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BASIC AERODYNAMICS

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Module 08 – Basic Aerodynamics

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Copyright © 2015 by Aviotrace Swiss SA

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or

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transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or

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other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the

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publisher.

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Table of contents

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08.01 Physics of the atmosphere

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08.02 Aerodynamics

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08.03 Theory of flight

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08.04 Flight stability and dynamics

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Chapter 08.01
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PHYSICS OF THE ATMOSPHERE

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Atmosphere

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Before considering all aerodynamic phenomena associated to the

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flight, it is necessary to consider the environmental in which they occur:

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the atmosphere.

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The atmosphere:

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• is a layer of gases with a variable thickness

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• follows the Earth in its movement of rotation and revolution

a i s
• is bounded to Earth by the force of gravity.

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Atmosphere composition and parameters

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The atmosphere is a mixture of gases:

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• Nitrogen (78%)

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• Oxygen (21%)

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• Other gases -Argon, Neon, Krypton and water vapor (1%).

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The state of the atmosphere is characterized by some key variables:

c s
• Pressure

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• Temperature

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• Humidity
• Density.

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Pressure

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At the level of the Earth’s surface the pressure exerted by the column of

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air above is the atmospheric pressure at sea level.

o _S
The existence of the atmospheric pressure was assumed by Torricelli
about 300 years ago from an experiment which was the first barometer

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of the history, still widely used.

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The experiment shows that the existing atmospheric pressure at the

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sea level is on average equal to that exerted by a column of mercury

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[Hg] 76 cm high.

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Temperature

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The Sun warms the Earth by radiation and the atmosphere significantly

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absorbs the heat.

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The heat absorbed by the Earth is given back to the air layers in
immediate contact with the ground, which in turn give the heat by

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convection to the upper layers.

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The temperature on Earth’s surface varies greatly from area to area,

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due to different solar radiation and different heat capacity of soil.

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Temperature

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The different solar radiation is mainly due to:

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• The roundness of the Earth

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• The alternation of seasons

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• The Earth’s rotation

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• The different exposure to sunlight for different land having

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different clouds coverage.

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The different heat capacity of soil type is reflected in greater or worse
ability to retain the heat of the Sun.

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Humidity

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The water vapor consists of a very little percentage of the total mass of

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the air, but its effects in flight are very relevant.

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Since the water vapor weights only 5/8 of the air, blending the water
vapor with the air, the air density lowers.

c e s s
The amount of water vapor that a certain volume of air can contain is

a i
always fixed (for certain values of temperature and pressure).

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Humidity

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The amount of water vapor that a certain volume of air can contain is

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always fixed (for certain values of temperature and pressure).

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If the temperature of the air mass increases, the air can contain a
greater amount of water vapor. If the temperature decreases, the air

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can contain a lower amount of water vapor until to reach the

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saturation.

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The temperature (at which the saturation occurs) is called temperature

a
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of the dew point or dew point.

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The dew point indicates the temperature at which an air mass has to be

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lowered, because the water vapor condenses in liquid (without no

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pressure changes).

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Humidity

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The absolute humidity: it is the amount of water vapor, expressed in

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grams, contained in a cubic meter of air [g/m3].

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The specific humidity (mass concentration): it is the amount of water

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vapor, expressed in grams, contained in a kilogram of air [g/kg].

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The relative humidity [%]: it is the percentage ratio between the

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amount of water vapor contained in an air mass and the maximum

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amount that the same mass can contain at the same temperature and

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pressure. The dew point is connected to the relative humidity. A high

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relative humidity indicates that the temperature is close to the dew

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point.

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Density

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The air density is the most important property in the study of

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aerodynamic phenomena.

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The air density depends on pressure and temperature values. The
density varies directly with the pressure and inversely with the

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temperature.

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The relation between these three physical quantities can be mnemonic

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resumed as variation of the 3H (hot, high, humidity). The increase of

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hot, height or humidity causes a reduction in density and consequently

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a deterioration of dynamic and propulsive performances.

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Atmosphere layers

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The atmosphere can be

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divided into different
vertical layers, according to

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the occurrence of certain

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phenomena:
• The troposphere

e s
•

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The stratosphere

i s
• The mesosphere

r a
• The thermosphere.

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Atmosphere layers

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Troposphere: it is the lower layer in contact with the Earth’s surface. It is

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variable from about 8000 m on Poles, up to 20000 m on the vertical of

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the Equator. It is contains water vapor and within this layer there are
clouds and vertical air currents phenomena.

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Stratosphere: It is a thin region which starts just above the tropopause,

s
c
consisting of very rarefied gases, bedded on their specific weight. Due

i s
to the total absence of perturbations and water, it surely will be a very

a
important region for quick and long aeronautical routes.

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International Standard Atmosphere

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The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model

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of how the pressure, temperature, density, and viscosity of the Earth's

o S
atmosphere change over a wide range of altitudes.

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The ISA air-type is defined as follows:

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• The air is considered dry (completely devoid of water vapor as well

c
as dust). This condition is purely theoretical

a i s
• Atmosphere parameters are taken at 45° of latitude

tr w
• Pressure at sea level is 1013.25 millibar (1,033 kg/cm2)

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•

S
Temperature at sea level is 15°C
• Density at the sea level is 1.225 [kg/m3]

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International Standard Atmosphere

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• Vertical barometric gradient is 1 millibar every 8 m decreasing with

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altitude; the pressure at 11 km is so 226.0 millibar

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• Vertical thermal gradient is -6.5°C every 1000 m, up to an altitude
of about 11 km (Troposphere), where there is a temperature of -

_
56.5°C.

e
• (Rising, even the temperature remains almost constant up to about

c s
20 km in height, where begins to increase by approximately 1.02°

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C per 1000 m)

a
•

r
Acceleration of gravity is 9.81 [m/s2].

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Application to aerodynamics

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The ISA allows having constant parameter to observe for:

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• Aerodynamic calculation

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• Calibration of the on board instruments

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• Comparing the performances of aircraft and engines on equal

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terms.

c s s
By comparing the values of the air physical characteristics with those of

a
the air-type (ISA):

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• Density altitude (DA): it’s the altitude corresponding to a given air
density in ISA; if the air density decreases, the DA increases.

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Application to aerodynamics

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Using the standard parameters of the ISA to study the aerodynamic

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phenomena it is possible to calculate the theoretical lift of a body in the

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air.

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The lift of an object in the air is of two types:

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• The static lift, which uses the Archimedes’ lift

c
• The dynamic lift, which uses the aerodynamic forces.

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Archimede principle

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When a body is immersed in a fluid, it is subjected to a pressure on all

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its sides. The pressure increases as the height increase of the overlying

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column of the fluid.

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The result of these forces is a force directly upwards, equal to the

e
weight of the fluid displaced from the body: Archimedes’ lift.

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The Archimedes’ lift manifests both in the water and in the air (in the

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second case with a lower intensity, due to the lower density of the air).

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Chapter 08.02
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AERODYNAMICS

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Ideal and real fluids

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Mechanics of fluids becomes easier by studying ideal fluids instead of

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real fluids.

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Ideal Fluids:

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• Incompressible

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• It has zero viscosity

c s
• No resistance is encountered as the fluid moves.

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Real Fluids:

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• Compressible

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• Viscous in nature

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• Certain amount of resistance is always offered by these fluids as
they move.

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Streamlines

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Streamline: it represents an imaginary flow line which is always tangent

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to the velocity vectors of an elementary fluid particles (for every point

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and every time instant).

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For the presence of the body, the streamlines are forced to deviate

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from their path → the body presence influences the trend of the

c s
streamlines up to a certain distance (beyond this distance the

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undisturbed free-flow conditions exist).

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Streamlines have aspects and trends that depends on the shape of the

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body (with the same frontal area).

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Features of fluid flow

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Inside the fluid flow, other elements can be detected:

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• Upwash: upwards flow

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• Downwash: downwards flow

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• Impact point: it is the point where the flow separates

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• Point of stagnation (stagnation point): it is a small area near the

c
impact point where the fluid particles have no speed (compared to

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the body) and where there is an area of big pressure.

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Laminar and turbulent flow

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In the case there is a body moving in the flow, the flow can be defined

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as laminar or turbulent, according to the path of the fluid particles

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around the body.

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The dimensionless Reynolds number is an important parameter in the

e
equations that describes whether flow conditions lead to laminar or

c s
turbulent flow:

r a 
i s  UL

t w
Re

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Laminar and turbulent flow

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Laminar flow: it occurs when streamlines keep a uniform and parallel

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separation without turbulences. At low velocities the fluid tends to flow

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without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like
playing cards. The intensity of their velocity depends on the distance

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from a determined surface or axis (one layer slides over the others).

c e s s
Turbulent flow: it occurs when the fluid undergoes irregular

a i
fluctuations, or mixing and chaotic property changes. In turbulent flow

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the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing changes in

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both magnitude and direction.

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Laminar and turbulent flow

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Boundary layer

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In an ideal theoretical model the movement of the air around a body

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may be considered in purely laminar conditions.

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In a real case the air cannot always remain attached to the airfoil:
•

e
The surface of the body has a surface roughness (at a microscopic

s
level)

c s
•

i
When the air passes over a body, molecules nearest the surface

a
remain attached to the surface → creation of the boundary layer.

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Boundary layer

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The friction slows the air

a
particles -> increase of the

is s
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boundary layer thickness.

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A decrease of the kinetic

_
energy -> increase in
pressure.

c e
The increase in pressure

s s
a i
disturb the smooth flow of

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the fluid -> turbulent

t w
regime. The point where

io S
the flow changes from
laminar to turbulent is the

_
transition point

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Laminar and turbulent flow

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Relative wind

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The relative wind is defined

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as the movement of the air

S
flow compared to the

_
object.

c e s
The relative wind, being

s
formed by the motion of

a i
the object respect to the

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surrounding area, has the

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same speed of the object,

io S
same line, but opposite
direction.

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Wing profiles

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Cutting across a wing it

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gets its airfoil section →

c s
wing profile.

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Wing profiles

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Concave-convex profile

t w
• They are used for gliders or for low-speed flight

o S
• The upper camber is convex, while the lower camber is concave

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• It generates lift when the angle of attack is 0°.

c e s
Plane-convex profile

i s
•

a
The upper camber is convex, while the lower camber is flat

r
• It generates many lift when the angle of attack is 0°

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• It is very diffuse in hobby modeling due to its simplicity.

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Wing profiles

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Biconvex-asymmetric profile

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• The upper camber has a higher curvature than the lower one

o S
• It generates little lift when the angle of attach is 0°.

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Biconvex-symmetric

c s
• They are used for acrobatic aircraft and for the tail plane of most

i s
aircraft (rudder and horizontal tailplane of airliners)

r a
• The upper camber and the lower camber are symmetrical in relation

t w
to the cord

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• It generates lift when the angle of attack is greater than 0°.

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Airfoil terminology

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Leading edge: the thicker frontal edge of the profile

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Trailing edge: the tin and tapered rear edge

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Upper camber: the upper surface of the airfoil

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Lower camber: the lower surface of the airfoil

e s
Chord line: a straight line joining the leading edge and the trailing edge

c i s
Mean camber line (median line): a line drawn halfway between the

a
upper and lower surfaces of the airfoil

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Maximum camber: the maximum distance between the mean line and

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the chord line, measured perpendicular to the last one

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Airfoil terminology

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Maximum thickness: the maximum distance between the upper and the

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lower surface, taken perpendicularly to the chord line. Generally it is at

o S
about 1/3 from the leading edge

_
Relative thickness: the ratio of the maximum thickness to the chord
length:

e s
• Thin airfoil: relative thickness less than 0.08

c s
•

i
Half thickness: relative thickness between (0.08 and 0.14)

r a
• Thick airfoil: relative thickness more than 0.14

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Airfoil terminology

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Angle of attack

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The angle of attack is the
angle between a reference

_
airfoil direction (airfoil

e
chord) and the asymptotic

s
velocity of the air flow

c s
(relative wind).

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Wash in and wash out

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The wing twist is an aerodynamic feature added to aircraft wings,

t w
which has the task to adjust the lift distribution along the wing because

o S
in the swept-wings the stall tends to happen first at the tips.

_
The lift redistribution is usually made in order to ensure that the wing

e
tip is the last part of the wing surface to stall.

ac i s s
It involves twisting the wingtip a small amount downwards in relation

r
to the rest of the wing, making the effective angle of attack always

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lower at the wing tips than at the wing roots.

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Wash in and wash out

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Wing shapes

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The aircraft wings have different shapes, according to the nature and

t w
the use of the airplane.

o _S
The most common shapes are:
• Straight wing

e s
• Tapered wing

c s
• Swept wing

a i
• Delta wing

r w
• Variable geometry wing.

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Wings shapes

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Wing shapes

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Straight wings

t w
• They are the simplest configurations

o S
• They are the first type of wing able to flight.

_
Tapered wings (trapezoid-shaped wing)

e s
• They are used to reduce the drag by increasing strength.

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Wing shapes

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• Positive swept wings (positive swept angle/swept back wings):

t w
• They are the most diffuse configuration

o S
• They reduce the drag during the flight

_
• They help the aircraft stability (directional stability)
• They increase the critical Mach number

e s
• They suffer from tip stall.

ac i s
Negative swept wings (negative swept angle/swept forward wings):

tr w
• They are not very diffused
•

io
They have high performances

S
• They have structural problems

_
• They give a stability reduction.

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Wing shapes

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Delta wings:

t w
• They are used on all aircraft that flying at supersonic speed

o S
• They reduce the ratio weight/wing surface (W/S).

_
Variable geometric wings

e s
•

c
They have the possibility to change during the flight their shape,

s
the swept angle, the wing span and the aspect ratio.

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Aspect ratio

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The aspect ratio (λ) is an important dimensionless parameter to

t w
determine the aerodynamic behavior of the wings:

o S
2
b b

_
  

e
S c

c s s
• b is the wing span [m]

a i
• S is the wing surface [m2]

r w
•

t
C is the airfoil chord [m]

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Aspect ratio

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For example: an aspect ratio of 10 means that the wing span is 10 times

t w
the mean chord

o _S
Each aircraft category has a specific aspect ratio :
• Fighting and supersonic aircraft: aspect ratio of about 2-3

e s
• Airliners: aspect ratio of about 7

c s
• Gliders: aspect ratio of about 20-30 → the total drag must be low →

a i
high aspect ratio

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Wing load

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A wing project is designed as to resist to a certain load for a surface unit

t w
(wing load), given by the total mass of the aircraft divided by the total

o S
wing surface in plain sight:

_
W
WL 

e
S
•

ac i s s
WL is the wing load [N/m2]

r
• W is the weight [N]

t w
• S in the wing surface [m2]

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Law of continuity

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The rate of the flow at a point (given by the product between the fluid

t w
velocity at that point and the duct section) must remain constant:

o _S R f
V S

c e s s
V is the fluid velocity [m/s]

a i
• S is the duct section [m2]

tr w
Hypothesis: incompressible fluid → constant density

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Bernoulli principle

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r
Conservation of energy: for an isolated system (without relation with

t w
the outside) there is the energy conservation.

o _S
Bernoulli principle:
• If the fluid velocity increases between two contiguous sections,

e s
then the pressure decreases

c
• If somehow a form of energy increases, such as kinetic one

a i s
(dynamic pressure), it can only do so at the expense of another form

r
of energy (static pressure).

t w
1 1
 V 1  P1   V 2  P2

io S
2 2

2 2
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Reaction on aerodynamic airfoil

a c is s
r
On an airfoil the resulting of the pressure field is a vector applied at the

t w
center of pressure, usually located approximately at 1/3 from the

o S
leading edge.

_
The resulting of the pressure field contributes to the resultant of the

e
aerodynamic forces → it contributes to the generation of lift and drag.

c s
In the upper camber of the airfoil:

a i s
• Greater velocity

r
• Lower pressure.

t w
In the lower camber of the airfoil:

io S
• Lower velocity
• Greater pressure.

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Reaction on aerodynamic airfoil

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Aerodynamic resultant

c
When a body moves in a

a
fluid (or when a body is

is s
t r w
stationary relative to a fluid
in motion) is subjected to as

o S
force R, which can be split

_
into two forces:
• One parallel to the

e s
relative wind direction,

c
opposing the motion,

i s
called drag (D)

r a
• One perpendicular to

t w
the relative wind

io S
direction, directed
upwards, called lift (L).

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Reaction on aerodynamic airfoil

a c is s
r
The force R, resultant of infinite infinitesimal forces acting on its

t w
surfaces:

o S
1
R  V S C f
2

_
2
•

c e s s
ρ is the density [kg/m3]

a i
• V is the air body relative velocity [m/s]

r w
•

t
S is the maximum surface of the body exposed to the motion [m2]
• Cf is the form coefficient

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Reaction on aerodynamic airfoil

a c is s
r
The lift and drag can be expressed by an analogous formula of the

t w
aerodynamic reaction:

o 1

_S
L   V 2 S Cl
1
D   V 2 S Cd

e
2 2

ac i s s
Replacing the formula of the aerdynamic reaction with the relative

r
expression of lift and drag, it obtains:

io t S w1
R   V 2 S C f  L2  D2

_
2
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Centre of pressure

a c is s
r
The center of pressure is obtained by the intersection between the

t w
action-straight line of the resultant force and the chord of the airfoil.

o _S
The center of pressure varies along the airfoil chord according to the
variation of the angle of attack.

e s
For example, if the angle of attack decreases, the center of pressure

c
moves rearwards. If the angle of attack increases, the center of

i s
pressure moves forward.

tr a w
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Drag: profile drag

a c is s
t r w
The profile drag Drag

o S
(also called parasite drag)
can be divided in two

_
Profile drag Induced drag
main components:

e s
• The form drag

c
• The friction drag.

a i s
Form drag

tr w
Friction drag

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Drag: profile drag

a c is s
r
Form drag: it depends on the shape of the body and then on the

t w
aerodynamic of the body itself. In equal main section, the more a body

o S
is tapered, lower will be its form drag.

_
Friction drag: it is determined by the viscosity of the boundary layer →

e
irregularity of the body surface. Methods to reduce the friction drag

c s
imply reducing the thickness of the boundary layer:

i s
• Polishing and shinning surfaces

r a
• Using air inlets

t w
• Mixing a free air flow to the boundary layer → vortex generator

io S
• BLC (Boundary Layer Control).

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Drag: induced drag

a c is s
r
Considering a finite wingspan, it will see that when a wing (or aileron)

t w
moves compared to a relative wind (according to the different angle of

o S
attack and to the airfoil) it creates a pressure difference between the
upper side and the underside.

e_
Along the trailing edge it will find two velocity vectors diverging from

s
c
each other, corresponding to two air flows not aligned.

i s
The convergent dorsal current and the divergent ventral one while

a
meeting will create vortices → free vortices.

tr w
The free vortices at the wing tips become very intense → marginal or

io
extremities.

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Drag: induced drag

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Drag: induced drag

a c is s
r
There are different methods, to keep the induced drag within some

t w
limits:

o S
• Increasing the speed
• Reducing the angle of attack (α)

_
• Winglets

e s
• Increasing the aspect ratio (λ)

c s
• Flow deviators.

tr a wi
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Paradox of D’Alambert

a c is s
r
Consider the air as a perfect fluid: incompressible and not viscous →

t w
paradox of D’Alambert.

o _S
Paradox of D’Alambert: it theoretically shows that if a body (of any
shape) moves with linear translation motion in a perfect fluid, the

e
resistance would be null.

ac i s s
Consequently if the air were a perfect fluid, no aircraft would ever rise

r
from the ground because there will be no aerodynamic force.

io t S w
In reality the air is a viscous fluid: wake vortices are created behind the
body → the drag and the lift are generated.

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Efficiency

a c is s
r
The efficiency is the ratio between the lift and the drag:

ot S w 1
V 2 SCl

_
L 2 Cl
E  

c e D 1 V 2 SC

s s
Cd

a i
d
2

tr w
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Most efficiency angle

a c is s
r
The most efficiency angle is the angle of attack at which the best

t w
efficiency is obtained.

o _S
For light aircraft: the best efficiency angle of attack is approximately
about 4°-5° .

c e s s
For heavier aircraft: the best efficiency angle of attack is greater than

a i
the light aircraft.

tr w
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Most efficiency angle

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Stall

a c is s
r
The air flow has difficult to remain laminar over the upper camber of

t w
the airfoil.

o _S
At a certain value of the angle of attack, the airflow detaches.

e s
The detachment occurs when the flow goes from the laminar regime to

c s
the turbulent one in correspondence of a point called separation point.

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Stall

a c is s
r
As the angle of attack

t w
increases, the separation
point of the air flow moves

o S
forward.

e_
At the stall incidence → the

s
detachment of the

c s
aerodynamic flow:

a i
• The lift dramatically

r
decreases

t w
• The resistance increases

io S
so much to make
impossible the aircraft lift.

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Ice and snow contamination

a c is s
r
The contamination of the aircraft surfaces is caused by some

t w
phenomena as ice, snow and frost.

o _S
The ice, snow and frost mainly cause a reduction of the wing
aerodynamics and so they are dangerous for the flight safety.

c e s s
The ice, snow and frost also make the aircraft controls ineffective.

tr a wi
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c e s_
t r a w is
o _S
c
Chapter 08.03
e s s
r a
THEORY OF FLIGHT

t wi
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Aircraft axes

a c is s
t r w
The aircraft position in the

o
space is defined by 3 axes

S
perpendicular to each other

_
and passing through the
centre of gravity of the

e s
aircraft:

c s
• Longitudinal axis

a i
• Lateral or transversal axis

tr w
• Vertical axis.

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Aircraft axes

a c is s
r
Longitudinal axis

t w
It runs from the aircraft nose to the tail.

o S
The aircraft movement around this axis is called roll.

_
Lateral axis

e s
It runs parallel to the line joining the two wingtips.

c s
The aircraft movement around this axis is called pitch.

tr a
Vertical axis

wi
io
It is perpendicular to the other two axes.

S
The aircraft movement around this axis is called yaw.

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Four forces

a c is s
r
The main forces acting on an aircraft are in total 4:

t w
• Lift

o S
• Drag

_
• Weight
• Thrust.

c e s s
The axes follow the aircraft movements, changing the direction in the

a i
space according to the aircraft attitude.

tr w
Note: the weight always acts in the vertical line!

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Four forces

a c is s
r
Ideal position of the four forces:

t w
• The centre of gravity is located in front of the centre of pressure →

o S
creation of a movement tending to lower the nose of the aircraft
(said dive moment)

_
• The line of thrust is lower than the center of resistance, creating a

e
torque tending to raise the nose (nose up moment)

c s
• An advanced centre of gravity → improvement the stability of the

i s
aircraft

r a
• The center of thrust is usually positioned behind the center of

t w
gravity -> a moment tending to lower the aircraft nose -> horizontal

io
tails with airfoils producing a slight negative down lift.

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Flight control surfaces

a c is s
ot r w
S
Aircraft flight control
surfaces:

_
• Ailerons → roll

e
• Elevator → pitch

c s
• Rudder → yaw.

r a i s
io t S w
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Flight control surfaces

a c is s
r
Ailerons cause a lift variation:

t w
• Aileron down → increase in lift

o S
• Aileron up → decrease in lift.

_
Elevator causes a variation of the tail lift or tail load:

e s
• Elevator down → increase in tail lift (decrease in tail load)

c s
• Elevator up → decrease in tail lift (increase the tail load).

tr a wi
Rudder causes a horizontal tail load:
• Rudder on right → yaw on right

io S
• Rudder on left → yaw on left.

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Glide

a c is s
t r w
With engine off or in case

o
of failure, the aircraft

S
performs a sail flight →

_
there is no more the engine
thrust and the propulsive

e s
thrust consists of the

c s
weight component along

a i
the trajectory.

tr w
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Glide

a c is s
r
The main problem in case of glide is to cover the greatest distance

t w
possible. Beyond banking the aircraft, it is necessary to obtain the best

o S
attitude to perform the descent.

_
The efficiency (L/D) is equal to the opposite of the tangent of the glide

e
angle (β):

c s
• A bigger ratio → the descending trajectory is less banked and the

i s
glide distance is greater

r a
• The best ratio L/D is about 4° of the angle of attack (light aircraft).

io t S w
Moving away from this optimal value of the angle of attack, the ratio
gets worse, so that only for this angle can be covered the maximum

_
distance during the glide

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Straight and level flight

a c is s
r
In the straight and level flight at constant speed: if all forces involved

t w
are balance and the dive moments equals to those nosed up, the

o S
aircraft:

_
T D W L

c e s s
•
•

r a
T is the thrust

t
D is the drag

wi
io S
• W is the weight

_
• L is the lift.

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Straight and level flight

a c is s
ot r w
S
The four forces are equal

_
and opposite, where

e
opposite not necessarily

c s
implies that they are

s
aligned with one another.

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Cruise speed, economy cruise and best speed

a c is s
r
Cruise speed

t w
It represents the minimum consumption per flown kilometer and

o S
therefore the maximum flight range.

_
Economy cruise

e s
It represents the minimum consumption per hour and thus maximum

c s
endurance.

r a
Best speed

t wi
It represents the maximum value of the engine thrust, which

io S
corresponds to the maximum power of the engine.

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Propeller aircraft

a c is s
r
Maximum range: the point, that represents the maximum efficiency

t w
(Emax) and that is calculated from the polar curve, corresponds to the

o S
point of maximum range.

_
Maximum endurance: to obtain the maximum endurance, the flight

e
must be performed at the attitude that corresponds to the maximum

c s
value of:

r a i s E Cl

io t S w
The flight must also be performed at low altitude.

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Jet aircraft

a c is s
r
Maximum range: in case of jet aircraft, to obtain the maximum range,

t w
the flight must be performed at the attitude that corresponds to the

o S
maximum value of:
E

e_ s
Cl

ac i s
The flight must also be performed at high altitude.

tr w
Maximum endurance: the point, that represents the maximum

io S
efficiency (Emax) and that is calculated from the polar curve,
corresponds to the point of maximum endurance.

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Climb

a c is s
r
When the aircraft has a

t w
climb attitude, all vectors
rotate with the aircraft

o S
(except the weight always

_
directed downwards).

c e s
To keep the airspeed

s
constant during the climb,

a i
it is necessary to increase

r
the engine power to obtain

t w
a total thrust vector.

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Aircraft ceiling

a c is s
r
The aircraft ceiling is that altitude beyond which the aircraft have no

t w
more propulsive balance in straight horizontal flight.

o _S
The thrust (power) generated by an aeronautical engine decreases as
the altitude increases, due to the air rarefaction.

c e s s
The thrust (power) requested to perform a straight and level flight

a i
increases as altitude increases.

tr w
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Aircraft ceiling

a c is s
r
Absolute ceiling: it is that altitude at which the maximum available

t w
thrust (or power) is equal to the minimum required thrust (or power) to

o S
perform a straight and horizontal flight. The absolute ceiling is a
theoretical altitude in which the curves of the required power and the

_
available power are tangent.

c e s
Service ceiling: it is that altitude at which the better climb speed

i s
reached by the aircraft is about 100 ft/min (0.5 m/s).

tr a w
The absolute ceiling is an unattainable altitude, and so it is better to

io
speak about the service ceiling.

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Aircraft ceiling

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Descent

a c is s
t r w
When the aircraft performs

o
a descent, all vectors rotate

S
with the aircraft

_
(except the weight always

e
directed downwards).

c
The descent is supported

a
by the propulsive engine

i s s
tr w
thrust.

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Take-off

a c is s
r
The aircraft take-off can be split into 3 main phases.

ot S w
Take-off run phase

_
The aircraft starts to move and accelerating reaches the take-off speed.

e s
Maneuver phase

c s
The aircraft passes from the taxiing attitude to the one corresponding

a i
to maximum Cl and leaves the ground.

tr
Climbing phase

w
io S
The aircraft reaches the altitude required for the flight.

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Take-off run phase

a c is s
r
During the take off run phase, the forces acting on the aircraft are:

t w
• Thrust (T)

o S
• Total weight of the aircraft at the take-off (W)

_
• Lift (L)
• Inertia force (If)→ If= [a (W/g)]

e s
• Aerodynamic drag (D=Da)

c s
• Friction (Df) due to the contact of the wheels with the runway → it

a i
is proportionally to the difference between weight and lift,

r
according to a constant of proportionality (f).

io t S w
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Take-off run phase

a c is s
r
The take-off run space increases at the wing load increase (W/S).

ot S w
More thrust it gives to the aircraft, shorter will be the take-off run

_
phase. On the contrary, heavier is the aircraft, or more friction has the
runway, longer will be the take-off run phase. Increasing the friction

e
coefficients, as in grass runways, more calibrated attitudes are needed.

ac i s s
The thrust decreases very much with the altitude, to which a decrease

r
in density is bound. Over a certain altitude, the takeoff can't be

t w
performed. Therefore, in gas turbine engines the thrust decreases.

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Maneuvre phase

a c is s
r
Once reached the take-off speed, the pilot pulls the control stick to lift

t w
the elevator, making the aircraft rotates about the main landing gear

o S
and increasing the angle of attack of about 30° (with extended slats
and flaps).

e_
In this way it generates enough lift to overpass the weight vector and

s
c
the aircraft take-off.

r a i s
The maneuver phase lasts a pair of seconds → in this phase the

t w
maximum value of Cl is reached

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Climbing phase

a c is s
r
Reached the maximum value of Cl the aircraft leaves the ground and

t w
starts to follow a parabolic trajectory until it reaches the necessary

o S
altitude.

_
Reaches the correct speed, flaps and slats are retracted, together with

e
the landing gear (if retractable).

ac i s s
The aircraft keeps on accelerating until the pilot reduces the throttle or

r
the speed reaches a value at which the drag balance the engine thrust

t w
→ the aircraft airspeed remain constant.

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Landing

a c is s
r
The aircraft landing can be split into 3 main phases:

ot Descent phase

S w
_
The aircraft start to dive with a certain β angle and a certain velocity V.

e s
Transitory phase

c s
The pilot changes the aircraft attitude in a one corresponding to the

a i
aircraft on the ground, and modifies the descending trajectory, passing

r
through the straight horizontal one.

io t
Taxi-in phase

S w
_
Where once put the wheels on the runway, the thrust is null and the
pilot acts on the brakes (or thrust reverser) to stop the aircraft.

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Turn

a c is s
r
Types of turns:

t w
• Flat turn

o S
• Banked turn.

_
In both cases, the centre of gravity of the aircraft draws a curve in a

e s
horizontal plane, but with different maneuvers and characteristics.

ac i s
To perform a turn, the aircraft has to produce a force directed towards

r
the turn centre (centripetal force).

io t S w
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Flat turn

a c is s
r
Flat turn

t w
• The maneuver is performed using the rudder

o S
• The rudder creates a perpendicular components to the velocity

_
direction
• The aircraft remains in a horizontal plane (without roll).

c e s s
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Banked turn

a c is s
r
Banked turn (at constant altitude)

t w
• Act on ailerons to bank the lift vector and create a centrifugal

o S
component
• Use the rudder to help the aircraft rotation

_
• Act on the elevator to increase the lift

e s
• Increase the engine power to increase the lift.

ac i s
To maintain the altitude, during a turn, it is necessary to increase

r
the lift. This is obtained increasing both the angle of attack and the

t w
airspeed. Otherwise the aircraft makes a sideslip.

io S
•

_
The horizontal component of the lift when an aircraft is banked, it
will tend to make the aircraft follow a circular path

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Normal, slipping and skidding turns

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
tr a wi
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Load factor

a c is s
r
The load factor is introduced to provide an indication about maneuvers

t w
that an aircraft is performing and about the load that the structure

o S
must supported.

_
The load factor (n) is a vector defined by the ratio between the mass

e
force and the weight.

ac i s s
The load factor in the vertical direction can be expressed as the ratio

r
between the lift and the weight:

io t S w n
L

_
W
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Load factor: straight and level flight

a c is s
ot r w
S
The load factor in the

_
vertical direction felt by the

e
aircraft and pilot is equal

c s
to 1.

r a i s
io t S w
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Load factor: straight and level flight

a c is s
ot r w
S
The load factor may be

_
expressed as function of

e
the bank angle, in the case

c s
of a banked turn.

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Load factor

a
simple
characterize

c
way to
all

is s
t r w
symmetrical limit load
conditions is analyzing the

o S
V-n diagram.

_
The load factor (n) is the

e s
ordinate and the airspeed

c s
(V) is the abscissa.

a i
The diagram resumes all

r
possible symmetric flight

t w
attitudes that an aircraft

io S
must be supported

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Lift augmentation systems

a c is s
r
To reduce the take-off and landing speed (and thus the runways length)

t w
it is necessary to reduce the wing load (W/S) or to increase the lift

o S
coefficient and sometimes the wing surface. Unfortunately, a very fast
flight, in economy conditions requires a reduced wing area (to reduce at

_
the minimum the drag and thus a heavy load wing).

c e s
It is necessary to increase the wing lift instead to vary the wing area →

i s
purpose of the augmentation systems.

tr a w
Augmentation systems:

io
• Increase the circulation around the airfoil

S
• Increase the Cl coefficient.

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Lift augmentation systems

a c is s
r
To most of augmentation systems are based on:

t w
• Downward deflection of the fluid flow

o S
• Control of the boundary layer

_
• Slot effect.

e s
Lift augmentation systems:

c s
• Flaps → trailing edge → downward deflection → increase of lift

a i
coefficient (reduce stalling speed)

r w
• Slats → leading edge → slot effect and control of boundary layer

t
→ airflow over the top of the wing regenerates the boundary layer.

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Lift augmentation systems

a c is s
ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Flaps types

a c is s
r
Split flap: it consists of a flap applied on lower camber part of the wing

t w
in correspondence to the trailing edge. The lowering of the flap causes

o S
an increse in the pressure in the lower camber and behind the flap
there is a wake, which affects the upper side of the wing.

e_
Slotted flap: it creates an increase in the airfoil curvature and the slot in

s
c
the back creates a depression.

r a i s
Fowler flap: it is moved backward so that its leading edge will coincide

t w
with the trailing edge of the wing → a slot remains. Simultaneously the

io
flap is tilted downward with an angle β.This flaps increases the surface

S
and the curvature of the wings.

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Slats types

a c is s
r
Handley page flap: in automated slat, at great incidences, the deep

t w
depression produced on the leading edge of the wing, causes the slat

o S
displacement forward which is otherwise closed by means of a
returning spring. At little incidences the pressure on the edge causes

_
the slat lock.

c e s
Krueger flap: it is hinged to the leading edge in order to increase the

i s
curvature of the main camber line and the wing surface. It’s broadly

a
present in wings inner parts of the aircraft of the main airlines.

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c e s_
t r a w is
o _S
c
Chapter 08.04
e s s
r a i
FLIGHT STABILITY AND DYNAMICS

t w
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Static stability

a c is s
t r w
An aircraft is said statically

o
stable when moved from its

S
flight attitude it returns

_
back without variations in
the airspeed or in the

e s
trajectory.

ac
Note: the aircraft is

i s
r
considering as a rigid body

t w
hinged on its centre of

io S
gravity and free to rotate
about its axes.

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Static stability

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ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Dynamic stability

a c is s
t r w
An aircraft is said

o
dynamically stable when

S
moved from its flight

_
attitude it returns back
after some oscillations

e s
during which the aircraft

c s
has changed speed and

a i
trajectory.

tr w
The oscillations will reduce

io S
with a periodic and an
aperiodic motion.

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Dynamic stability

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ot r w
_S
c e s s
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Active and passive stability

a c is s
r
Active stability: it is the automatic restore of the initial attitude,

t w
performed by means of the flight controls. The controls are activated

o S
and controlled by some computers, which detect attitude variations by
means of gyroscope.

e_
Passive stability: it is the stability of an aircraft that at the end of the

s
c
stresses, recovers naturally its initial attitude thanks to its aerodynamic

i s
features.

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Stability types

a c is s
r
The aircraft stability implies all the 3 axes. Commonly the stability is

t w
considered in its 3 interconnected aspects:

o _S
Transversal stability
It is respect to the longitudinal axis (roll movement).

c e
Directional stability

s s
a i
It is respect to the perpendicular axis (yaw movement).

tr w
Longitudinal stability

io S
It is respect to the transversal axis (pitch movement).

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Stability types

a c is s
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_S
c e s s
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Lateral stability

a c is s
r
The lateral stability is around the longitudinal axis.

ot S w
The lateral stability is the tendency to return in stable equilibrium after

_
the rotational movements around the roll axis.

e s
The lateral stability is related to the directional stability.

ac i s
The factors affecting the lateral stability are:

r w
• High wings → center of thrust higher than the center of gravity →

t
pendulum effect → more stability than low wings

io S
• Low wings → dihedral angle (wing tip higher than the wing root).

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Longitudinal stability

a c is s
r
The longitudinal stability is around the lateral/transversal axis.

ot S w
The longitudinal stability is the tendency to return in stable equilibrium

_
after the rotational movements around the pitch axis.

e s
The factors affecting the longitudinal stability are:

c s
• Centre of gravity ahead of the center of pressure

a i
• Horizontal tail surfaces → longitudinal dihedral angle.

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Directional stability

a c is s
r
The directional stability is around the vertical axis.

ot S w
The directional stability is the tendency to return in stable equilibrium
after the rotational movements around the yaw axis → as weathercock

e_ s
The factors affecting the directional stability are:

c s
Effective keel surfaces → rudder, fin, fuselage sides after the center of

a i
gravity.

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Dutch roll

a c is s
r
The Dutch roll is an oscillatory motion as a combination of the yaw and

t w
roll. If the aircraft is disturbed on the vertical axis of yaw, the tailplane

o S
moves laterally respect to the common position and the wing on the
yaw side moves faster than the other one → the initial yaw towards the

_
side causes an increase of the lift in that side and consequently a rolling

e
motion.

ac i s s
Aircraft characteristics: weaker positive directional stability as opposed
to positive lateral stability.

tr w
io
Factors causes the Dutch roll:

S
• The most important factor is related to the swept angle;

_
furthermore the dihedral angle could be influencing the motion.

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