% &

"#$

%()*+,
!
AMA 1110 Lecture Notes #2

Dr. Ting, Fridolin

(1) Sec 1.4. Elementary functions' (polynomial, rational and trigonometric)

(2) Sec 2.1 and Sec 2.2 Trigonometric identities + equations
(3) Sec 3.1.1 Limits of Sequences (not Tested)
(4) Sec. 3.1.2 æ 3.1.4: Limit of a function
(5) Sec. 3.2: Continuity

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 1 / 43

 AMA 1110 Lecture Notes #2

Dr. Ting, Fridolin

(1) Sec 1.4. Elementary functions (polynomial, rational and trigonometric)

(2) Sec 2.1 and Sec 2.2 Trigonometric identities + equations
(3) Sec 3.1.1 Limits of Sequences (not Tested)
(4) Sec. 3.1.2 æ 3.1.4: Limit of a function
(5) Sec. 3.2: Continuity

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 1 / 43

Sec. 1. 4 ELEMENTARY Functions

DEF
Polynomials
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn
where
n= degree of polynomial (non-negative) and an ”= 0

n = 0: f (x) = a0 = constant
n = 1: f (x) = a0 + a1 x = linear function )' -. / +)*+ 1 2+ 3
'897
n = 2: f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 = quadratic function ) - 7*
0

45* 617 +
. .

n = 3: f (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = cubic function : ) .

-. / 0
45* 818 +; 3
'
* <*&
etc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 2 / 43

Sec. 1. 4 ELEMENTARY Functions
DEF
P (x)
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS of form f (x) = Q(x) ,
P, Q polynomials and Dom (f ) = {x : Q(x) ”= 0}

1
EX (2.1) Find domain of f (x) = (x≠3)3 (x+2)2
and sketch
4' its graph
SOL: =;> ?4@ 1 A *
B 3 C+ &
0
'7 D

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 3 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Standard to measure angle in radians : 2fi(rad)= 360¶ 2E < &'8F8G .
. .
.

… 1 rad = 180
¶
fi = 57.3¶
≥ C/ C

+I)+"
J

2fi fi fi H /
1

e.g. 90 =
¶
rad = rad, 180¶ = fi rad, 45¶ = rad etc. "#-@) /
5#
4 2 4
'
'

K"$5"#L

Elementary Trigonometric functions

opp y 1
sin ◊ = csc ◊ = N;L)N"#+
hyp r
M5#)
sin ◊
adj x 1
N;L5#) cos ◊ = sec ◊ = L)N"#+
hyp r cos ◊
opp y 1
tan ◊ = cot ◊ = N;+"#-)#+
+"#-)#+ adj x tan ◊

y
(x, y) (hypotenuse)
◊ = angle ray make c
r with +x axis a
y (opposite)
◊
x
8O◊ P
x
0 b (adjacent)
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 4 / 43
Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
;
QQQ
J

4RK
J J / ;;;
. 0
.

IMPORTANT particular values

sin ◊
◊ rad sin◊ cos◊ tan◊ =
0 0
cos ◊ SQ
0¶ Ô1 0
fi 1 3 1
30¶ Ô
6 2 2 3
fi 1 1
45¶ Ô Ô 1
4 Ô2 2
fi 3 1 Ô
60¶ 3
3
fi 2 2
90¶ 1 0 Œ
2

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 5 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graphs of Sine and Cosine functions
y
T 1 y = sin ◊ U

◊
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

≠1

y
1 y = cos ◊

◊
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

≠1

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 6 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Tangent function
y y = tan ◊

◊
0 2
2 Q VQ
C
'&
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi fi 2fi 3fi 4fi
'

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 7 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Cosecant function
y y = csc x 1W
M>*

y = sin x
x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 8 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Secant function
y y = sec x 1

y = cos x
x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 9 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions
Graph of Cotangent function
y y = cot x 1
R 9
y = tan x

x
≠4fi ≠3fi ≠2fi ≠fi 0 fi 2fi 3fi 4fi

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 10 / 43

Sec 1.4: TRIGONOMETRIC Functions

DEF

(i) f : R ¡ R is periodic of period T > 0 if f (x + T ) = f (x) for all x œ R

(ii) f : R ¡ R is even if f (≠x) = f (x) for all x œ R (symmetric in y-axis)

(iii) f : R ¡ R is odd if f (≠x) = ≠f (x) for all x œ R (symmetric in origin)

Note. sin x, cos x periodic of period 2fi.

sin x odd function and cos x even function.

sin(≠x) = ≠ sin(x) ∆ odd

cos(≠x) = ≠ cos(x) ∆ even

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 11 / 43

Sec 2.1: TRIGONOMETRIC Identities
(i) unit circle: sin2 ◊ + cos2 ◊ = 1, tan2 ◊ + 1 = sec2 ◊ .

0
N;+ +; X 2 1
)L / $;

(ii) odd + even functions:

sin(≠◊) = ≠ sin(◊) (sine is odd)

D
cos(≠◊) = cos(◊) (cosine is even) Y5()
+I)L)
/
Z;[
tan(≠◊) = ≠ tan(◊)
4;K>[@"L
(iii) addition formulas:
sin(– ± —) = sin – cos — ± cos – sin — >>
cos(– ± —) = cos – cos — û sin – sin — B\B
(iv) double angle formulas:
8'
sin 2◊ = 2 sin ◊ cos ◊
cos 2◊ = cos2 ◊ ≠ sin2 ◊ =2 cos2 ◊ 45#"@
(v) half angle formulas : )*">L
1
sin2 ◊ = (1 ≠ cos 2◊))
2
1
cos2 ◊ = (1 + cos 2◊))
2
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 12 / 43
Sec 2.1: TRIGONOMETRIC Identities

LAW of SINES/COSINES
sin A sin B sin C
sines:
a = b = c
cosines: c2 = a2 + b2 ≠ 2ab cos(C)
a2 = b2 + c2 ≠ 2bc cos(A)
b2 = a2 + c2 ≠ 2ac cos(B)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 13 / 43

] B =;)L +I) 4[#N+5;# 45* ` '

'
M5#a ` I"() "#

P^O_E&
5#()KL) 4[#N+5;# < Z)L +I*

bP` c;

NN8S)L0e[+;#@[Z5#"N)K+">$;>"5K
bd` S)L 2

b=` c;#) ;4 +I) "e;()

5!%L*
S"

5L 2+ 5#+)K("@
4 ^2
'
'
M>* ;#

f '
2E 0
2E g
Sec. 1.4.5: Inverse Trig. Functions

55
S M 2 /[ / 3
C
'

'

arcsin or sin≠1
y = sin x is 1-1 on ≠ fi2 Æ x Æ fi2 1 L5*
sin x : [≠ fi2 , fi2 ] æ [≠1, 1]
) there exists an inverse function
y = sin≠1 x : [≠1, 1] æ [ fi2 , fi2 ]

arccos or cos≠1
y = cos x is 1-1 on [0, fi] J

cos x : [0, fi] æ [≠1, 1]

y = cos≠1 x : [≠1, 1] æ [0, fi]

hh
arctan or tan≠1
y = tan x is 1-1 on (≠ fi2 , fi2 ) .
tan x : (≠ fi2 , fi2 ) æ (≠Œ, Œ)
y = tan≠1 x : (≠Œ, Œ) æ (≠ fi2 , fi2 )
'
' '
'

2
' ' ' '
'
' '
' '

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 14 / 43

 $)K>"+5+5L 2 PjP 2#; 0
U
?PWiWiM U 2@@j2EM
U 5#+)-K"@L ? PjP 887O `
'
Sec 3.1: Limits

807 j5 F8G0k 0
. .

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

DEF:
A sequence is a list of real numbers, written in a definite order:

u1 , u2 , u3 , ..., un , ...

could be written as {un } OR

a sequence is a real valued function with domain positive integers

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 15 / 43

 ?;#L5$)K +I) 4;@@;,5#- $)45#)$ "L 4;@@;,L B

ABL(
J
+))#
]"++ L)l[)#N)
2
T > U

2. R

m5L+ `
.
%
_

)@)("+;K
..
_ V0 2 2>
P
+I)
C

n '
=;)L +I5L >"# )()K K)"NI )#$ ;4 +I)

"+ 2> < ?I;;L) +I) dQME "#$ >;L+ ?_ooQ?E PcMpQo

bN` P@>;L+ @5>5+ ;4

;4 +I) "e;() +I5L L)l[)#N)

b=` c;#)
b M 2

c;+) B ^) #)()K "N+["@@Z

K)"NI)L 8
Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

: Define sequences by formulas:

i 0
'

'

2 0
i5 '

24 0
i 0
1

R 0

T
EX (2.2) un = n = 1, 2, 3, ... :
n @5>5+ 8 +;;
R
, 5L
Ô n+1 iZ
'

' . . .

0
vn = n, n = 1, 2, 3, ... :
2

EX (2.3) Recursive relation: u1 = 2, un+1 = un

2
, n = 1, 2, 3, ...

45
' ' ' '
' '

0
' . '
' ' ' '

.
. .
.
.

.
F

Question: As n gets larger and larger ( or, as n approaches infinity (Œ) ),

what does sequence {un } in EX (2.2) and EX(2.3) "approach" or "get closer"
to some number?

SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 16 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence
.
5+
q5
DEF
The limit of a sequence write

lim un = L …
næŒ

for every ‘ > 0, there exists a positive integer N such that if n Ø N , then
|un ≠ L| < ‘.

Notation:

un æ L as n æ Œ and say ”{un } converges to L". If un æ L, {un } is

convergent.
If {un } doesn’t converge, it is divergent, or we say the have limit does
not exist (DNE)) (or diverges)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 17 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

CR
A+I

P&R;
"# 1

&IF8
EX (2.4) Find limnæŒ n+1
3n+1
( and optional prove it)

SOL: c2 J
"5 S
'
'

>7 B
" 0
'

6'
2 @5>5+ 5L
r 5

s Et
eZ
B
# ;#
=5(5$)
C
,IZ .

"#$ e;++;> "#$

0

u @)+ # U c B

"#
'

0
B% .

CS+
2 +I
.

1 +
'

& +
2#
2
CL +;

D
U 2 + 1 8

'
2;
& +
2c
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 18 / 43
Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence

FACTS!
limnæŒ un = L (un æ L), limnæŒ vn = K (vn æ K)

(a) limnæŒ (un + vn ) = L + K (un + vn æ L + K)

(b) limnæŒ (un vn )=L · K (un + vn æ L + K) and limnæŒ cun = cL for
any constant c
(c) limnæŒ un
vn
= L
K
, if K ”= 0. un
vn
æ L
K
(d) (Sandwich principle) {un }, {vn }, {wn } sequences with
(i) un Æ vn Æ wn and
(ii) limnæŒ un = limnæŒ wn = L
THEN limnæŒ vn = L

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 19 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence
EX (2.5). Find limits of following sequences:

1v
3+5n2 6n5 ≠n4 +3n n2 +1
(a) an = n+n3 (b) n2 ≠3n3 +4n5 (c) n+2
7
SOL: & +
M#
b"` +5#Z b
0

=;#
m@;,
C+ J

0
>"+)
J
C$

+I)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 20 / 43

Sec 3.1.1: Limit of a sequence
n cos(n) Ô Ô
EX (2.6) (a) an = 1+n2
(b) an = n+2≠ n
SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 21 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

LIMITS
Idea is FUNDAMENTAL to Calculus

_
The derivative and integral are defined in terms of a limit process

w
slope/tangent line=limit of slopes secant lines
area underneath curve=limit of sums of areas of rectangles

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 22 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

DEF:
Let c œ R, Suppose f is defined on an open interval containing c but
*(not defined, necessarily, at c)*.

SAY: "f (x) has limit L at pt c", OR "the limit of f (x)

as x approaches c is L" and
WRITE: lim f (x) = L or f (x) æ L as x æ c
xæc

MEANS: For each Á > 0, there exists a ” > 0 such that

if 0 < |x ≠ c| < Á,
4 then |f (x) ≠ L| < Á
INTUITIVELY: Means we can make f (x) as close as we are like to
L by taking x sufficiently close to c. ?;# +I) / * "*5L `
I)"*5
'

'

CAUTION: We never consider x = c in finding the limit of

d) / N"K) f (x) as x æ c. Only values near x = c (but not
x = c) MATTER!!!

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 23 / 43

t2?EioQ

2@>

%
;4 S "
J J +)*+ 1W
W5>5+ B * '

L;

*
N M
N ?+L 4'
'

L>"@@
Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
PICTURE
y
y = f (x)
L+Á
45* ` ' ' '
' '

l
L
J

L≠Á 5

2 x
c≠” c c+” 2# "@@ ?" ` @e ` ` I)K)
/ &
x5N
CL ]N 0
9 0

2@> 45* ` 1W
MN
y y *
'

y
(a) y = f (x) (b) y = f (x) (c) y = f (x)

5
ll
45* ` y .
' '
'

z W
LK 6
L 5
L
45* ` 5
2 x 2 W 2 x x
*U c c T
9 c

In ALL 3 cases (a), (b), (c), lim f (x) = L!

xæc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 24 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

INTUITIVELY lim f (x) = L y

xæc y = f (x)
… An ant on the graph of y = f (x)
approaches c on the x-axis,
;4

K)@"*
I+

the height of the ant approaches L L"#

{ P 45* 0
.
6

(without ant stepping on point x = c)!!

B

x
.

\L c
FACTS ABOUT LIMITS

limxæc f (x) = L
Suppose
limxæc g(x) = M

(a) lim [f (x) ± g(x)] = L ± M

xæc

(b) lim [k · f (x)] = k · L, k œ R

xæc

(c) lim [f (x) · g(x)] = L · M

xæc

(d) lim
xæc
f (x)
g(x)
=
O
L
M
, provided M ”= 0

(e) If p(x) a polynomial, then lim p(x) = p(c)

xæc

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 25 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
EX (3.1): f (x) = 1 ≠ 2x, lim f (x) = ' / 2
xæ1

45* 4
87077
2u
@ `
x;@Z#;>5"@ 2
EI)# 2
M;$ ^)K) eZ
/
45*
1
2
@Z5#-
C .

.
1
0
0
b N
'

'
2 `

RR+;
4@Z 818 73
P2j
'

J 2
Z
'
1

' .

Ô Ô
EX (3.2): f (x) = 4 ≠ x2 , lim f (x) = 4≠0= |
xæ0

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 26 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
x2 ≠ 3x + 5 2 J^M
R8
C

S2
EX (3.3): Find lim 1

x≠4
1
xæ≠1 0 0 E n@ '
2 ` '
2 '

Z
SOL: N"e@) `
K"+5;#"@ 4"+ t2E` 2 '8&XG
c;+) B ;+x}L 1

n?3 ` 2

'Ar
C
,I)K) / t23 ` 1
3 '&9XG 1

n@Z@ '
' 3 '
F

EX (3.4): Find lim

SOL:
xæ2
x2 ≠ 4
x≠2
1
72.5+%F.[[$)I#5"8
S}aS 78\78''7X71FO
C ` C
MQ J

m}
*C 1
'

'

; ) .
x2 + 2 x ”= 2
EX (3.5): f (x) = . Find lim f (x)
8, x=2 xæ2 bN` w
SOL: b = ` OO

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 27 / 43

 89X7
C 3+}
4' ]] 3 '

Z
1
0

| 0 317

YK"xI <

'7.F•
F+I
Z14N*@1*7

~2
T
3
'

I;@) I)K)
. .
/ '

T
'

P'
2
'

7'
'A76 0

@;;@[[$)I#)$ 0

22
CC

| R .
'

'

'
 Rh
\ C
J C L `

•
4 % 1
*F7 0
* ‚ 7

w 3 '
' 7

hh5hR5
0

5L
x

I)K)
5

B\ .
. .

cQƒQo )()K MEQt ;#

'
!"#">>$%%&
ktttloothl Looking at of fix ) what is the
'%"# (( the
graph y
-

]"I ;[+

Axl ?
¥7
=

Ya

µ
.

it
"
. .
'

"<

..

(A) DNE ) #%*+ ,%' *-.+' /

(B) a

(c) O
( D ) I
Sec 3.1.3 : Left and Right hand limits
J /J

2
DEF:
Left hand limit:
lim f (x) = L … "as x approaches c from left, f (x) æ L”
xæc_≠

Right hand limit:

lim f (x) = L … "as x approaches c from right, f (x) æ L”
xæc+
„

OO
)l[5("@)#+
C C
J

… >)"#L +;

FACT:
4
lim f (x) = L … lim f (x) = L = lim f (x)
xæc xæc≠ xæc+

i.e. limit exists and equals L …

?5@ both left & right hand limits exist and are equal.
?55 `

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 28 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
EX (3.6)

y ^> 45* 0 1 '7

*
'
L
'

6
45*

1&
`
25>
y = f (x) *
'

L5
'

3 4"5@ k
25> 1

* / U 2+

=cQ 2 $[44L
4N*@
|
≠2 †

8'
1 ‡

5+
x @54)0 0 )*5L+ `

≠2
Find lim f (x) and lim f (x)
xæ≠2 xæ1

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 29 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
;
x2 , x < 0
EX (3.7) f (x) =
1 + x, x > 0
. Find lim f (x)
xæ0 H
SOL ;[+x[+ 5#x[+
* < *N;

4N*a-
T
'

3 _
@+* 0
' †
b

=cQ
@5*>;4N*@
1

:
?+>xI B

T 4[a _
p2 B
S;Z; .

4"# 1 0
R0Z 0

4^81O % 818960OXF98
2#4; '

ˆ 88960O\F6 =2Q .

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 30 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
ΠLIMITS H W2j2EM "K)
m2c2EQ #[>e)KL
0
eZ $)45#5+5;#

1 2+ @5>5+ / 1 /
2c 0
+I)#
@5>5+
=2Q
EX (3.8) Find lim
xæ0 x2
y
1
y= x2
ss

1'=R
J
b = cQ `

x 24 ;

SOL:

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 31 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS
2
EX (3.9) For f (x) =
_ x≠5
, find a) lim f (x)
xæ1
b) lim f (x)
xæ5

SOL: C N"@@
0 0
2L / 1

RG 2 1

@5>5+ =cQ `
b
45*
R
C

`
+;
"
.
.

S2 0-
1 '
1

be`
'

b [#$)45#)$ `

=c2
+544L RL
.

5.) q

RA
l
'
B̂
B=
+
H
J
;#)

25 ?2P `
0

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 32 / 43

Sec 3.1.2: LIMITS

EX (3.10) Find lim

xæ0
Ô
x2 + 9 ≠ 3
x2
1
;+mh1Q
SOL: ?"# $; ,;Ka +; 45-[K) / ;[+ @5>5+ B

€ N"K)4[@ B / >;K) /

^2hh
`
C
C

R
.

. .
.

:
'

'
C ;
;

.
RX&
R r
1 '
'

…/
h 0 B(R;61
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 33 / 43
 ./ 0,1

"++5+[$)
!"#" $%%& )*+# ,-&

j+e4
' (
1
0

.2 ( 3 (
0

4 5"67 8%%#9: ;8
F\F `
2 C
15R
'

'

dx-j--
>
FXF1wO
>

<"=: 6% ?@*6: "+A?:@

1

bP` =cQ

?d‰
b?` '
w

+;
b=`
Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

MniQQ

VQ:ZE^Q_oQh
SANDWICH PRINCIPLE

IF y

@5@ f (x) Æ g(x) Æ h(x)

?55 ` lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L h(x)

xæc xæc
W U g(x)
Then lim g(x) = L f (x) x
xæc
c
ANT GETS SQUISHED!!

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 34 / 43

Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

hS'
'8'8
'
/N _M3

EX (3.11) Show lim x cos x = 0 .

'
xæ0

SOL: 2
+ 2 '
2 2 N; ` / * / Q

*N;L* Q 3
'
/ * Q

m"# E5* 0
E)* 0

2 _
'

+*+ ;$$
'

?55 ` [>
1

3+ /_

+I);K)>
` L"#$,5NI xK5#N5x@) 0

ˆ dZ Ll[))})
2+ > *N;L* / 1
_

* '7O

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 35 / 43

Sec 3.1.4: SPECIAL LIMITS

L.#;%'';\
2 IMPORTANT TRIG LIMITS

" =
sin x 1 ≠ cos x
(i) lim =1 and (ii) lim =0
xæ0 x xæ0 x

(i) can be shown thru Sandwich principle (see textbook, p65-66)

(ii) For x ”= 0,
1 ≠ cos x 1 ≠ cos x 1 + cos x 1 ≠ cos2 x sin2 x
= · = =
x x 1 + cos x x(1 + cos x) x(1 + cos x)
sin x sin x
= ·
x3 (1 + cos43 x) 4
1 ≠ cos x sin x sin x 0
) lim = lim lim =0· =0
xæ0 x xæ0 x xæ0 1 + cos x 1+1

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 36 / 43

!"#$$
>;++;
%
J

What the
k AH00T_#3 is

Ilm cot C
3×7 sin Ctx ) ?
2.5;%+1Q?aP^OOEF1S2;N;LSSG4'L5#?6*81S2;N;L@&*
x
-

so

(A) O

(B) DNE
` . /

9Š RG
(c) 317

ORO8 D
&

2
2
9 9

E;
1 9

(D) 713
0
Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

-"continuous" means without interruption or breaks

DEF
We say f is continuous at c if

lim f (x) = f (c) , c œ Dom(f )

xæc

y y
4@Z +; ` #;+
Z 1
I)K)
T
0

T $)45#)$

4NN ` . f cont. at x = c break at x = c

) not continuous
'

x x
c c

INTUITIVELY f (x) is cont. at x = c … An ant can walk accross x = c (from

left to right (or right to left)) WITHOUT jumping, skipping or falling the hole.

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 37 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

Facts about continuity

f , g are continuous at c.
(i) f ± g is continuous at c
(ii) f · g is continuous at c
(iii) f
g
is continuous at c if g(c) ”= 0
(iv) f ¶ g is continuous at c if f is is continuous at g(c)

EXAMPLES OF CONTINUOUS FCTS

Polynomials p(x) are continuous everywhere
P (x)
Rational functions f (x) = Q(x)
are continuous where Q(x) ”= 0
Trig. fcts y = sin x and y = cos x are continuous everywhere too.

\
AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 38 / 43
Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
EX (3.12) At which points are f continuous and discontinuous (not continuous)
y
4
3
T Z 1 45* 0
2
1

≠5 ≠4 ≠3 ≠2 ≠1 1 2 x
≠1
≠2
SOL: "+ 31 F '7 _ 7
4' #;+ ?;#+5#[;[L
'

^2 5L
0
0 0

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 39 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
EX (3.13) ;[+x[+ 5#x[+
Y
]4x ≠ 3,
_ x<1
f (x) = 0, x = 1 . Is f continuous at x = 1?
[1,
_
x>1 4 / #;+
x2 c;
/ 5L

SOL: P#$ B 0

N;#+5#[;[L
"+ / 3 1:

54
c

M5#N)

45* ` 4 4[
2
1

S2 `1;
0

R8
v 2+ +; `
'
B

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 40 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
#)*+ ,))a ,))a F
N
`
'

FACTS
If f strictly ø and continuous on [a, b], then f ≠1 is also strictly ø and
continuous.

INTERMEDIATE VALUE THEOREM (IVT)

IF
*f continuous on [a, b]*.
'
f (a) and f (b) have opposite signs.
THEN
there exists a point c œ (a, b) such that f (c) = 0 Ω c called a root or zero of f.

PICTURE

y y
f (b) f (a)

a c b x a c b x
f (a) f (b)

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 41 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY

EX. (3.14) (APPLICATION OF IVT):

Show f (x) = 3x3 ≠ 4x2 + x ≠ 4 has a root in [1, 2].

SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 42 / 43

Sec 3.2: CONTINUITY
8

3
EX. (3.15) f (x) = Any zeros of f (x) inside [≠1, 1]?
x
SOL

AMA 1110 -Basic Mathematics I Lecture Notes #2 - 43 / 43

]"I;[+ % M ?WP2j 2+ 45* ` ;$$
$)-K))
B 5L "#
x;@Z#;>5"@ 0
'
45*
'

+I)# ` I"L "+ @)"L+ / ;#) })K; .

bP` ?WP2j 5L +K[)

bd` ?WP2j 5L 4"@L)

b?` ?WP2j 5L +K[) $)x)#$5#- ;# ,I"+ ;$$

#[>e)K 5L
$)-K))

b=` c;#) ;4 +I) "e;()