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1.1 Introduction
Have you ever asked yourself where all mathematics come from? Is it
invented or discovered?
We cannot deny the fact that these days, more mathematics become part
of our daily lives. We feel the need to be cautious of our ways because we hear
news about increasing Covid-19 cases in our country and even in our locality.
Numbers that are presented to us daily become so powerful that they are
used as bases for decisions and actions of our leaders to prevent Covid-19
cases from increasing.
For the first section, we will learn about mathematics as a useful way of
thinking about nature and the world. We hope that after this part, you will
understand mathematics as not merely a set of formulas but as a source of
relevant information that can help us in dealing with our daily lives.
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In the picture, we view the elephant as mathematics and the six men represent
the mathematicians.
Figure 1.1
Six blind men and an elephant
Each of the six blind men did a good job in describing what they have
sensed. We cannot say that they incorrectly described each part since what
they touched was only part of the whole. The same can be observed in
mathematics. The mathematics that can be described by one mathematician is
just a small part of the whole thing.
A very curious pattern indeed occurs in the petals of flowers. In nearly all
flowers, the number of petals is one of the numbers that occur in the strange
sequence 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89. For instance, lilies have three petals,
buttercups have five, many delphiniums have eight, marigolds have thirteen,
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asters have twenty-one, and most daisies have thirty-four, fifty-five, or
eightynine. You don't find any other numbers anything like as often. There is a
definite pattern to those numbers: each number is obtained by adding the
previous two numbers together. For example, 3 + 5 = 8, 5 + 8 = 13, and so on.
Some examples are given in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2
Different flowers with corresponding petal count
The same numbers can be found in the spiral patterns of seeds in the
head of a sunflower. This particular pattern was noticed many centuries ago
and has been widely studied ever since, but a really satisfactory explanation
was not given until 1993.
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Figure 1. 3
Spiral patterns of sunflower seed arrangement
Figure 1. 4
Spiral pattern in a pinecone
With these few examples, we must understand that human mind and
culture had long developed a formal system for classifying, recognizing, and
exploiting patterns. We call it mathematics. Patterns observed paved the way
for the origin of counting, the discovery and creation of geometric patterns,
wave patterns in water and on land, patterns of movement, and fractals: the
new science of irregularity; a never-ending pattern.
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Figure 1. 5 shows other patterns and regularities in nature.
Figure 1. 5
Different patterns in nature
One of the most frequently occurring patterns in nature is the Fibonacci
sequence. It is a sequence of numbers starting with 1, then followed by 1, and
then followed by the sum of 1 and 1 which is 2, followed by the sum of 1 and
2, which 3 and so on. The sequence is given by
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, …
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The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call
the Fibonacci sequence.
Figure 1.6
Rabbit reproduction modeled by the Fibonacci sequence
Try to look around you. You will see that nature is filled with patterns.
Thus, mathematics works around us and we see it in clues and hints in
nature. In our daily routine, we follow a pattern of the things we normally do.
In people, communities, and events, we can observe many different patterns.
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1.3.1.3 What is mathematics for?
1.3.1.4a Numbers
The simplest numbers are those used in counting. These numbers were
discovered long before the symbols 1, 2, 3, … are used. Back then, they did not
use these symbols for numbers. They used their fingers, twigs, stones, and
objects that can help them count. At present the set of counting numbers is
also called the set of natural numbers.
Between 400 and 1200 AD, the concept of zero was invented and accepted
as denoting a number. History books say that the key idea was the invention
of a symbol for “nothing”.
The next extension of the number concept is the invention of the negative
numbers. A negative number may be thought to represent debt. Many other
interpretations may be used. For example, a negative temperature in Celsius
scale indicate a temperature lower than freezing point. An object with negative
velocity is moving backward. This means that the same mathematical object
can represent more than one aspect of nature.
If the counting numbers, zero, and the negative counting numbers are
combined, a new set of numbers is formed. This is the set of integers.
These numbers are not enough; we need fractions especially for most
commercial transactions. Positive and negative fractions together with the
integers are called rational numbers.
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Numbers that cannot be expressed as fractions having a unique property
of non-terminating and non-repeating decimals are given the name “irrational”.
An
So now we have five number systems, each more inclusive that the
previous:
natural numbers, integers, rationals, real numbers, and complex numbers.
1.3.1.4b Operations
1.3.1.4c Function
If you start with a number and form its double, you get another number.
So if you start with 5, you will get 10. The term for such an “object” is
function.
You can think of a function as a mathematical rule that starts with a
mathematical object – usually a number – and associates to it another object
in a specific manner. In the given example, the association is the rule of
doubling the number.
Functions are often defined using algebraic formulas but they may also be
defined in other convenient ways. Another term with the same meaning as
“function” is transformation: the rule transforms the first object into the
second.
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The dictionary term for “thingification” is reification. However, in the
discussion the term “thingification” is chosen for emphasis.
Unrelated ideas are more distant from each other. For example, the fact
that there are exactly six different ways to arrange three letters of the alphabet
is distant from facts about circles.
1.3.1.4e Proof
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Practically, everyone uses mathematics.
We can use the Fibonacci numbers to create this spiral that is so common in nature.
Read the directions to help you draw squares on the graph paper. If you follow each step
carefully, you will make a Fibonacci spiral!
1. Look at the graph paper. The first number in the Fibonacci sequence, 1, has been
drawn for you.
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2. Go to the square to the right of 1. Outline that little square to represent the next
number in the pattern, another 1.
3. Use the line above the two 1 squares to outline a square that is 2 little squares
long and 2 little squares high. This represents the next number in the sequence
which is 2.
4. Now move to the right of the squares 1 and 2. Use the right side of the 2 squares
and the right side of the second 1 square to draw a square that is 3 little squares
high and 2 little squares long. 3 is the next number I Fibonacci’s pattern.
5. Use the bottom of both 1 squares and the bottom of the 3 square to make the next
number in the pattern – a big square that is 5 little squares long and five little
squares high.
6. Move to the left of the 2 square, the 1 square, and the 5 square. Use their left
edges to make the 8 square.
7. Finally use the top of the 8 square long with the top of the 2 and 3 square to make
a 13 square.
If you followed directions, you will have used the entire graph paper to
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make Fibonacci’s Rectangle, also known as the Golden Rectangle. The ratio of
length to that of the width of the golden rectangle is equal to the Golden Ratio,
φ, which is approximately equal to 1.618. The golden ratio is also known as
the divine proportion.
The next step is to draw Fibonacci’s spiral. You just have to connect one
corner of each square with the opposite corner of that square with a sweeping
curve. You may need to practice a few times to get it right.
Compare what you have made to patterns in nature. Try to spot this
spiral in your surroundings. Make a list of animals, plants, and man-made
objects that have this spiral.
Materials:
Procedure:
1. Using coins of the same size, try to cover as much area of a piece of paper
with coins.
2. Arrange the coins in a square formation.
3. Count and record the number of coins you can place to cover the area of
the bond paper.
4. Arrange the coins in hexagonal formation.
5. Record the number of coins you can place.
6. Compare the results in Step 3 and Step 5.
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Recommended learning materials and resources
Remote (asynchronous)
Assessment Task
Before you answer the following questions, make sure to watch the
Youtube videos given below:
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A. Short-response/Essay writing:
References
Books:
2.1 Introduction
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different visual representation with a circle. Do you know the difference
between a square and a rectangle? Are all squares rectangles or are all
rectangles squares?
In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like
people, places, and things); whereas sentences are used to state complete
thoughts. A typical English sentence has at least one noun, and at least one
verb.
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Frequently, we need to work with numbers which are most common
types of mathematical expressions. Even a single number can have
numerous names. For example, the expressions
6 4+2 12 ÷ 2 (4 − 1) + 3 1+1+1+1+1+1
all look different, but are all just different names for the same number.
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capitalized. This convention helps us distinguish between common nouns
and proper nouns. In mathematics, there are different conventions for us to
distinguish between different types of mathematical objects.
Note that sentences state a complete thought, but nouns and
expressions do not. For example, read aloud: . What about ? Now read
aloud: 9 − 2 = 7. This states a complete thought about the number .
Sentences can also be true or false. The notion of truth, the property of
being true or false, is of fundamental importance in mathematics.
Mathematical sentences are declarative in nature and we can determine
whether they are true or false.
Mario: “Right!”
Question: Which way will Dana turn? It depends on how she interprets
the word ‘right’. If she interprets ‘right’ as the opposite of ‘left’, then she will
turn right. If she interprets ‘right’ as ‘correct,’ then she will turn left. The
word ‘right’ caused confusion.
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There are many types of expressions in mathematics. Some of these are
numbers, sets, functions, ordered pairs, matrices, vectors. Most common
types are numbers, sets, and functions.
In mathematics, some expressions can have many different names. The
name depends on what we are doing with the expression. An example is the
number 1 which goes with the following names:
2−1
Learning Activity 2
Direction. Give a name for the number ‘ 3’ that would be appropriate in each
situation:
Example s:
Start Here:
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The notion of ‘simpler’ can have different meanings:
An expression is simpler if Example
it has fewer symbols Both expressions 2 + 3 + 4 and are names for
the same number but uses fewer symbols.
it has fewer operations Both expressions 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 and 5 ∙ 3 are
names for the same number but the latter has
fewer operations.
it is better suited for current use
The name is a great name for the
number 1 if we need to convert units of inches
to units of feet.
it follows the preferred style or The expressions and are both names for the
format
same number. People usually prefer
because it is in the ‘reduced form’ or ‘simplest
form’.
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• Read it aloud, and ask yourself the question: Does it state a
complete thought? If the answer is ‘yes’, then it is a sentence. Notice
that expressions do not state a complete thought. Consider, for
example, the number ‘ 1 + 2 ’ . Say it aloud: ‘one plus two’. Have you
stated a complete thought? NO! But, if you say: ‘ 1 + 2 = 4 ’ , then
you have stated a complete thought.
• Alternately, you can ask yourself the question: Does it make sense
to ask about the TRUTH of this object? Consider again the number ‘
1 + 2 ’ . Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ true? Is ‘ 1 + 2 ’ false? These questions do not
make sense, because it does not make sense to ask about the truth
of an expression.
The first sentence, 𝑥2 + 2𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑥 + 2), is true for all real numbers
following the distributive axiom. The second sentence, 𝑥 + 2 < 𝑥 − 3, is false
for all real numbers. No real number will make the sentence true. The last
sentence, 𝑓(2) = 3, is true if we define 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 so that 𝑓(2) = 2 + 1 = 3.
However, if we define 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 then 𝑓(2) = 6 ≠ 3 which makes the given
sentence false.
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Thus, this sentence is sometimes true/sometimes false.
Learning Activity 3
Direction . Classify the truth of each sentence: always true (T); always
false (F); or sometimes true/sometimes false (ST/SF).
Exampl es
1 +2 = 3 T
ST/SF; The
sentence is
𝑥 +5 = 2 true if 𝑥 = −3.
Otherwise, it is
false.
Start Here:
1. 𝑥 ÷3 = 2
2. 3 +5 + 4 = 2 + 7 + 3
3. 𝑥 −1 = 3
4. 5 −1 = 5
5. 5 −1 ≤ 5
6. 5 −1 < 5
7. 1 +2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 + 2
8. 5𝑥 +2𝑦 = 7
9. 3 −5 = 4
10. 3 × 7 + 3 ÷3 = 8
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1. 5 is the square root of 25.
2. 5 is less than 10.
3. 5 is a prime number.
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2. A number in a sentence may be of cardinal, ordinal, or nominal type.
I saw the road sign AH26 when I travelled from Manila to Isabela.
Jonathan is number 26 in the Mathematics class.
I gained 26 points from my recent purchase.
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Liza is number 13 in this class, then we can say that Liza performs
better than Jonathan. This the number 26 is of the ordinal type.
3. The words “and” and “or” mean differently in mathematics from its
English use.
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and four, a verb equals, and a conjunction plus. Here we observe that
the word plus resembles the word and, the standard example of a
conjunction. However, we also observe that it does not behave in the
same manner, as is shown by the sentence,
The verb in this sentence, love, is plural, while the verb in the
previous sentence, equals was singular. So the word plus seems to
take two objects and produce out of them a new, single object four,
while and conjoins Mario and Dana in a looser way, leaving them as
distinct people.
We found out that the conjunction and has two very different
uses. One is to link two nouns whereas the other is to join two whole
sentences together, as in
may be paraphrased to
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2.3.5.1 Sets
A set may also be empty, that is, it has no elements. We call this set the
empty set or the null set. The symbols used to denote the empty set are
and
{ }.
There are three common ways to denote a specific set.
1. Roster method. Some sets have few elements which makes it possible
to provide a list of its members. One way of denoting a set is by the
roster method where we list its elements inside curly brackets: {2, 3, 5,
7, 11, 13, 17, 19}, for example, is the set whose elements are the eight
numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, and 19.
2. Use of dots. Most sets are too large and they are often infinite. A
second way to denote sets is to use three dots to imply a list that is
too long to write down: for example, the expressions {1, 2, 3, … , 100} and
{2, 4, 6, 8, … } represent the set of all positive integers up to 100 and the
set of all positive even numbers, respectively. The three dots are
collectively called ellipsis.
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An example of this is when we translate geometry to algebra using
Cartesian coordinates. Geometric objects were defined as sets of points,
where points were expressed as pairs or triples of numbers. For example,
the set {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∶ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1} represents a circle of radius 1 about the origin (0,
0). This was based on Pythagorean theorem which says that the square of
the distance from (0, 0) to (𝑥, 𝑦) is 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 so the sentence 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1 can be re-
Sets allow one to reduce the number of parts of speech that one needs,
turning almost all of them into nouns. For example, with the help of the
membership symbol one can do without adjectives. The translation of is a
prime number (where “prime” functions as an adjective) will simply be 5 ϵ 𝑃.
An ordered pair is a list (𝑥, 𝑦) of two things 𝑥 and 𝑦, enclosed in parentheses and
separated by a comma.
We take note that (2,4) is an ordered pair different from another ordered
pair (4,2). We write (2,4) ≠ (4,2). Right away you can see that ordered pairs
can be used to describe points on the plane, as was done in calculus, but
they are not limited to just that. Letters, for example, may be expressed as
ordered pairs like (𝑚, 𝑙). Now we are ready to define the Cartesian product.
The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 is another set, denoted as 𝐴 × 𝐵 and
defined as 𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵} .
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑘, 1), (𝑘, 2), (𝑙, 1), (𝑙, 2), (𝑚, 1), (𝑚, 2)}
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Learning Activity 6
Example
{2,4,6,8,10} {2𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ , 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 5}
Start Here:
Sets have other properties. It can happen that all elements of some set
𝐴 are also elements of another set . For example, each element of 𝐴 = {1,3,4}
is also an element of 𝐵 = {0,1,2,3,4}. When and are related this way we say
that is a subset of .
𝐴 𝐵
We write 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 if is not a subset of , that is, if it is not true that every element of
𝐴 𝐵
is also an element of . Thus 𝐴 ⊈ 𝐵 means that there is at least one element of that
𝐴 𝐵
is not an element of .
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
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In words, the union 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is the set of all things that are in or in (or in both). The
intersection 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 is the set of all things in both and . The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 is the
set of all things that are in but not in .
2.3.5.2 Relations
Sometimes relations are defined with reference to two sets and . For
example, if the relation is , then might be the set of all positive integers
and the set of all sets of positive integers as well. The formal definition of
relation
follows.
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2.3.5.3 Functions
Consider the function 𝑓(𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2 that converts integers into natural
numbers |𝑛| + 2. Its graph is 𝑅 = {(𝑛, |𝑛| + 2) ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ} ⊆ ℤ × ℕ.
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Figure 1
The function 𝑓(𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2
Some of you may have used the vertical line test: Any vertical line
intersects a function’s graph at most once. It means that for any input value
, the graph contains exactly one point of form (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)). The formal definition
that follows captures all these ideas.
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, and we express this as 𝑓(𝑎) = 𝑏. This function can be expressed by a
formula: For each input value , the output value is |𝑛| + 2, so we may write
𝑓 (𝑛) = |𝑛| + 2.
Learning Activity 8
Directions. Write out the defined function 𝑓 on the given sets a s a set of
ordered pairs .
Exa mple
For a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐵, the set 𝐴 is called the domain of 𝑓 . The set 𝐵 is called the
codomain of . The
𝑓 range of is the
𝑓 set {𝑓 (𝑎): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴} = {𝑏 ∶ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑓} .
𝑓
• Think of the domain as the set of possible “input values” for .
• Think of the codomain as a sort of “target” for the outputs.
𝑓
• Think of the range as the set of all possible “output values” for .
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Learning Activity 9
Directions. Write the domain and range of the given functions in set
notation.
Example
Start Here:
Consider the sentence “two plus two equals four”. It was clear to us that
the word “equals” indicates a relation and it sits between the noun phrases
“two plus two” and “four” which then forms a sentence. But what about
“plus”? This word also sits between two nouns. However, the result, “two
plus two” is not a sentence but a noun phrase. This pattern is characteristic
of binary operations. Some familiar examples of binary operations are “plus”,
“minus”, “times”, and “divided by”.
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In translating phrases and sentences to mathematical symbols, we
follow the given steps below:
Operation or
Keyword/Phrase Example Translation
Connector
Plus A number plus seven 𝑥+7
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Subtracted from Six subtracted from a number 𝑥−6
(×)
Multiplied by A number multiplied by negative two −2𝑥
Of Three-fifths of a number
The square;
Powers squared The square of a number; a number squared 𝑥2
(=)
Yields Twelve added to a number yields eleven. 𝑥 + 12 = 11
Nine less than a number amounts to twenty-
Amounts to 𝑥 − 9 = 25
five.
Using the wrong key word for the One half of twenty
problem
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times a number 2𝑥 – 5
5 – 2𝑥
Example Translation
• 𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℕ}
• 𝑥 ϵ {7𝑛 ∶ 𝑛 ϵ ℤ}
The number is a multiple of seven.
• 𝑥 = 7𝑛 for some 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
• 𝑥 = 7𝑛, 𝑛 ϵ ℤ
• 𝑥 ϵ 𝐴 and 𝑥 ϵ 𝐵
The element belongs to both sets and . • 𝑥𝜖𝐴∩𝐵
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The values of the real number range from • {𝑛 ϵ ℝ ∶ −3 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 8}
negative three to eight. • [−3,8]
The square of a number is not more than
𝑦 2 ≤ 20
twenty.
The square of a number in non-negative. 𝑥2 ≥ 0
𝑥 + 8 = 2𝑦 where
Tina’s age in eight years is twice Gino’s age. is Tina’s present age and
is Gino’s present age
Learning Activity 10
Start Here:
Logic started in the late 19th century with the development of axiomatic
frameworks for analysis, geometry and arithmetic. It allows us to determine
the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics. Through logic, the
preciseness and conciseness of mathematics can be illustrated.
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2.3.7.1 Statement or Proposition
Start Here:
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2.3.7.2 Logical Connectives and Symbols
The following table summarizes the different symbols logical connectives and
how they are applied to statements.
Type of Symbolic
Statement Connective Truth value
statement form
True if and are both
Conjunction and And 𝑝𝑞
true
True if either or is
Disjunction or Or 𝑝𝑞
true
True except when is
Conditional If , then if … then 𝑝→𝑞
true and is false.
True if and are both
Biconditional if and only if if and only if 𝑝↔𝑞 true of if and are
both false
2.3.7.3 Negation
The negation of the statement is its opposite. For example, the negation
of the statement “Five is a rational number” is the statement “Five is not a
rational number.” The tilde symbol (~) is used to denote the negation of a
statement. If the statement is true, its negation ~𝑝 is false, and if the
statement is false, its negation ~𝑝 is true. Meaning, the truth value of the
negation of a statement is always the reverse of the truth value of the
original statements.
1. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞
2. ~(𝑝 𝑞) is equivalent to ~𝑝 ~𝑞
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𝑝 ∶ A number is greater than a number .
: A number is equals to a number .
The truth value of a simple statement is either true (T) or false (F) but
not both. For compound statements, the truth value depends on the truth
values of its simple statements and connectives.
The truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
statement for all possible truth values of its simple statements. The
following table gives the truth values of compound statements with two
simple statements and .
Consider the compound statement “Two and three are rational zeroes of
the function .” Here, the word “and” suggests that the compound
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statement may be paraphrased as “Two is a rational zero of and three is a
rational zero of .” Thus, we may represent the simple statements as
For the connector “and”, we use the symbol . Thus, the statement in
symbol is given by 𝑝 𝑞.
: An integer is odd.
: An integer is not divisible by 2.
Learning Activity 12
Example:
𝑛 𝑛
If 2 is an integer, then 𝑛 is an 𝑝: 2 is an integer. 𝑝 →𝑞
even integer. 𝑞: 𝑛 is an even integer
Start Here:
3. Either 𝑓 is an odd or 𝑝:
even function. 𝑞:
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2.3.8 Quantifiers
In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least
one are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as
prefixes to assert the existence of something. In a statement, the words
none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal
quantifiers none and no deny the existence of something, whereas the
universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert that every element of a
given set satisfies some condition. The following table shows the symbols for
universal and existential quantifiers and their translations.
The statement “for all , 𝑃(𝑥),” is symbolized by ∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥). The symbol
is used to denote the universal quantifier. The statement “∀𝑥, 𝑃(𝑥)”is true if
only if 𝑃(𝑥) is true for every value of .
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The truth values for quantified statements are given in the following
table.
The following English statements are paired with their translations into
symbolic form. Their truth values are also included. It must be clear that
𝐸(𝑛) represents the set of even integers and 𝑂(𝑛) the set of odd integers.
Statement Translation Truth Value
Every integer that is not odd True
is even. •
• ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, ∼ 𝑂(𝑛) → 𝐸(𝑛)
There is an integer that is not True
even.
For every real number , there ∀𝑥 ∈ ℝ, ∃𝑦 ∈ ℝ, 𝑦3 = 𝑥 True
is a real number for which
3 = 𝑥.
Given any two rational True
numbers and , it follows
that 𝑎𝑏 is rational.
Every integer is even. ∀𝑛 ∈ ℤ, 𝐸(𝑛) False
There is an integer for which False
𝑛2 = 2.
For every real number , there False
is a real number for which
𝑦2 = 𝑥.
Given any two rational False
numbers a and b, it follows
If we consider the statement, “All dogs are mean.”, we may think that
the negation is “No dogs are mean.”, but this is also a false statement. Thus
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the statement “No dogs are mean.” is not the negation of “All dogs are
mean.” The negation of “All dogs are mean,” which is a false statement, is in
fact “Some dogs are not mean,” which is a true statement. The statement
“Some dogs are not mean” can also be stated as “At least one dog is not
mean” or “There exists a dog that is not mean.” What is the negation of the
false statement, “No doctors write in a legible manner”?
Remote (asynchronous)
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2.6 Assessment Task
rule method
2. What is the Cartesian product of the sets
5. A visor costs 90 pesos more than a paper fan. If we let be the cost
of the fan, what
will be the cost of the visor in mathematical
symbols?
6. Jenny is older than Miko by 4 years. The sum of their age is 45. If
we let be Miko’s
age, what is the representation of the sum of
their ages in mathematical symbols?
7. What is the negation of the compound statement: “The real number
is less than
rhombus.”
9. Write in symbols: “For every positive integer
, there exists a real number such that the
square of is .”
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10. Write in symbols: “There exist natural numbers and such that
the difference of
and is the same as the difference of
and .”
B. Essay:
2.7 References
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Sirug, Winston. (2018) Mathematics in the Modern World. Mindshapers Co.,
Inc. Publishing Company
Internet source:
https://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/~wtg10/grammar.pdf date:
08-17-2020
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MODULE 3
The Nature of Mathematics: Problem Solving and Reasoning
3.1 Introduction
A mathematical problem is a situation that you may confront for which the
method and solution is not immediately known to you. There are different ways
to come up with the solution of a problem. Good comprehension and reasoning
are necessary.
1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution.
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third
and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next
difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference
between 8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a number 2 more
than 11, which is 13.
Solution.
If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it will
give 12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the resulting
numbers are twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that the process
will produce a number which is twice the original.
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We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous
example. We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive
reasoning to arrive at a conclusion, extra care must be observed when
performing procedure. Conclusions based on inductive reasoning may not be
correct. The following example illustrates this instance.
𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
2 23
3 47
4 73
5 101
6 131
7 163
We notice that the results are prime numbers. Thus, we conjecture that for
𝑛 ≥ 2, then 𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19 is a prime number. To test our conjecture, we need to
check results for other values. We have
𝑛2 + 19𝑛 − 19
8 23
9 47
10 73
11 101
12 131
We see that the results are consistent and that our conjecture seems
correct.
If we continue checking on the next results, we get 397, 443, 491, 541, 593,
and 647. All these numbers are prime. However, if 𝑛 = 19, we get 703 which is
the product of 19 and 37. This makes us conclude that our conjecture is
incorrect.
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we count the number of regions formed inside the circle. The first five results
are given in Figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle
Number of dots 1 23 4 5 6
Maximum number of regions 1 24 8 16 ?
Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots
increase, the number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect
that for 6 dots, there will be 16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we perform the
procedure, we find out the only 31 regions are formed as shown in Figure 3.2.
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Figure 3.2
Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle
Learning Activity 1
Start Here:
Observed patterns and formed ideas are better understood when one knows
how to communicate these ideas into meaningful statements. The ability to
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analyze and convey the ideas formed is an essential part of the problem solving
process. In the succeeding discussion, we recall concepts on truth of
statements and familiarize with how we can justify the truth or falsity of a
statement.
A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case where
the statement is not true, then it is considered a false statement. The instance
for which the statement becomes false is called a counter-example. One can
verify that a statement is false by using a counter-example. This is illustrated
in the next example.
Solution.
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3.3.1.2 Deductive Reasoning
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Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the product.
Divide the sum by 2 then subtract 3.
Solution.
Procedure Symbolic
representation
Pick a number
Multiply by 4 4𝑛
Subtract 3 2𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 2𝑛
If we let be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛. Thus, we
conclude that the procedure produces a number which is twice the original
number.
John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers
(president, vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School. From
the following clues, determine which position each holds.
1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest
members of the group.
3. Sheila and the secretary are next-door neighbors.
Solution.
From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a
mark “X” on positions Jason do not hold.
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President Vice Secretary Treasurer
President
Jason X X
Jenny
Sh eila
John
From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest
in the group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that
Jason is not the secretary since he is older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason
must be the vice president and John must be the treasurer.
From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that
Jenny is the secretary. Since there are no other options, we conclude that
Sheila is the president.
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3.3.2 Problem Solving with Patterns 3.3.2.1
Terms of a Sequence
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When we examine a sequence, the following questions are often asked:
In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use the
difference table above to predict the next number in the sequence, we shall be
working upward by adding 3 to 14. Thus, 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the
sequence. The following table shows how this is done.
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14 17
First difference 3 3 3 3 3
From the table, we see that the first differences are not the same since 14 −
5 = 9, 27 − 14 = 13, 44 − 27 = 17, and 65 − 44 = 21. Thus, we check on the second
differences and observe if we see a pattern. In this case, the second differences
are all the same. We have 13 − 9 = 4, 17 − 13 = 4, and 21 − 17 = 4. The common
second difference is 4.
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Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4
Example 8. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
Solution.
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6
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want to find the first, second, and third terms, we only need to substitute the
values 1,2, and to . So,
𝑎1 = 3(1)2 + 1 = 4,
𝑎2 = 3(2)2 + 2 = 14,
𝑎3 = 3(3)2 + 3 = 30,
which means that the first term is 4; second term is 14; and third term is 30.
The next example illustrates how the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula can be determined.
Example 9. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figure
continues.
a. What is the 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term formula for the number of tiles in the 𝑛𝑡ℎ figure of
the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?
Solution.
a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, … which
has a common difference of . Thus, we may consider 3𝑛 such that 𝑛 = 1, 2,
…. However, using this would give as the first term.
b. Using the formula we derived from (a), we can get the number of tiles in
the eighth term of the sequence. In this case, 𝑛 = 8 and 𝑎8 = 3(8) − 1 = 24
− 1 = 23 tiles.
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c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we will use
the formula we derived in (a) and solve for . Here, we expect the 𝑛𝑡ℎterm
to have 320 tiles. Thus, we solve 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107
Do you have your own way of solving this problem? It will help if you write
your own solution and compare the results.
Arithmetic Sequence
An arithmetic sequence is made by adding the same value each time. This
value is referred to as the ‘’common difference’’. A sequence with this property
is also called arithmetic progression.
Geometric Sequence
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We shall now move on to the other type of sequence we want to explore.
Consider the sequence
Here, each term in the sequence is times the previous term. A sequence
such as this is called a geometric sequence.
There is a general notation for geometric sequences. The first term we shall
denote by . But here, there is no common difference. Instead there is a
common ratio, as the ratio of successive terms is always constant. So we shall
let be this common ratio.
The 𝑛𝑡ℎ-term can be calculated using 𝑎𝑟𝑛−1 , where the power (𝑛 − 1) is always
one less than the position of the term in the sequence.
can be expressed as
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By adding another row of dots and counting all the dots we can find the
next number of the sequence. Thus, the 5th term in this sequence is:
Learning Activity 5
Direction. Find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ- term formula for the sequence with the given
representation below.
A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the solution of any problem. Your problem may
be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means,
you may experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.
George Polya
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One highly acceptable method to problem solving is designed by George
Polya (1887-1985). The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated
consisted of four steps: understand the problem; devise a plan; carry out the
plan; and review the solution.
We will discuss each step by giving some guide on how we can complete the
problem solving process devised by George Polya.
Once we devised a plan, we must carry it out. Careful execution of the plan
is important and a record of the process and results obtained shall be in place.
If the first plan is not successful, we can always use another plan and start all
over.
Once we have found a solution, we check the solution and make sure that
the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem. We must interpret the
solution in the context of the problem and figure out whether there are
generalizations of the solution that could apply to other problems.
Example 10. Apply Polya’s strategy to solve the following problem.
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the
decimal representation .
Solution.
Understand What are the given • The number
the Problem information? • 100 places to the right of the decimal point
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What is asked? 100𝑡ℎ number to the right of the decimal point in the decimal
representation of .
What is/are the
property/ies of the
One of the numbers in the set {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
final answer?
Devise a Plan What steps are
1. Express in decimal form.
needed to solve the 2. Make a list of the digits to the right of the decimal
problem? notation.
3. Look for a pattern.
Review the Are we sure that As an alternative solution, we see that the above table
Solution our answer is illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
correct? location numbers in column is divided by , a remainder
is produced. If each of the location numbers in column is
divided by , a remainder of is produced. Thus, we can find
the decimal digit in any location by dividing the location
number by and examining the remainder. Thus, to find
the digit in the 100th decimal place of , we merely divide
27
100 by and examine the remainder, which is . Thus, the
digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point is a .
A paper fan and a visor together cost ₱100.00. The visor costs ₱ 90.00
more than the paper fan. What are the individual costs of the visor and the
fan?
Solution.
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Understand What are the given • The price of a paper fan and a visor together is ₱100.00.
the Problem information? The visor costs ₱90.00 more than the paper fan.
What is/are the • Visor’s price must be higher than the price of the paper
property/ies of the fan.
final answer? Both prices must be less than ₱100.00.
Unit of cost is in .
Devise a What steps are 1. 2. Represent the cost of visor and paper fan using a
Plan needed to solve 3. variable.
the problem? Translate the statement to mathematical equation.
Solve for the cost of the visor and the paper fan.
Carry Out What are the 1. We let be the cost of the paper fan. Since the visor
the Plan results after we costs ₱90.00 more than the visor, we represent its cost
take the steps in by ℎ + 90.
solving the 2. The cost of paper fan and visor altogether is ₱100.00.
problem? This can be expressed ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100.
3. Solving this equation, we have
ℎ + ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ + 90 = 100
2ℎ = 100 − 90
2ℎ = 10
ℎ=5
The cost of the paper fan is ₱5.00 and the cost of the visor
is
₱ 5.00 + ₱ 90.00 = ₱ 95.00.
Review the Are we sure that • Checking the sum of the costs we get ₱ 5.00 + ₱ 95.00 = ₱
Solution our answer is 100.00
correct? • The difference of the costs of the visor and the paper fan
is ₱95.00 − ₱5.00 = ₱90.00.
Learning Activity 6
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Direction. Use Polya’s four steps to problem solving in solving the
following problems.
Understand the
problem
Devise a plan
Review the
solution
Understand the
problem
Devise a plan
Review the
solution
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3.4 Recommended learning materials and resources
Remote (asynchronous)
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B. Write the answer to the questions on the space provided after each item.
C. Problem Solving. Solve the following problems using Polya’s four steps to
problem solving or your alternative(systematic) process.
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2. The bacteria in a petri dish grow in a manner such that each day
the number of bacteria doubles. On what day will the number of
bacteria be half of the number present on the 12th day?
3. The number of ducks and pigs in a field total 35. The total number
of legs among them is 98. Assuming each duck has exactly two
legs and each pig has exactly four legs, determine how many ducks
and how many pigs are in the field?
5. There was a jar of chocolate chip cookies on the table. James and
Monica were very hungry because they hadn’t had anything to eat
since breakfast, so they ate half the cookies. Then Victor came
along and noticed the cookies. He ate a third of what was left in the
jar. Sharon, who was waiting around nearby, decided to take a
fourth of the cookies left in the jar. Then Tifanny came rushing up
and took one cookie to munch on in her class. When Valerie
looked at the cookie jar, she saw there were two cookies left. How
many cookies were in the jar to begin with?
Score Criteria
0 You did not make any attempt to solve the problem.
1 You identified what is asked in the problem.
2 You identified what is asked in the problem as well as other needed
information.
You identified what is asked in the problem, the needed information, and used
3
a correct process. However, you did not obtain the correct answer.
You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process.
4
However, you did not give a justification that your solution is indeed correct.
5 You were able to completely solve the problem using a correct process and
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with a review of your solution.
3.7 References
Books:
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