Chapter 45: Chemical Signals in Animals

April 5, 2008

• Gk. hormon, excite (predictably).

• Only target cells respond, even though possibly all cells get hormone.

Contents
1 An Introduction to Regulatory Systems 2
1.1 The endocrine system and the nervous system are structurally,
chemically, and functionally related. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Invertebrate regulatory systems clearly illustrate endocrine and
nervous system interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action 2

2.1 A variety of local regulators aect neighboring target cells . . . . 2
2.2 Most chemical signals bind to plasma-membrane proteins, initi-
ating signal-transduction pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and some local regulators
enter target cells and bind to intracellular receptors . . . . . . . . 3

3 The Vertebrate Endocrine System 3

3.1 The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many functions of the
vertebrate endocrine system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.1.1 Posterior Pituitary Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1.2 Anterior Pituitary Hormones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Thyroid hormones function in development, bioenergetics, and
homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin balance blood calcium . . . 5
3.5 Endocrine tissues of the pancreas secrete insulin and glugacon,
antagonistic hormones that regulate blood glucose . . . . . . . . 6
3.6 The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex help the body manage
stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.7 Gonadal steroids regulate growth, development, reproductive cy-
cles, and sexual behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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1 An Introduction to Regulatory Systems
1. Two systems: nervous, endocrine.

2. Slow: growth, other signals.

3. Endocrine glands called ductless: secrete into body uids.

4. Exocrine secrete into ducts.

1.1 The endocrine system and the nervous system are

structurally, chemically, and functionally related.
1. Neurosecretory cell in brain secrete hormone.

(a) Some also neurotransmitter: epinephrine.

(b) Milk: suckling → (through hypothalamus → pituitary) oxytocin →

milk.

2. Feedback common feature.

1.2 Invertebrate regulatory systems clearly illustrate en-

docrine and nervous system interactions
1. Ecdysonehormone triggers molting. Adult in one terminal molt.

2. Brain hormone (BH)produced by neurosecretory, trigger ecdysone

production.

3. Juvenile hormone (JH)promote retention of larval characteristics.

(a) Molt into bigger larva.

(b) Below threshold: pupa.

(c) Metamorphosis: replaced with adult version.

2 Chemical Signals and Their Modes of Action

2.1 A variety of local regulators aect neighboring target
cells
1. Growth factor proteins that stimulate proliferation; present in ECM.

(a) Multifunctioned; named for rst. Confusing.

(b) Nitric oxide reactive, potentially toxic. Trigger, break down.

i. Neurotransmitter.

ii. Kills bacteria, cancer.

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 iii. Dilate smooth muscle.

2. Prostaglandins (PGs) modied fatty acids.

(a) Semen: contraction of smooth muscle in uterus.

(b) Placenta: uterus excitable, help induce labor (+ feedback).

(c) Fever, inammation, intensify pain.

i. Aspirin, ibuprofen inhibit prostaglandin synthesis.

(d) PGE and PGF very similar; opposite eect of smooth vessel of pul-
monary capillaries.

i. PGE dilate; PDF contract.

2.2 Most chemical signals bind to plasma-membrane pro-

teins, initiating signal-transduction pathways
1. Reception: signal molecule bind with specic protein. Usually surface.

2. Signal-transduction pathway: minute quantities of hormone huge eect.

(a) Active enzyme; or

(b) Alter gene regulation.

2.3 Steroid hormones, thyroid hormones, and some local

regulators enter target cells and bind to intracellular
receptors
1. Estrogen, progesterone enter nuclei of target. Receptors nuclear.

2. Activate transcription factor →∆ gene expression.

3. Same hormone → dierent eects on dierent cells, species.

3 The Vertebrate Endocrine System

Tropic hormones aect other endocrine glands.

3.1 The hypothalamus and pituitary integrate many func-

tions of the vertebrate endocrine system
1. Hypothalamus receive body, brain input; initiate appropriate endocrine
response.

2. Pituitary gland subordinate to hypothalamus; formerly master gland.

(a) Anterior pituitary/adenohypophysis from embryonic mouth.

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 i. Releasing/inhibiting hormones from hypothalamus control.

A. Each pituitary hormone controlled by ≥ 1 releasing hormone.

B. Inhibiting optional.

ii. Capillaries from hypothalamus subdivide, supply pituitary. Di-

rect.

(b) Posterior pituitary/neurohypophysis extension of hypothala-

mus.

3.1.1 Posterior Pituitary Hormones

1. Oxytocin contraction of uterus (labor), milk (nursing).

2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) part of elaborate feedback scheme for

osmolarity.

3.1.2 Anterior Pituitary Hormones

1. Growth hormone (GH) promote direct growth, stimulate growth factor

synthesis. Tropic and direct.

(a) IGFs produced in liver in response to GH stimulate bone, cartilage.

(b) Incorrect amount: gigantism, dwarsm.

2. Prolactin (PRL) structurally similar; diverse, dierent eects.

(a) Mammals: mammary gland growth, milk.

(b) Birds: fat metabolism, reproduction.

(c) Amphibian: delay metamorphosis, larval growth hormone.

(d) Freshwater sh: regulate salt/water balance.

3. FSH, LH, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)  similar glycopro-

teins.

4. Pro-opiomelanocortin cleaved into:

(a) Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulate steroid hor-

mone production and secretion by adrenal cortex.

(b) Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) regulate pigment cells.

(c) Endorphins natural opiates.

i. Runner's high: endorphins when stress, pain reach critical levels.

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3.2 The pineal gland is involved in biorhythms
1. Melatonin secreted. Light, season functions.

(a) Secreted at night.

(b) Skin pigmentation.

(c) Reproduction.

2. Gland senses light (possibly from eye).

3.3 Thyroid hormones function in development, bioener-

getics, and homeostasis
1. On ventral surface of trachea.

2. Triiodothyronine (T3 ) and thyroxine (T4 ).

3. Target convert T4 → T3 ; more anity for nucleus receptor.

4. Negative feedback to hypothalamus.

5. Development and maturation: e.x.: metamorphosis tadpole → frog.

6. Homeostasis: blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tone, digestion, reproduc-

tion.

7. Bioenergetics: ↑ oxygen consumption, cellular metabolism.

8. Goiter: insucient I → continually secrete TSH → enlarge thyroid.

2+
9. Calcitonin lowers [Ca ] in blood.

3.4 Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin balance blood cal-

cium
1. Parathyroid hormone (PTH) ↑ [Ca2+ ].

2. Bone: osteoclasts decompose matrix.

2+
3. Kidneys: reabsorb Ca , activate vitamin D.

(a) Concern with PTH in bone.

2+
(b) Intestines: stimulate Ca uptake from food.

(c) Binds to nuclei receptors; regulates transcription.

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3.5 Endocrine tissues of the pancreas secrete insulin and
glugacon, antagonistic hormones that regulate blood
glucose
1. Islets of Langerhans endocrine; 12%.

(a) α cells secrete glucagon.

(b) β cells secrete insulin.

2. Metabolic [glucose] 90 mg/100 mL.

3. Insulin: cells take up glucose.

(a) Slow glycogen breakdown in liver.

(b) Inhibit conversion of amino acids, glycerol to sugar.

4. Glucagon: only target liver.

(a) Liver, muscles store glycogen; adipose fat.

(b) Liver's ability: metabolic versatility and access to absorbed nutrients

from hepatic portal vesselsfrom intestine to liver.

5. Diabetes mellitus: kidneys excrete glucose; excess water excreted along.

(a) Glucose unavailable → fat. Acid accumulates from fat breakdown.

(b) Type I (insulin-dependent) autoimmune: attack pancreas.

(c) Type II (non-insulin-dependent) deciency, reduced responsiveness

in targets.

i. Over 40, ↑ likely with ↑ age.

ii. 90%. Manage by exercise, diet.

3.6 The adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex help the body
manage stress
1. Catecholamines: epinephrine, norepinephrine.

(a) Positive or negative stress: extreme pleasure or danger.

(b) Rapid metabolic boost: ↑ basal metabolic rate.

(c) Glycogen breakdown in liver, skeletal muscle.

(d) Release of fatty acids.

(e) Increase rate, stroke volume, dilate bronchioles.

(f ) Shunt blood away from skin, digestive, kidneys.

2. Adrenal medulla controlled by sympathetic.

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 (a) Nerves release acetylcholine.

(b) Norepinephrine sustain blood pressure, also neurotransmitter.

3. ACTH from anterior pituitary: synthesize corticosteroids.

(a) Glucocorticoids
i. Synthesize glucose from noncarbohydrates: proteins.

ii. Breakdown of muscle protein.

iii. Immune suppression, esp. inammation. Cortisone.

(b) Mineralocorticoids
i. Aldosterone: increase blood pressure, volume. Usually RAAS
control.

ii. Severe stress: hypothalamus increase ACTH → aldosterone.

4. Adrenal androgens account for female sex drive.

3.7 Gonadal steroids regulate growth, development, re-

productive cycles, and sexual behavior
1. High androgens at embryo → male development.

2. Progestins prepare/maintain uterus.