CHAPTER-IV

METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

Page No,

4.1 Introduction 96

4.2 Microwave source 96

4.3 Microwave components 97

4.3.1 Isolator 97

4.3.2 Attenuator 97

4.3.3 Slotted waveguide carriage and probe 97

4.3.4 Detector 98

4.3.5 Test antenna 98

4.4 Basic microwave bench setup 99

4.5 Antenna performance parameters 106

4.5.1 Radiation pattern 106

4.5.2 Directivity 107

4.5.3 Input impedance 108

4.5.4 Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) 109

4.5.5 Return loss 110

4.5.6 Antenna efficiency 110

4.5.7 Antenna gain 111

4.5.8 Polarization 111

4.5.9 Bandwidth 112

94
4.6 Measurement of antenna parameters of pyramidal

horn antenna with and without samples 113

4.6.1 Measurement of VSWR 113

4.6.2 Measurement of radiation pattern 113

4.6.3 Measurement of half power beamwidth (HPBW) 114

4.6.4 Measurement of gain 115

4.6.5 Measurement of polarization pattern 115

95
 CHAPTER-IV

METHODOLOGY AND EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

4.1 Introductioo:

In this chapter, the various equipments used for the measurement of various

parameters of pyramidal horn antenna loaded with different samples are described in

detail. The whole experimental work of this investigation is carried out in the department

of Post Graduate Studies and Research in Applied Electronics, Gulbarga University,

Gulbarga.

4.2 Microwave Source:

In the present investigation, Gunn oscillator is used as a microwave source. The

Gunn oscillator can be timed over broadband frequencies at X-band (8 GHz to 12 GHz).

The Gunn oscillator uses a Gunn diode, which is named after the British scientist J. B.

Gunn, who observed electrical oscillation when the electrical field across a sample of

GaAs exceeded certain electrical value called threshold electrical field, which is the

characteristics of the semiconductor under study. It is based on the negative differential

conductivity effect in the bulk semiconductor.

The source includes the stabilized power supply (0-1OV) of current rating 1 Amp.

In this power supply there is a provision to produce 1000 KHz square wave signal for

modulating the microwave source. A PIN diode mounted in a suitable waveguide cavity

connected between source and load acts as modulator. The Gunn diode is mounted inside

the X-band waveguide section, one end of which is terminated in a precisely calibrated

movable shorting plunger. The waveguide section between the plunger and the diode acts

as the resonant cavity. When the plunger is moved towards the diode, the volume of the

96
cavity decreases and frequency of generated wave increases and vice-versa. The

manufacturer has supplied a calibration chart by which the approximate frequency

corresponding to the micrometer reading can be noted. The maximum power output

available from the Gunn oscillator is 20 mW.

4.3 Microwave Components: The different components of the microwave bench

used for the measurement of various parameters in this investigation are described briefly

in the following section.

4.3.1 Isolator:

An ideal isolator is one where there is 100% conduction in forward direction and

no conduction in the reverse direction. Hence an isolator is placed in front of signal

generator will not affect the forward signal but will prevent any reflected signal from

reaching and there by damaging the generator by absorbing the reflected wave.

4.3.2 Attenuator:

Attenuator is a component, which can reduce the microwave power. There are

two types of attenuators viz. fixed attenuator and Variable attenuator. A fixed attenuator

reduces the input signal by fixed portion, e.g. 3dB, lOdB etc. The vane type variable

attenuator is used to reduce the power. As the vane is lowered into the waveguide the

amount of attenuation is varied.

4.3.3 Slotted waveguide carriage and probe:

A slotted waveguide carriage contains a coaxial E-field probe, which penetrates

inside a rectangular waveguide slotted section from the outer wall and is able to traverse

a longitudinal narrow slot. The longitudinal slot is cut along the center of the waveguide

broad wall over a length of 2-3 wavelengths where the electric field on the wall does not

97
have any transverse component. The slot is narrow enough to avoid any distortion in the

original field inside the waveguide. The two ends of the slot are tapered to zero width for

reducing the effect of discontinuity. The probe is made to move longitudinally at a

constant small depth to achieve a uniform coupling coefficient between the electric field

inside the waveguide and the probe current at all positions. The probe samples the

electric field, which is proportional to the probe voltage. This unit is used for the

determination of locations of voltage standing wave maxima and minima along the

waveguide. The probe carriage contains a stub tunable coaxial probe detector to obtain a

low frequency modulating signal output to a VSWR meter. The probe is very thin

compared to the wavelength and the depth is also small enough to avoid any field

distortion. The slotted waveguide with tunable probe detector is used to measure VSWR

and standing wave pattern, wavelength and impedance, reflection coefficient and return

loss measurements by the minima shift method.

4.3.4 Detector:

A crystal detector is used to detect the transmitted or received power. Since

CW-RF power is used, the detected output will be a pure DC signal. An adjustable

shorting plunger terminates one side of the crystal mount. The plunger can be adjusted

for maximum detected power.

4.3.5 Test antenna:

The test antenna consists of a metallic rectangular pyramidal horn loaded with

samples made of different materials and thickness on E-plane and H-plane walls of the

horn antenna separately. The following different materials have been used in the present

investigations.

98
 1. Polyester-fly ash composites (PFAC) of different weight percentages of fly

ash in polyester and of different thickness.

2. Polyester-ferrite composites (PFC) of different weight percentages of ferrite in

polyester and of different thickness.

3. Polyester-polyaniline composites (PPAC) of different weight percentages of

polyaniline in polyester and of different percentages.

Various antenna parameters are measured by loading the above samples on

both E-plane and H-plane walls of the horn antenna.

4.4 Basic microwave bench set up:

The experimental set up of a basic microwave bench using rectangular waveguide

and slotted section is shown in Figure 4.1. In the present study X-band (8-12 GHz)

microwave bench is used.

The microwave source used in the present study is a PIN modulated Gunn diode,

which generates plane polarized TEio signal. The Gunn diode is mounted in a waveguide

section terminated with a calibrated movable short. The waveguide section between the

plunger and the Gunn diode acts the resonant cavity. The dimension of the cavity changes

as the shorting plunger moves in and out. This changes the frequency of the generated

microwave signal. The Gunn diode requires a regulated power supply for biasing in its

negative differential resistance region [137,138]

An isolator follows the source. The isolator allows the passage of microwave signal

from the source to the next section and absorbs the entire signal reflected back to the

source, thus avoiding any damage to the source [137,138]. It gives isolation of the order

of -30 dB in the reverse direction. Next part in the bench is the variable attenuator. This

99
100
Fig. 4.1 Microwave bench setup for VSWR measurement.
dielectric variable attenuator provides a variable attenuation up to -20 dB. To sample the

standing wave signal, a slotted line section is used. On the slotted section, a small

metallic rod for providing electric coupling called probe is inserted within a holder and

mounted on a movable carriage. The carriage carries a crystal detector containing a

detector diode, which acts as a detecting element. The crystal detector is connected to an

indicating meter. Crystal diode is a non-linear and non-reciprocal device. It rectifies the

received signal and produces a current proportional to the input power [137,138]. The

indicating meter used is a direct reading VSWR meter. It is a low noise tuned amplifier

voltmeter calibrated in dB and the VSWR values for use with square law detectors such

as crystal detector diode IN 23 or IN 21.

Due to the connection of antenna under test (AUT) at the other end of the slotted

section, reflections are produced at the boundary due to mismatch. The interaction of

incident and reflected waves forms a standing wave pattern inside the waveguide. Using

the slotted section, VSWR of the AUT is recorded for different frequencies.

In the present study, the AUT is a pyramidal horn antenna whose E and H-plane

walls are loaded with different samples. The pyramidal horn antenna with samples loaded

on E-plane and H-plane walls is shown in Figure 4.2. The loading of these samples alters

the VSWR of the AUT. The variation of VSWR as a function of frequency for loading of

samples is measured. The VSWR of the antenna is measured by keeping the antenna in

transmitting mode. The results of these measurements for different samples are discussed

in Chapter 5.

The experimental setup used for the measurement of radiation pattern in this work is

shown in Fig.4.3. A pyramidal horn of known gain (Gt) is used as transmitter and the test

101
(a) Pyramidal horn with samples loaded
on E-plane walls,

<b) Pyramidal horn with samples loaded

on H-plane walls,

Fig. 4.2 Pyramidal horn loaded with samples,

102
Fig. 4.3 Experimental set up for measurement of radiation pattern.

103
antenna loaded with samples is used as receiver. The transmitter and receiver are kept at a

distance R, satisfying the condition R > 2D2 / Xo where D is the broader dimension of

pyramidal horn antenna and Xq is the free space wavelength. This system is used in the

receiving mode and is kept on the turntable. Both the antennas are aligned properly with

respect to each other by moving horizontally or vertically using the settings provided on

the turntable. The transmitting antenna is made to move on both sides from the aligned

position with respect to AUT on the turntable. The received power is measured on both

sides of AUT from the aligned position on the turntable at equal azimuth angles. With

this experimental set up, the radiation pattern of pyramidal horn antenna with and without

samples at different frequencies is measured.

Figure 4.4 shows the polarization measurement setup. The polarization pattern of a

linearly polarized reciprocal horn (transmitting) antenna is measured by rotating an

identical linearly polarized sampling antenna (receiving horn antenna) each of gain 16 dB

about an axis joining the said two antennas. The receiving horn antenna is mounted on a

system, which has the facility to rotate the receiving horn antenna about the said axis. It

has a protractor and an indicator arrangement for measuring the rotation angle of the

receiving hom antenna. The rotation angle of the receiving horn antenna is measured and

recorded with the help of this arrangement. The accuracy of measurement of rotation

angle is ± 1°. The power received by the sampling antenna is measured using BOONTON

RF power meter (Model No. 4220A) with a thermocouple power sensor. The power

received by the sampling antenna is recorded as a function of its angular orientation in a

polar format. The typical polarization pattern of unloaded linearly polarized pyramidal

hom antenna resembles the figure ‘8’.

104
105
Fig. 4.4 Polarization pattern measurement setup.
4.5 Antenna Performance Parameters

The performance of an antenna can be gauged from a number of parameters.

Certain critical parameters are discussed below.

4.5.1 Radiation Pattern

The radiation pattern of an antenna is a plot of the far-field radiation

properties of an antenna as a function of the spatial co-ordinates, which are specified by

the elevation angle □ and the azimuth angle □. More specifically it is a plot of the

power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle, which is nothing but the radiation

intensity. Let us consider the case of an isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna is one,

which radiates equally in all directions. If the total power radiated by the isotropic

antenna is P, then the power is spread over a sphere of radius r, so that the power density

S at this distance in any direction is given as:

P P
5 =--------- =---------=-
area 4 nr

Then the radiation intensity for this isotropic antenna lIi can be written as:
U, = r2S = —
4/r

An isotropic antenna is not possible to realize in practice and is useful only for

comparison purposes. A more practical type is the directional antenna, which radiates

more power in some directions and less power in other directions. A special case of the

directional antenna is the omni-directional antenna whose radiation pattern may be

constant in one plane (e.g. E-plane) and varies in an orthogonal plane (e.g. H-plane). The

radiation pattern plot of a directional antenna shows the following.

• Main Lobe: This is the radiation lobe containing the direction of maximum

radiation.

106
• HPBW: The half power beamwidth (HPBW) can be defined as the angle
subtended by the half power points of the main lobe.
• Minor Lobe: All the lobes other then the main lobe are called the minor lobes.
These lobes represent the radiation in undesired directions. The level of minor
lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of the power density in the lobe in question
to that of the major lobe. This ratio is called as the side lobe level (expressed in
decibels).

• Back Lobe: This is the minor lobe diametrically opposite the main lobe.
• Side Lobes: These are the minor lobes adjacent to the main lobe and are
separated by various nulls. Side lobes are generally the largest among the minor
lobes. In most wireless systems, minor lobes are undesired. Hence a good

antenna design should minimize the minor lobes.

4.5.2 Directivity
The directivity of an antenna can be defined as "the ratio of the radiation

intensity in a given direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity

averaged over all directions". In other words, the directivity of a nonisotropic
source is equal to the ratio of its radiation intensity in a given direction, over that
of an isotropic source.
D _ U _ AtcU
U, P
where D is the directivity of the antenna
U is the radiation intensity of the antenna

Ui is the radiation intensity of an isotropic source

P is the total power radiated

107
Sometimes, the direction of die directivity is not specified. In this case, the

direction of the maximum radiation intensity is implied and the maximum

directivity is given by
n =
ma* jj p
where Dmax is the maximum directivity

Umax is the maximum radiation intensity

Directivity is a dimensionless quantity, since it is the ratio of two radiation intensities.

Hence, it is generally expressed in dBi. The directivity of an antenna can be easily

estimated from the radiation pattern of the antenna. An antenna that has a narrow main

lobe, would have a better directivity than the one that has a broad main lobe.

4.5.3 Input Impedance

The input impedance of an antenna is defined as "the impedance presented by

an antenna at its terminals or the ratio of the voltage to the current at the pair of

terminals or the ratio of the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic

fields at a point". Hence the impedance of the antenna can be written as:
^m ~ R-in m

where Zin is the antenna impedance at the terminals

Rin is the antenna resistance at the terminals

X in is the antenna reactance at the terminals

The imaginary part, Xm of the input impedance represents the power

stored in the near field of the antenna. The resistive part, Rm of the input

impedance consists of two components, the radiation resistance Rr and the loss

resistance Rl. The power associated with the radiation resistance is the power

actually radiated by the antenna, while the power dissipated in the loss

108
resistance is lost as heat in the antenna itself due to dielectric or conducting

losses.

4.5.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)

In order for the antenna to operate efficiently, maximum transfer of power

must take place between the transmitter and the antenna. Maximum power

transfer can take place only when the impedance of the antenna (Zm) is matched

to that of the transmitter (Zs). According to the maximum power transfer

theorem, maximum power can be transferred only if the impedance of the

transmitter is a complex conjugate of the impedance of the antenna under

consideration and vice-versa. Thus, the condition for matching is:

Z,„in = Z,s

where Z,„ = Rm + jXm and ZS=RS+ jXs

If the condition for matching is not satisfied, then some of the power maybe

reflected back and this leads to the creation of standing waves, which can be

characterized by a parameter called as the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR).

The VSWR is given by

i+|r|
VSWR = —LL
l-|T|
V Z -Z
p_~Kr r _~ Z,„in +ZSs
where □ is called the reflection coefficient

Vr is the amplitude of the reflected wave

V t is the amplitude of the incident wave

The VSWR is basically a measure of the impedance mismatch between the

transmitter and the antenna. The higher the VSWR, the greater is the mismatch.

The minimum VSWR that corresponds to a perfect match is unity. A practical

109
antenna design should have an input impedance of either 50 □ or 75 □ since

most radio equipment is built for this impedance.

4.5.5 Return Loss (RL)

The Return Loss (RL) is a parameter, which indicates the amount of power

that is "lost" to the load and does not return as a reflection. As explained in the

preceding section, waves are reflected leading to the formation of standing

waves, when the transmitter and antenna impedance do not match. Hence the RL

is a parameter similar to the VSWR to indicate how well the matching between

the transmitter and antenna has taken place. The RL is given by

RL = -201og10|r| (dB)

For perfect matching between the transmitter and the antenna, 0=0 and

RL = «j which means no power would be reflected back, whereas a □ = 1 has a

RL = 0 dB, which implies that all incident power is reflected. For practical
applications, a VSWR of 2 is acceptable, since this corresponds to a RL of -9.54

dB.

4.5.6 Antenna Efficiency

The antenna efficiency is a parameter, which takes into account the amount of losses at

the terminals of the antenna and within the structure of the antenna. These losses are due

to
• Reflections because of mismatch between the transmitter and the

antenna

• 12R losses (conduction and dielectric)

Hence the total antenna efficiency can be written as:

e, = ereced

110
where e,= total antenna efficiency
er= (1 - |r2| = reflection (mismatch) efficiency

ec = conduction efficiency
ej = dielectric efficiency
Since ec and ea are difficult to separate, they are lumped together to form
the ecd efficiency, which is given as:

e is called as the antenna radiation efficiency and is defined as the ratio of the
power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr, to the power delivered to Rr and
Rl.
4.5.7 Antenna Gain

Antenna gain is a parameter, which is closely related to the directivity of

the antenna. We know that the directivity is how much an antenna concentrates
energy in one direction in preference to radiation in other directions. Hence, if
the antenna is 100% efficient, then the directivity would be equal to the antenna
gain and the antenna would be an isotropic radiator. Since all antennas will
radiate more in some direction that in others, therefore the gain is the amount of
power that can be achieved in one direction at the expense of the power lost in
the others. The gain is always related to the main lobe and is specified in the

direction of maximum radiation unless indicated. It is given as:

G(0,<f>) = ecdD(d,</>) (dBi)

4.5.8 Polarization

Polarization of a radiated wave is defined as "that property of an

electromagnetic wave describing the time varying direction and relative

111
magnitude of the electric field vector". The polarization of an antenna refers to
the polarization of the electric field vector of the radiated wave. In other words,

the position and direction of the electric field with reference to the earth's surface
or ground determines the wave polarization. The most common types of
polarization include the linear (horizontal or vertical) and circular (right hand
polarization or the left hand polarization)
If the path of the electric field vector is back and forth along a line, then it
is said to be linearly polarized. In a circularly polarized wave, the electric field
vector remains constant in length but rotates around in a circular path. A left
hand circular polarized wave is one in which the wave rotates counterclockwise
whereas right hand circular polarized wave exhibits clockwise motion.

4.5.9 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is defined as "the range of usable
frequencies within which the performance of the antenna, with respect to some

characteristic, conforms to a specified standard." The bandwidth can be the

range of frequencies on either side of the center frequency where the antenna

characteristics like input impedance, radiation pattern, beamwidth, polarization,

side lobe level or gain, are close to those values which have been obtained at the
center frequency. The bandwidth of a broadband antenna can be defined as the
ratio of the upper to lower frequencies of acceptable operation. The bandwidth of

a narrowband antenna can be defined as the percentage of the frequency

difference over the center frequency. These definitions can be written in terms of

equations as follows:
aw =IlL
** ™ broadband r
JA

112
 /// ~ ft
BW,narmwbaid 100
fc

where fy = upper frequency

ft = lower frequency

fc = center frequency

An antenna is said to broadband if fy / ft = 2. One method of judging how

efficiently an antenna is operating over the required range of frequencies is by measuring

its VSWR. A VSWR < 2 (RL > -9.5 dB) ensures good performance.

4.6 Measurement of antenna parameters of pyramidal horn antenna with and

without samples

The following antenna parameters were measured with and without samples at X-

band frequencies.

4.6.1 Measurement of VSWR:

For the measurement of VSWR, test antenna with and without loading the

samples is used in the transmitting mode. When the antenna is not matched to the free

space, reflection is produced at the boundary. Due to the interaction of incident and

reflected wave, a standing wave pattern is formed inside the waveguide. Using slotted

section, VSWR of the antenna can be measured using the relation,

VSWR = YVmax / Vmin] = [W / Imin]1'2 = PW/ Pmin]1/2

The VSWR can also be measured directly with the help of VSWR meter or using

a Vector Network Analyzer (VNA). The VSWR of test antenna with and without samples

is measured at X-band frequencies.

4.6.2 Measurement of radiation pattern:

Radiation pattern is a graphic record showing the spatial distribution of radiated

energy from the antenna. Radiation pattern is commonly taken along the H and E-plane

113
only. H-plane plane pattern shows the angular distribution of field intensity along the

direction of magnetic field vector. According to reciprocity theorem, radiation pattern can

be measured by two methods. (1) Test antenna as receiver and (2) Test antenna as

transmitter. In most cases the first method is used and in few cases the second method is

adopted for measuring radiation patterns. In the first method, a pyramidal horn is used as

a transmitter and test antenna is used as a receiver. Radiation patterns are taken for the

field.

4.6.3 Measurement of half power beam width (HPBW):

The radiation pattern is graphic record of showing the spatial distribution of the

radiated energy from the antenna. In this work the radiation patterns are plotted in bi­

plane. According to the reciprocity theorem, the radiation pattern can be measured using

two methods, (i) Antenna under test (AUT) as receiver, (ii) Antenna under test (AUT) as

a transmitter. In this experimental setup a pyramidal horn antenna of known gain (Gt) is

used as transmitter and test antenna loaded with and without samples is used as receiver.

The test antenna is kept at distance (R) satisfying the condition R > 2D IX, where D is

the broader dimension of pyramidal horn antenna and X is the free space wavelength.

Using the experimental setup is shown 4.3, the test antenna was rotated about its vertical

axis with the help of PC based automatic radiation pattern measurement system STIC

3IOC and the radiation patterns are plotted by noting the received power with the help of

BOONTON RF power meter. Half power beam width (HPBW) is an important antenna

parameter because it shows the sharpness of the beam in the corresponding plane. It is the

angular width of the radiation pattern at the point where the power is reduced to half. It is

also called as 3 dB beam width. HPBW of test antenna with and without loading the

samples are measured.

114
4.6.4 Measurement of Gain:

Gain means the efficiency of the antenna as well as the directional capabilities.

Absolute gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity in a given direction to

the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by an antenna were

radiated isotropically.

Gain = [47tRadiated intensity / Total intensity power]

For the measurement of the gain, a standard or a known gain (G,)

pyramidal horn antenna was used as transmitter and the test antenna with and without

loading the samples is used as receiver. With the help of RF power meter the transmitted

power ( Pt) and received power (Pr) were recorded with and without loading different

samples. The gain of the test antenna is calculated using the relation

Gr = 10 log (Pr / P,) - GtdB- 20 log (l / 4tcR)

where R is the distance between transmitting and receiving antenna.

4.6.5 Measurement of polarization pattern:

Measurement of polarization pattern of the antenna is carried out by loading the

samples on E-plane walls of a 16 dB pyramidal horn antenna connected in the receiving

mode. Polarization patterns are obtained by rotating the receiving antenna about the axis

joining the transmitting and receiving antennas. The receiving antenna is rotated from 0

to 360° in steps of 5°. An RF power meter measures power received at the receiver

antenna. The power received as a function of rotation angle of receiving antenna gives

the polarization pattern.

115