle; these represent the mainstream
public, who are interested in new things, but do not want them to be too new. Keep in
mind that the proportion of consumers falling into each category is an estimate; the
actual size of each depends on such factors as the complexity of the product, its cost,
and how much risk is associated with trying it.
Samsung’s “Next Is Now” campaign appeals

to innovators and early adopters who want
to be on the cutting edge with the latest
technology.
Imaginechina via AP Images
FIGURE 15–3
Types of Adopters
j o r it y
Ma
r ly
Ea
PERCENTAGE ADOPTING
La
te
M
or
aj
it y
s
ter
dop
ly A
Ear Lag
2.5% tors gard
Innova s
13.5% 34% 34% 16%
Introduction Growth Maturity Decline
LIFE CYCLE
Even though innovators represent only 2.5 percent of the population, marketers
are always interested in identifying them. These are the brave souls who are always on
the lookout for novel developments and will be the first to try a new offering. Just as
generalized opinion leaders do not appear to exist, innovators tend to be category-
specific as well. A person who is an innovator in one area may even be a laggard in
another. Despite this qualification, we can summarize the profile of someone who’s a
good candidate to be an innovator.45 Not surprisingly, for example, he or she tends to
be a risk-taker. He or she is also likely to have relatively high educational and income
levels and to be socially active.
How do we locate innovators? Ad agencies and market research companies are
always on the prowl for people who keep on top of developing trends. One ad agency
surveys taxi drivers about what they see on the streets every day. Others get more
sophisticated and use the Internet and their global networks to monitor what “people
in the know” do. The agency DDB runs a service it calls SignBank, which collects
thousands of snippets of information from its 13 000 employees around the world
about cultural change in order to advise its clients on what it all means for them. For
example, sign spotters in several markets noticed that dinner-party guests tended to
bring their hosts flowers instead of chocolate because of concerns about health and
obesity—valuable information for a client that makes chocolate.46
Early adopters share many of the same characteristics as innovators, but an impor-
tant difference is their degree of concern for social acceptance. Early adopters are often
a target of marketers because they tend to be opinion leaders with rich social networks
who can spread word of mouth to other consumers. For example, Procter & Gamble
has created an organization called Tremor (www.Tremor.com), whose purpose is to
facilitate word of mouth about different products. The Tremor mandate is to target
early adopters within a given target market (moms, for example), who will spread the
word throughout their networks of friends.
A nationally representative survey conducted with over 10 000 Canadian consum-
ers found that, in terms of media usage, early adopters tend to gravitate to specialty
magazines. Early adopters were more likely to read these magazines, and 88 percent of
them said they find specialty magazines extremely or somewhat useful in introducing
them to new products. Within magazines, the most popular topics were parenting,
health and beauty, and computers. The reasons that specialty magazines are so impor-
tant for early adopters are concrete content and trust. When it comes to content, early
adopters want facts. And to keep their influencer status, they want to trust their source.47
What looks on the surface to be a fairly high-risk adoption by early adopters
(e.g., wearing a skirt three inches above the knee when most people wear them
below the knee) is actually not that risky. Innovators who truly took the fashion risk
have already “field-tested” the style change. We’re likely to find early adopters in
“fashion-forward” stores that feature the latest “hot” designer brands. In contrast,
we’re more likely to find true innovators in small boutiques that carry merchandise
from as-yet-unknown designers.
The early majority refers to the group of consumers likely to adopt an innovation
after it has caught on with the early adopters. They tend to adopt the new innovation
before approximately half of the overall population does. They are more deliberate in
their decision to adopt a new product or idea, and tend to wait to ensure the innova-
tion will truly gain a social acceptance before adopting it. The late majority is simi-
larly deliberative in their adoption of a new product, but are more skeptical of new
innovations and adopt them only after half of the population has already done so.48
The early and late majority often purposely wait to adopt an innovation because they
assume that its technological qualities will be improved, or that its price will fall after
it has been on the market a while.49
According to one consultant, because the mindsets of the innovators/early adopters
and the early/late majority are so different, marketers introducing technological innova-
tions need to cross a “chasm” when appealing to these different groups of consumers.
Because the expectations and goals of consumers who are early on in the adoption curve
(innovators and early adoptors) diverge from those of the majority, marketers should
consider altering their strategy over time to appeal to the relevant target market.50 This
notion applies particularly to innovations that are disruptive or discontinuous in nature,
something discussed in the next section.
Types of Innovations
Innovations can be categorized in terms of the degree to which they demand changes
in behaviour from adopters. Three major types of innovations have been identified,
though these three categories are not absolutes. They refer, in a relative sense, to the
amount of disruption or change an innovation brings to people’s lives.
A continuous innovation refers to a modification of an existing product, as when
General Mills introduced a Honey Nut version of Cheerios or Levi’s promoted shrink-
to-fit jeans. This type of change may be used to set one brand apart from its competi-
tors. Most product innovations are of this type; that is, they are evolutionary rather
The introduction of vehicles with electric

engines by companies such as Tesla
represents a dynamically continuous
innovation strategy.
AP Photo/The Herald-Palladium, Don Campbell
than revolutionary. Small changes are made to position the product, to add line exten-
sions, or merely to alleviate consumer boredom. When a consumer adopts this kind of
new product, he or she has to make only minor changes in her habits.
A dynamically continuous innovation is a more pronounced change in an exist-
ing product, as represented by products such as self-parking cars and credit cards that
you merely have to “tap” to complete a transaction. These innovations have a modest
impact on the way people do things, creating behavioural changes.
A discontinuous innovation creates major changes in the way we live. Major
inventions, such as the airplane, the car, the computer, and the TV set, have radically
changed modern lifestyles. The personal computer supplanted the typewriter, and
created the phenomenon of “telecommuters” by allowing consumers to work out of
their homes. Of course, the cycle continues as new continuous innovations such as
new versions of software are constantly being made for computers, dynamically con-
tinuous innovations such as wireless computer accessories compete for adoption,
and discontinuous innovations such as self-maintaining computerized robots loom
on the horizon.
P R E R E Q U ISITES FO R SU CCESSFU L AD O PTIO N

Regardless of how much behavioural change is demanded by an innovation, several
factors are desirable for a new product to succeed:51
• Compatibility: The innovation should be compatible with consumers’ life-
styles. As one illustration, a manufacturer of personal-care products tried
unsuccessfully several years ago to introduce a cream hair remover for men as a
substitute for razors and shaving cream. This formulation was similar to that
used widely by women to remove hair from their legs. Although the product
was simple and convenient to use, it failed because men were not interested
in a product they perceived to be too feminine and thus threatening to their
masculine self-concepts.
• Trialability: Because an unknown product is accompanied by perceived high risk,
people are more likely to adopt an innovation if they can experiment with it prior
to making a commitment. To reduce risk, companies often choose the expensive
strategy of distributing free “trial-size” samples of new products.
A number of factors can impact whether a

new innovation, such as this SodaStream
product, is adopted by the mainstream
market. By letting consumers test the
product via in-store demonstrations, the
marketers are increasing the trialability as
well as the observability of the product.
Photo by Barry BrecheisenE/Invision for
SodaStream/AP Images
• Complexity: The product should be low in complexity. A product that is easier to

understand and use will be chosen over a competitor’s. This strategy requires less
effort from the consumer, and it also lowers perceived risk.
• Observability: Innovations that are easily observable are more likely to spread,
since this quality makes it more likely that other potential adopters will become
aware of its existence. The rapid proliferation of the iPod occurred in part because
it was easy to observe other people using it and what benefits it could provide.
• Relative advantage: Most importantly, the product should offer relative advan-
tage over alternatives. The consumer must believe that its use will provide a ben-
efit other products cannot offer. Successful products often position themselves on
the basis of a relative advantage vis-à-vis existing products. Energizer Green
Power Batteries are promoted as better for the environment because they contain
less mercury. The Bug Chaser is a wristband containing insect repellent; parents
with young children like it because it is non-toxic and doesn’t stain. In contrast,
Crazy Blue Air Freshener, designed to be added to windshield wiper fluid and
emitting a fragrance when the wipers were turned on, fizzled; people didn’t see
the need for the product and felt there were simpler ways to freshen their cars.
THE FASHION SYSTEM CO 6
The fashion system consists of all those people and organizations involved in creating
symbolic meanings and transferring those meanings to cultural goods. Although peo-
ple tend to equate fashion with clothing, it is important to keep in mind that fashion
processes affect all types of cultural phenomena, including music, art, architecture,
and even science (i.e., certain research topics and scientists are “hot” at a given time).
Even business practices are subject to the fashion process; they evolve and change
depending on which management techniques, such as total quality management or
just-in-time inventory control, are “in vogue.”
Fashion can be thought of as a code, or language, that helps us to decipher these
meanings.52 Unlike a language, however, fashion is context-dependent. The same item
can be interpreted differently by different consumers and in different situations.53 The
meaning of many products is undercoded—that is, there is no one precise meaning,
but rather plenty of room for interpretation.
At the outset, it may be helpful to distinguish among some confusing terms.
Fashion is the process of social diffusion by which a new style is adopted by some
group(s) of consumers. In contrast, a fashion (or style) refers to a particular combi-
nation of attributes. And to be in fashion means that this combination is currently
positively evaluated by some reference group. Thus, the term Danish Modern refers
to particular characteristics of furniture design (i.e., it is a fashion in interior
design); it does not necessarily imply that Danish Modern is a fashion currently
desired by consumers.54
Cultural Categories
The meaning that does get imparted to products reflects underlying cultural catego-
ries, which correspond to the basic ways we characterize the world.55 Our culture
makes distinctions between different times, between leisure and work, between gen-
ders, and so on. The fashion system provides us with products that signify these cate-
gories. For example, the apparel industry gives us clothing to denote certain times
(e.g., evening wear, resort wear), it differentiates between leisure clothes and work
clothes, and it promotes masculine and feminine styles.
These cultural categories affect many different products and styles. As a result,
it is common to find that dominant aspects of a culture at any particular time tend to
be reflected in the design and marketing of very different products. This concept is a
bit hard to grasp, since on the surface a clothing style, say, has little in common with
a piece of furniture or a car. However, an overriding concern with a value such as
achievement or environmentalism can determine the types of products likely to be
accepted by consumers at any given time. These underlying or latent themes then
surface in various aspects of design. A few examples demonstrate how a dominant
fashion motif reverberates across industries:
• Costumes worn by political figures or movie and rock stars can affect the fortunes
of the apparel and accessory industries.
• Michelle Obama singlehandedly sent J.Crew’s sales through the roof, since she
and her kids wear their clothes in many public settings. When the first lady wore
a J.Crew outfit to breakfast with the British prime minister and his wife while in
London, it sold out on the company’s website by 10 o’clock that morning.56
• The Louvre (www.louvre.fr) in Paris was remodelled to include a controversial
glass pyramid at the entrance designed by the architect I.M. Pei. Shortly thereaf-
ter, several designers unveiled pyramid-shaped clothing at Paris fashion shows.57
• At any given time, a small number of colours dominate the design world. Many
companies actually buy colour forecasts from specialists such as Pantone that
rank the top 10 fashion colours for each season. These charts influence mass-
market fashion companies as well as other industries, such as automotive,
home furnishings, and home appliances. A dominant colour often takes years
to emerge.
Despite their unique talents, the members of creative subsystems that attempt to
anticipate the tastes of the buying public of this subsystem are themselves members of
mass culture. Cultural gatekeepers, too, are drawing from a common set of ideas and
symbols and are influenced by the same cultural phenomena as the eventual consum-
ers of their products.
The process by which certain symbolic alternatives are chosen over others has
been called collective selection.58 As with the creative subsystem, members of the
managerial and communications subsystems also seem to develop common frames
of mind. Although products within each category must compete for acceptance in
the marketplace, they can usually be characterized by their adherence to a domi-
nant theme or motif—be it “The Western Look,” “New Wave,” “Danish Modern,” or
“Nouvelle Cuisine.”
CO 7 Behavioural Science Perspectives on Fashion

Fashion is a complex process that operates on many levels. At one extreme, it is a
macro, societal phenomenon affecting many people simultaneously. At the other, it
exerts a personal effect on individual behaviour. A consumer’s purchase decisions are
often motivated by his or her desire to be in fashion. Fashion products are also aes-
thetic objects, and their origins are rooted in art and history. Thus, there are many
perspectives on the origin and diffusion of fashion. Although these cannot be described
in detail here, some major approaches can be briefly summarized.
P S Y C H O L O G ICAL MO D ELS O F FASH IO N

Many psychological factors help to explain why people are motivated to be in fashion.
These include conformity, variety seeking, personal creativity, and sexual attraction.
For example, many consumers seem to have a “need for uniqueness.” These consum-
ers want to be different, but not too different.59 For this reason people often conform to
the basic outlines of a fashion but try to improvise and make a personal statement
within these guidelines.
One of the earliest theories of fashion proposed that “shifting erogenous zones”
accounted for fashion changes, and that different zones become the object of interest
because they reflect societal trends. J.C. Flügel, a disciple of Freud, proposed in the
1920s that sexually charged areas wax and wane to maintain interest and that cloth- Consumers
in Focus
ing styles change to highlight or hide these parts. For example, it was common for
Renaissance-era women to drape their abdomens in fabrics to give a swollen appear-
ance, successful childbearing being a priority in the disease-ridden fourteenth and
The sociological perspective that emphasizes
fifteenth centuries. Interest in the female leg in the 1920s and 1930s coincided with
the tension between dominant and subordinate
women’s new mobility and independence, while the exposure of breasts in the 1970s
groups highlights a basic paradox of fashion: A
signalled a renewed interest in breastfeeding. Breasts were deemphasized in the brand often has cachet because only a select
1980s as women concentrated on careers, but a larger bust size is now more popular group of people own it—either because it is
as women try to combine professional activity with childrearing. expensive or perhaps because only people “in
the know” select it. As more consumers outside
EC O N OMIC MOD E L S O F FA S H ION this inner circle start to adopt it, it is no longer
Economists approach fashion in terms of the model of supply and demand. Items that exclusive and its original meaning is lost.
are in limited supply have high value, while those readily available are less desirable. Therefore, the item is a victim of its own suc-
Rare items command respect and prestige. cess. Popular brands, including Levi Strauss
Thorstein Veblen’s notion of “conspicuous consumption” proposed that the and Harley-Davidson, continue to struggle with
this problem as their core users abandon them
wealthy consume to display their prosperity, for example by wearing expensive
precisely because they gain wider market
(and at times impractical) clothing. As noted in Chapter 13, this approach is some-
acceptance. Some companies, such as the lux-
what outdated, since upscale consumers often engage in parody display, in which
ury car brand Aston Martin, even limit access to
they deliberately adopt formerly low-status or inexpensive products, such as Jeeps
some of their models only to current customers.
or jeans.
One pair of researchers distinguishes
Other factors also influence the demand curve for fashion-related products. These
between two types of non-core users, however:
include a prestige-exclusivity effect, wherein high prices still create high demand, and They describe brand immigrants, who try to
a snob effect, in which lower prices actually reduce demand (“If it’s that cheap, it can’t claim membership within the community of
be any good”).61 users, and brand tourists, who buy the brand
but do not claim membership. They found that
SO C I OLOGIC A L MO DE L S OF FA SH IO N brand immigrants do potentially dilute the
The collective selection model discussed previously is an example of a sociological value of the brand for core users, but brand
approach to fashion. This perspective focuses on the initial adoption of a fashion (idea, tourists do not. Instead they can actually
style, etc.) by a subculture and its subsequent diffusion into society as a whole. Such enhance the value of the brand because their
diffusion often begins with youth subcultures such as the hip-hop segment. Another experimentation with it demonstrates that the
brand has value—but this usage does not
example is the integration of Goth culture into the mainstream. This fashion started as
threaten the identities of the core users. So,
a mode of expressing rebellion by young outcasts who admired nineteenth-century
can a prestige brand have its cake and eat it
too? These findings suggest one strategy: Cre-
ate a museum dedicated to the myth of the
brand, as Louis Vuitton, Valentino, Gucci, and
Nike have done, and allow tourists to look but
not touch.60
Some people argue that consumers are at

the mercy of fashion designers. What do you
think?
Courtesy of Diesel
romantics and who defied conventional styles with their black clothing (often includ-
ing over-the-top fashion statements such as capes, studded collars, and black lipstick)
and punk music of bands such as Marilyn Manson and Bauhaus.62
The trickle-down theory, first proposed in 1904 by Georg Simmel, has been one
of the most influential approaches to understanding fashion. It states that there are
two conflicting forces that drive fashion change. First, subordinate groups try to
adopt the status symbols of the groups above them as they attempt to climb up the
ladder of social mobility. Dominant styles thus originate with the upper classes and
trickle down to those below. However, this is where the second force kicks in: Those
people in the superordinate groups are constantly looking below them on the ladder
to ensure that they are not imitated, and they respond to the attempts of lower classes
to “impersonate” them by adopting even newer fashions. These two processes create
a self-perpetuating cycle of change—the machine that drives fashion.63
In one example of trickle-down effects, Burberry was once known as a brand
only for the upper classes in Britain. In the early 2000s, the brand became increas-
ingly adopted by mainstream consumers and spiked in popularity. However, one
negative consequence of this was that the brand was also adopted by the lower
classes, and actually became associated with “hooligans” being thrown out of
bars for bad behaviour. In reaction to this, Burberry reported reduced production
of branded baseball caps in order to discourage the undesired target market from
wearing the brand.64
The trickle-down theory was quite useful for understanding the process of fashion
changes when applied to a society with a stable class structure that permitted the easy
identification of lower- and upper-class consumers. This task is not so easy in modern
times. In contemporary Western society, this approach must be modified to account
for new developments in mass culture:65
• A perspective based on class structure cannot account for the wide range of styles
that are simultaneously made available in our society. We have many more
choices today because of technological advances that let manufacturers drasti-
cally speed up production times and real-time media that keep us informed of
style changes in minutes. Stores such as Zara, Topshop, and H&M can replenish
their inventories in weeks rather than months. Suburban tweens watch Much
Music, chat on Facebook, or browse the virtual world Stardoll.com to stay on top
of the latest trends; mass fashion thus replaces elite fashion because our media
allow many market segments to learn about a style simultaneously.
• Consumers tend to be more influenced by opinion leaders who are similar to
them. As a result, each social group has its own fashion innovators who deter-
mine fashion trends. It is often more accurate to speak of a trickle-across effect, by
which fashions diffuse horizontally among members of the same social group.66
• Finally, current fashions often originate with the lower classes and trickle up.
Grassroots innovators are typically people who lack prestige in the dominant cul-
ture (such as urban youth). Since they are less concerned with maintaining the
status quo, they are more free to innovate and take risks.67 The integration of hip-
hop’s influence on mainstream vocabulary and fashion illustrates how trickle-up
effects can occur.
A “Medical” Model of Fashion

For years, lowly ballet flats were shoes for dancers. Suddenly the shoe became a fash-
ion statement even though nothing was done to promote this product. Why did this
style diffuse through the population so quickly? Meme theory has been proposed to
explain this process using a medical metaphor. A meme is an idea or product that
enters the consciousness of people over time—examples include tunes, catchphrases
(“You’re fired!”), or styles like ballet flats. In this view, memes spread among consum-
ers in a geometric progression, just as a virus starts off small and steadily infects
increasing numbers of people until it becomes an epidemic. Memes “leap” from brain
to brain via a process of imitation.
The memes that survive tend to be distinctive and memorable, and the hardiest
ones often combine aspects of prior memes. For example, the Star Wars movies evoked
prior memes relating to Arthurian legend, religion, heroic youth, and 1930s adventure
serials. Indeed, George Lucas studied comparative religion and mythology as he pre-
pared his first draft of the Star Wars saga, “The Story of Mace Windu.”68
More generally, the diffusion of most products seems to follow the same basic
path. The product is initially used by a few people, but change happens quite rapidly
when the process reaches the moment of critical mass—which one author has called
the tipping point.69 Do you remember when you first heard of Instagram or Vine? And
marketers are quick to capitalize on memes. For example, Taylor Swift trademarked
several phrases from her album 1989, including “Party like it’s 1989,” “this sick beat,”
and “nice to meet you, where you been.”70
Cycles of Fashion Adoption

Although the longevity of a particular style can range from a month to a century, fash-
ions tend to flow in a predictable sequence. The fashion life cycle is quite similar to
the more familiar product life cycle. An item or idea progresses through basic stages
from birth to death, as shown in Figure 15–4.
The diffusion process discussed earlier is intimately related to the popularity of
fashion-related items. To illustrate how this process works, consider how the fash-
ion acceptance cycle works in the popular music business. In the introduction stage
a song is listened to by a small number of music innovators. It may be played in
clubs or on “cutting-edge” university radio stations (which is exactly how “grunge
rock” groups such as Nirvana got their start). During the acceptance stage the song
enjoys increased social visibility and acceptance by large segments of the popula-
tion. A song may get wide airplay and rise up the iTunes charts “like a bullet.” In the
FIGURE 15–4
Comparison of the Acceptance Cycles of Fads, Fashions, and Classics
C l a s s ic
NUMBER OF ADOPTERS
Fa
sh
io
n
d
Fa
TIME
Source: Based on The Social Psychology of Clothing by Susan Kaiser. © 1985 by Macmillan College.
FIGURE 15–5
A Normal Fashion Cycle
4. G e n er
a
a c c e pta n c l
n e
ti o
e ra
el 5.
cc D
ec
3.
li n
e
ise
R
2.
6. O
bso
lesce
ation nce
1. Innov
Introduction Stages Acceptance Stages Regression Stages
Source: Based on The Social Psychology of Clothing by Susan Kaiser. © 1985 by Macmillan College.
regression stage the item reaches a state of social saturation as it becomes overused,
and eventually it sinks into decline and obsolescence as new songs rise to take its
place. A hit song may be played once an hour on a Top 40 station for several weeks.
At some point, though, people tend to get sick of it and focus their attention on
newer releases.
Figure 15–5 illustrates that fashions are characterized by slow acceptance at the
beginning, which (if the fashion is to “make it”) rapidly accelerates and then tapers
off. Different classes of fashion can be identified by considering the relative length of
the fashion acceptance cycle. Although many fashions exhibit a moderate cycle, tak-
ing several years to work their way through the stages of acceptance and decline, oth-
ers are extremely long-lived or short-lived.
A classic is a fashion with an extremely long acceptance cycle. It is in a sense
“antifashion,” since it guarantees stability and low risk to the purchaser for a long
period of time. Keds sneakers, introduced in 1917, have been successful because
they appeal to those who are turned off by the high-fashion, trendy appeal of other
mainstream brands. When consumers in focus groups were asked to project what
kind of building Keds would be, a common response was a country house with a
white picket fence. In other words, the shoes are seen as a stable, classic product. In
contrast, Nikes were often described as steel-and-glass skyscrapers, reflecting their
more modernistic image.71
A fad is a very short-lived fashion. Fads are usually adopted by relatively few
people. Adopters may all belong to a common subculture; the fad “trickles across”
members but rarely breaks out of that specific group. Some successful fad products
include hula hoops, jelly bracelets, Pogs, and trucker hats. Fads often share the
following important characteristics:72
• The fad is non-utilitarian; it does not perform any meaningful function.
• The fad is often adopted on impulse; people do not undergo stages of rational
decision making before joining in.
• The fad diffuses rapidly, gains quick acceptance, and is short-lived.
FA D O R T R EN D ?
The first company to identify a trend and act on it has an advantage, whether the
firm is Starbucks (gourmet coffee), Nabisco (Snackwells low-fat cookies and crack-
ers), or Taco Bell (value pricing). Although nothing is certain, some guidelines help
Taking a look at the definitions on this page,

how would you characterize Crocs? Do you
think they are just a fad?
Cate Gillon/Getty Images
to predict whether the innovation will endure as a long-term trend or whether it is

just a fad:73
• Does it fit with basic lifestyle changes? If a new hairstyle is hard to care for, this
innovation will not be consistent with women’s increasing time demands. On the
other hand, the movement to shorter-term vacations is more likely to last, since
this innovation makes trip planning easier for harried consumers.
• What are the benefits? The switch to poultry and fish from beef came about
because these meats are healthier, so a real benefit was evident.
• Can it be personalized? Enduring trends tend to accommodate a desire for indi-
viduality, while styles such as mohawk haircuts or the grunge look are inflexible
and don’t allow people to express themselves.
• Is it a trend or a side effect? An increased interest in exercise is part of a basic
trend toward health-consciousness, while the specific form of exercise that is “in”
at any given time will vary (e.g., low-impact aerobics versus inline skating).
• What other changes have occurred in the market? Sometimes the popularity of
products is influenced by carry-over effects.
• Who has adopted the change? If the innovation is not adopted by working moth-
ers, baby boomers, or some other important market segment, it is not likely to
become a trend.
Chapter Summary
Styles are mirrors that reflect underlying cultural conditions. Innovators and early adopters are quick to adopt new
• The styles prevalent in a culture at any given time often products while laggards are very slow. A consumer’s
reflect underlying political and social conditions. The set decision to adopt a new product depends on his or her
of agents responsible for creating stylistic alternatives is personal characteristics as well as on characteristics
called a culture production system. Factors such as the of the innovation itself. Products stand a better chance
types of people involved in this system and the amount of of being adopted if they demand relatively little change
competition by alternative product forms influence the in behaviour from users, are easy to understand, and
choices that eventually make their way to the marketplace provide a relative advantage compared to existing
for consideration by end consumers. products.
We can distinguish between high and low culture. Many people and organizations play a role in the fashion
system that creates and communicates symbolic meanings
• Culture is often described in terms of high (or elite) forms
to consumers.
and low (or popular) forms. Products of popular culture
tend to follow a cultural formula and contain predictable • The fashion system includes everyone involved in the
components. On the other hand, these distinctions are creation and transference of symbolic meanings. Mean-
blurring in modern society as imagery from “high art” is ings that express common cultural categories (e.g.,
increasingly being incorporated into marketing efforts. gender distinctions) are conveyed by many different
products. New styles tend to be adopted by many people
Many modern marketers are reality engineers. simultaneously in a process known as collective selec-
• Reality engineering occurs as elements of popular culture tion. Perspectives on motivations for adopting new
are appropriated by marketers and converted to vehicles styles include psychological, economic, and sociological
for promotional strategies. These elements include sen- models of fashion.
sory and spatial aspects of everyday existence, whether in
Fashion follows cycles.
the form of products appearing in movies, odours pumped
into offices and stores, billboards, theme parks, or video • Fashions tend to follow cycles that resemble the product
monitors attached to shopping carts. life cycle. The two extremes of fashion adoption—classics
and fads—can be distinguished in terms of the length of
New products, services, and ideas spread through a this cycle.
population; different types of people are more or less likely
to adopt them.
• Diffusion of innovation refers to the process whereby a new
product, service, or idea spreads through a population.
Key Terms
Advergaming p. 449 Cultural gatekeepers p. 444 Laggards p. 451
Art product p. 446 Cultural selection p. 442 Late majority p. 453
Brand immigrant p. 457 Culture production system (CPS) p. 443 Lead user p. 446
Brand tourist p. 457 Diffusion of innovations p. 450 Meme theory p. 458
Classic p. 460 Discontinuous innovation p. 454 Observability p. 455
Collective selection p. 456 Dynamically continuous innovation p. 454 Paradox of fashion p. 457
Compatibility p. 454 Early adopters p. 451 Plinking p. 450
Complexity p. 455 Early majority p. 453 Product placement p. 448
Consumerspace p. 445 Fad p. 460 Reality engineering p. 448
Continuous innovation p. 453 Fashion p. 455 Relative advantage p. 455
Craft product p. 446 Fashion acceptance cycle p. 459 Tipping point p. 459
Cultivation hypothesis p. 448 Fashion system p. 455 Trialability p. 454
Cultural categories p. 455 Innovation p. 450 Trickle-down theory p. 458
Cultural formula p. 448 Innovators p. 451
Review Questions
1. What is collective selection? Give an example. 10. Define innovators, early adopters, and laggards.
2. Describe a culture production system (CPS), and list its 11. Describe the differences among continuous innovations,
three components. What is an example of such a CPS? dynamically continuous innovations, and discontinuous
3. Define a cultural gatekeeper, giving three examples. innovations, providing an example of each. Which type
are consumers least likely to adopt?
4. Describe the difference between arts and crafts.
12. What is the difference among the terms fashion, a fash-
5. What is a cultural formula? Give an example.
ion, and in fashion?
6. What is new vintage? How is this an example of reality
13. Summarize some of the major approaches to understand-
engineering?
ing fashion from the perspectives of psychologists, econ-
7. Define product placement, and list three examples of it. omists, and sociologists.
How is this practice the same as or different from
14. What is the trickle-down effect? List some reasons why it
branded entertainment?
is no longer as valid as it used to be.
8. What is advergaming? Give an example.
15. What is the difference between a fad, a fashion, and a
9. What is the diffusion of innovations? classic fashion life cycle?
Discuss arketed may be harmful to consumers’ health (e.g.,

m
cigarettes) or if they divert needed money away from the
1. Watchdog groups have long decried product placements
purchase of essentials? If you were a trade or health
for blurring the line between content and advertising
official in a third-world country, what guidelines, if any,
without adequately informing viewers. And the networks
might you suggest to regulate the import of luxury goods
themselves appear to be divided on how far they want to
from advanced economies?
open the gate. “You’ve got to wonder when it starts to
destroy the entertainment value,” says one former tele- 5. Comment on the growing practice described as reality
vision executive. How do you see the future of product engineering. Do marketers “own” our culture? Should
placement? Will it get out of hand and create a con- they?
sumer backlash, or is it a valuable alternative to tradi- 6. If you worked in marketing research for a cosmetics
tional advertising? firm, how might you apply the lead user concept to help
2. Is advertising an art or a craft? Which should it be? you identify new product opportunities?
3. Sometimes market research findings influence artistic 7. Many consumers around the world seem to be willing to
decisions, as when a movie ending is reshot to accom- suffer for the sake of fashion. Others argue that we are
modate consumers’ preferences. Many people would merely pawns in the hands of designers who conspire to
most likely oppose this practice, claiming that books, force unwieldy fashions down our throats. What do you
movies, records, or other artistic endeavours should not think? What is and what should be the role of fashion in
be designed merely to conform to what people want to our society? How important is it for people to be in style?
read, see, or hear. What do you think? What are the pros and cons of keeping up with the latest
fashions? Do you believe that we are at the mercy of
4. Due to higher competition and market saturation, mar-
designers?
keters in industrialized countries are increasingly trying
to develop third-world markets by encouraging people in
underdeveloped countries to desire Western products. Experiential Exercises
Asian consumers alone spend $90 billion a year on cig- 8. If you were a consultant to a toy company, what would
arettes, and American tobacco manufacturers continue you forecast as the next big trend in this market? Survey
to push relentlessly into these markets. Cigarette adver- toy stores and watch what kids are playing with today to
tising, often depicting glamorous Western models and help you with your prediction.
settings, is found just about everywhere—on billboards,
9. How might the rise of peer-to-peer music sharing influ-
buses, storefronts, and clothing—and many major sports
ence the structure of the music CPS? One hypothesis is
and cultural events are sponsored by tobacco compa-
that this method erodes the dominance of the big labels
nies. Some companies even hand out cigarettes and
because listeners are more likely to access music from
gifts in amusement areas, often to preteens. Should this
lesser-known groups. Survey your friends to determine if
practice be encouraged, even if the products being
this is in fact happening. Are they listening to a wider among the roles different characters play (e.g., the hero,
variety of artists, or just downloading more of the big- the evildoer, the temptress)?
time groups? 11. Watch 12 hours of TV shows and keep a log of all the
10. Read several romance or action novels to see if you can product placements you see. What are the dominant
identify a cultural formula at work. Do you see parallels products being inserted into the programs?
CASE STUDY: Marketing in Practice
Energy Aware? The Products

Janice Cheam held the small device in her hand—it had taken The first product Energy Aware developed for the consumer
a number of years, but the first Neurio home intelligence mon- market was named the PowerTab. Designed with the end
itor had finally been manufactured. Janice’s company, Energy consumer in mind, the user-friendly PowerTab was a small
Aware (www.energy-aware.com), had spent thousands of dol- battery-powered in-home display device (approximately five
lars developing the home electronic device, and now it was centimetres by five centimetres) that could be magneti-
truly ready for the marketplace. Janice was excited, but a little cally attached to appliances or rested on countertops. The
bit nervous as well. Would consumers accept the product? PowerTab provided utility customers with wireless real-time
Would they adopt it into their daily lives? Would Neurio make information on power consumption and electricity rates.
the difference in conservation that Janice hoped it would? Roll- Essentially, the PowerTab brought energy monitoring into the
ing the device over in her hand, Janice knew that these ques- home, and gave consumers instant access to the information
tions would all be answered in good time. they needed to make better choices about their energy use.
This initial product was followed by the newly launched
Neurio. Similar to the PowerTab, the Neurio provided energy
Energy Aware consumption information, but it provided information on spe-
Energy Aware was founded in 2005 with a vision to connect cific products in the household in a parsimonious way (i.e.,
people to resource conservation. The products the company through an app on smartphone or tablet displays) and was pro-
had developed centred on in-home energy displays that active in its recommendations to the consumer. Neurio moved
reminded people of the everyday use of energy and resources. the notion of a smart meter to a home intelligence system that
The opportunity for products in the energy consumption space enabled better management of energy consumption in the
was driven by the increasing importance of smarter energy household.
usage in countries throughout the world. Indeed, increasing It was believed that by giving consumers instantaneous
energy demands, climate change, and strict environmental feedback about their electricity use in dollars and cents, as well
regulations had created strong challenges that industry, gov- as specific trade-off information on what each appliance was
ernment, and consumers needed to address. costing, Neurio could help lower a homeowner’s residential
The notion of a “Smart Grid” infrastructure (SMI), a smart energy bills. In fact, studies had shown that instantaneous feed-
metering system of energy consumption, had been forwarded back could reduce energy consumption by up to 20 percent in
by a number of countries as one potential solution to the issue. test sample populations. Since most consumers receive con-
The SMI system provided two-way, real-time communications sumption feedback only at the end of their billing cycle, the
between energy suppliers and consumers. It was argued that daily need to reduce energy waste was easily forgotten or over-
with information transmitted between homes and suppliers, looked. By increasing awareness of the use of household elec-
consumers would be able to make better and more informed tricity and by empowering consumers to proactively make good
choices about their energy consumption, while suppliers could decisions, Neurio helps consumers understand and set house-
better manage load distribution, implement time-of-use billing, hold energy targets, reducing energy waste and saving money.
and provide accurate billing. Smart Grids were expected to Energy Aware had received a number of awards from
increase the efficiency and reliability of energy distribution and industry and government for its efforts, and the media had also
to encourage energy conservation. It was believed that in 2015 provided substantial public relations coverage that had been
over 250 million homes all over the world would have some quite positive. Initial interest in the Neurio product had been
type of smart meter technology. validated by an extremely successful Kickstarter campaign.
Given this, Energy Aware sought to be one of the most Janice hoped to build on the success that the PowerTab had
innovative developers of new technology in the smart meter realized in markets as far away as Australia, Scandinavia, and
space. To meet this goal, it had secured partners in the utility the United States. She was very happy with the progress the
and government sectors that would facilitate the development company had made thus far and with the positive attention she
of products that would best meet this opportunity. had received for the new product.
Next Steps efforts would be the best in facilitating adoption behaviour?

Now that the final prototype of Neurio was complete and the Could she leverage the success of the Kickstarter campaign?
product was ready for market, Janice realized that the next Janice realized that she had a whole new set of challenges set
critical step for her company was to facilitate product adoption. before her.
With limited resources for major communication efforts, she 1. What type of innovation does the Neurio represent? What
knew that the initial good public relations realized by the com- are the implications of your categorization with respect to
pany for the Neurio product needed to be leveraged to facilitate marketing the product?
adoption of the product among consumers. But how? Janice
2. What challenges do you foresee for consumers in adopt-
couldn’t help but think of the public relations coup achieved
ing this type of technology? Why? How can these chal-
when VANOC chose the PowerTab for inclusion in visiting ath-
lenges be overcome?
letes’ apartments during the 2010 Olympics. The Olympic
committee had liked the environmental positioning the com- 3. With respect to adoption, which consumer classification
pany had adopted in its initial communication efforts. The good (e.g., innovators, early adopters, early majority, laggards)
press coverage achieved at this event had resulted in the first will be the most difficult to convince that the Neurio is a
letter of interest from a potential distributor of the PowerTab. product worth adopting? What specific strategies would
Janice knew that to facilitate adoption among end consumers, you utilize in targeting each of these groups?
she needed a win like this one for Neurio. How could she be 4. What type of communication and public relations efforts
strategic in achieving this? And what type of public relations would you recommend to Janice? Why?
No tes
1. Grant McCracken, “Culture and Consumption: A Theoretical Account of the Structure 14. Kim Foltz, “New Species for Study: Consumers in Action,” The New York Times
and Movement of the Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods,” Journal of Consumer (December 18, 1989): A1.
Research 13 (June 1986): 71–84. 15. Adam K. Raymond, “How Unoriginal Is Hollywood? Very—and We’ve Got the Stats to
2. Richard A. Peterson, “The Production of Culture: A Prolegomenon,” in The Production Prove It,” Yahoo! (November 4, 2014).
of Culture, ed. Richard A. Peterson, Sage Contemporary Social Science Issues 16. Arthur A. Berger, Signs in Contemporary Culture: An Introduction to Semiotics
(Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1976): 722. (New York: Longman, 1984).
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from the Popular Music Industry,” Administrative Science Quarterly 16 (1971): Readwrite (January 15, 2013), http://readwrite.com/2013/01/15/why-write-your-
97–107. own-book-when-an-algorithm-can-do-it-for-you.
4. Ben Sisario, “In Beyoncé Deal, Pepsi Focuses on Collaboration,” The New York 18. Michael R. Solomon and Basil G. Englis, “Reality Engineering: Blurring the
Times (December 9, 2012), www.nytimes.com/2012/12/10/business/media/ Boundaries between Marketing and Popular Culture,” Journal of Current Issues and
in-beyonce-deal-pepsi-focuses-on-collaboration.html?smid=tw- Research in Advertising 16(2) (Fall 1994): 1–17.
nytimesmusic&seid=auto&_r=1&.
19. Austin Bunn, “Not Fade Away,” The New York Times on the Web (December 2, 2002).
5. See Paul M. Hirsch, “Processing Fads and Fashions: An Organizational Set Analysis
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APPENDIX II
Careers in Consumer Research

An understanding of consumers is, of course, essential in vir- • Retail managers and merchandisers: A department or
tually every aspect of marketing. To prepare for a career in a store manager must make decisions about such factors as
consumer-related field, consider getting involved in relevant the store’s sales force and how merchandise is displayed
research that one of your professors may be doing. In addi- in the store. He or she must understand the factors that
tion to your consumer behaviour course, be sure to take as add to or subtract from the quality of the customer’s
many courses as possible in other aspects of marketing. Also, experience while in the store.
try to achieve proficiency in statistics and computer skills. • Retail buyers: A buyer purchases merchandise for a store.
Courses in the social sciences, particularly psychology and A good buyer is always “tuned in” to upcoming trends
sociology, are also helpful. and fashions and is sensitive to the wants and needs of
the store’s clientele.
• Public relations: A public relations specialist is respon-
CAREER PATHS sible for maintaining positive public awareness of the
firm and minimizing negative reactions to company
The following list identifies aspects of marketing where activities. Knowledge of how people’s perceptions are
knowledge of consumer behaviour is particularly valuable: influenced by the media is integral to this job.
• Marketing research: Researchers define problems and • Social/Digital media: Social/digital media specialists
collect information needed to resolve them. They typi- work with computer technology to promote a company,
cally design projects, analyze data, present findings, and cause, or idea. Some will work in this role for a company
make recommendations to management. Researchers and some will take on this role as consultants.
may be employed by corporations that maintain their • Marketing analytics: Individuals who specialize in mar-
own market research staffs, or they may work for inde- keting analytics are involved in measuring, managing
pendent market research firms, trade organizations, and analyzing data in ways that can maximize marketing
advertising agencies, the government, or nonprofit orga- performance and return on investment. Those who work
nizations. in analytics may work for a specific organization or they
• Brand management: Managers oversee and direct mar- may work as consultants.
keting efforts for a specific product or line of products.
They oversee all aspects of product strategy, including
research, packaging, sales, promotion, and forecasting.
• Customer affairs: A customer affairs representative acts
THE INDUSTRY ROUTE
as a liaison between the firm and its customers. He or she Many entry-level jobs are available to a competent person
handles complaints and may act as an advocate for the with a bachelor’s degree (though in some fields it is increas-
customer within the company. ingly difficult to get hired without at least a master’s degree).
• Global marketing: As firms globalize their operations A typical starting position for a university graduate in a mar-
they need managers who understand the importance of keting research firm, for example, would be as an assistant
cultural differences and who can adapt strategies to for- project manager. This person assists in the design and admin-
eign markets. istration of studies and ensures that they are enacted within
the prescribed budget. The beginner may also be assigned to
• Advertising copywriters: Copywriters translate a brand’s
supervise field operations, overseeing the actual collection of
positioning strategy into concrete form by creating words
data and perhaps coding and analyzing it.
and visual images that convey this imagery. They need to
Over time the person would move up to a supervisory
understand the target market to employ imagery that will
position with increasing responsibility. Eventually the per-
create the desired response.
son might attain the position of vice-president of marketing
• Advertising account executives: An account executive research, where he or she would be responsible for the
supervises the development of a marketing plan and entire company’s marketing research efforts and be part of
makes sure that the agency’s clients understand and are senior management. Chances of moving up tend to improve
happy with the plan. This job requires knowledge about greatly if the individual received advanced training in sta-
all aspects of marketing, including an understanding of tistics, experimental design, and other aspects of consumer
target markets. psychology.
468 A P P E N D I X I I Careers in Consumer Research
THE ACADEMIC ROUTE to widen—include sociology, anthropology, economics, his-

tory, English, and human ecology.
Another alternative is to consider training to become a scholar These individuals may take faculty positions in a busi-
in the field of consumer behaviour. Many major business ness school, where they conduct research that is published in
schools offer doctoral programs in marketing in which it is pos- such academic journals as the Journal of Consumer Research.
sible to specialize in consumer behaviour research. In addition, They may also work as consultants to corporations, advertis-
some psychology departments offer doctoral programs in con- ing agencies, and the government. Also, those with Ph.D.s are
sumer psychology. The typical doctoral program involves four in demand for full-time non-academic positions, such as in
to seven years of intensive study, during which the student is consulting firms and “think tanks,” or in advertising agen-
trained in both theoretical and technical aspects of consumer cies, manufacturing companies, trade groups (e.g., the Wool
research. Many doctoral students in business have already Bureau or the Conference Board), or government agencies
earned an M.B.A., though this is not always the case. (e.g., Statistics Canada).
Most consumer-behaviour Ph.D.s who did not obtain their For further insight on these possibilities, consider asking
degrees in marketing were trained in psychology. Other possi- your professor about his or her educational background and
ble fields of study—as the discipline’s perspective continues research activities.
Glossary C H A P T E R 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour 469
80/20 Rule rule of thumb that states that 20 percent of users account Attitude object (Ao) anything toward which one has an attitude
for 80 percent of sales Attitude toward the act of buying (Aact) the perceived consequences
Absolute threshold the minimum amount of stimulation that can be of a purchase
detected on a sensory channel Attitude toward the advertisement (Aad) a predisposition to respond
Acculturation the process of learning the beliefs and behaviours favourably or unfavourably to a particular advertising stimulus
endorsed by another culture during a particular exposure occasion
Activation models of memory approaches to memory stressing dif- B2C commerce businesses selling to consumers through electronic
ferent levels of processing that occur and activate some aspects of marketing
memory rather than others, depending on the nature of the pro- Baby boomers a large cohort of people born between the years of
cessing task 1947 and 1966 who are the source of many important cultural and
Activity stores retail settings that allow consumers to participate in economic changes
the design and production of the products or services they buy there Badges in social games, these show the community the challenges
Actual self a person’s realistic appraisal of his or her qualities the player has mastered so far
Adaptation the process that occurs when a sensation becomes so Balance theory a theory that considers relations among elements a
familiar that it is no longer the focus of attention person might perceive as belonging together, and people’s ten-
Advergaming a marketing strategy in which online games merge dency to change relations among elements to make them consistent
with interactive advertisements featuring real products or “balanced”
Advertising wearout the condition that occurs when consumers Behaviour a consumer’s actions with regard to an attitude object
become so used to hearing or seeing a marketing stimulus that they Behavioural economics the study of the behavioural determinants of
no longer pay attention to it economic decisions
Affect the way a consumer feels about an attitude object Behavioural influence perspective the view that consumer decisions
Age cohort a group of consumers of the same approximate age who are learned responses to environmental cues
have undergone similar experiences Behavioural learning theories the perspectives on learning that
Agentic goals goals that favour the advancement of the individual assume that learning takes place as the result of responses to exter-
nal events
AIOs acronym for activities, interests, and opinions—the psycho-
graphic variables used by researchers in grouping consumers Big data the collection and analysis of extremely large data sets
Allocentrics individuals who have a group orientation and receive Being space a retail environment that resembles a residential living
something of value from the group room where customers are encouraged to congregate
Analogical learning learning that occurs through highlighting Binary opposition a defining structural characteristic of many myths,
similarities between one stimulus and a second stimulus where two opposing ends of some dimension are represented (e.g.,
good versus evil, nature versus technology)
Androgyny the possession of both masculine and feminine traits
Body cathexis a person’s feelings about aspects of his or her body
Animism the attribution of conscious life to inanimate objects
Body image a consumer’s subjective evaluation of his or her physical
Antibrand communities groups of consumers who share a common
self
disdain for a celebrity, store, or brand
Boomerang kids grown children who return to their parents’ home to
Anticonsumption the actions taken by consumers that involve the
live
deliberate defacement or mutilation of products
Bounded rationality the view that consumers rarely have the
Antifestival an event that distorts the symbols associated with other
resources to weigh every possible factor into a decision and so will
holidays
often settle for a solution that is just good enough
Archetype a universally shared idea or behaviour pattern, central to
Brand community a set of consumers who share a set of social rela-
Jung’s conception of personality; archetypes involve themes,
tionships based on usage or interest in a product
such as birth, death, or the devil, that appear frequently in myths,
stories, and dreams Brand equity a brand that has strong positive associations in a con-
sumer’s memory and commands a lot of loyalty as a result
Art product a creation viewed primarily as an object of aesthetic
contemplation without any functional value Brand immigrant non-core users of a brand who attempt to claim
membership within the community of core brand users
Aspirational reference group a reference group that the consumer
aspires to be a part of (e.g., high-profile athletes and celebrities) Brand loyalty a form of repeat-purchasing behaviour reflecting a
conscious decision to continue buying the same brand
Associative learning learning that occurs when the consumer makes
simple associations between stimuli, without more complex cogni- Brand personality the set of traits people attribute to a product as if
tive processes taking place it were a person
Asynchronous interactions consumer-to-consumer interactions Brand prominence the degree to which a consumer desires to con-
via technology that do not require an immediate response from all spicuously display a brand, product, or logo to others
participants Brand tourists non-core users who use or buy the brand but do not
Atmospherics the use of space and physical features in store design claim membership within the community of core brand users
to evoke certain effects in buyers BRIC acronym for the largest emerging markets: Brazil, Russia, India,
Attention the extent to which the brain’s processing activity is and China
devoted to a particular stimulus Business ethics the rules of conduct that guide actions in the market-
Attitude a lasting, general evaluation of people (including oneself), place; the standards against which most people in a culture judge
objects, or issues what is right or wrong
470 Glossary
Buyer in a group buying context, the person who actually makes the Compensatory rules a set of rules that allow information about attri-
purchase butes of competing products to be averaged in some way; poor
Buzz word of mouth viewed as authentic and generated by custom- standing on one attribute can be potentially offset by good standing
ers rather than companies on another
Buzz marketing activities undertaken by marketers to encourage Complexity the difficulty level in understanding or using a product
consumers to spread word-of-mouth about the brand Compulsive consumption the process of repetitive, often excessive,
C2C commerce consumer-to-consumer activity through the Internet shopping used to relieve tension, anxiety, depression, or boredom
Cascade a sequence of interactions triggered by a piece of informa- Conditioned response (CR) a new or modified response elicited by a
tion (much like an avalanche) conditioned stimulus
Cause-related marketing type of marketing that involves collabora- Conditioned stimulus (CS) a stimulus that causes a response because
tion between a for profit business and a nonprofit organization for of a learned association
mutual benefit; cause marketing differs from corporate giving (or Conformity a change in beliefs or actions as a reaction to real or
philanthropy) in that cause marketing is not solely based on imagined group pressure
donations Connexity tendency to be connected to others at all times, often via
Census family a housing unit containing at least one family (a hus- social and digital media
band and wife, married or living common-law, or lone parent of Conscientious consumerism a new value that combines a focus on
any marital status, with or without children who have never mar- personal health with a concern for global health
ried and are still living at home)
Conspicuous consumption the purchase and prominent display of
Chavs young, lower-class men and women who mix flashy brands luxury goods to signal to others the consumer’s ability to afford
and accessories from big names, such as Burberry, with clothing them
such as track suits
Consumer addiction the physiological and/or psychological depen-
Chronological age the actual number of years lived dency on products or services
Chunking a process in which information is stored by combining Consumer behaviour the processes involved when individuals or
small pieces of information into larger ones groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services,
Classic a fashion with an extremely long acceptance cycle ideas, or experiences to satisfy needs and desires
Classical conditioning the learning that occurs when a stimulus elicit- Consumer confidence the state of mind of consumers reflecting their
ing a response is paired with another stimulus that initially does not optimism or pessimism about economic conditions; people tend to
elicit a response on its own but will cause a similar response over make more discretionary purchases when their confidence in the
time because of its association with the first stimulus economy is high
Co-branding strategies strategies that combine two or more brands to Consumer-generated content a hallmark of Web 2.0, arising when
promote or create their products or services everyday people voice their opinions about products, brands, and
companies on blogs, podcasts, and social networking sites and film
Co-consumers other patrons in a consumer setting
their own commercials that they post on websites
Cognition the beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object
Consumer hyperchoice an overabundance of choices for the consumer
Cognitive learning theory the perspective on learning that assumes
Consumer identity renaissance the redefinition process people
that learning takes place as the result of internal mental processes:
undergo when they retire
People actively use information from the world around them to
master their environment and solve problems Consumer insights drawing important information about the con-
sumer in ways that probe deeper to understand the underlying
Collaborative consumption consumption that involves the purchase,
motivations for a given behaviour, as opposed to simply just
use, or sharing of goods and services by two or more consumers
observing or describing what consumers are doing
Collecting the systematic acquisition of a particular object or set of
Consumer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D) the overall attitude a
objects
person has about a product after it has been purchased
Collective selection the process by which certain symbolic alter-
Consumerspace a marketing environment where customers act as
natives tend to be jointly chosen over others by members of a
partners with companies to decide what the marketplace will
society
offer
Collectivist culture a society that encourages people to subordinate
Consumption communities Web groups in which members share
their personal goals to those of a stable in-group; values such as
views and product recommendations online
self-discipline and group accomplishment are stressed
Continuous innovation a product change or new product that
Communal goals goals that favour the well-being of the group or
requires relatively little adaptation by the adopter
community as a whole
Contrast stimuli that differ from others around them
Communications model a framework specifying that a number of
elements are necessary for communication to be achieved, includ- Conventions norms regarding the conduct of everyday life
ing a source, message, medium, receivers, and feedback Corporate giving a form of corporate social responsibility where an
Comparative advertising a strategy in which a message compares organization makes a donation to a worthwhile cause
two or more specifically named or recognizably presented brands Core values the central values that are endorsed in a given culture
and makes a comparison of them in terms of one or more specific Corporate paradox the fact that the more involved a company
attributes appears to be in the dissemination of news about its products, the
Comparative influence the process whereby a reference group influ- less credible it becomes
ences decisions about specific brands or activities Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) corporate activities that ben-
Compatibility matching an innovation or product with the consum- efit the community in some way through a positive social, ethical,
er’s lifestyle or environmental impact
Glossary 471
Craft product a creation valued because of the beauty with which it Differential threshold the ability of a sensory system to detect
performs some function; this type of product tends to follow a for- changes or differences among stimuli
mula that permits rapid production and is easier to understand Digital self the image of the self we convey to others in digital contexts
than an art product
Digital virtual consumption (DVC) the tendency to purchase virtual
Creolization occurs when foreign influences integrate with local goods in online contexts
meanings, often leading to new behaviours or products
Diffusion of innovation the process whereby a new product, service,
Cross-cultural analysis systematic examination of the degree to or idea spreads through a population
which consumers from two or more cultures are different or similar
Discontinuous innovation a product change or new product that
in terms of psychological, social, and cultural factors
requires a significant amount of adaptation by the adopter
Crowdsourcing technique in which the marketer enlists a larger group
Discretionary income the money available to a household over and
of consumers to assist in some aspect of the marketing process
above that required for a comfortable standard of living
Cultivation hypothesis a perspective emphasizing the media’s ability
Dissociative reference groups groups (or group members) the con-
to distort consumers’ perceptions of reality
sumer wants to avoid association with
Cultural categories the grouping of ideas and values that reflect the
Divestment rituals the act of “freeing up” objects as they are passed
basic ways members of a society characterize the world
from one owner to another
Cultural formula a sequence of media events in which certain roles
Drive the desire to satisfy a biological need to reduce physiological
and props tend to occur consistently
arousal
Cultural gatekeepers individuals responsible for determining the
Dynamically continuous innovation a product change or new prod-
types of messages and symbolism to which members of mass
uct that requires a moderate amount of adaptation by the adopter
culture are exposed
Cultural selection the process by which some alternatives are Early adopters the approximately 13.5% of people receptive to new
styles or innovations, and often adopt new products and styles
selected over others by cultural gatekeepers
after the innovators have done so
Culture the values, ethics, rituals, traditions, material objects, and
services produced or valued by the members of a society Early majority the 34 percent of consumers likely to adopt a new
product or innovation after it has caught on with the early adopters
Culture jamming the defacement or alteration of advertising materi-
als as a form of political expression Echo boomers cohort of individuals born between about 1986 and 2002,
who are sometimes also referred to as Generation Y or the millennials
Culture of participation the notion that social media platforms
enable the user to freely interact with other people, companies, Ego according to Freud, the component of the self that mediates
and organizations, allowing the user to share content and build on between the id and superego
the content of others Elaboration likelihood model (ELM) the approach that one of two
Culture production system (CPS) the set of individuals and organiza- routes to persuasion (central versus peripheral) will be followed,
tions responsible for creating and marketing a cultural product depending on the personal relevance of a message; the route taken
determines the relative importance of message contents versus
Custom a norm derived from a traditional way of doing things other characteristics, such as source attractiveness
Cybermediary an intermediary that helps to filter and organize Elaborative rehearsal a cognitive process that allows information to
online market information so that customers can identify and eval- move from short-term memory into long-term memory by thinking
uate alternatives more efficiently about the meaning of a stimulus and relating it to other information
Database marketing marketing that focuses on tracking specific already in memory
consumers’ buying habits very closely and crafts products and Embarrassment a social emotion driven by a concern for what others
messages tailored precisely to people’s wants and needs based on are thinking about oneself, typically occurring when unwanted
this information events communicate undesired information about oneself to others
Decay structural changes in the brain produced by learning decrease Embeds tiny figures inserted into magazine advertisements by using
over time high-speed photography or airbrushing. These hidden figures, usu-
Decision polarization the process whereby individuals’ choices tend ally of a sexual nature, supposedly exert strong but unconscious
to become more extreme (polarized), in either a conservative or influences on innocent readers
risky direction, following group discussion of alternatives Emic perspective an approach to studying cultures that stresses the
Deindividuation the submerging of individual identities within a group unique aspects of each culture
Demographics the observable measurements of a population’s char- Emotion a subjective, conscious, affect-laden experience that is
acteristics, such as birth rate, age distribution, and income more intense than a mood, and often related to a specific triggering
Dependent variable the outcome variable that is measured in an event
experiment Encoding the process in which information from short-term memory
Desacralization the process that occurs when a sacred item or sym- is entered into long-term memory in a recognizable form
bol is removed from its special place, or is duplicated in mass Endowment effect the tendency for consumers ascribe more value to
quantities, and becomes profane as a result something simply because they own it
Descriptive norms norms conveying information about what is typi- Envy Negative emotion associated with the desire to reduce the gap
cal or what people commonly do between oneself and someone else who is superior on some dimen-
Determinant attributes product features that are essential to the con- sion of performance, achievement, or possession
sumer’s final choice Ethnic subculture a self-perpetuating group of consumers held
Diary a record of self-entered data, tracking one’s own responses or together by common cultural ties
behaviours over a period of time; used in qualitative research data Ethnocentrism the tendency to prefer products or people of our own
collection culture over those from other countries
472 Glossary
Ethnographic research a method of qualitative research in which Fattism discrimination on the basis of an individual’s body weight
researchers immerse themselves in the consumption environment to Fear appeal an attempt to change attitudes or behaviour through the
observe and record how consumers behave in real-world contexts use of threats or by highlighting negative consequences of non-
Ethos a set of moral, aesthetic, and evaluative principles compliance with the request
Etic perspective an approach to studying cultures that stresses com- Feature creep a trend toward an increasing number of options a
monalities across cultures product offers that make it more difficult for consumers to decide
Evaluations positively or negatively valenced reactions to objects among competitors
and events Female-to-male earnings ratio ratio of the average female’s salary to
Evaluative criteria the dimensions used by consumers to compare the average male’s salary (which, at the time of writing, was 0.855
competing product alternatives in Canada, meaning that, on average, a woman earns 85.5 cents for
every dollar a man earns)
Evoked set those products already in memory plus those prominent
in the retail environment that are actively considered during a Figure–ground principle the gestalt principle whereby one part of a
consumer’s choice process stimulus configuration dominates a situation while other aspects
recede into the background
Exchange the process whereby two or more organizations or people
give and receive something of value Flaming tendency to convey anger by using capital letters in social
media and other digital communications
Exchange theory the perspective that every interaction involves an
exchange of value Flow state a condition of absorption that consumers enter when they
are truly involved with a product, an ad, or a website
Expectancy disconfirmation model the perspective that we form
beliefs about product performance based on prior experience with Flows exchanges of resources, information, or influence among
the product and/or communications; our responses to the product members of a social network
can be influenced by whether the product experience is below, at Focus groups a research method that usually involves small group
par with, or above expectations sessions with approximately six to twelve consumer participants
Expectancy theory the perspective that behaviour is largely “pulled” Food culture pattern of food and beverage consumption that reflects
by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes, or positive incen- the values of a social group
tives, rather than “pushed” from within
Foot-in-the-door technique based on the observation that a consumer
Executive control the function of the brain that serves to make moral is more likely to comply with a request if he or she has first agreed
judgments and control indulgent behaviours to comply with a smaller request
Experiential hierarchy of effects model that suggests we act on the Fortress brands brands or products we use to perform our rituals
basis of our emotional reactions and intuitive feelings about a because they become embedded in certain ceremonies
product or choice
Frequency marketing reinforces regular purchasers by giving
Experiential perspective an approach stressing the gestalt, or total- them prizes with values that increase along with the amount
ity, of the product or service experience, focusing on consumers’ purchased
affective responses in the marketplace
Functional theory of attitudes a pragmatic approach that focuses on
Experiment research method in which an independent variable is how attitudes facilitate social behaviour; attitudes exist because
manipulated to determine its impact on a dependent variable; used they serve some function for the person
when the goal is establishing cause-and-effect relationships
Gamification the trend of marketers using principles of game
Exposure an initial stage of perception where some sensations come mechanics to motivate consumers
within range of consumers’ sensory receptors
Gatekeeper in a group buying context, the individual who controls
Extended family traditional family structure where several genera- the flow of information
tions live together
Gemba a Japanese term meaning the one true source of information
Extended problem solving an elaborate decision-making process, often
initiated by a motive that is fairly central to the self-concept and Gender-bending product a traditionally sex-typed item adapted to
accompanied by perceived risk; the consumer tries to collect as much the opposite gender
information as possible and carefully weighs product alternatives Generation X the cohort of consumers in their 20s who were affected
Extended self the definition of self created by the external objects by the economic downturn in the first part of the 1990s; this term
with which a person surrounds him- or herself also refers to those born between 1967 and 1979
Extinction the process whereby a learned connection between a Generation Y those born between 1980 and 1995—also referred to as
stimulus and a response is eroded so that the response is no longer the baby boom echo
reinforced Generation Z the age cohort of individuals born in 2003 and later
Fad a very short-lived fashion Geodemography techniques that combine consumer demographic
Family life cycle (FLC) a classification scheme that segments con- information with geographic consumption patterns to permit pre-
sumers in terms of changes in income and family composition and cise targeting of consumers with specific characteristics
changes in demands placed on income Gestalt psychology a school of thought that maintains people derive
Fashion the process of social diffusion by which a new style is meaning from the totality of a set of stimuli rather than from any
adopted by some group(s) of consumers individual stimulus
Fashion acceptance cycle the diffusion process of a style through Gift-giving ritual the events involved in the selection, presentation,
three stages: introduction, acceptance, and regression acceptance, and interpretation of a gift
Fashion system those people and organizations involved in creating Goal a consumer’s desired end state
symbolic meanings and transferring these meanings to cultural Golden triangle the location on the computer screen where consumers
goods are most likely to focus their attention
Glossary 473
Green marketing a marketing strategy involving an emphasis on Impression management our efforts to “manage” what others think
protecting the natural environment of us by strategically choosing clothing and other cues that will put
Greenwashing consumer backlash against a company’s environmen- us in a good light
tal claims Impulse buying a process that occurs when the consumer experi-
Grey market the economic potential created by the increasing n
umber ences a sudden urge to purchase an item he or she cannot resist
of affluent mature consumers Independent variable the variable manipulated in an experiment in
Group dieting online communities devoted to excessive weight loss order to see its effect on the dependent variable
Guerrilla marketing promotional strategies that use unconventional Individualist culture a society that encourages people to attach more
locations and intensive word-of-mouth campaigns to push products importance to personal goals than to group goals; values such as
personal enjoyment and freedom are stressed
Guilt an unpleasant emotional state associated with possible objec-
tions to one’s actions, inaction, circumstances, or intentions Inertia the process whereby purchase decisions are made out of habit
because the consumer lacks the motivation to consider alternatives
Habitual decision making the consumption choices that are made
out of habit, without additional information search or deliberation Influence network a network in which others are influenced about a
among products product or a service; the influence is driven less by influentials and
more by the interaction among those who are easily influenced,
Halo effect the transfer of the original impression to other associated
who communicate the information vigorously to one another, and
categories
participate in a two-way dialogue with the opinion leader
Happiness a mental state of well-being characterized by positive
Influencer in a group buying context, the person who attempts to
emotions
sway the outcome of the decision regarding a new product or ser-
Haul videos videos posted online that feature a proud fashionista vice purchase
describing clothing items she just bought
Information search the process whereby a consumer searches for
Heuristics the mental rules of thumb that lead to a speedy decision appropriate information to make a reasonable decision
Hierarchy of effects a fixed sequence of steps that occurs during atti- Initiator in a group buying context, the person who brings up the
tude formation; this sequence varies depending on such factors as idea or identifies the need for the new product or service
the consumer’s level of involvement with the attitude object
Injunctive norms norms that convey information regarding what is
High context culture a culture in which group members tend to be commonly approved and disapproved of by others
tightly knit and infer meanings that go beyond the spoken word
Innovation a product or style perceived as new by consumers
Hoarding unsystematic acquisition of objectives (in contrast to
collecting) Innovators people who are always on the lookout for novel develop-
ments and will be the first to try a new offering
Home shopping parties meetings at which a company representative
makes a sales presentation to a group gathered in the home of a Instrumental conditioning the process by which the individual
friend or an acquaintance learns to perform behaviours that produce positive outcomes and
to avoid those that yield negative outcomes
Homeostasis the state of being in which the body is in physiological
balance; goal-oriented behaviour attempts to reduce or eliminate Interactive mobile marketing real-time promotional campaigns tar-
an unpleasant motivational state and return to a balanced one geted to consumers’ cell phones
Homogamy the tendency for individuals to marry others similar to Interbellum Generation the generation of people born at the begin-
themselves ning of the twentieth century
Horizontal revolution the notion that the Internet allows for infor- Interference a process whereby additional learned information dis-
mation to flow across people, instead of a traditional model that places the earlier information, resulting in memory loss for the
allows for information to only flow downward from governments item learned previously
and corporations to people Interpretation the process whereby meanings are assigned to stimuli
Household living arrangements whether or not an individual lives Interviews research technique involving a one-on-one interaction
with another person or persons and, if so, whether or not he or she between an interviewer and respondent, allowing for the collection
is related to them of in-depth data
Hybrid ads marketing tactic where the advertisement ties its content Invidious distinction the display of wealth or power (e.g., through
into the program being viewed product consumption) to cause envy in others
Hybrid products products that feature characteristics from two dis- Involvement a person’s perceived relevance of an object based on
tinct product categories inherent needs, values, and interests
Hype corporate propaganda planted by companies to create product JND (just noticeable difference) the minimum change in a stimulus
sensation—dismissed as inauthentic by customers that can be detected by a perceiver
Id according to Freud, the component of the self oriented toward Kansei engineering a Japanese philosophy that translates customers’
immediate gratification feelings into design elements
Ideal of beauty a model, or exemplar, of appearance valued by a culture Knowledge structures organized systems of concepts relating to
Ideal self a person’s conception of how he or she would like to be brands, stores, and other concepts
Idiocentrics people having an individualist orientation Laggards the last 16 percent of consumers to adopt a new product,
IKEA effect the finding that putting effort into making or assembling service, or innovation in the marketplace
products enhances the value consumers attach to them Late majority the 34 percent of consumers who adopt a new product
Imbibing idiot bias the finding that people who simply hold an alco- or innovation after the early majority, but before the laggards
holic beverage are perceived to be less intelligent than those who Lateral cycling a process where already-purchased objects are sold
do not, even if they are not actually impaired to others or exchanged for other items
474 Glossary
Latitudes of acceptance and rejection formed around an attitude Membership reference groups individuals or a group of individuals
standard; ideas that fall within a latitude will be favourably who belong to the consumer’s own in-group (e.g., family, peer group,
received, while those falling outside this zone will not team) that influence the consumer’s attitudes and behaviours
Leaderboards in social games, these indicate how each player is Meme theory an idea or product enters the consciousness of people
doing relative to others in the game over time, starting off small and steadily increasing its presence
Lead user an involved, experienced customer who is very knowl- Memory a process of acquiring information and storing it over time
edgeable about the field so that it will be available when needed
Learning a relatively permanent change in behaviour caused by Mental accounting a principle which states that decisions are influ-
experience enced by the way a problem is posed
Lifestyle a set of shared values or tastes exhibited by a group of con- Metaphor the use of an explicit comparison (“A is B”) between a
sumers, especially as they are reflected in consumption patterns product and some other person, place, or thing
Limited problem solving a problem-solving process in which con- Microculture communities of consumers who participate in or other-
sumers are not motivated to search for information or to evaluate wise identify with specific art forms, popular culture movements,
each alternative rigorously; they instead use simple decision rules hobbies, etc.
to arrive at a purchase decision
Millennials cohort of individuals born between about 1986 and
LOHAS an acronym for “lifestyles of health and sustainability”; a con- 2002, who are sometimes also referred to as Generation Y or the
sumer segment that worries about the environment, wants products echo boomers
to be produced in a sustainable way, and spends money to advance
Minipreneurs people who own a one-person business
what they see as their personal development and potential
MMORPGs social games that have a large number of players in online
Long tail the phenomenon whereby companies no longer need to
contexts
rely solely on big hits (such as blockbuster movies or bestselling
books) to find profits; they can also make money if they sell small Monomyth a myth with basic characteristics that are found in many
amounts of items that only a few people want—if they sell enough cultures
different items Mood a positively or negatively valenced affective state accompa-
Long-term memory the system that allows us to retain information nied by moderate levels of arousal, and not necessarily linked to a
for a long period of time triggering event
Looking-glass self the sense of self arising from the process of imag- Mood congruency the notion that our judgments are often consistent
ining the reaction of others toward ourselves with our existing mood states
Low-context culture a culture where communication is more literal More a norm with strong moral overtones
in nature and meanings are not inferred Morning mentality effect the finding that people are more likely
Lurkers non-participatory users of online communities and sites, to cheat, lie, or even commit fraud in the afternoon than in the
who absorb content without contributing morning
Market beliefs the specific beliefs or decision rules pertaining to Motivation an internal state that activates goal-oriented behaviour
marketplace phenomena Motivational research a qualitative research approach, based on psy-
Market maven a person who often serves as a source of information choanalytic interpretations, with a heavy emphasis on uncon-
about marketplace activities scious motives for consumption
Marketing segmentation identifies groups of consumers who are Multi-attribute attitude models those models that assume that a con-
similar to one another in one or more ways and then devises mar- sumer’s attitude (evaluation) of an attitude object depends on the
keting strategies that appeal to one or more groups beliefs he or she has about several or many attributes of the object
Martyrdom effect the finding that people sometimes donate more Multigenerational marketing strategy an appeal to people of differ-
money to a charity when they have to suffer a bit for the cause ent ages with imagery from an older generation that also draws in
younger consumers
Masked branding the strategy of deliberately hiding a product’s true
origin Myth a story containing symbolic elements that expresses the shared
emotions and ideals of a culture
Mass class global consumers who have a high level of purchasing
power that enables them to afford high-quality products, except Native advertising digital messages designed to blend into the edito-
for big-ticket items such as higher education, housing, and lux- rial content of the publications in which they appear
ury cars Negative reinforcement the process of removing a negative stimulus
Mass customization the ability of the customer to purchase goods in a way that increases a desired response.
that are made to their personal specifications Negative state relief when the consumer engages in a behaviour that
Match-up hypothesis the theory that the dominant characteristics of helps resolve existing negative moods
a product should match the dominant features of the communica- Negative word of mouth the passing on of negative experiences
tions source involved with products or services by consumers to other potential
Material parenting tendency for parents to reward their children consumers
with material products, and punish them by taking things away Neuromarketing assessing brain function through an MRI to develop
Materialism the importance consumers attach to worldly possessions advertising strategy
Maximizing a decision strategy that seeks to deliver the best possible Nodes in associative network models, the representation of a piece of
result information
Media multiplexity the situation in social media in which flows of Non-compensatory decision rules a set of simple rules whereby a
communication may travel in many directions and across multiple brand with a low standing on one attribute cannot make up for this
platforms, at any single point of time position by being better on another attribute
Glossary 475
Normative influence the process in which a reference group helps to Point-of-purchase (POP) stimuli the promotional materials that are
set and enforce fundamental standards of conduct deployed in stores or other outlets to influence consumers’ deci-
Norms the informal rules that govern what is right or wrong sions at the time products are purchased
Nostalgia a bittersweet emotion where the past is viewed with sad- Popular culture the music, movies, sports, books, celebrities, and
ness and longing; many “classic” products appeal to consumers’ other forms of entertainment consumed by the mass market
memories of their younger days Pop-up stores temporary installations of a retail shop or kiosk that do
Nuclear family a contemporary living arrangement comprising a business only for a few days or weeks and then disappear before
married couple and their children they get old
Observability the level of product visibility Positioning strategy the place a brand name occupies in the consum-
er’s mind with regard to important attributes (such as functional
Observational learning the process in which people learn by watch- features) and competitive offerings
ing the actions of others and noting the reinforcements they receive
for their behaviours Positive reinforcement the process whereby rewards provided by the
environment strengthen responses to stimuli
Observational research research technique in which real consumer
behaviour is directly observed in either a natural or a controlled Potlatch a ceremony in which the host showed off his wealth and
lab setting gave extravagant presents to the guests
Online gated communities online groups with restricted access pol- Power users opinion leaders who are highly influential in online
icies which offer a high degree of social capital to those allowed contexts
access Pretailer an online e-tailer that offers consumers some influence
over the final product at the stage of manufacturing/production
Opinion leaders those people who are knowledgeable about prod-
ucts and who are frequently able to influence others’ attitudes or Primary research research conducted to specifically address the
behaviours with regard to a product category research question at hand
Paid influencer programs a form of sock puppeting in which compa- Principle of closure the gestalt principle that consumers tend to per-
nies attempt to start online conversations about brands by encour- ceive an incomplete picture as complete
aging bloggers to write about them Principle of cognitive consistency the belief that consumers value
Paradox of fashion finding that a brand often has cachet because harmony among their thoughts, feelings, and behaviours and that
only a select group of people own or use it; however, as more they are motivated to maintain uniformity among these elements
mainstream consumers outside this inner circle start to adopt Principle of similarity the gestalt principle that describes how
the brand, it is no longer exclusive and its original meaning is c onsumers tend to group objects that share similar physical
lost characteristics
Parental yielding when the parent surrenders or gives in to a child’s Problem recognition stage in decision making in which the con-
request sumer realizes that there is some difference between his or her
Parody display the deliberate avoidance of widely used status sym- actual state of affairs and some desired state
bols whereby the person seeks status by mocking it Product complementarity the view that products in different func-
Perceived age how old a person feels rather than his or her true tional categories have symbolic meanings that are related to one
chronological age another
Perceived risk the belief that using a product has potentially nega- Product placement the process of obtaining exposure for a product
tive consequences, either physical or social by arranging for it to be inserted into a movie, TV show, or some
other medium
Perception the process by which stimuli are selected, organized, and
interpreted Product signal communicates an underlying quality of a product
through the use of aspects that are visible only in the ad
Perceptual selectivity a process in which people attend to only a
small portion of the stimuli to which they are exposed Profane consumption the process of consuming objects and events
that are ordinary or of the everyday world
Permission marketing the strategy of first asking consumers to indi-
cate interest in receiving information about a product or service to Projective techniques qualitative data collection techniques that
ensure that they will pay attention to the promotional messages involve the presentation of an ambiguous and unstructured object,
they will then receive if they agree activity, or person that a respondent is asked to interpret or explain
Personality a person’s unique psychological makeup, which con- Prospect theory a descriptive model of how people make choices
sistently influences the way the person responds to his or her that finds that risk differs when the consumer faces options involv-
environment ing gains versus those involving losses
Persuasion an active attempt to change attitudes Psychographics the use of psychological, sociological, and anthropo-
logical factors to construct market segments
Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM) a conceptual model that views
the consumer and persuasive agent exchange as a two-way inter- Psychophysics the science that focuses on how the physical environ-
action in which both agents have their own goals; the model ment is integrated into the consumer’s subjective experience
predicts that consumers will develop and use their knowledge of Punishment the learning that occurs when a response is followed by
persuasion techniques to manage these interactions unpleasant events
Photos or picture technique visual images provided to the researcher Purchase momentum an increase in the likelihood of buying after
by consumers in order to represent an aspect of their consumption initial purchases are made
experience; used as a qualitative research data collection technique Queuing theory the mathematical study of waiting lines
Pleasure principle the belief that behaviour is guided by the desire Random assignment an assignment procedure that ensures each
to maximize pleasure and avoid pain participant has an equal chance of ending up in any one of the
Plinking the act of embedding a product or service link in a video experimental conditions in a study
476 Glossary
Rational perspective a view of the consumer as a careful, analytical Sandwich generation parents (of one generation) who have caretak-
decision maker who tries to maximize utility in purchase decisions ing responsibilities for their children (a younger generation) and
Reactance a “boomerang effect” that sometimes occurs when con- their parents (an older generation)
sumers are threatened with a loss of freedom of choice; they Satisficing a decision strategy in which the consumer settles for an
respond by doing the opposite of the behaviour advocated in a option that is “good enough”
persuasive message Schema an organized collection of beliefs and feelings represented
Reality engineering the process whereby elements of popular culture in a cognitive category
are appropriated by marketers and become integrated into market- Script a learned schema containing a sequence of events that an indi-
ing strategies; examples of this phenomenon include infomercials vidual expects to occur
and product placement
Secondary research research conducted by another party that can be
Real-time marketing techniques that connect marketing activities utilized or applied to the research question at hand
with events as they happen in “real time,” often via social media
Search engine a program that searches for and identifies items in a
Reciprocity norm a culturally learned obligation to return the gesture database that correspond to keywords or characters specified by
of a gift with one of equal value the user; used especially for finding particular sites or sources of
Red sneakers effect the tendency to view a non-conforming individ- information on the Web
ual more positively, assuming they might be more powerful or Search engine optimization the procedures companies use to design
competent the content of websites and posts to maximize the likelihood that
Reference group an actual or imaginary individual or group that has their content will show up when someone searches for a relevant
a significant effect on an individual’s evaluations, aspirations, or term
behaviour Self-concept the attitude a person holds toward him- or herself
Regional segmentation method of segmenting the market that is Self-fulfilling prophecy a prediction that causes itself to come true
based on geographic location due to the simple fact that the prediction was made
Relationship marketing the process of creating, maintaining, and Self-gifts the purchase of a present for the self, sometimes to regulate
enhancing strong, value-laden relationships with customers one’s own behaviour
Relative advantage the benefits a product can provide over other Selfie a picture a user takes of him- or herself on a smartphone or
competing products tablet
Reposition the process of creating a new positioning strategy for the Self-image congruence models the approaches based on the predic-
brand tion that products will be chosen when their attributes match some
Resonance a literary device, frequently used in advertising, that uses aspect of the self
a play on words (a double meaning) to communicate a product Self-perception theory an alternative explanation of dissonance
benefit effects; it assumes that people use observations of their own behav-
Response bias a form of contamination in survey research in which iour to infer their attitudes toward some object
some factor, such as the desire to make a good impression on the Sensation the immediate response of sensory receptors (eyes, ears,
experimenter, leads respondents to modify their true answers nose, mouth, fingers) to such basic stimuli as light, colour, and
Retail theming a strategy involving the creation of imaginative store sound
environments that transport shoppers to fantasy worlds or provide Sensory marketing a marketing strategy that focuses on the impact of
other kinds of stimulation sensations on our product experiences
Retrieval the process whereby desired information is accessed from Sensory memory the temporary storage in memory of information
long-term memory received from the senses
Retro brand relaunched historical brands with new features Sentiment analysis a process that scours social media to collect and
Risky shift a willingness by a group to consider riskier alternatives analyze the words people use when they describe a specific prod-
than those favoured by individual group members uct or company
Ritual a set of multiple, symbolic behaviours that occur in a fixed Sex-typed traits characteristics that are stereotypically associated
sequence and that tend to be repeated periodically with one gender or the other
Ritual artifacts items (consumer goods) used in the performance of Shaping the learning of a desired behaviour over time by rewarding
rituals intermediate actions until the final result is obtained
Ritual script the consumer’s understanding of the set of activities/ Sharing economy a form of social exchange that takes place among
behaviours that tends to take place in a certain manner and order people known to each other, without any profit; involves the opti-
when engaging in a ritual mization of resources through the redistribution, sharing, and
Role-playing a qualitative research technique in which the consumer reuse of excess capacity in goods and services
is asked to put himself or herself in a particular role and act out Shopping orientation a consumer’s general attitudes and motiva-
how he or she would respond to a specific marketing stimulus tions regarding the act of shopping
Sacralization a process that occurs when ordinary objects, events, or Short-term memory the system that allows us to retain information
people take on sacred meaning to a culture or to specific groups for a short period of time
within a culture Shrinkage the loss of money or inventory from shoplifting and
Sacred consumption the process of consuming objects and events employee theft
that are set apart from normal life and treated with some degree of Showrooming behaviour in which a consumer visits a store to
respect or awe explore, firsthand, options for big-ticket items like TVs or appli-
Salience the prominence or level of activation of a brand in memory ances, and then finds a cheaper price for the specific model online
Glossary 477
Silent Generation people born between the two World Wars Stimulus discrimination the process that occurs when behaviour
Social class the overall rank of people in a society; people who are caused by two stimuli is different, as when consumers learn to dif-
grouped within the same social class are approximately equal in ferentiate a brand from its competitors
terms of their social standing, occupations, and lifestyles Stimulus generalization the process that occurs when the behaviour
Social comparison theory the perspective that people compare their caused by a reaction to one stimulus occurs in the presence of
outcomes with others’ as a way to increase the stability of their own other, similar stimuli
self-evaluation, especially when physical evidence is unavailable Storage the process that occurs when knowledge entered into long-
Social game a multiplayer, competitive, goal-oriented activity with term memory is integrated with what is already in memory and
defined rules of engagement and online connectivity among a com- “warehoused” until needed
munity of players Store image a store’s “personality,” composed of such attributes as
Social graphs a term to describe social networks or a diagram of the location, merchandise suitability, and the knowledge and congeni-
interconnections of units in a network ality of the sales staff
Social judgment theory the perspective that people assimilate new Storytelling a qualitative research technique in which consumers are
information about attitude objects in light of what they already asked to tell researchers about their experiences with the product
know or feel; the initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, and Strength of weak ties the notion that weak ties can serve a “bridging
new information is categorized in terms of this standard function,” allowing people to connect with others they might not
Social marketing the promotion of causes and ideas (social products), normally be able to connect with
such as energy conservation, charities, and population control Subculture a group whose members share beliefs and common expe-
Social media online means of communication, conveyance, collabo- riences that set them apart from other members of a culture
ration, and cultivation among interconnected and interdepen- Subjective norm (SN) an additional component in the multi-attribute
dent networks of people, communities, and organizations that is attitude model that accounts for the effects of what we believe
enhanced by technological capabilities other people think we should do
Social mobility the movement of individuals from one social class to Subliminal perception the processing of information presented
another below the level of the consumer’s awareness
Social network a set of socially relevant members, or nodes, connected Superego according to Freud, the component of the self that internal-
by one or more relations izes society’s rules and that works to prevent the id from seeking
Social power the capacity of one person to alter the actions or outcomes selfish gratification
of another Surrogate consumer a professional who is retained to evaluate or
Social stratification the process in a social system by which scarce make purchases on behalf of a consumer
and valuable resources are distributed unequally to status posi- Survey a method of data collection in which respondents self-report
tions that become more or less permanently ranked in terms of the answers to a set of questions posed by a researcher
share of valuable resources each receives
Symbol an object that represents something else
Sociometric methods the techniques for measuring group dynamics
Symbolic interactionism a sociological approach stressing that rela-
that involve the tracing of communication patterns in and among
tionships with other people play a large part in forming the self;
groups
people live in a symbolic environment, and the meaning attached
Sock puppeting a company executive or other biased source who to any situation or object is determined by a person’s interpretation
poses as someone else online and touts his or her organization in of these symbols
the social media
Symbolic self-completion theory the perspective that people who
Source attractiveness the source’s perceived social value have an incomplete self-definition in some context will compen-
Source credibility a source’s perceived expertise, objectivity, or sate by acquiring symbols associated with a desired social identity
trustworthiness Synchronous interactions consumer-to-consumer interactions via
Source derogation viewing the source of a marketing message negatively technology that require an immediate response from all participants
Spendthrifts consumers who are motivated to spend cautiously Target in analogical learning, the novel object that the existing
because their frugality gives them the pleasure of saving money knowledge is being transferred to
Spokescharacters animated characters created by a brand to help Taste culture a group of consumers who share aesthetic and intellec-
position the brand and promote a particular brand image tual preferences
Spreading activation in the context of memory, the notion that Terminal values end states desired by members of a culture
energy spreads across nodes of varying levels of abstraction; as one Theory of cognitive dissonance the perspective that cognitive dis-
memory node is activated, other nodes associated with it also comfort results from an individual holding logically inconsistent
become activated; meaning thus spreads across the network beliefs about an object or an event; the consumer is motivated to
Status crystallization the extent to which different indicators of a reduce dissonance through changing his or her beliefs and evalua-
person’s status (income, ethnicity, occupation) are consistent with tions about the object or the event
one another Theory of reasoned action an updated version of the Fishbein multi-
Status hierarchy a ranking of social desirability in terms of consum- attitude theory that considers such factors as social pressure and
ers’ access to such resources as money, education, and luxury goods Aact (the attitude toward the act of buying a product), rather than
Status symbols products that are purchased and displayed to signal attitudes toward just the product itself
membership in a desirable social class Tie strength the relative strength or closeness between individuals,
Stereotype a knowledge structure based on beliefs not necessarily often in a social network setting
supported by evidence Ties the connections between members within a social network
478 Glossary
Tightwads consumers who are motivated to spend cautiously Unipolar emotions emotions that are either wholly positive or
because it is unpleasant for them to spend their money wholly negative
Time poverty the feeling that one is more pressed for time than ever Unplanned buying buying that occurs when a person unfamiliar
before with a store’s layout is under some time pressure or when a person
Tipping point the moment of critical mass is reminded to buy something by seeing it on a store shelf
Total fertility rate (TFR) the number of births per woman aged 15 to User in a group buying context, the ultimate consumer or user of the
49 years service or product
Total quality management (TQM) management and engineering pro- Value an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct is personally
cedures aimed at reducing errors and increasing quality; based on or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct
Japanese practices VALS (Values and Lifestyles) a proprietary psychographic segmenta-
Trade dress colour combinations that come to be strongly associated tion system used to categorize consumers into clusters, or “VALS
with a corporation or a brand types”
Traits the identifiable characteristics that define a person Value system a culture’s ranking of the relative importance of values
Transmedia storytelling strategy marketing strategy that uses multi- Viral marketing the strategy of getting customers to sell a product on
ple platforms to tell a brand story that unfolds over a period of time behalf of the company that creates it
and integrates social media with real-world experiences Variety seeking the desire to choose new alternatives over more
Trialability the ability of consumers to try a product before they familiar ones
purchase it Virtual goods the purchase of goods that only exist in digital form
Trickle-down theory the perspective that fashions spread as the von Restorff effect techniques such as distinctive packaging that
result of status symbols associated with the upper classes “trick- increase the novelty of a stimulus and also improve recall
ling down” to other social classes as these consumers try to emu-
Want the particular form of consumption chosen to satisfy a need
late those with greater status
War Baby Generation the generation of people born during World
Tweens the two million Canadian children aged 9 to 14 years
War II
Two-factor theory the perspective that two separate psychological pro-
Wearable computing technology that is integrated into the accesso-
cesses are operating when a person is repeatedly exposed to an ad:
ries and the clothing we wear
repetition increases familiarity and thus reduces uncertainty about
the product, but over time boredom increases with each exposure Weber’s law the principle that the stronger the initial stimulus, the
and at some point the amount of boredom incurred begins to exceed greater its change must be for it to be noticed
the amount of uncertainty reduced, resulting in wearout Wisdom of crowds a perspective that argues that under the right cir-
Two-step flow model of influence a theory that proposes that a small cumstances groups are smarter than the smartest people in them;
group of influencers are responsible for dissemination of information, it implies that large numbers of consumers can predict successful
since they can modify the opinions of a large number of other people products
U-commerce the use of ubiquitous networks; for example, wearable Word-of-mouth communication (WOM) the information transmitted
computers or customized advertisements beamed to us on our cell by individual consumers on an informal basis
phones Word-phrase dictionary a library of words used to code content in a
Unboxing videos videos posted online that illustrate in painstaking sentiment analysis
detail exactly how to remove electronics products from their boxes Zipf’s law a pattern that describes the tendency for the most robust
and assemble them for use effect to be far more powerful than others in its class; applies to
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) a stimulus naturally capable of consumer behaviour in terms of buyers’ overwhelming preferences
causing a response for the market leader in a product category
Product, Services, Corporate,
and Celebrity Index
A Appetite, 196, 196n

ABC, 448 Apple, 14, 35, 55, 98, 103, 140, 164, 213, 383, 448
Abercrombie & Fitch, 22, 133, 381, 382 Apple Bendgate, 214
Aboriginal Business, 400 Apple iPhone, 187
Aboriginal Media Services, 400 Apple Pay, 286
Aboriginal Voices, 400 Apple Watch, 128, 286
about-face.org, 20 Arcade Fire, 2
Absolut Vodka, 135 Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?, 80
Academy of Wine Business Research International Conference, 43n Argo, Jennifer, 111n
Accenture, 194, 221 Ariel, 417
AC/DC, 377 Arizona State University (ASU), 194
Activision, 179, 450 Armani, 106
AC Value Centre, 405 Arm & Hammer, 199, 262
Acxsys Corporation, 344n Armstrong, Peter, 273
Adams, Cynthia, 389n Aronne, L.J., 351n
Adams, Michael, 344 Ashley Madison, 116
Adam’s Rib, 132 Ashworth, Laurence, 217n
Adbusters, 22 ASICS, 231
Adbusters Media Foundation, 22n Assassin’s Creed, 179
Adidas, 106, 165 Association for Consumer Research, 105n, 266n
Adler, Alfred, 154 Asterix, 415
The Advertising Archives, 386n Aston Martin, 448, 457
Advertising Standards Canada, 14, 217n ATN (Asian Television Network), 400
Age Perfect, 389 AT&T, 286, 430
AIG, 359 Audi, 4, 210
AirBnB, 165, 297 Aveda, 383
Akerk!, 68 Avon, 389
Akon, 117 A&W, 88–89
Alexander Keith’s, 315, 322 A&W Canada, 88, 89
Alibaba, 424 Axe, 39, 64, 154, 157, 292, 314, 449
Alison, D.B., 351n Azalea, Iggy, 138
Allard, Thomas, 116
Allen, Roy, 88 B
Allstate Insurance, 100 Bag, Borrow, or Steal, 297, 448
Alpha MOS, 43 Baker’s Delight, 238
Altria Group, 66 Band of Outsiders, 2
Amazon, 11, 66, 217, 263, 333, 386 Bank of Montreal, 400
Amazon.ca, 61, 292 Barbie Doll, 2, 11, 140, 426
Ambi Pur, 132 Barger, J.L., 351n
American Apparel, 17, 20, 195 Baskin, M., 351n
American Express, 63 Bass Export, 250
American Express Publishing (AEP), 106 Bass Pro Shops, 288
American Girl, 288 Batman, 141
American Girl Doll, 288 Bauhaus, 458
American Idol, 321, 435 Bay, 146
American Iron, 309 Bayer, 184
American Marketing Association, 13, 158n BBDO Worldwide, 419
Andersen, Hans Christian, 126 BC Hydro, 80, 80n
Anderson, Paul, 105n B-Corp, 261
Android, 117 Bearden, William O., 316n
Anew Platinum, 389 The Beatles, 426
Ang, Ien, 447n BeautifulPeople.com, 136
Angels, 84 Bebe, 41
Angry Birds, 333 Becel, 161
Anheuser-Busch, 216 Beckham, David, 350
Aniston, Jennifer, 219 Beckham, Victoria, 350
Annals of Tourism Research, 389n Bedington, Natasha, 117
Anybots, 419 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 357, 446
480 Index
BeingaGirl.com, 430 Brides, 421

Belk, Russell W., 164n Briers, Barbara, 351, 351n
Bell, 85 Bristol-Myers Squibb Company, 44
Bell Canada, 311, 311n British Telecom, 221
Belle, 417 Brock University, 43, 385
Beluga vodka, 448 Bronfman Family, 356
Benca, R.M., 351n The Brooklyn Nets, 442
Benedicktus, Ray L., 217n Brothers Grimm, 416
Benjamin Hotel, 4 Buckley’s, 184
Bernard Callebaut, 355 Bud Light, 9
Best Buy, 167–168, 287, 449 Budweiser, 51, 194, 195
Betsy Fisher, 128n Budweiser Fan Brew, 194
Better Business Bureau, 217, 295 Bug Chaser, 455
Better Happy Than Rich?, 344 Build-A-Bear Workshop, 290
Betts, Dickey, 314 Bündchen, Gisele, 75
Beyoncé, 10, 220, 444 Burberry, 350, 458
Bic, 131 Burger Family, 89
Bieber, Justin, 218, 333, 379 Burger King, 449
The Big Bang Theory, 220, 449
Big Brother, 435 C
Big Macs, 278 Cabela’s, 166
Big Rock Brewery, 108, 108n, 109 Cadbury Canada, 37
Bimbo, 429 Cadbury Schweppes, 414
Bing, 249 Cadillac Eldorado, 167
Bioshock2, 179 Cadillac Escalade SUV, 167
Birdman, 448 Caesar’s Palace, 9
Birks, 355 Calgary Stampede, 393
Bisset, Jacqueline, 389 Calgary Zoo, 50, 50n
Bits & Bites, 111 Call of Duty, 179
Bizrate.com, 263 Calvin Klein, 78, 135, 218
Black, Jennifer L., 351n Camio, 124
Black, Rebecca, 10 Campbell Company, 66, 395
BlackBerry, 66 Campbell’s Soup at Hand, 451
BlackBerry Curve, 400 Canada Goose Expedition Clothing Outfitters, 371–372
Black & Decker, 50 Canada Goose Expedition Clothing Outfitters, 371
The Blair Witch Project, 448 Canada Post Corporation, 286, 286n, 422, 422n
Blasted Church, 361 Canada’s Wonderland, 366
Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking, 72 Canadian Advertising Foundation, 395
Blishen, Bernard, 349, 361 Canadian Army, 101
BMW, 4, 40, 377 Canadian Association of Physicians for the Environment, 207
Boberg, Charles, 392 Canadian Family, 369
The Body Shop, 17, 135 Canadian Football League (CFL), 330
Boeing, 35 Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (CIBC), 400
Boggiano, M.M., 351n Canadian Institute for Health Information (CIHI), 351n
Bollywood Signature Line, 400 Canadian Living, 146
Bonhomme, 394 Canadian Mattress Recycling, 304
Botox, 213, 322 Canadian North, 392
Bounce, 231 Canadian Press, 230n
Bounty, 55, 187 Canadian Standards Association, 390
Boys and Girls Clubs of America, 380n Canadian Tire, 330
Boy Scouts of America, 135 Candy Crush, 179
BP plc, 295 Canon PowerShot A450, 112
Brady, Michael K., 217n Capcom, 179
Brahms, Johannes, 290 Cap’n Crunch, 449
Brandenburger, Adam, 164n Captain Morgan, 211, 211n
Branson, Richard, 350, 356 Caramilk, 37
Brantford Casino (OLG Casino Brantford), 30 Car and Driver, 210
Break, 234 Carb Counter, 213
Breast Cancer Foundation, 131 CardSpring, 286
Breyers, 98 Care Bears, 449
Bridal Fantasy, 423, 423n Car2Go, 297
Product, Services, Corporate, and Celebrity Index 481
Carlton University, 29 Cossette, 353

CARP (Canadian Association for Retired Persons), 387, 390 Costco, 43, 342, 352
Carroll, Dave, 293 Cotton Ginny, 146
Cascadian Farms, 58 Cova, Bernard, 164n
Castello, 37 Cover Girl, 389
Castello Bianco, 37 Craigslist, 300
Catholic Church, 428 Crayola, 449
CBC, 400 Crazy Blue Air Freshener, 455
CBC/Radio Canada, 390 Creap, 429
CBS, 293, 449 Creditcore.com, 343
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 48 Crème Eggs, 37
CFWE, 400 Crest, 183, 245
Chagall, Marc, 446 Cricket Plus, 400
Chan, Ricky, 447n Crispy Chinese, 415
Chanel, 75, 78, 348 Crispy Crunch, 37
Change.org, 426 Crocs, 461
Chapman’s Ice Cream, 429, 429n Crosby, Sidney, 378
Chapters-Indigo, 263 Crunchie, 37
Cheam, Janice, 464, 465 Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 447n
Cheerios, 187, 189 Cuban, Mark, 356
Cheetos, 433 Cuban Cohiba, 349
Chester the Cheetah, 221 Cuisipro, 390
Chevrolet Impala, 167 Culture Jammers Manifesto, 17
Chex Mix, 38 CW, 448
Childers, Terry L., 327n Cyrus, Miley, 133
Chrysler, 449
Church & Dwight, 46 D
Cialdini, Robert, 202 Da’ Bomb, 44
Cinderella, 417 Dahl, Darren W., 21n, 279n
Cinderella, 126 DaimlerAG, 262
Cirque du Soleil, 356, 398 Dairy Farmers of Canada, 151n
Citroën, 219 Dairy Queen, 449
City of Calgary, 203 Daltrey, Roger, 314
CK, 78 Damon, Matt, 372
Clearasil, 449 Danone, 213
Clinton, Bill, 154 Darke, Peter R., 217, 217n, 279n
Clooney, George, 219 The Darkness II, 179
Clorox, 176, 199 Darmon, Nicole, 351n
Club Med, 428 David Suzuki Foundation, 207
CNN, 293 DB Export Dry, 229, 229n
CNN.com, 209 DDB, 452
Coach, 64 De Beers, 419
COBS Bread, 237–238 Deeley Harley-Davidson Canada, 159n
Coca-Cola Company, 15, 42, 44, 46, 110, 126, 126n, 189, 221, 434, 435 Def Jam, 330, 442
Coffee-Mate, 75 DeGeneres, Ellen, 131, 389
Cohen, Lyor, 330 Dell, 286, 329
Coke, 33, 34, 46, 189, 226, 434, 435, 449 Dellaert, Benedict, 252n
Cold Stone Creamery, 323 DeLuca, M., 351n
Coleman, Richard P., 349, 361, 362n Demerol, 84
Colgate, 183 Department of Consumer and Corporate Affairs
Colgate-Palmolive Total, 226 Canada, 16n
Columbia Records, 442, 444 Department of Justice Canada, 16n
Conference Board of Canada, 345, 346 Deschanel, Zooey, 333
Consumer Electronics Show, 216 Deschenes, Jonathan, 447n
Consumer Reports, 196, 249, 263 Desi Life, 400
Consumption, Markets and Culture, 164n DeValck, Kristine, 315n
Coors, 135 DeWalt, 50
Coors Light, 292 Dewitte, Siefried, 351n
Corn Pops, 129 Dhurandhar, N.V., 351n
Cosmopolitan, 123, 173 Diana, Princess of Wales, 428
Cosmopolitan Turkey, 173 Dichter, Ernest, 152, 153
482 Index
Diegeo, 291 Embassy Suites, 231

Diesel, 20, 95, 227, 227n, 457, 457n Empire Company, 437
Diet Coke, 140, 184 Energizer Green Power Batteries, 455
Digital Extremes, 179 Energy Aware, 464–465
Dirty Laundry, 361 Enron, 359
Disney, 103, 379, 417, 432, 449 Entourage, 449
Disney Baby, 379 EnviroKidz, 57
DisneyBaby.com, 380 Epic Games, 179
Disney Couture, 352 Epinions, 112, 196
Disney Cuddly Bodysuit, 380 Escalade EXT, 167
Disneyland, 427 Esso, 152
Disneyland Paris, 431 Estée Lauder, 55
Disney World, 284, 417, 427, 431 E.T., 449
Dodge, 449 Eton, 350
DOGalog, 367 Etsy, 11
Dogfather & Co., 367 Etzel, Michael J., 316n
Dogtown, 450 Euro Disney, 435
Dolce & Gabbana, 352 European Journal of Marketing, 164n
Dole, 66 Evan, 382
Dollar Shave Club, 131, 131n ExBoyfriendJewelry.com, 301
Domino’s Pizza Group PLC, 424, 424n Evian, 292, 349
Dommelsch, 288 Evolution Engine, 179
Donald Duck, 432 Expedia, 286
Doritos, 9, 10, 220 Expedia.ca, 292
Dos Equis, 313 The Experience Economy, 447
Dove, 64, 133, 138, 138n, 139 Extra-Strength Maalox Whip Antacid, 51
DQ Tycoon, 449 Extreme Makeover: Home Edition, 81
Dr. Tattoff, 142 Exxon, 152
Drake, 310n, 372
Dreamliner, 35 F
Drewnowski, Adam, 351n Facebook, 1, 12, 14, 61, 68, 74, 78, 83, 102, 109, 111, 120, 136, 179,
Drinks Invigoration Team, 291 192, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 247, 249, 286, 325, 328, 332, 333,
DriveNow, 4 338, 426, 458
Drooly Dream Bars, 367 Fantasy Kids Resort, 412
Dubé, Laurette, 196, 196n FarmVille, 179, 333
Duke Nuke’em, 179 Fashion app, 287
Duncan, Calvin P., 266n Fast and Furious, 448
Dunkin’ Donuts, 260, 329 Fast Company, 38n
Dunn, Lea, 437, 438 FC Barcelona, 10
Durex, 334 FCUK (French Connection, United Kingdom), 81
Durgee, Jeffrey F., 153n Febreze, 132
Durkheim, Emile, 354, 355 Ferrari, 262, 349
Dylan, Bob, 219 Fiat Palio, 352
FIFA World Cup 2014, 433
E Find, Markus, 116, 117
E!, 103 Finkelstein, Stacey R., 351n
Eastman, Jacqueline K., 327n First Kiss, 48
easyJet, 352 Fishbach, Ayelet, 351n
eBay, 287, 288, 300, 328, 332 Fisher, Robert, 196, 196n
ecolabelling.org, 265 FisherGirl, 131
EcoLogo, 265 Fitbit, 318
Edmonton Oilers, 194 FitBit Force, 93
Egg McMuffins, 278 Fitzsimons, Gavan J., 21n
E-Harmony, 116 Flatt, Alden, 252n
eHarmony Canada, 156 Fleetwood Mac, 377
Electrolux, 429 Flickr, 61
Electronic Arts, 179, 449 Fluevog, John, 84
ELLE, 146 Fluevog Shoes, 84
eLoyalty, 154 Flügel, J.C., 457
Elsa Doll, 3 FlyHalifax.com, 394
Flynn, Leisa Reinecke, 327n GI Joe, 141

Fontaine, K.R., 351n Gillespie, Aaron, 237
Foodland, 437 Gillette, 194, 221
Food & Wine, 106 Gilmore, James, 447, 447n
Foote, Cone and Belding, 105 Giorgio Armani, 350
Foot Locker, 449 Girl, 442
Forbes Global 2000, 70 Girlfriend, 78
Ford, 247 Girls, 1
Ford, Tom, 33 GiveWell, 216
Ford Caliente, 429 GlaxoSmithKline, 176
Ford Fiera, 429 Goldberg, Marvin E., 266n
Ford Fusion hybrid, 247 Goldsmith, Ronald E., 327n
Ford Pinto, 429 Goode, Allen, 179, 180
Foreman, George, 219 GoodGuide, 264
Forever Young, 387 Good Housekeeping, 210, 310
Fossil Group, Inc., 83, 83n Good Housekeeping Seal of Approval, 265, 448
Fournier, Susan, 160n Good Times, 387
FourSquare, 11, 71, 210, 214, 358 Google, 12, 24, 61, 66, 249, 286, 329, 386
Fox, 226 Google Glass, 128
Frankie Lymon and the Teenagers, 381 Gorn, Gerald, 266n
Freecycle.org, 300 Government of Canada, 23
Free People, 382 Government of Ontario, 30
Fresca, 429 Grande, Ariana, 219
Fresh Burst Breath Strips, 79 Grand Theft Auto, 179
FreshBurst Listerine, 195 Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, 395
Fresh Stacks, 46 Granny Glamour, 84
Freud, Sigmund, 151, 152, 154, 457 Grauman’s Chinese Theatre, 426
Friday, 10 Great Blue Heron Casino, 30
Friendster, 358 Great Root Bear, 88
Frito-Lay North America Inc., 9n Green Giant, 54
FrogBox, 18 Green Seal, 265
Frosted Flakes, 129 Green Walk Media Group, LLC., 343n
Frozen, 3 greenweddings.net, 428
Fruit of the Loom, Inc., 137, 137n Green Works, 199
Fugman, Max, 146 Greiner, Russ, 252n
Grey’s Anatomy, 449
G Grillo, C.M., 351n
Gablinger, 410 Grinder, 117
G Adventures, 170, 170n Groupe Danone, 350
Galeries Lafayette, 290 Groupon, 331
Galleria Supermarket, 396 Gucci, 64, 350, 360, 367, 457
Gallup, 401 GUESS, 22, 95
Game Show Network, 263 GymPact, 68
Gannon, Janet, 371, 372
The Gap, 134, 320 H
Gates, Bill, 356 Häagen-Dazs, 349
Gaultier, Jean Paul, 447 Habitat for Humanity, 301
Gay Parent, 366 Hall, Edward T., 427, 427n
gayweddings.com, 366 Hallmark, 85
Geico Gecko, 159, 221, 231 Halo, 128, 179
Geico Insurance, 162, 162n, 167 Hamburger University, 417
General Electric, 66, 81 Hamburglar, 417
General Mills, 58, 453 Hammacher-Schlemmer, 329
General Motors, 161 The Hangover, 9
Genstar Real Estate, 437 Hanlon, E.C., 351n
Gentleman’s Quarterly, 323 Hansen, Emma, 146
Gerber, 366 Hansen, Rick, 146
GfK, 351 Hardisty, David, 253n
Ghostface Killah, 442 Harley-Davidson, 11, 159, 184, 309, 312, 312n, 367, 457
Giant Tiger, 405 Harris Poll, 143
484 Index
Harry Potter, 104, 154, 448 IKEA Jerker, 429

The Hartman Group, Inc., 282n Imam Muda, 435
Harvard Business School, 24 Impreza, 386
Hasbro, 449 Infiniti, 232
Hastie, Reid, 43n Innocentive.com, 446
Häubl, Gerald, 252 Instagram, 12, 61, 78, 83, 102, 124, 213, 338, 427, 459
Havaianas, 288 Interac, 344
Haven, 333 International AntiCounterfeiting Coalition, 67
Hawkins, Scott A., 76, 76n International Clothiers Inc., 372
HBO, 449 International Fashions, 145–146
HEC Montreal, 351 International House of Pancakes, 10
Hefty, 199 International Journal of Obesity, 351n
Heineken N.V., 213, 214, 214n, 431, 431n, 435 Intuit, 24
Heinz, 66, 220 Inuit Art Quarterly, 400
Henkel, 46 iPad, 55, 106, 176
Henry the Hippo, 292 iParty Retail Store Corp., 264
Hepburn, Katherine, 132 iPhone, 1, 2, 55, 114, 117, 244, 264, 281, 286, 287, 359
Hermès, 350 iPhone 6, 383
Hershey, 129, 449 iPod, 164, 267, 383, 449, 455
Hershey’s Hugs, 129 Ipsos Reid/NCR, 284
Heylululemon.com, 338 Ironhead T-shirts, 450
Hilton, Paris, 347 Irons, Jeremy, 431
Hirschman, Elizabeth, 447, 447n iTunes, 34, 111, 460
H&M, 299, 352, 458 Ivey Business School, 356
The Hobbit, 154 Izze Sparkling Pomegranate fruit beverage, 449
Hoch, Stephen J., 76n
Hockey Night In Canada, 400 J
Hoffman, Donna L., 212n J. Peterman Company, 262
Hofstede, Geert, 412, 413 Jaguar, 75
Holbrook, Morris B., 379n, 447, 447n Jaguar C-X75, 448
Hollands, Paul, 88, 89 James, Kevin, 219
Hollingshead, August, 361 James, Lebron, 218
Hollister, 434, 383 Jamieson, 265
Holt Renfrew, 330 Jane the Virgin, 448
Home Depot, 265, 284 Jasmine, 417
Home Energy Reports, 202 Jawbone Up, 93
Homefront, 179 Jay Z, 357, 442
Homeplus Co., Ltd., 281n J. Crew, 134, 456
Honey Maid, 46 Jdate.com, 116
Honey Nut Cheerios, 453 Jean Coutu, 398
Hong Kong Disneyland, 431 Jeep, 312, 449, 450
Horney, Karen, 154 Jeffries, Mike, 22
Hospital for Sick Children, 378 Jelly Belly, 41, 111
Host Foods, 296–297 Jenner, Kendall, 55
HotEnough.org, 357 Jersey Shore, 64
HP Sauce, 350 jewelmint.com, 1
HSBC, 173, 173n Jimmy Choo, 350
Hubba Bubba, 111 Johansson, Scarlett, 226
Hudson’s Bay Company, 405 Johnnie Walker Scotch, 291
Huggies, 131, 292 Johnson & Johnson, 248n
Hugo Boss, 349 Jolly Green Giant, 159, 160, 231
The Hunger Games, 267, 382 Jones Soda, 213, 213n
Hyundai, 257 Jordan, Michael, 349
Journal of Academy of Marketing, 217n
I Journal of Advertising, 104n
IBM, 103 Journal of Advertising Research, 105n, 169n
Ice Watches, 448 Journal of Business Research, 327n, 389n
IGA, 437 Journal of Consumer Psychology, 76n, 252n, 279n, 447n
IKEA, 109, 333, 367, 433 Journal of Consumer Research, 21n, 76n, 135n, 164n, 231n, 310n,
IKEA Fartfull, 429 316n, 351n, 362n, 418n, 442n, 447n
IKEA Gutvik, 429 Journal of Interactive Marketing, 252n
Journal of Marketing, 111n, 158n, 203n, 212n, 217n, 315n L

Journal of Marketing Research, 217n, 252n, 327n, 351n, 379n Labatt Breweries of Canada, 195n
Journal of Nutrition, 351n Lady Gaga, 117, 448
Journal of Retailing, 217n Laliberté, Guy, 356
Journal of Travel Research, 389n Lammily Doll, 140
Journals of Gerontology, 389n Lancôme, 55
Joy, Annamma, 447, 447n Laporte, Sandra, 351, 351n
J.P. Wiser’s Distillery, 163, 163n Laroche, Michel, 427n
Juicy Couture, 367 Laughing Stock, 361
Juicy Jeans, 3 Lay’s, 109
Julien’s Pattisserie Bakery and Café, 343 Lay’s Jalapeño Mac and Cheese, 109
Jung, Carl, 154 La-Z-Boy, 446
Justin Bieber, 78 League of Legends, 11, 128
Le Bel Âge, 387
K Léger, Jean-Marc, 229n
kaboose.ca, 369 Léger Marketing, 390, 401
Kaiser, Susan, 459n, 460n Lego, 109, 129, 164, 448
Kamali, Norma, 289 Lehman Brothers, 359
Kardashian, Kim, 138, 173, 347, 427 Lemieux, Mario, 378
Kashi, 58 Lennon, John, 428
Kashi crackers, 199 Lesschaeve, Isabelle, 43n
Kates, Steven M., 135, 135n Lessig, V. Parker, 310n
Katona, George, 345 Levine, Adam, 220
Katz, Daniel, 183, 184 Levi Strauss, 67, 135, 262, 315, 453, 457
Katzmarzyk, P.T., 351n Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 417
Keaton, Diane, 389 Lewis, George, 273
Keats, John, 137 Lexus, 35, 35n, 37, 446
Keds sneakers, 460 LG, 75
Keith, S.W., 351n LG Chocolate, 75
Keith’s Brewing, 322n LG Dare, 75
Kellogg, 41, 58, 433 LG Decoy, 75
Keno, 30 LG Shine, 75
Kerr, Helen, 390 LG Voyager, 75
Kersh, 145, 146 LG Vu, 75
Kershies, 145, 146 Light & Fit, 213
Kersh18nineteen, 145, 146 Lijoi, M.C., 351n
Kesha, 117, 441 Lin, Lily, 405, 406
Kia Motors America, Inc., 197, 197n Lincoln, 161
Kids Help Phone, 380, 380n LinkedIn, 12, 214, 327
Kijiji, 300 Listerine, 64, 79, 195, 196, 433
Killam Family, 356 Listerine Mouthwash, 79
Kinder-Morgan, 206 LiveJournal, 314
Kinder Surprise chocolate eggs, 402 Living Social, 331
King, 179 Liz Belle Agency, 146
King, Sharman, 89 Loblaw Companies, 198, 392, 395, 437
King of Queens, 219 Lofgren, Nils, 314
Kinkade, Thomas, 446 Loop Pay, 286
Kinski, Nastassja, 431 Lopez, Jennifer, 138, 448
KitchenAid, 344 Lord and Taylor, 326
Kit Kat, 55, 111, 213 L’Oréal, 55, 99, 121, 334, 352, 389
Klout, Inc., 333, 333n, 334 L’Oréal Paris, 133, 256, 256n
Kmart, 216, 449 Lotto 6/49, 30
The Knot, 263 Lotto Max, 30
Kokanee beer, 394, 416 Louis Vuitton, 67, 96, 349, 360, 383, 457
Kozinets, Robert V., 315n Lounge Lizards, 84
Kraft, 46, 160, 227 The Louvre, 456
Kraft Dinner, 352 Lucas, George, 459
Kraft Zesty Italian, 227 Lululemon Athletica, 5, 111, 166, 166, 337–338
Kristofferson, Kirk, 29 Lush, 17
Kruger Products LP, 432n Lux, 141
Krugman, Herbert, 76, 76n Lynx, 39
486 Index
M Messi, Lionel, 10
Mac, 98 Method Products, 36, 36n, 199, 261
Macinko, James, 351n Meyers-Levy, Joan, 76n
Mack, 286 MF Grape, 213
MacKay, Kelly J., 389n Mi-Carême Festival, 393
MADD, 19 Michaels, 291
MaddenNFL, 179 Michelin Man, 160
Magazines Canada, 393, 393n Mick, David Glen, 231n
Magnum, 96, 414 Mickey Mouse, 284, 352, 432
Main, Kelley J., 217n, 279, 279n Microsoft, 218, 286
Makeup Genius, 256 Midnight Sun Film Festival, 393
Malkewitz, Keven, 158n Mi’kmaq Grand Council, 402
Mandalay Bay Casino, 415 Milk Processor Education Program, 221
Manitoba Telecom Services (MTS) Inc., 221, 221n Miller Lite Beer, 410
Mantonakis, Antonia, 43, 43n Milton Bradley, 449
Marilyn Manson, 458 Minaj, Nikki, 133, 442
Marketing Magazine, 229n Ming Pao Daily, 399
Marketing Science, 252n MINI Cooper, 378, 449
Mark’s, 146 Mintel, 133
Marks & Spencer, 420 Miracle Whip, 448
Maroon 5, 33 Miró, Joan, 446
Mars, Incorporated, 97n, 106, 127n, 425n Miss America Pageant, 137
Maruti 800, 352 Missoni, 350
Marvel Comics, 417, 448 MIT, 127
Marvel Superheroes: 4D, 41 M&M’s, 39, 106, 351, 425
Marx, Groucho, 280, 350 Moda Operandi, 287, 444
Marx, Karl, 346 ModCloth, 287, 444
Maserati, 349 Modern Family, 219, 448
Maslow, Abraham, 100, 101, 102, 115, 117 Mogiliner, Cassie, 113
MasterCard, 345, 345n Molly Maid Home Care Service, 347
Match.com, 116, 332 Molson, 315
Matt Canada, 304 Molson Coors Canada, 225n, 391, 391n, 412, 412n
Mattel, 140 Molson USA, LLC, 47n
Matt & Nat, 300, 300n Mona’s Dog Boutique, 367
Mattressrecycling.ca, 304 Mondale, Walter, 321
Maxim, 67 Money Smart, 104
Maytag repairman, 167 Monopoly, 104
Mazda Miata, 42 Monroe, Marilyn, 138
McAfika, 415 Montreal Canadiens, 194
McAloo Tikki, 415 Moodagent, 112
McCain Family, 356 Morales, Andrea C., 21n
McConaughey, Matthew, 161 More, 387
McCracken, Grant, 140, 442n Morgan, J.P., 359
McDonald’s, 10, 51, 189, 189n, 278, 289, 299, 314, 414, 415, 416, The Morning Show, 293
417, 433, 433n, 434, 435 Morty the Bison, 221
McDonald’s Big Mac, 62 Mota, Bethany, 384
McDonald’s Canada, 88 Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), 19
McDowell, Andie, 389 Mountain Dew, 190
McFerran, Brent, 21, 21n Mountain Equipment Co-op (MEC), 166
McGavin’s, 238 Mount Allison University, 385
McGill University, 392 Mourali, Mehdi, 427, 427n
McKinsey and Company, 331 Mowen, John C., 233n
McQuarrie, Edward F., 231n Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 290
M&C Saatchi (S) Pte Ltd, 94, 346 Mr. Big, 37
Medal of Honor Warfighter game, 449 Mr. Clean, 67, 231
Meerkat, 124 Mr. Clean AutoDry, 67
MEGA Brands, 16 Mr. Clean Magic Eraser, 67
Memorial University, 437 Mrs. Butterworth’s Syrup, 381
Mercedes-Benz, 4, 78, 101, 193, 193n, 216, 358, 360 MTV, 64, 171, 350, 434
Mercedes-Benz Canada Inc., 113, 113n MTV Europe, 434
Merrill Lynch, 231 Much Music, 458
Muddy Paws, 367 Nutrition Reviews, 351n

Municipal World, 206 Nyquist, Linda, 389n
Murray, Henry, 99
Murray, Kyle, 252n O
Muse, 71 Obama, Michelle, 220, 456
Mustafa, Isaiah, 162 Obsession, 78
MustHaveShoes.com, 257 Ocean Spray, 71
myCoverGirl, 287 Octagon, 376
mymms.com, 106 Office Depot, 265
MySpace, 358 Offsetters, 175, 175n, 330, 331
mystarbucksidea.force.com, 446 OKCupid, 116
Old Navy, 291
N Old Spice, 132, 162, 314, 449
Nabisco, 52 Old Spice Guy, 83
Nabisco Premium Saltines, 46 Olsen, Ashley, 221
Nabisco Snackwells, 460 Olsen, Mary-Kate, 221
NADbank, 387 Olympics 2010, 465
Nair Pretty, 420 Omni Hotels, 35
Naked Grape, 51 One Million Moms, 227
Nalebuff, Barry, 164n oneshare.com, 421
Nanavatee, 145, 146 Onesie, 380
Nanavaty, Kershaw, 145, 146 Ontario 49, 30
NASA, 154 Ontario Lottery and Gaming Corporation (OLG), 20, 29–30
NASCAR, 210 Open Data Partnership, 14
Natal Day Festival, 393 Opower, 202, 202n
National Basketball Association (NBA), 349, 434 OpSec, 372
National Eating Disorders Association, 140 Optimum, 57
National Geographic, 273 Orbitz, 449
National Hockey League (NHL), 36, 194 Oreo, 94, 106, 213
Nativa, 435 Orth, Ulrich R., 158n
Natural Cheetos, 199 Osbourne, Ozzy, 379
Nature’s Path, 57–58 Oscar Mayer, 76
Need for Speed Underground 2, 449 Our Horizon, 206, 207n
Nelly, 442 Oxford, 350
Nest, 12
Nestlé Canada, Inc., 293n P
Netflix, 263 Pacific National Exhibition, 393
Neurio, 464, 465 Packard, Vance, 15
Neutrogena, 319 Painted Turtle, 361
New Balance, 262, 311 Palmolive, 199
New Coke, 189 Panasonic, 216
Newfoundland and Labrador Tourism, 392, 392n Pandelaere, Mario, 351n
Nielsen, 81, 450 Pandora, 223
Nike, 10, 51, 102, 106, 164, 213, 218, 349, 417, 426, 434, 449, Paneer Salsa McWrap, 415
457, 460 Pantone, 456
Nike+ Fuelband, 93, 102 Paper, 138
Nina Ricci, 78 Park, C. Whan, 310n
19 Kids and Counting, 133 Parkay Fun Squeeze, 450
Nintendo, 449 Parker, 429
Nintendo Wii, 179, 187 Parker, Peter, 417
Nirvana, 459 Parkwood Entertainment, 444
Noah’s Ark Communication Ltd., 444n Party Like It’s 1989, 459
Nokia, 359, 435, 448 Pasupathi, Monisha, 389n
Norelco, 133 Patagonia, 17, 383
Northern Stores, 405 Pattison, Jimmy, 356
North West Company, 405–406 Pavlov, Ivan, 62, 63, 64
Novak, Thomas P., 212n PayPal, 1, 286, 328
Novartis, 176 PBS, 160
Novartis Consumer Health Canada Inc., 184n Peanut Buster Parfait, 449
NPD Group, 213 Peapod, 450
Nutella, 164 Pearl Jam, 378
488 Index
Pei, I.M., 456 President Grant, 220

People, 227 President’s Choice Decadent Chocolate Chunk Cookies, 33
Pepsi, 33, 34, 41, 66, 100, 140, 156, 157, 189, 190, 220, 226, 231, 259, Presley, Elvis, 426, 427
292, 334, 382, 383, 430, 444, 449 Press, 145, 146
Pepsi A.M., 259 Price, Bob, 252n
PepsiCo, 44, 83, 216, 257, 262, 444, 449 Price, Linda L., 164n
Pepsodent, 412 Pricegrabber.com, 263
Perimutter, Marion, 389n Procter & Gamble Company, 8n, 46, 67, 132, 329, 389, 430,
Periscope, 124 446, 452
Perrier, 295 Proctor & Gamble Crest, 226
Perry, Katy, 427 Pro-Line, 30
PETA, 20 Pro-Picks, 30
Petco, 166 Pro Tattoo Tech Gear, 426
PetSmart, 166 Prozac, 66
PewDiePie, 382 Psychological Science, 43n, 351n
Pfizer, 176 Psychology & Marketing, 427n
PGA, 5 Public Health Agency of Canada, 351n
Philip Morris, 66 Public Opinion Quarterly, 76n
Philips Electronics, 261, 383 Purell, 449
Phillips, Mark R., 389n
Philp, Matthew, 43n Q
Photoshop, 138 Quaker Oats, 158
Picasso, Pablo, 219, 446 Quaker Oats Bran, 100
Picnic, 46 Qualcomm, 66
Picoo Z helicopter, 329 Quality Street, 250, 293
Pietrobelli, A., 351n Queen, 442
Pillsbury Doughboy, 9, 159, 167, 221 Queen Latifah, 442
Pimp Juice, 442 Queen’s University, 164
Pimp My Ride, 6 Quirky, 444
Pine, Joseph, 447, 447n
Pink Friday, 442 R
Pinterest, 1, 11, 12, 102, 211, 212, 214, 332, 338 Range Rover, 448
Pirate Bay, 13 Rapport Communications, Inc., 394n
Pirates of the Caribbean, 41 RateMyProfessors.com, 1, 11
Pitbull, 448 Ray, Rachael, 314
Pittsburgh Zoo, 53 Reader’s Digest, 174
Pittsburgh Zoo & PPG Aquarium, 54n Reagan, Ronald, 321
Pizza Hut, 385, 449 RealAge, 176
Pizza McPuff, 415 Real Canadian Superstore, 392
Playboy, 67, 138 Real Housewives, 441
Play-Doh George Foreman Grill, 449 Recover Canada, 304
Play-Doh McDonald’s Restaurant Playset, 449 Red Bull, 5, 189, 291, 384
PlayStation 3, 450 Redden, D.T., 351n
PlentyofFish (POF), 116–117 ReD FM, 400
Plotnikoff, Terryl, 304 Redpath, 264
Point Pleasant Lodge, 390 Red Rose, 391
Polaroid, 400 The Red Shoes, 126
Polizzi, Nicole “Snookie,” 64 Reese’s Pieces, 449
Pollay, Richard W., 266n Reiss, Dani, 371
Pommery POP Champagne, 367 Renoir, Pierre-Auguste, 219
POM Wonderful Juice, 258, 258n Renova SA, 37, 37n
Pons, Frank, 427n Research in Consumer Behavior, 443n
Pontiac, 125 RevitaLift, 389
Poole, Judy, 273 Rich, 78
Popa, Monica, 111, 111n Riesman, David, 156
Porsche, 258, 262 Ritchie, Robin B., 217n
Porsche Boxter, 55 Ritz-Carlton, 415
Powell, Randy, 273, 274 Roberts, Julia, 350
Power Pasta, 444 Robinson, Rick, 447n
PowerTab, 464, 465 Roche, 44
Prada, 349 rockcamp.com, 314
Rocketcases, 100 Seinfeld, 421

Rocky Mountaineer, 273–274 Sensation Bars, 35
Rodero, Pauline, 43n Sephora, 291
Rokeach, Milton, 174 7 For All Mankind, 95, 315
Rolaids, 76 Seventh Generation, 17, 199
Rolex, 356, 359 Sex and the City, 448
Rolling Stone, 174 Sex Tape, 448
Rolls-Royce Silver Mist, 429 Shaadi.com, 116
Ronald McDonald, 417 Shakey’s, 10
Rook, Dennis W., 418n Shakrukh Khan, 350
Rossellini, Isabella, 431 Sheldon, 220
Rotman School of Management, 76 Sherry, John F. Jr., 447n
Royal Bank of Canada, 385 Shields, Brooke, 226
Royal Oak Burial Park, 7, 7n Shim, Yoonji, 337, 338
Royal Salute Scotch, 100 Shirkey, Robert, 206, 207
Rubbermaid, 132 Shoppers Drug Mart, 24, 71, 71n, 288
Ruden, D., 351n Shoppers Optimum, 71
The Running Room, 103, 103n, 311 SickKids Foundation, 378
The Running Room Canada Inc., 317, 317n Sierra Club, 176, 199, 428
RVL7, 288 SignBank, 452
Ryan, Eric, 199 Silverlit Toys, 329
Simmel, Georg, 458
S Simon, Herbert, 249
Saatchi & Saatchi, 382, 383 Simon Fraser University, 21
Saatchi & Saatchi Tribe, 226n Simply Ageless, 389
Safeway, 284 Simpson, Bonnie, 203, 203n
Saints Row 2, 395 The Sims, 179, 221, 333
Saks Fifth Avenue, 350 Six Degrees of Separation, 326
Saks’s Riyadh, 350 Skinner, B.F., 67
The Salvation Army, 299, 299n Sleep Country, 63
Samsung, 10, 75, 114, 213, 286, 331, 451 Sleep Country Canada, 63n
Samsung Access, 75 Sleeping Beauty, 417
Samsung BlackJack, 75 Slim-Fast, 141
Samsung FlipShot, 75 Sloan Management Review, 252n
Samsung Galaxy, 244 Slumdog Millionaire, 350, 400
Samsung Glyde, 75 Smirnoff Vodka, 291
Samsung Instinct, 75 Smith, Malcolm C., 111n, 389, 389n
Samsung Juke, 75 Snapchat, 12, 78, 111, 213, 331
Samsung UpStage, 75 Snickers, 97
Samuel Adams, 51 Snow White, 417
Sani-Flush, 75 Sobey, Frank H., 356
Santa Claus, 423 Sobey, John, 437
Sara Lee, 414 Sobeys, 196, 356, 437–438
Sark, John Joe, 402 The Social Psychology of Clothing, 459n, 460n
Sasquatch, 9 Société des Produits Nestlé S.A., 250n
Scandal, 220 Society for Consumer Psychology, 203n
Scent Marketing Institute, 40 Soda Stream, 226, 454
Schau, Hope Jensen, 164n SoftCard, 286
Schindler, Robert M., 379n Solomon, Michael R., 443n
Schmalz, James, 179 Sonos, 12
Scholz, Dave, 229n Sony Corporation, 383, 450
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 219 Sony PS3, 179
Science World, 107 Sooruz, 168
Scion, 383 The Sound Research, 133
Scope, 195, 196 SouthAsian.com, 400
Scotch Tape, 402 South Asian Post, 400
Scotiabank, 400 Spence Diamonds, 191, 191n
Scoville, Wilbur, 44 Spider-Man, 417
Scrubbing Bubbles, 199 Sports Illustrated, 106, 324
SeaWorld, 216 Sprint Guy, 167
Second Life, 12, 128 Sprite, 62
490 Index
Sprott School of Business, 29 TED Talks, 126

SRI Consulting Business Intelligence, 355, 355n Teenage Research Unlimited, 381
SRI International, 171 TELUS, 66, 199, 199n, 400
Staples, 22 TELUS World of Science, 107n
Starbucks, 11, 35, 288, 314, 358, 427, 431, 446, 460 Tennent 1885 lager, 250
Star India Plus, 400 10 Thousand BC, 356
Starlite Urban Drive-In, 434 Tesla, 453
Star Trek, 179 thefuntheory.com, 200
Star Trek, 376 theknot.com, 421
Star Wars, 63, 448, 459 Thomas, Tandy Chalmers, 164, 164n
Starwood Hotels and Resorts, 367 Thomson, David, 356
statcan.gc.ca, 5, 23 Threadless, 287, 444, 445, 445n
Statistics Canada, 4, 5, 5n, 133, 364, 366, 388, 398n, 400, 402 Threadless.com, 330
Stephens, Arjan, 57–58 Three Dog Bakery, 367
Stephens, Arran, 57 3M Company, 402
Stereo Review, 323 Thrifty Foods, 437
Steve Nash Fitness World and Sports Club, 102, 102n Tick, Sam, 371
Stevens, Izzie, 449 Tide, 75
Strategic Business Insights, 355, 355n Tide Pods, 258
Stringer, Adrienne, 347 Tiffany and Co., 37, 134, 134n, 414
StriVectin-SD, 213 Tigert, Douglas J., 169n
Subaru, 54–55, 185, 386 Time, 106
Subliminal Projection Company, 46 Time Inc., 106
Subway, 213 Tim Hortons, 17, 23, 68, 68n, 70, 85, 385
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 154 Tinder, 1, 117, 136
Sunbeam Mist-Stick, 429 Tinker Bell, 352
Suncor, 206 Titleist, 79
Sunkist Growers, 260, 260n TLC, 133
Sun-Maid, 67 T-Mobile, 106, 286
Sunsilk, 141 TMZ.com, 209
Super Bowl, 10, 444 Today’s Parent, 369
Super Bowl 2007, 220 Tom Ford, 78
Super Bowl 2011, 379 Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, 164
Super Bowl 2013, 106, 213 ToneCheck, 112
Super Bowl 2015, 226 Tony Hawk’s Underground 2, 450
Super Bowl XLII, 402 Tony the Tiger, 159, 231
Super Piss, 429 Tootsie Rolls, 449
Swarovski, 442, 448 Topshop, 458
Swatch Instant Store, 288 Toronto Raptors, 310n
Swedish Brewers Association, 17 Toronto Star, 400
sweetmama.ca, 369 Toronto Stock Exchange, 88
Swift, Taylor, 3, 459 Tory Burch, 441
Swingers, 84 Tostitos, 111
Syncrude, 206 Tourism Las Vegas, 94
Syntonetic Media Solutions A/S, 112n Toyota, 133, 231, 383, 446, 448
Toyota Camry Hybrid, 70
T Toyota Canada, 70
Taco Bell, 385, 460 Toyota Highlander, 387
Taco Bell Chihuahua, 167 Toyota Motor Corporation Australia, 134, 134n
Taddingstone Consulting, 356 Toyota Motor Sales, USA Inc., 35n, 450, 450n
TAG Heuer, 194, 350 Toys “R” Us, 329
Target, 383, 448 Travel and Leisure, 273
Task Rabbit, 297 Tremor, 329, 452
Tat2BeGone, 142 Trifts, Valerie, 252n
Tattoo MD, 142 TripAdvisor, 61, 264, 295, 334
Tawkify, 334 Tropicana, 257
TD Bank Financial Group, 401 Tropolis, 257
TD Canada Trust, 400 True North Blend, 431
Team EDF, 41 True Religion, 95, 434
Teddy Grahams, 52 Tse-tung, Mao, 349
Tsingtao, 432 Victoria’s Secret, 78, 127, 219, 288

T & T Supermarket, 395 Vidburs, 78
Tumbat, Gulnur, 164n Villeneuve, Jacques, 398
Tumblr, 214, 427 Vincor, 51
Tupperware, 321, 322 Vine, 459
Tutti Frutti, 111 Virgin, 66
Twitter, 83, 102, 111, 120, 192, 211, 213, 214, 247, 249, 286, 338, Virgin Group, 350
357, 428 Virgin Mobile, 448
twobrides.com, 366 Virtual Fridge Lock, 68
Tyco, 360 Vitolo, Loretta, 389n
Tylenol, 248, 295 Vogue, 210
The Voice, 220
U Volkswagen Beetle, 352, 378
Uber, 165, 297 Volkswagen Canada, 379, 379n
UC Berkeley, 264 Volkswagen (VW), 6, 125, 200, 200n, 224
Under Armour, 10 Volvo, 78, 101, 161
UNICEF, 331 Volvo C70, 161
Unilever PLC, 24, 39, 46, 47, 64, 88, 98n, 139, 141, 157n, 161n, 292, Volvo do Brasil, 101n
350, 414 Voorhees, Clay M., 217n
United Airlines, 293
United Nations, 388 W
United States Antarctic Program, 372 Wallendorf, Melanie, 105n
The United Way of Greater Toronto, 110 Walmart, 18, 46, 175, 199, 216, 246, 289, 314, 344, 352, 355,
University of Alberta, 196 400, 415
University of British Columbia, 253n Walmart Canada, 400
University of British Columbia (UBC), 447 Walt Disney Company, 284
University of Florida, 160n Wang, C., 351n
University of Manitoba, 279, 385, 389 Wang, Jeff, 447n
University of McGill, 228 Warframe, 179
University of Saskatchewan, 111 Warhol, Andy, 447
University of Toronto, 76 Warlop, Luk, 351n
Unreal, 179 Warner, Lloyd W., 349
Unreal Championship, 179 Warner-Lambert, 195
Unreal Tournament, 179 Warner Music Group, 330
Urbanspoon, 264 Watson, Emma, 372
Us, 123 Weber, Ernst, 45
U.S. Army, 100 Weber, Max, 346
USA Today, 9, 35 The Wedding Channel, 421
Usta, Murat, 252n weddingchannel.com, 421
Weight Watchers, 98, 311
V Weight Watchers International, 140
Valentino, 457 Welch Foods, Inc., 43
Vancity, 396, 396n Wells, William D., 169n
Vancouver Canucks, 194 West, Kanye, 427, 446
Vancouver Olympics 2010, 330, 331, 378 Western University, 203
Vanderbilt, William, 359 Westfall, A.O., 351n
Vanity Fair, 218 WestJet, 392
VANOC, 465 Weston Family, 356
van Wyk, Heine, 123 West Vancouver, District of, 206
Vaughn, Richard, 105n WeStyle, 123
Veblen, Thorstein, 359, 360, 361, 457 Wharton School of Business, 113
Venetian Hotel, 288 White, K., 203n
Venkatesh, Alladi, 447n White Castello, 37
Verizon, 66, 130, 130n, 286 Whole Foods Market, 166, 216, 262
Verizon Wireless, 284 Whoop Ass, 213
Vespa, 378 Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?, 350
Via Genova Café, 356 Wickr, 78
Viagra, 66, 109, 228 Wicks, 429
VIA Rail Canada Inc., 353, 353n Widrich, Leo, 38n
Vicks, 429 Wikipedia, 216, 264
492 Index
Wild Cherry Pepsi, 292 X

Wild Oats Markets, 216 Xerox, 295
Wilfred Laurier University, 315 Xiaoping, Deng, 349
Williams, Allison, 1
Williams, Pharrell, 442 Y
Wilner, Sarah J.S., 315, 315n Yahoo!, 249, 263
Wilson, Chip, 337 Yankelovich, 277
Windex, 40, 199 Yellow Pages, 328, 393, 393n
Windsor, 350 The Yellow Pages, 36
Windspeaker, 400 Yelp, 11, 61, 249, 264, 295, 328, 334
Winners, 244 Yik Yak, 20
Winners Canada, 355, 355n York University, 217, 385
Winnipeg Jets, 194 Young & Rubicam (Y&R), 154, 155n
Winnipeg Jets Fan Brew, 195 Youthography, 379
Winter Olympics 2010, 405 YouTube, 10, 11, 12, 22, 24, 49, 75, 131, 162, 187, 249, 264, 293, 326,
Wiser’s, 55 329, 330, 334, 338, 384, 386, 450
The Wizard of Oz, 126
Wojnicki, Andrea, 315n Z
Wok n Roll, 84 Zaichkowsky, Judith Lynne, 104n, 105n
Wonder Bread, 238 Zaltman, Gerald, 24
Woodcraft, 368, 368n Zara, 352, 458
Woods, Tiger, 194, 221 Z-Boys, 450
Word of Mouth Marketing Association, 315 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, 294
WorldCom, 359 Zipcar, Inc., 165, 297, 383
World Cup 1994, 414 Zipf, George Kingsley, 267
World Health Organization (WHO), 138 Ziploc, 390
World of Warcraft, 128, 333 Zoomer, 387
World Wildlife Fund (WWF), 52 Zoosk, 116
Wright, Frank, 88 Zwicker’s Gallery, 356
Wright, S.M., 351n Zynga, 179
Write or Die, 68
Subject Index
A children, 379–381
abandoned products, 298 chronological age, 388
ABC model of attitudes, 185–188 Generation X, 386
Aboriginal Canadians, 400 Generation Y, 382–385
abranding, 359 Generation Z, 382
absolute threshold, 45 grey market, 388–391
abstainers, 346 mature market, 386–387
abstraction, 201, 259 perceived age, 388
abuse of exchange and return policies, 22 youth market, 381–382
academic route, 468 age cohort, 378–379
acceptance stage, 459 agentic goals, 129
“accidental” search, 248–249 aggregation, 425
acculturation, 173 AIOs, 169–170
achieved status, 347 allocentrics, 156
achievement, need for, 99–100 alternatives, evaluation of, 256–260
achievers, 172 American Marketing Association’s Code of
acoustical storage, 77 Ethics, 13
activation models of memory, 77 analogical learning, 79–80
activities, 169–170 analytical psychology, 154
activity stores, 290 androgyny, 131–132
actual self, 122 animism, 159–160
actual state-need recognition, 247 anorexia, 140, 141
adaptation, 49 antecedent states, 278, 284–285
addictive consumption, 19–20 anthropomorphized, 160
adopting an innovation, 451–453, 454–455 antibrand communities, 314
advergaming, 449–450 anticonformity, 323
advertising anticonsumption, 22
attitude toward the advertisement (Aad), 187–188 antifestival, 423
comparative advertising, 225–226 antiglobals, 434
context, 81 anti-smoking ads, 48
deceptive advertising, 217 apathetic consumer, 286
economics-of-information perspective, 15 apology, 295
execution, 188 approach-approach conflict, 97–98
feelings generated by, 188 approach-avoidance conflict, 98–99
hybrid ads, 81 archetypes, 154, 155
“low-dose” advertising, 249 argument, construction of, 224–226
mystery ads, 81 argument strength, 234
native advertising, 217–218 arousal, 94, 280, 284
necessity of, 15 art product, 446
postexperience advertising, 75, 81 art world, 447
repeat ads, 64 ascribed status, 347
resonance, 231 Asian, 399
transformational advertising, 232 aspirational reference groups, 312–313, 314
variations-on-a-theme advertising, 76 assimilation effect, 192
advertising account executives, 467 associative learning, 63–64
advertising copywriters, 467 associative links, 78
advertising involvement, 109 associative network models, 78–79
advertising wearout, 66, 223, 224 assortative mating, 347
aesthetic preferences, 84 asynchronous interactions, 11
affect, 109, 185 atmospherics, 289–290
discrete emotions, 112–113 attention, 47–50
social media, and our emotions, 111–112 attentional gate, 77
types of affective responses, 109–111 attitude, 183
affective involvement, 108 ABC model of attitudes, 185–188
affective responses, 109–111 advertising, feelings generated by, 188
affect-referral, 197 attitude models, 195–199
affiliation, need for, 100, 390 cognitive dissonance, 190–191
affluenza, 355 commitment levels, 190
affordable luxuries, 352 formation of attitudes. See attitude formation
age, 5, 377–378 frame of reference, 192
age cohort, 378–379 functions of attitudes, 183–185
Baby Boomers, 387–388 harmony, 190–191
494 Index
attitude (continued) unfamiliar behaviour, 203

latitudes of acceptance and rejection, 192 vs. intentions, 199–200
origins of, 196 behavioural economics, 345
prediction of behaviour, 199–204 behavioural influence perspective, 244
toward act of buying, 187, 201 behavioural learning theories, 62–71
toward luxuries, 355 associative learning, 63–64
toward money, 343–345 classical conditioning, 62–63
toward the advertisement, 187–188 conditioning, marketing applications of, 65–67
attitude accessibility perspective, 201 instrumental conditioning, 67–69, 70–72
attitude change learning schedules, 69–70
fear and, 230 operant conditioning, 67–69
influences, 209–210 behavioural science perspectives on
interactive communication. See interactive fashion, 456–458
communications being space, 288
message appeals, 226–231 belief, 79, 185, 196
persuasion, 209 believers, 172
sleeper effect, 217 belonging needs, 102
attitude formation, 189 benefits, 169, 185
balance theory, 193–195 benign envy, 114
cognitive dissonance, 190–191 Better Happy Than Rich? (Adams), 344–345
commitment levels, 190 bias
consistency principle, 190–195 in decision-making process, 251–253
different ways of forming attitudes, 189 hyperopia, 251
harmony, 190–191 imbibing idiot bias, 122
self-perception theory, 191–192 knowledge bias, 218
social judgment theory, 192 loss aversion, 251–253
attitude models, 195–199 present biased, 253
extended Fishbein model, 199–201 reporting bias, 218
Fishbein model, 197–198, 199–201 response bias, 84–85
multi-attribute attitude models, 195–199 sunk-cost fallacy, 251
attitude object (Ao), 183, 185 big data, 6–8
attitude toward the act of buying (Aact), 201 billionaires, 356
attitude toward the advertisement (Aad), 187–188 binary opposition, 417
attributes, 55, 79, 195, 196, 198, 262 biogenic needs, 96, 99, 100, 101
authenticity, 262 biology, 130
authority, 209 bisexual consumers, 133–134
autobiographical memories, 82–83 black, 36, 38
autonomy versus belonging, 382 Blink: The Power of Thinking without Thinking, 72
averaging, 85 blogs, 9
avoidance group, 314 blue, 36, 38
avoidance-avoidance conflict, 99 Bobo doll, 73
Axe Effect, 39 body cathexis, 135–136
body decoration and mutilation, 142
B body image, 20, 135
Baby Boomers, 378, 387–388 body cathexis, 135–136
back-translation, 429 ideals of beauty, 136–139
backward conditioning, 66 body image distortions, 141
badges, 333 body piercing, 143
baksheesh, 13 body type, 21
balance theory, 193–195 boomerang kids, 367
balanced argument, 224 bounded rationality, 250
balancers, 346 brain-scanning technology. See functional magnetic resonance
bandwagon effect, 322 imaging (fMRI)
base, 79 brand aspirationals, 344
basic-level category, 259 brand community, 312
basking in reflected glory, 194 brand equity, 65, 159
B2C commerce, 11 brand evaluations, 82
beauty. See ideals of beauty brand immigrants, 457
behaviour, 185 brand influencers, 330
prediction of behaviour, 199–204 brand loyalty, 2, 71, 267
standards, online, 332 brand management, 467
Subject Index 495
brand name C2C commerce, 11

importance of, 66 celebrity endorsements, 194–195, 219–221
metaphors, use of, 75 census family, 364
naming consultants, 66 central route to persuasion, 233
brand personality, 158–162 chavs, 350
brand prominence, 360 children, 379–381
brand tourists, 457 China, 349, 352, 419
BrandAsset valuator archetypes, 155 Chinese Canadians, 398–399
brandfests, 312 choice architecture, 253
branding chronological age, 388
co-branding strategies, 167 chunking, 77, 222
family branding, 66 class. See social class
masked branding, 64 class differences in world view, 354–357
brands, 2 classic, 460
familiar brand names, 267 classical conditioning, 62–63, 189
fortress brands, 419 cliques, 328
luxury brands, 350 co-branding strategies, 167
pioneering brand, 80–81 co-consumers, 279
retro brand, 83 code, 455
salience, 81 code of ethics, 13–14
Brazil, 352 codes, 357
breast size, 142 coercive power, 317
bribery, 13 cognition, 185
BRIC, 352 experiential system of cognition, 244
bridging function, 327 need for, 154, 158
bulimia, 140, 141 rational system of cognition, 244
business ethics, 13–14 cognitive dissonance, 98, 190–191
bustarella, 13 cognitive involvement, 108
buyer, 322 cognitive learning theory, 71–73
buyer behaviour, 3 cognitive matching, 125–126
see also consumer behaviour cognitive responses, 233, 234
buzz, 218–219 cognitive structure, 258
buzz marketing, 315, 329–330 cognitive-affective model, 187
collaborative consumption, 297
C collecting, 426
Canada Consumer Product Safety Act, 16 collections, 426
Canadian Code of Advertising Standards, 14 collective selection, 456
Canadian diversity, 400–401 collective self-esteem, 123
car co-ops, 297 collective unconscious, 154
careers in consumer research, 467–468 collectivist culture, 413
cascades, 325 colours, 36–37, 38, 50
case studies commercial friendships, 292
A&W: The Evolution of a Brand, 88–89 commitment, 319
Canada Goose, 371–372 commitment to an attitude, 190
Changing Disposal Habits, 304–305 common interests, 285
Cobs Bread — Changing Bread Consumption, 237–238 communal goals, 129
Energy Aware?, 464–465 communication
Going to Digital Extremes, 179–180 communications model, 210–211
International Fashion Expands, 145–146 elaboration likelihood model (ELM), 232–235
The Inuit and the North West Company, 405–406 elements of communication, 210–211
Know Your Limit, 29–30 feedback, 211
Managing Consumer Perceptions at Nature’s Path, 57–59 interactive communications, 211–215
PlentyofFish (POF), 116–117 medium, 211
Returning to Rocky Mountaineer, 273–274 message, 210, 212, 222–232
Sobeys, 437–438 receivers, 211
Social Media at Lululemon Athletica, 337–338 source, 210, 212, 215–221
Warning Labels for Climate Change?, 206–207 source vs. the message, 232–235
cash, 286 tactical communications options, 210
categorization of products, 257–260 word-of-mouth communication (WOM), 328–331
cathexis, 135–136 communications model, 210–211
cause-related marketing, 17 communications subsystem, 444
496 Index
comparative advertising, 225–226 consumer group, 165

comparative influence, 311 consumer guilt, 114
compatibility, 454 consumer hyperchoice, 242
compensatory consumption, 125 consumer identity renaissance, 390
compensatory decision rules, 268, 269 consumer insights, 23
Competition Act, 16 Consumer Packaging and Labelling Act, 16
competitive advantage, 294 consumer protection, 15–16
competitors consumer research, 23–25
competitors’ ratings, 198–199 see also research
identification of, 260 consumer theft, 20–22
complexity, 455 consumer-generated content, 9–10, 109
compliance, 190 consumerism, 15–16
compulsive consumption, 20 consumers
conceptual integration, 447 co-consumers, 279
conclusions, 225 global consumer, 10–12
conditioned response (CR), 63 interactivity, 212–213
conditioned stimulus (CS), 63 involvement, 104–109
conditioning manipulation of, 14–18
backward conditioning, 66 marketing, impact of, 9–14
classical conditioning, 62–63, 189 marketing strategy, impact on, 4–8
instrumental conditioning, 67–69, 70–72, 189 preferences, 261–262
marketing applications of, 65–67 prior expertise of, 254–255
operant conditioning, 67–69 real value of happy customers, 296
product associations, 66 shopping orientation, 285–286
repetition, 65–66 transumer, 297
conformity, 318–320, 323, 382 “typical” Canadian consumer, 5
congruence models, 125–126 consumerspace, 445
conjunctive rule, 269 consumption
connexity, 383 see also consumer behaviour
conscientious consumerism, 174–176 addictive consumption, 19–20
consensus, 210 anticonsumption, 22
consistency, 210 collaborative consumption, 297
consistency principle, 190–195 compensatory consumption, 125
balance theory, 193–195 compulsive consumption, 20
harmony among attitudes, 190–191 conspicuous consumption, 359, 457
self-perception theory, 191–192 digital virtual consumption (DVC), 333
social judgment theory, 192 lifestyle-based patterns of consumption, 165
theory of cognitive dissonance, 190–191 major motives for, 153
conspicuous consumption, 359, 457 meaning of consumption, 10
conspicuous waste, 361 profane consumption, 426–428
constellations, 124 sacred consumption, 426–428
consumer activism, 17–18 and self-concept, 124–125
consumer addiction, 19–20 virtual consumption, 11–12
consumer behaviour, 2–3, 3 consumption communities, 2, 164
see also consumption consumption constellations, 167
dark side of, 18–22 consumption process, 3
decision making. See decision making consumption situation, 278
group effects on, 321–323 contagion effect, 428
postpurchase satisfaction, 293–297 contamination, 426
as a process, 3 contentment, 156
situational effects on, 278–293 context, 81
and social media, 331–334 context-dependent, 455
understanding consumer behaviour, 4 continuous innovation, 453–454
and values, 174 contrast, 50
wheel of consumer behaviour, 26 contrast effect, 192
consumer confidence, 345–346 conventions, 413
consumer contamination, 279 cooling-off periods, 15
consumer decision making. See decision making co-oriented peer, 321
consumer demand, 342–343 core values, 173, 412
Consumer Ethnocentrism Scale (CETSCALE), 265 corporate giving, 17
consumer fairy tales, 417 corporate paradox, 218–219
Subject Index 497
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), 17, 216 culture of participation, 12

cosmetic surgery, 142 culture production process, 443
cosmological function, 417 culture production system (CPS), 443–446
cosmology, 418 custom, 413
cougars, 360 customer affairs, 467
counterarguments, 233 customer co-creation, 213
counterfeit goods, 359 customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D), 293
country of origin, 265 cyber-bullying, 20
covariation, 264 cybermediaries, 263
craft product, 446 cyberspace themes, 288
crash dieters, 346
creative subsystem, 444 D
credible source, 216–218 database marketing, 7
creolization, 435 deadline time, 282
crescive norms, 413 decay, 63–64
cross-cultural analysis, 433 deceptive advertising, 217
crowd power, 330 decision making
crowding, 280 amount of search, 253–256
crowdsourcing, 109 behavioural influence perspective, 244
cultivation hypothesis, 448 biases in decision-making process, 251–253
cultural capital, 357 compensatory decision rules, 268, 269
cultural categories, 455–456 continuum of buying decision behaviour, 245
cultural consumption, 6 cybermediaries, 263
cultural creatives, 174 decision rules, 246, 267–269
cultural differences evaluation of alternatives, 256–260
bribery, 13 evaluative criteria, 262–263
in business ethics, 13 experiential perspective, 245
gift giving, 421 extended problem solving, 245, 246–247
myths, 415–417 familiar brand names, 267
norms, 413–415 habitual decision making, 245
rituals, 418–425 heuristics, 264–266
within the same country, 433–434 information search, 248–256
values, 174, 411–413 in-store decision making, 290–292
cultural formula, 448 limited problem solving, 245–246
cultural gatekeepers, 444–446 non-compensatory decision rules, 268–269
cultural meanings, 219–220 perspectives on, 243–244
cultural pressures, 318–319 problem recognition, 247
cultural selection, 442–443 product categorization, 257–260
cultural sensitivities, 414 product choice, 261–269
cultural specialists in music industry, 445 rational perspective, 243–244
cultural values, 418 selection among alternatives, 261–269
culture, 410 stages in consumer decision making, 243, 244–245
aspects of culture, 411 types of consumer decisions, 245–247
collectivist culture, 413 decision polarization, 321
diffusion of consumer culture, 434–435 decision rules, 246, 267–269
food culture, 414 deep processing, 77
global consumer culture, 10 degree of connectedness, 333
high culture, 446–448 deindividuation, 321
high-context culture, 395 deliberate search, 248–249
individualist culture, 413 demographics, 4–5
language, 428–429 density, 280
low-context culture, 395 dependent variable, 25
and marketing, 9–10 desacralization, 428
marketing across cultures, 430–434 descriptive norms, 202
popular culture, 9, 417, 446–448 design, 56
profane consumption, 426–428 determinant attributes, 262
sacred consumption, 426–428 deviance, fear of, 319
symbols, 428–429 diamond ring, 419
taste culture, 357 diary, 24
and time perception, 427 differential fertility, 348
culture jamming, 17 differential threshold, 45
498 Index
diffusion of consumer culture, 434–435 emotional appeals, 226–227

diffusion of innovations, 450–455 emotional contagion, 187
diffusion of responsibility, 321 emotions, 109
digital natives, 14, 382 colours, influence of, 36–37
digital opinion leaders, 333–334 dimensions of emotional states, 284
digital self, 128 discrete emotions, 112–113
digital virtual consumption (DVC), 333 embarrassment, 114
direct marketing, 215 envy, 114
directed learning, 248 fear, 113
discontinuous innovation, 454 guilt, 114
discrete emotions, 112–113 happiness, 112–113
discretionary income, 343 and social media, 111–112
discrimination, 49 unipolar emotions, 81
disjunctive rule, 269 employee performance, 71
disposal. See product disposal empowerment, 354
dissatisfaction, 293, 295–296 enacted norms, 413
dissociative reference groups, 314 encoding, 74
dissonance theory, 190–191 endowment effect, 41
distraction, 228 entertainment, 156
diversity in Canada, 400–401 environmental cues, 320
divestment rituals, 301 environmentally-friendly products, 199
dominant mother tongue, 398 envy, 114
door-in-the-face technique, 192 episodic memories, 75
downward mobility, 348 ethical consumer, 286
drama, 232 ethical standards of conduct, 13–14
drive, 94 ethics. See business ethics
drive theory, 95 ethnic groups in Canada, 396–400
dual-component model, 223 ethnic stereotypes, 402
duration, 49 ethnic subcultures, 394–402
dynamically continuous innovation, 454 ethnic groups in Canada, 396–400
ethnic origins of Canadian population, 397
E ethnic stereotypes, 402
early adopters, 451 ethnicity and marketing strategies, 395–396
early majority, 453 ethnicity as moving target, 402
eating, 21, 38–39, 52 immigration, and Canadian diversity, 400–401
eating disorders, 141 ethnicity, 6, 394, 395–396, 402
echo boomers, 383 ethnocentrism, 265
ecology, 411 ethnographic research, 24
e-commerce, 286–287 ethos, 411
economic consumer, 285 etic perspective, 430
economic exchange, 420 evaluation of alternatives, 256–260
economic models of fashion, 457 evaluations, 109
economic time, 281 evaluative criteria, 262–263
economics of information approach, 15, 244 evoked set, 78, 256–257
economy, 383–384 evolution of product ownership, 297–298
educational materials, 449–450 exchange, 3
Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS), 99 exchange policies, abuse of, 22
ego, 151 exchange theory, 292
ego needs, 101 exemplar products, 260
ego-defensive function, 184 expectancy disconfirmation model, 294
80/20 Rule, 4, 332 expectancy theory, 95
elaboration, 105 The Experience Economy (Pine and Gilmore), 447
elaboration likelihood model (ELM), 232–235 experiencers, 172
elaborative rehearsal, 77 experiential hierarchy of effects, 187
electronic commerce, 286–287 experiential perspective, 245
electronic waste, 300 experiential system of cognition, 244
elimination-by-aspects rule, 268 experiments, 25
embarrassment, 114 expert power, 317
embeds, 46 exposure, 44–46, 49
embodied cognition, 125–126 extended family, 364
emergent, 420 extended problem solving, 245, 246–247
emic perspective, 432 extended self, 124, 126–127
Subject Index 499
external memory, 74 FOMO (fear of missing out), 331

external search, 248 food, beliefs and feelings about, 196
external stimuli, 34 Food and Drugs Act, 16
extinction, 64, 68 food culture, 414
extinguished product associations, 66 food preparation, 156
extroversion, 154 Foote, Cone, and Belding’s involvement and product typology, 105
foot-in-the-door technique, 192
F forgetting, 82
facial symmetry, 136 forgone option, 191
facts, 85 forked-tail effect, 219
fad, 460–461 formal groups, 311
fakes, 359 fortress brands, 419
familiar brand names, 267 frame of reference, 192
familiarity, 81 framing, 251
family branding, 66 fraud, 22
family life cycle (FLC), 367–369 French Canadians, 396–398
family structure, 6, 363–369 frequency marketing, 70
family age, 365 frequent-buyer programs, 70
family life cycle (FLC), 367–369 Freudian systems, 151
family size, 365–366 Freudian theory, 151–152
household structure, 364–365, 366–367 full sensory experiences, 41
non-traditional family structures, 366–367 functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), 34, 125–126, 262
fashion, 447, 455 functional risk, 255
behavioural science perspectives, 456–458 functional theory of attitudes, 183–185
cultural categories, 455–456 fusiform face area, 262
cycles of fashion adoption, 459–460
economic models of fashion, 457 G
fashion acceptance cycle, 459 gambling, 20
mass fashion, 458 gamification, 70–71, 104
“medical” model of fashion, 458–459 gatekeeper, 322, 323
normal fashion cycle, 460 gay consumers, 133–134, 135
paradox of fashion, 457 gemba, 296, 297
psychological models of fashion, 456–457 gender, 5, 123
sociological models of fashion, 457–458 gender differences in socialization, 129–130
trickle-down theory, 458 gender identity, 129, 130–131
fashion acceptance cycle, 459 gender roles, 129–131
fashion life cycle, 459 gender-bending products, 132
fashion system, 455 gender-role identification, 142
fattism, 140–141 gender-role orientation, 131
fear, 113 generalized opinion leader, 324
fear appeals, 229–231 Generation X (Gen X), 378, 386
feature creep, 261 Generation Y (Gen Y), 378, 382–385
feedback, 211 Generation Z (Gen Z), 378, 382
feelings, 85, 188 geodemography, 172
see also emotions geography, 6
female roles, 132–133 Gestalt psychology, 52–54, 288
female-to-male earnings ratio, 342 gestation, 420
femininity, 131, 412–413 gift-giving ritual, 420–421
figure-ground principle, 54 “gifts,” 13
first-order response, 215 global agnostics, 434
Fishbein model, 197–198, 199–201 global citizens, 434
fixed-interval reinforcement, 70 global consumer, 10–12
fixed-ratio reinforcement, 69 global consumer culture, 10
flaming, 332 global dreamers, 434
flashbulb memories, 75 global marketing
flavour houses, 42 careers in, 467
flight, 359 cross-cultural analysis, 433
flow state, 105 localized strategy, 431–433
flow time, 281 rise of, 10
flows, 332 standardized strategy, 430
fMRI. See functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) global youth market, 381
focus groups, 23, 321 globalization, 385
500 Index
goal, 94 homophily, 324

agentic goals, 129 horizontal mobility, 348
communal goals, 129 horizontal revolution, 11
motivation, and goal fulfillment, 101–103 Horney, Karen, 154
SMART goals, 101–102 house money effect, 253
valence, 96 household living arrangements, 364
gold-collar aspirationalists, 357 household structure, 364–365, 366–367
golden triangle, 50, 51 humorous appeals, 228–229
goods hybrid ads, 81
counterfeit goods, 359 hybrid products, 260
and desirable social attributes, 15 hype, 218–219
luxury goods, 359 hyperopia, 251
virtual goods, 333
government legislation, 15–16 I
grasscycling, 203 ice-bucket challenge, 214
green, 38, 428 iconic transfer ritual, 301
green marketing, 17, 46 id, 151
greenwashing, 265 ideal self, 122, 312
grey market, 388–391 ideal state-opportunity recognition, 247
grey power, 388–391 idealism versus pragmatism, 382
grooming rituals, 420 ideals of beauty, 136–139
group cohesiveness, 313 beauty, universality of, 136–137
group dieting, 140 male ideals of beauty, 139
group identities, 164–165 over time, 137–138
group influence. See reference group today’s ideals of female beauty, 138–139
group learning, 418 identification, 190
group size, 319 identity negotiation, 293
guerrilla marketing, 48, 106, 330–331 ideology, 411
guilt, 114 idiocentrics, 156
guilt appeals, 114 idle rich, 360
IKEA effect, 109
H illegal activities, 20–22
habitual decision making, 245 imbibing idiot bias, 122
habituation, 223 immigration, and Canadian diversity, 400–401
hair, 140 importance weights, 196–197
halo effect, 219 impotent reactors, 354
happiness, 112–113 impression management, 122, 128
happy customers, 296 impulse buying, 291
haptic senses, 41–42 impulse items, 291
harmony, 190–191 in fashion, 455
haul videos, 334 incidental brand exposure, 103
Hazardous Products Act, 16 incidental learning, 249
health-consciousness, 156 income, 6
hearing, 40–41 discretionary income, 343
hedonic motivations, 187, 285 patterns, 341–342
hedonic needs, 96 social class, 353–354
heterophilous, 324 income inequality, 347
heuristics, 264–266 independence, 187, 323
hierarchical processing model, 78 independence hypothesis, 187
hierarchy of effects, 186–187 independent variable, 25
hierarchy of needs, 100–101 in-depth interviews, 152
high culture, 446–448 India, 350, 352
high-context culture, 395 individual aims and emotions, 418
high-involvement hierarchy of effects, 186 individual decision making. See decision making
high-involvement persuasion model, 76 individualist culture, 413
hired gun, 218 indulgence, 413
hoarding, 426 industry route, 467
holiday rituals, 422–424 inept set, 257
home shopping parties, 321 inert set, 257
homeostasis, 95 inertia, 105, 267
homogamy, 347 inference, 192
Subject Index 501
influence partners, 212

attitude change, 209–210 persuasion knowledge, 215
colours, 36–37 interactive mobile marketing, 106–107
comparative influence, 311 interactive response levels, 214–215
informational influence, 310, 320 Interbellum Generation, 378
interpersonal influence, 319–320 interdependence, 8
normative influence, 202–204, 311 interests, 169–170
opinion leaders, 324–325 interference, 82
reference group. See reference group intergenerational mobility, 348
two-step flow model of influence, 325 internal memory, 74
utilitarian influence, 310 internal search, 248
value-expressive influence, 310 internalization, 190
influence network, 325 Internet
influencer, 322, 323 cyber-bullying, 20
informal groups, 311 cybermediaries, 263
information power, 316–317 cyberspace themes, 288
information search, 248–256 digital opinion leaders, 333–334
amount of information available, 253–254 digital self, 128
amount of search, 253–256 e-commerce, 286–287
consumer’s prior expertise, 254–255 interaction with products, 12
deliberate vs. “accidental” search, 248–249 “Internet of things,” 12
information and network technology, effect of, 252 online gated communities, 357
internal vs. external search, 248 online social capital, 357–358
mental accounting, 251–253 search engines, 249
perceived risk, 255–256 virtual consumption, 11–12
rational search, 249–251 interpersonal attraction, 285
selective search, 255 interpersonal influence, 319–320
type of search, 255 interpretation, 50–56
information storage in memory, 77–79 interval schedules, 69
informational influence, 310, 320 interviews, 24
initiator, 322, 323 introduction stage, 459
injunctive norms, 202 invidious distinction, 359
inner-directed, 156 involvement, 104
innovation, 450–451 advertising involvement, 109
adopting an innovation, 451–453, 454–455 affective involvement, 108
continuous innovation, 453–454 cognitive involvement, 108
diffusion of innovations, 450–455 conceptualizing involvement, 104
discontinuous innovation, 454 flow state, 105
dynamically continuous innovation, 454 Foote, Cone, and Belding’s involvement and product typology, 105
prerequisites for successful adoption, 454–455 high-involvement hierarchy of effects, 186
types of innovations, 453–454 inertia, 105
innovative communicators, 324 levels of involvement, 105
innovativeness, 154 low-involvement hierarchy of effects, 186–187, 192
innovators, 172, 324, 451 many faces of involvement, 106–107
instant status, 285 message-processing involvement, 234
in-store decision making, 290–292 message-response involvement, 106–107
instrumental conditioning, 67–69, 189 product involvement, 106–107
applications of, 70–72 purchase situation involvement, 107
frequency marketing, 70 segmentation by involvement levels, 107–108
gamification, 70–71 strategies to increase involvement, 108–109
intensity, 49
intentions, 199–200 J
interaction styles, 293 Japan, 13, 36, 42, 349–350, 421, 424, 430
interactions, 332 JND (just noticeable difference), 45
interactive communications, 211–215 Jung, Carl, 154
see also communication justifiers, 346
consumer, increasing role of, 213–214
consumer interactivity, 212–213 K
interactive communications model, 212 Kansei engineering, 42
levels of interactive response, 214–215 key informants, 326
new message formats, 214 knowledge, levels of, 79
502 Index
knowledge bias, 218 long-term orientation, 413

knowledge function, 184 look-alike packaging, 67
knowledge structures, 78 looking-glass self, 123
kuroi kiri, 13 loss aversion, 251–253
love, 8
L low-ball technique, 192
laggards, 451 low-context culture, 395
landscape themes, 288 “low-dose” advertising, 249
language, 428–429 low-involvement hierarchy of effects, 186–187, 192
late majority, 453 loyalty, 71
lateral cycling, 300–301 lurkers, 332–333
latitudes of acceptance and rejection, 192 luxury
lead users, 446 affordable luxuries, 352
leaderboards, 333 attitudes toward, 355
learning, 61–62 luxury brands, 350
analogical learning, 79–80 luxury goods, 359
associative learning, 63–64
behavioural learning theories, 62–71 M
cognitive learning theory, 71–73 makers, 172
consciousness of learning, 72 male roles, 133
directed learning, 248 male-oriented symbolism, 152
four types of learning outcomes, 69 malicious envy, 114
group learning, 418 management of expectations, 294
incidental learning, 249 managerial subsystem, 444
learning schedules, 69–70 manipulation of consumers, 14–18
memory, role of, 74–85 market beliefs, 265, 266
modelling, 72 market maven, 325
observational learning, 72–73 market position, 55
vicarious learning, 72 marketerspace, 445
learning schedules, 69–70 marketing
lecture, 232 buzz marketing, 315
legitimate power, 317 cause-related marketing, 17
leisure class, 360 consumer activism, impact of, 17–18
leisure time, 282 consumers, impact on, 9–14
lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) consumers, 133–134 and culture, 9–10, 430–434
lexicographic rule, 268 ethics. See business ethics
LGBT consumers, 133–134 frequency marketing, 70
library, 112 global marketing. See global marketing
licensing, 67 green marketing, 17, 46
life stage, 6 guerrilla marketing, 48, 106, 330–331
life-cycle approach, 367–369 interactive mobile marketing, 106–107
lifestyle, 6, 150, 163 necessity of, 15
dimensions, 169 neuromarketing, 34, 262–263
as group identities, 164–165 permission marketing, 211–212
lifestyle marketing perspective, 163, 166 real-time marketing, 106, 213–214
products as building blocks of lifestyles, 166–167 relationship marketing, 277–278
sharing economy, 165 sensory marketing. See sensory marketing
lifestyle marketing perspective, 163 social marketing, 17–18, 71
lifestyle statement, 2 viral marketing, 315, 331
lifestyle-based consumption communities, 164 word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing, 315
lifestyles of health and sustainability (LOHAS), 174–176 marketing analytics, 467
limbic system, 39 marketing research, 467
liminality, 425 marketing segmentation, 4–8
limited problem solving, 245–246 age, 5
linear separable time, 283 big data, 6–8
List of Values (LOV) Scale, 174 ethnicity, 6
literary devices, 231–232 family structure, 6
localized strategy, 431–433 gender, 5
LOHAS, 174–176 geography, 6
the long tail, 263 income, 6
long-term memory, 77 by involvement levels, 107–108
Subject Index 503
life stage, 6 learning, role in, 74–85

lifestyles, 6 long-term memory, 77
by relationships, 6–8 measurement, for marketing stimuli, 84–85
social class, 6 memory lapses, 85
marketing society, 188 memory process, 74
marketing stimuli, 84–85 memory systems, 76–77
marketing strategies nostalgia, marketing power of, 83
associations between stimuli and responses, 65 personal relevance, 75
co-branding strategies, 167 pictorial cues, 81–82
consumers, impact of, 4–8 postexperience advertising, 75
ethnicity and, 395–396 problems with memory measures, 84–85
localized strategy, 431–433 products as memory makers, 82–84
multigenerational marketing strategy, 379 purchase decisions, retrieval for, 80–82
positioning strategy, 55 recall, 81, 84
standardized strategy, 430 recognition, 84
theming strategies, 288 response bias, 84–85
marketscape themes, 288 retrieval, 74, 75, 80–82
martyrdom effect, 214 salience, 81
masculinity, 131, 412–413 sensory memory, 77
masked branding, 64 short-term memory, 77
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 100–101 storage, 74
mass class, 352 types of meaning, 75
mass connectors, 334 verbal cues, 81–82
mass customization, 106 working memory, 77
mass fashion, 458 memory systems, 76–77
massive multiplayer online role-playing games, 333 men
matchmaking app, 136 see also gender
match-up hypothesis, 220 eating disorders, 141
material parenting, 381 female-to-male earnings ratio, 342
materialism, 176 gay consumers, 133–134
mature market, 386–387 ideals of beauty, 139
maximizing, 249 male roles, 133
meaning, types of, 75 male-oriented symbolism, 152
meaning concepts, 79 modern dads, 133
means of production, 346 non-traditional males (NTMs), 132
media multiplexity, 332 as trophies, 360
media snacker, 47 mental accounting, 251–253
medical adherence, 201 mental shortcuts, 264–266
“medical” model of fashion, 458–459 mere exposure effect, 223, 313
medium, 211 message, 210, 212, 222–232
member contributions, 332 argument, construction of, 224–226
membership reference groups, 312–313 as art form, 231–232
meme theory, 458 repetition, 223
memes, 458–459 sending the message, 222–223
memory, 74 types of message appeals, 226–231
activation models of memory, 77 verbal elements, 223
and aesthetic preferences, 84 visual elements, 223
analogical learning, 79–80 vs. the source, 232–235
associative network models, 78–79 message appeals, 226–231
autobiographical memories, 82–83 emotional appeals, 226–227
elaborative rehearsal, 77 fear appeals, 229–231
encoding, 74, 75 humorous appeals, 228–229
episodic memories, 75 rational appeals, 226–227
external memory, 74 sex appeals, 227–228
facts vs. feelings, 85 message-processing involvement, 234
familiarity, 81 message-response involvement, 106–107
flashbulb memories, 75 metaphors, 75, 231
forgetting, 82 metaphysical function, 417
information storage, 77–79 microculture, 376
internal memory, 74 Middle East, 350
knowledge, levels of, 79 Millennials, 378, 382–385
504 Index
mindlessness, 72 narcissism versus intimacy, 382

minipreneurs, 288 narrative, 75
MMORPGs, 333 National Trademark and True Labelling Act, 16
mnemonic, 83 native advertising, 217–218
modelling, 72 near field communications (NFC) technology, 286
monetary risk, 255 need for achievement, 99–100
money need for affiliation, 100
individual attitudes toward, 343–345 need for cognition, 154, 158
as social resource, 344 need for power, 100
monomorphic, 324 “Need for Touch” (NFT) scale, 41–42
monomyth, 417 need for uniqueness, 100, 156, 157–158
mood congruency, 109–111, 284–285 needs
moods, 109 artificial needs, 15
mordida, la, 13 belonging needs, 102
more, 413 biogenic needs, 96, 99, 100, 101
motivation, 93 as biological motive, 15
affect, 109–114 changing needs, 4
consumer involvement, 104–109 classification of consumer needs, 99–101
consumption, major motives for, 153 ego needs, 101
drive theory, 95 hedonic needs, 96
expectancy theory, 95 manipulation of consumers, 14–18
and goal fulfillment, 101–103 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, 100–101
hedonic motivations, 187, 285 need for achievement, 99–100
motivation process, 93–94 need for affiliation, 100
motivational conflicts, 96–99 need for cognition, 154, 158
motivational direction, 95–103 need for power, 100
motivational strength, 94–95 need for uniqueness, 100, 156, 157–158
self-improvement motives, 114 psychogenic needs, 96, 99, 100, 101
unconscious motives, 151 social needs, 101
universal approach to, 100 specific needs and buying behaviour, 99–100
motivation to comply (MC), 200 types of, 96, 99
motivational conflicts, 96–99 utilitarian needs, 96
approach-approach conflict, 97–98 vs. wants, 95
approach-avoidance conflict, 98–99 negative feelings, 188
avoidance-avoidance conflict, 99 negative reference groups, 314
types of motivational conflict, 97 negative reinforcement, 68–69
motivational direction, 95–103 negative state relief, 109
classification of consumer needs, 99–101 negative word of mouth, 329
goal fulfillment, 101–103 neo-Freudian theories of personality, 153–154
motivational conflicts, 96–99 network effects, 333
needs, types of, 96 network units, 332
needs vs. wants, 95 networked narratives, 315
motivational research, 152–154 neuroendocrinological science, 130
motivational strength, 94–95 neuromarketing, 34, 262–263
Motor Vehicle Safety Act, 16 nodes, 332
movement of meaning, 442 non-compensatory decision rules, 268–269
multi-attribute attitude models, 195–199 non-human endorsers, 221
multiculturalism, 6 non-monotonic, 230
multigenerational marketing strategy, 379 non-traditional household and family structures, 366–367
multiple selves, 122–123 non-traditional males (NTMs), 132
multiple-store, 77 normative belief (NB), 200
multisensory imagery, 52 normative influence, 202–204, 311
multitask, 47, 385 norms, 202, 318, 413–415
music industry, 445 North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 13
mystery ads, 81 nostalgia, 83
mythical creatures and personalities, 9 nostalgia index, 84
myths, 415–417 Nostalgia Scale, 379
nostalgic attachment, 8
N nouveaux riches, 356
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) novelty, 50
naming consultants, 66 nuclear family, 364
Subject Index 505
O perceptual positioning, 54–56

obesity, 351 perceptual process, overview of, 34
object-attribute linkages, 197 personal selection factors, 49
objectification, 426 of product quality, 294–295
observability, 455 sensory marketing. See sensory marketing
observational learning, 72–73 sensory systems, 34
observational research, 24 sensory thresholds, 44–46
occasion time, 282 stimulus organization, 52–54
occasions, 56 stimulus selection factors, 50
occupational prestige, 353 subliminal perception, 46
“old money” families, 356 time perception, 427
omitting, 85 perceptual filters, 49
one-sided arguments, 224 perceptual positioning, 54–56
ongoing search, 248 perceptual selectivity, 48
online communities, 332–333 perceptual vigilance, 49
online gated communities, 357 performances, 106
online social capital, 357–358 peripheral cues, 233
Open Data Partnership, 14 peripheral route to persuasion, 233
opera, 356 permission marketing, 211–212
operant conditioning, 67–69 Personal Information Protection and Electronic
see also instrumental conditioning Documents Act, 16
opinion leaders, 323–324 personal relevance, 75
digital opinion leaders, 333–334 personal selection factors, 49
generalized opinion leader, 324 personality, 150
identifying opinion leaders, 326–328 brand personality, 158–162
influence of, 324–325 Freudian theory, 151–152
Opinion Leadership Scale, 327 motivational research, 152–154
self-designating method, 326 neo-Freudian theories of personality, 153–154
sociometric methods, 326–328 of positioning, 160–162
types of, 324–325 trait theories, 154–158
opinion mining, 111 traits, 154, 158
opinions, 169–170 personalized consumer, 286
opt out, 212 persuasion, 209
orange, 38 see also communication
organ donation rates, 253 central route to persuasion, 233
ostriches, 346 elaboration likelihood model (ELM), 232–235
outer-directed, 156 peripheral route to persuasion, 233
overexposed, 64 persuasion knowledge, 215
overprivileged, 363 Persuasion Knowledge Model (PKM), 215
pet owners, 367
P pets, and extended selves, 127
packaging phallic symbol, 152
look-alike packaging, 67 phonemes, 41
shrinking size of, 46 photos, 24
visual cues, 39 Physical Activity and Sport Act, 16
paid influencer program, 216 physical attractiveness, 219, 235
paradox of fashion, 457 physical nearness, 313
parental yielding, 381 physical risk, 255
parody display, 361 physical surroundings, 279–280
passion, 105 pictorial cues, 81–82
peak experiences, 100 pictures, 24
pecking order, 346–347 piggybacking strategy, 64
perceived age, 388 pioneering brand, 80–81
perceived risk, 255–256 planning orientation dimension, 282
perception, 33 pleasure, 284
attention, 47–50 pleasure principle, 151
caloric consequences of, 38 plinking, 450
“coloured,” 36–37 podcasts, 9
exposure, 44–46 point-of-purchase (POP) stimulus, 292
imbibing idiot bias, 122 polychronic activity, 281
interpretation, 50–56 polychronic orientation dimension, 282
506 Index
popular culture, 9, 417, 446–448 principle of cognitive consistency, 190

pop-up stores, 288 principle of least interest, 319
position, 50 principle of similarity, 54
positioning privacy policies, 14
dimensions, 55–56 private response, 295
perceptual positioning, 54–56 proactive interference, 82
personality of positioning, 160–162 problem recognition, 247
positioning strategy, 55, 259 process, 3
psychographic information, 170 product authenticity, 262
reposition, 55, 161 product categorization, 257–260
positioning strategy, 55, 259 product class, 55
positive incentives, 95 product complementarity, 167
positive reference groups, 314 product disposal
positive reinforcement, 68–69, 317 disposal options, 298–300
POSSLO, 366–367 divestment rituals, 301
post-decision dissonance, 98 lateral cycling, 300–301
postexperience advertising, 75, 81 product labels, 263
postpurchase processes, 278 product organization, 260
postpurchase satisfaction, 293–297 product ownership, evolution of, 297–298
acting on dissatisfaction, 295–296 product placement, 157, 448–450
customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction (CS/D), 293 product quality, 294–295
evolution of product ownership, 297–298 product seeding, 315
expectancy disconfirmation model, 294 product signal, 264–265
product quality, perceptions of, 294–295 product-attribute links, 198
real value of happy customers, 296 product-line extensions, 66–67
total quality management, 296–297 product-related conversations, 328–329
pot-de-vin, 13 products
potent actors, 354 abandoned products, 298
potlatch, 360 attributes, 170
power as building blocks of lifestyles, 166–167
coercive power, 317 categorization of, 257–260
expert power, 317 country of origin, 265
grey power, 388–391 exemplar products, 260
information power, 316–317 gender-bending products, 132
legitimate power, 317 hybrid products, 260
need for power, 100 involvement, 106–107
of reference groups, 316–318 market position, 55
referent power, 316 as memory maker, 82–84
reward power, 317 overexposed, 64
social power, 316 product choice, 261–269
power bases, 316 product organization, 260
power distance, 412 sex-typed products, 131
power users, 334 profane consumption, 426–428
Precious Metals Marketing Act, 16 projective techniques, 25
prediction of behaviour, 199–204 propinquity, 313
extended Fishbein model, 199–201 proposition, 79
normative influence, types of, 202–204 proprietary systems, 171
obstacles to, 201–202 prospect theory, 251
theory of reasoned action, 199–202 psychogenic needs, 96, 99, 100, 101
preparing for battle, 419 psychographic analysis, 168–169
prepurchase search, 248 psychographic segmentation typologies, 171
presentation, 420 psychographics, 5, 167–168
prestige-exclusivity effect, 457 AIOs, 169–170
pretailer, 287 geodemography, 172
price leadership, 55 psychographic analysis, 168–169
price-quality relationship, 265 psychographic segmentation, 170–171
price-sensitive affluents, 344 psychographic segmentation typologies, 171
primacy effect, 43 VALS (Values and Lifestyles), 171–172
primary research, 23–25 psychological function, 417
principle of closure, 52–53 psychological models of fashion, 456–457
Subject Index 507
psychological risk, 255 relative influence on purchase decisions, 316

psychological time, 281–284 resisting conformity, 323
psychophysics, 44 social comparison theory, 320–323
public policy, 15–16 social value of harnessing reference-group power, 313
public relations, 467 three forms of reference group influence, 310
public self-consciousness, 124, 156–157 types of, 310–314
punishment, 68 referent power, 316
purchase decisions referral behaviour, 328
see also decision making reflexive evaluation, 123
influences on. See reference group reformulation, 421
retrieval of information, 80–82 refutational arguments, 224
situational effects. See situational effects regifting the unwanted, 421
social class, effect of, 354–357 regional segmentation, 391
in technology-mediated environments, 252 regional subcultures, 391–394
purchase environment, 278 reinforcement, 68–69, 69–70
purchase momentum, 244 reinforcement schedule, 69–70
purchase situation involvement, 107 relations, 79–80
purple, 38 relationship marketing, 7, 277–278
relative advantage, 198, 455
Q relevance, 49
qualitative research, 24–25 religion, 428
queuing theory, 283–284 repeat ads, 64
repetition, 63–64, 65–66, 76, 111, 223
R reporting bias, 218
radio replay, 81 reposition, 55, 161
random assignment, 25 reputation economy, 264, 347
ratio schedules, 69 research
rational appeals, 226–227 careers in consumer research, 467–468
rational perspective, 243–244 consumer research, 23–25
rational search, 249–251 ethnographic research, 24
rational system of cognition, 244 experimental research, 25
reactance, 323 focus groups, 23
real self, 122 interviews, 24
reality engineering, 448 motivational research, 152–154
real-time marketing, 106, 213–214 observational research, 24
reasons for shopping, 285–286 primary research, 23–25
rebellion versus conformity, 382 qualitative research, 24–25
recall, 81, 84 secondary research, 23
receivers, 211 survey, 23
recency effect, 43 Transformative Consumer Research (TCR), 18
reciprocity, 209 resonance, 231
reciprocity norm, 421 response bias, 84–85
reclamation, 359 restraint, 413
recognition, 84 retail buyers, 467
recreational shopper, 286 retail managers and merchandisers, 467
red, 36, 37, 38 retail theming, 288
red sneakers effect, 318 retailing as theatre, 287–288
reference group, 309 retrieval, 74, 75, 80–82
aspirational reference groups, 312–313, 314 retro brand, 83
brand community, 312 retro trends, 378
comparative influence, 311 retroactive interference, 82
conformity, 318–320, 323 return policies, abuse of, 22
dissociative reference groups, 314 reward power, 317
formal vs. informal groups, 311 rewarding option, 267
group effects on consumer behaviour, 321–323 ridicule, 382
importance of, 314–316 risk capital, 256
membership reference groups, 312–313 risk-averse, 252–253
normative influence, 311 risk-seeking, 252–253
positive vs. negative reference groups, 314 risky shift, 321
power of, 316–318 rites of passage, 425
508 Index
ritual, 418–419 digital self, 128

gift-giving ritual, 420–421 existence of the self, 120
grooming rituals, 420 extended self, 124, 126–127
holiday rituals, 422–424 fattism, 140–141
rites of passage, 425 gender roles, 129–131
types of ritual experience, 418 hair and the self, 140
wedding rituals, 428 ideal self, 122, 312
ritual artifacts, 419 lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) consumers, 133–134
ritual cleansing, 301 looking-glass self, 123
ritual scripts, 419 multiple selves, 122–123
Rokeach Value Survey, 174 products that shape the self, 124–125
role-playing, 24 real self, 122
role-relaxed, 320 self-concept, 121–122
running, 311 self-consciousness, 124
Russia, 352 self-product congruence, 125–126
tattoos and body piercing, 143
S wearable computing, 128–129
sacralization, 426–428 working on the body, 140–143
sacred consumption, 426–428 self-concept, 121–122
sacred events, 428 see also the self
sacred people, 427–428 actual self, 122
sacred places, 426–427 and consumption, 124–125
salesperson, 292–293 ideal self, 122
salience, 81 real self, 122
salient beliefs, 197 self-esteem, 121–122
same-sex couples, 133–134 self-concept attachment, 8
same-sex households, 366–367 self-consciousness, 124, 154
sandwich generation, 367 self-designating method, 326
satisfaction. See postpurchase satisfaction self-esteem, 121–122, 123, 141
satisficing, 249–250 self-expression, 390
savings rate, 345–346 self-fulfilling prophecy, 123, 125–126
scarcity, 209 self-gifts, 421
schema, 52, 79, 258 selfie, 124
schmiergeld, 13 self-image congruence models, 125–126
schools, 449–450 self-improvement motives, 114
Scovilles, 44 self-monitoring, 124
scrimpers, 346 self-perception theory, 191–192
script, 79 self-product congruence, 125–126
search. See information search self-regulation, 21
search engine optimization (SEO), 249 semantic meaning, 75
search engines, 249 semantic storage, 77
secondary research, 23 senior citizens, 389
second-hand stores, 301 sensation, 33
second-order response, 215 sensory inputs, 34
segmentation sensory marketing, 35
marketing segmentation. See marketing segmentation hearing, 40–41
psychographic segmentation, 170–171 sight, 35–39
psychographic segmentation typologies, 171 smell, 39–40
social class segmentation, 363 taste, 42–44
typologies, 171 touch, 41–42
selection among alternatives, 261–269 sensory meaning, 75
selective exposure, 49 sensory memory, 77
selective search, 255 sensory overload, 47
the self sensory systems, 34
actual self, 122 sensory thresholds, 44–46
androgyny, 131–132 sensory-specific satiety, 251
body decoration and mutilation, 142 sentiment analysis, 111–112
body image, 135–143 sentiment relation, 193
body image distortions, 141 separation, 425
consumption, and self-concept, 124–125 sequence of options, 43
cosmetic surgery, 142 serial wardrobers, 22
Subject Index 509
sex appeals, 227–228 social dimension, 282

sex-typed products, 131 social experiences, 285
sex-typed traits, 130 social game, 333
sexual dimorphic markers, 137–138 social graphs, 332
sexual identity, 130–131 social information, 75
shaping, 67–68 social judgment theory, 192
sharing economy, 165, 297 social loafing, 321
shopaholics, 20, 248 social marketing, 17–18, 71
shoplifting, 21 social media, 11, 12, 214, 331
shopping orientation, 285–286 addiction, 20
short-term memory, 77 and consumer behaviour, 331–334
showrooming, 287 and emotions, 111–112
shrinkage, 20–21 and Generation Y, 384
sight, 35–39 online communities, 332–333
colours, 36–37, 38 real-time events, 106
eating, 38 social networks, 332–333
Silent Generation, 378 token support, 192
simple addictive rule, 269 word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing, 315
simple processing, 105 social mobility, 347–352
sinister attribution error, 279 social needs, 101
situational effects social network, 332
antecedent states, 284–285 social networking sites, 9, 14, 78, 120, 330
atmospherics, 289–290 social power, 316
on consumer behaviour, 278–293 social pressure, 200
e-commerce, 286–287 social risk, 216, 255
in-store decision making, 290–292 social stratification, 347
physical surroundings, 279–280 social structure, 411
reasons for shopping, 285–286 social surroundings, 279–280
retailing as theatre, 287–288 social/digital media specialists, 467
the salesperson, 292–293 socialization, gender differences in, 129–130
social surroundings, 279–280 sociological function, 417
store image, 288–290 sociological models of fashion, 457–458
temporal factors, 280–284 sociometric methods, 326–328
situational factors, 245 sock puppeting, 216
situational self-image, 278 sound repetition, 111
six degrees of separation, 326, 333 sound symbolism, 40–41
size (of stimulus), 50 source, 210, 212
slacktivism, 192 celebrities, 219–221
sleeper effect, 217 characteristics, 234
SMART goals, 101–102 corporate paradox, 218–219
smartphones, 284 hype vs. buzz, 218–219
smell, 39–40 non-human endorsers, 221
snob effect, 457 source attractiveness, 219–221
social class, 6, 346 source credibility, 216–218
blurring social class lines, 351–352 source derogation, 225
class differences in world view, 354–357 source effects, 215
class structure around the world, 349–350 vs. the message, 232–235
class structure in Canada, 349 “what is beautiful is good” stereotype, 219
components of, 353–354 source attractiveness, 219–221
income, 353–354 source credibility, 216–218
leisure class, 360 source derogation, 225
mass class, 352 South Asian Canadians, 400
measurement of, 361–363 spectacles, 106
occupational prestige, 353 spendthrifts, 343
pecking order, 346–347 spokescharacters, 221
problems with measures of social class, 362–363 spontaneous recovery, 83
purchase decisions, effect on, 354–357 spontaneous shopping, 291
segmentation, 363 spreading activation, 79
social mobility, 347–352 standardized strategy, 430
social comparison, 122 star power, 219–221
social comparison theory, 320–323 status anxiety, 356
510 Index
status crystallization, 363 and consumption situation, 278

status culture, 165 near field communications (NFC) technology, 286
status groups, 346 telescoping, 85
status hierarchy, 347 temporal factors, 280–284
status signal preferences, 361 economic time, 281
status symbols, 358–361 polychronic activity, 281
stereotype, 265 psychological time, 281–284
ethnic stereotypes, 402 time poverty, 281
stereotype threat, 121 temporal orientation dimension, 282
“what is beautiful is good” stereotype, 219 tension, 95
stereotype threat, 121 terminal values, 174
stimulus discrimination, 64 Textile Labelling Act, 16
stimulus generalization, 64, 66–67 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 99
stimulus organization, 52–54 theming strategies, 288
stimulus selection factors, 50 theory of cognitive dissonance, 98, 190–191
stimulus-response associations, 82 theory of reasoned action, 199–202
storage, 74 thinkers, 172
store image, 288–290 thinness, 140–141
store loyalty, 71 third-party response, 295
storytelling, 24 thought-listing, 234
strategy. See marketing strategies threshold, 45
street teams, 330 throughput sector, 444
strength of weak ties, 328 thumb culture, 385
strivers, 172 tie strength, 327
strong primary, 327 ties, 332
structural, 420 tightwads, 343
subculture, 376 time. See temporal factors
age and consumer identity. See age time frame, 201
ethnic subcultures, 394–402 time perception, 427
regional subcultures, 391–394 time poverty, 281
subjective norm (SN), 200 time to kill, 282
subliminal perception, 46 timestyle, 281
subordinate category, 259 tipping point, 459
sunk-cost fallacy, 251 token support, 192
superego, 151 total fertility rate (TFR), 365
superordinate category, 259 total quality management, 296–297
supportive arguments, 224 touch, 41–42
surrogate consumer, 325 trade dress, 37
survey, 23 trait theories, 154–158
survivors, 172 traits, 154, 158
suspicion, 217 transformational advertising, 232
symbolic community, 165 Transformative Consumer Research (TCR), 18
symbolic exchange, 420 transgender consumers, 133–134
symbolic interactionism, 123 transition-place ritual, 301
symbolic self-completion theory, 125 transmedia storytelling strategy, 214
symbols, 428–429 transumer, 297
synchronous interactions, 11 travel, 156
treaters, 346
T trends, 165, 460–461
taboos, 414 triads, 193, 194
tactical communications options, 210 trialability, 454
target, 79 trickle-across effect, 458
target market, 170 trickle-down theory, 458
taste, 42–44 trickle-up, 458
taste culture, 357 trigger feature, 72
taste public, 165 Tupperware party, 321
taste tests, 189 tweens, 381
tattoo regret, 142 two-factor theory, 223, 224
tattoos, 143 two-sided message, 224–225
technology two-step flow model of influence, 325
Subject Index 511
U W
ubiquitous networks, 10 wants, 95
u-commerce, 10 manipulation of consumers, 14–18
unboxing videos, 334 vs. needs, 95
uncertainty avoidance, 412 War Baby Generation, 378
unconditioned stimulus (UCS), 63 warm feelings, 188
unconscious motives, 151 weak secondary, 327
undercoded, 455 wearable computing, 128–129
undernutrition, 138 Weber’s law, 45–46, 50
underprivileged, 363 wedding gifts, 421–422
unipolar emotions, 81 wedding rituals, 428
uniqueness, need for, 100, 156, 157–158 weighted addictive rule, 269
unit relation, 193 Weights and Measures Act, 16
United Kingdom, 350 “what is beautiful is good” stereotype, 219
unplanned buying, 291 what’s “in,” 441–443
untrustworthy, 279 wheel of consumer behaviour, 26
upbeat feelings, 188 white, 36, 37
upward mobility, 348 whitewash, 224
users, 56, 322 wisdom of crowds, 330
utilitarian function, 184 women
utilitarian influence, 310 see also gender
utilitarian needs, 96 body image distortions, 141
cougars, 360
V eating disorders, 141
valence, 96 female roles, 132–133
VALS (Values and Lifestyles), 171–172 female-to-male earnings ratio, 342
value hypothesis, 321 ideals of beauty, 138–139
value system, 173 lesbian consumers, 133–134
value-expressive function, 184 “women’s work,” 129
value-expressive influence, 310 Woodstock Generation, 387
value-price shoppers, 344 word-of-mouth communication (WOM), 328
values, 172–173, 411 buzz marketing, 329–330
classification of values, 174 crowd power, 330
conscientious consumerism, 174–176 factors encouraging WOM, 328–329
and consumer behaviour, 174 guerrilla marketing, 330–331
core values, 173, 412 negative word of mouth, 329
cultural differences, 411–413 viral marketing, 331
cultural values, 418 word-of-mouth (WOM) marketing, 315
materialism, 176 word-phrase dictionary, 112
terminal values, 174 workaholic, 154, 156
vanity sizing, 121 working memory, 77
variable-interval reinforcement, 70 world view, 354
variable-ratio reinforcement, 70
variables, 25 Y
variations-on-a-theme advertising, 76 yellow, 36–37, 38
variety, 39 youth market, 381–382
variety seeking, 250
verbal cues, 81–82 Z
vicarious learning, 72 Zajonc’s model of hedonic consumption, 187
viral marketing, 315, 331 Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Technique (ZMET), 24
virtual consumption, 11–12 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, 294
virtual goods, 333 Zipf’s law, 267
visual channel, 35 zoomers, 387
voice response, 295
von Restorff effect, 81
vultures, 346

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Seventh Canadian Edition

With Contributions from

Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication

Solomon, Michael R., author

1. Consumer behavior—Textbooks. I. Dahl, Darren W. (Darren William),

HF5415.32.S64 2015 658.8’342 C2015-906355-8

Chapter 1 An Introduction to Consumer Behaviour 1

Chapter 7 Attitudes 183

Chapter 11 Group Influence and Social Media 309

Chapter Summary 27 Cognitive Learning Theory 71

Case Study: Marketing in Practice 88 Key Terms 144

Using Attitudes to Predict Behaviour 199 Evaluation of Alternatives 256

Changing Attitudes through Communication 209 Chapter 10

Opinion Leadership 323 Subcultures 376

Chapter 15 A “Medical” Model of Fashion 458

The Diffusion of Innovations 450

Katherine (Kate) White is professor of marketing and behavioural science at the

THE “BUYING, HAVING, BEING” APPROACH

FEATURES OF THE SEVENTH

Consumers in Focus: These examples highlight implications for marketing and

ADDITIONAL LEARNING AIDS

Ne w to th is E dit io n MyMarketingLab Resources

• Writing Assignments. Each assisted-graded writing assignment is based on a ques-

Tandy Chalmers Thomas, Queen’s University

Dr. Mark Cleveland, Western University

5 Understand that there are many ethical issues to

Consumer Behaviour: People in the Marketplace

by more subtle factors, such as the symbolism in a brand name, in an advertise-

What Is Consumer Behaviour? CO 1

Some Issues That Arise during Stages in the Consumption Process

CONSUMER’S PERSPECTIVE MARKETER’S PERSPECTIVE

Is acquiring a product a stressful or How do situational factors, such as time

What determines whether a consumer

CO 2 Consumers’ Impact on Marketing

The Benjamin Hotel in New York City offers a

A Statistical Picture of the Average or Typical Canadian Consumer

• The typical Canadian is a woman who is 39.9 years old.

• In 2013, the average Canadian household spent $16 387 on shelter.

• In 2013, the average household spent $1229 on personal care.

• In 2013, the average household spent $3550 on clothing and accessories.

• In 2013, the average Canadian spent $2407 on health care.

• The average household spent $3922 on recreation in 2013.

at www.statcan.gc.ca. The changes and trends revealed in demographic studies are of

Fa mily S t r uctu r e an d Lif e Stag e

Se mg me nti n g b y Relati o nsh ips an d Bi g Data

Royal Oak Burial Park demonstrates that

carbon oxygen Courtesy of Royal Oak Burial Park/Trapeze

If you care about your environmental

GREEN BURIAL | TRADITIONAL BURIAL | C R E M AT I O N | M E M O R I A L I Z AT I O N

ROBP_9020_Woman_VicNews_Ad.indd 1 15-05-25 1:09 PM

• Love: The product elicits emotional S:7”

Technologies like Bluetooth connectivity

Oral-B: the �� brand used by dentists worldwide.

*vs. a regular manual toothbrush

©Procter & Gamble, Inc., ����

PGC373_NA.indd 1 9/8/14 2:58 PM

Marketing’s Impact on Consumers

Marketing and Culture CO 3

sites such as YouTube, is also an important part of marketing’s influence on culture.

The Meaning of Consumption

The Global Consumer

Social media has not only changed the way

CO 5 Marketing Ethics and Public Policy

©Procter & Gamble, Inc., ��