The Tree of Life

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Biodiversity
Benjamin Vallejo Jr PhD
IESM College of Science
University of the Philippines
Diliman, Quezon City
What is biodiversity?
 Biodiversity is the variation of life on
earth
 The fundamental unit of biodiversity
is the species
 Species arose from ancestral species
(Theory of Evolution by Natural
Selection: Descent by Modification)

Levels of Biodiversity How many species are there?

Taxon Global Philippines Philippines
1. Species diversity: No. of different kinds of (PBCPP) (DENR)
organisms within community/ecosystem Vertebrates 57,739 3,325 3,308
Invertebrates 1,190,200 35,000 34,940
Plants 287,655 15,000 15,310
2. Genetic diversity: Diversity within a species; variety
Others* 10,000
of different versions of the same genes within a TOTAL
species
1,545,594 53,325 53,558
E.O Wilson’s estimate: 3-30 million species
3. Ecosystem diversity: Richness and complexity of a Philippines share of global biodiversity = 3.46%
community (e.g., variety of forests, lakes, deserts,
grasslands. etc.) *fungi, algae, lycopods, mosses, protists
EXCLUDING CYANOBACTERIA and BACTERIA

Biodiversity measures III.A. Measures of diversity

 Species richness :  Species richness - the number of
Total count of different species present in a system
species
 Species evenness (relative
 Diversity indices
abundance) - proportion of
Simpson’s
community biomass or number of
Shannon’s
individuals contributed by each
 Species eveness species

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 Richness and Evenness Biodiversity measures:
Simpson’s index

Fig. 53.21

Biodiversity measures:
Shannon’s index
Between 40 and 90% of
species live in tropical forests

MINN.
1,700 plant
1 end.

ECUADOR
20,000 plant
4,000 end.
MADAGASCAR
10% of all known
5 times as many trees as US

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 WHAT THREATENS
Extinction rates
BIODIVERSITY?
Background rates
 Background extinction (95% of all
extinctions) • 1 mammal species
 Mass extinction every 400 years

• 1 bird species/200 yrs

Now…………...

• 10,000 times the

background rate!

• 20-75 plant/animal
species each day?

Factors that make a species

ENDANGERED VS
threatened
THREATENED
1. Small (localized) range
2. Extensive range but significantly modified by
humans
3. Island dwellers (limited immigration; isolated
evolution free from competitors, predators and
diseases and thus fewer defences when
introduced)
4. Low reproductive success
5. Large (easily hunted)
Threatened: population low but extinction
less imminent
 1973 ESA: 1,260 species on E and T list (9%
Endangered: not so low that extinction inv)
imminent

BIODIVERSITY

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Utilitarian values
 Biodiversity has economic value
(productive use value)
 Biodiversity has consumptive use
value (subsistence value)
 Biodiversity provides services
(service value) like tourism etc.
 Biodiversity has educational value
Intrinsic Values
 Ecocentricism (1949) All species are
interrelated.
 Biocentrism: All species are worthy
of moral consideration. Humans have
an obligation to protect them
 Anthropocentrism: All biodiversity
serves to support humans
Why conserve biodiversity?
 Utilitarian value
 Intrinsic value (Altruism)
 Environmental ethics
 Theology and religion
Biodiversity economics
 Brussard (1994) proposed the idea
that biodiversity is a “basic capital”
 This is to show that if we lose
biodiversity, we lose important
assets for economic development
Custodial responsibility
 A.k.a. principle of intergenerational
equity.
 Biodiversity conservation should
maximize benefits for the present
and future generations
 Precautionary principle: Cautious use
of biodiversity.
 If we don’t know the science,
conserve!
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 Conservation ethics (IUCN)
1. Environments are interdependent
2. All life depends on ecosystem
function
3. Ecological limits should determine
human use of the environment
4. All species have the right to exist
Conservation ethics
5. Ecological processes should be
maintained for biosphere integrity
6. Sustainability is a basic principle
7. The well being of future generations
is a basic principle
8. All persons should be empowered to
care for the environment
9. Diversity of outlooks is to be
encouraged

Philippine Biodiversity
Critically endangered?

The Philippines
 Islands of differing ages.
Philippine
 With the exception of Palawan and Faunal regions
Mindoro, all of the islands are of de Showing 120 m
Bathymetric line
novo oceanic origin
 High biotic diversity and endemism
 All islands are in need of
conservation
 Some islands were connected and
then separated, reconnected or
never connected at all

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 Endemism Patterns (Heaney, Endemism Patterns (Conservation
Fishbase and B. Vallejo) International)
Taxon Endemism Total Taxonomic Endemic Percent
in percent number of Species
Group Species Endemism
species
Plants 9,253 6,091 65.8
Terrestrial 64% 170
mammals
Mammals 167 102 61.1
Mammal genera 29% 84
Birds 535 186 34.8
Birds 30% 572
Reptiles 237 160 67.5
Flowering plants 38% 8000
Amphibians 89 76 85.4
Marine macro 4% 2000
molluscs
Freshwater
Corals 10%? 488 Fishes
281 67 23.8

Marine Fish 3% 3058

Observations (Heaney, 1986) Heaney’s conclusions

 Terrestrial fauna is largely derived from
Sundaland
 Successful over-water colonization is 1-
2/500,000 years
 Terrestrial in situ rapid species and genera
diversification in terrestrial taxa.
 Background extinction rate 1-2%/10,000
years
 Speciation rate is twice that of extinction
rate at least!
 The limits of the 120 m bathymetric
line is concordant with limits of
faunal regions
 Faunal variation between faunal
regions is higher than within each
region
 Older islands have more endemic
species than younger ones

Island Patterns (Area vs

Island Patterns (SPAR)
Endemism)

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 Where did Palawan come from?
 Palawan is a part of southern China
that ended up with the Philippines
Palawan’s geology is different from
Palawan 
that of oceanic Philippines
 Palawan was once connected to
Asian Corridor to the Malaysia but then separated for a
Philippine Island World long time (160,000 years)
 Palawan was never connected to
Luzon and Mindoro

Island Patterns (Palawan) Conclusions for Palawan

 Palawan is a part of Sundaland
 Palawan has a higher extinction rate
(68% / 160000 years of isolation)
 Palawan has more carnivores per
unit area than comparable Sunda
areas
 Diverisification occurred in Palawan
but largely on the species level
Note that Palawan has a steeper slope that indicates rapid extinction

Palaweños

Peacock pheasant (endemic)

Calamian deer (endemic)
Oceanic Philippines
Bearcat

Luzon, Mindanao, Mindoro,

Negros, Panay,
Mouse deer
Hornbill (endemic)
Note that the genera
Porcupine (endemic) are also found in
Malaysia

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 Recent Findings
 Genetic studies indicate long term
genetic structuring as a result of
isolation and ecological affinity of
species (Heaney et al 2005)
 Environment and habitat have a
large role to play in the genetic
structuring of endemic Philippine
mammals

Patterns of interisland gene flow in Bats (Heaney et al, 2005)

Rats of Luzon Philippine snakes

Philippine cobra Naja philippinensis

These rats
are our
answer to
Darwin’s
finches!

Philippine pit viper Samar cobra Naja samarensis

(Heaney and Ricart 2000) Colonization and Phylogenesis

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 Phylogenesis model for the Major biodiversity problems of the
Philippines Philippines
 Habitat degradation due to
 Rapid human population growth
 Poverty
 Mining, logging and other extractive
activities
 Alien species introductions
 Natural factors (typhoons etc)
 Island habitats are extremely
vulnerable

Conservation implications Vital signs of the Philippines (CI)

 Each island is a unique treasure in Hotspot Original Extent (km2) 297,179
itself Hotspot Vegetation Remaining (km2) 20,803
 Maximum protection of all possible Endemic Plant Species 6,091
areas are needed in the islands Endemic Threatened Birds 56
Endemic Threatened Mammals 47
 Reserves must be placed on the high Endemic Threatened Amphibians 48
diversity islands Extinct Species† 2
Extinction is area dependent
†Recorded extinctions since 1500. *Categories I-IV afford higher levels of protection.

 Human Population Density

273
(people/km2)
 Evolution and species diversification Area Protected (km2) 32,404
operates beyond time scales useful Area Protected (km2) in Categories I-
for conservation biologists IV*
18,060