Arno-Macia The Role of Technology in ESP Courses PDF

The Role of Technology in Teaching Languages for Specific Purposes Courses
Author(s): ELISABET ARNÓ-MACIÀ

Source: The Modern Language Journal, Vol. 96, Focus Issue: Languages for Specific Purposes
in the United States in a Global Context: Update on Grosse and Voght (1991) (2012), pp. 89-
104
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The Role of Technology in Teaching
Languages for Specific Purposes
Courses
ELISABET ARNÓ-MACIÀ
Universität Politècnica de Catalunya
Dept. Projectes dEnginyeria. Secció d'Anglès
Escola Politècnica Superior d'Enginyeria de Vilanova i la Geltrú
Av. Víctor Balaguer, sn
08800 Vilanova i La Geltrú ( Barcelona )
Spain
Email: elisabet. arno@upc. edu
Within the integration of technology into language education, special attention needs to be
paid to languages for specific purposes (LSP), drawing on developments in computer-assisted
language learning and applied linguistics, on the one hand, and on the pervasive use of
technology in academic and professional communication, on the other. From a definition of
LSP centered on learner need, specificity of activities and materials, and teacher and learner
profiles, this article examines how technology has transformed LSP teaching and learning.
Through technology, LSP teachers and researchers can access discipline-specific materials
and situations and compile corpora of specialized texts. Computer-mediated communication
provides learning tools and a gateway to the discourse community. Technology also provides
opportunities for collaborating, creating virtual environments and online courses, and fostering
learner autonomy. These applications are examined within the current LSP scenario, paying
attention to conditions and challenges for implementation, as well as to the roles of teachers and
learners. This article also points to areas that merit further analysis from an LSP perspective,
such as the use of different technologies and modes for effective learning, the analysis of
specialized texts, and the integration into LSP of emerging technologies that have made their
way into social uses.
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY (IT) PLAYS A analyze, and learn more about professional and
academic communication. For many years, IT has
crucial role in our society, which is characterized
by the increasing internationalization of the per-also played a key role in language learning, with
sonal, academic, and professional domains. In the development of computer-assisted language
recent years, technological advances have trans- learning (CALL) applications and networked en-
formed the ways we manage information and com- vironments (e.g., Lafford, 2009).
municate with others. The growth of academic Drawing on different trends in language teach-
and professional communication across borders ing and applied linguistics, the applications of
has generated new needs for learners of languages technology have attracted the attention of LSP
for specific purposes (LSP). At the same time,teachers and researchers, with new and hybrid
technology has also provided LSP teachers andgenres, computer tools for gathering and an-
researchers with further opportunities to explore,alyzing specialized discourse, and the develop-
ment of online materials and courses. This in-
terest has been reflected in collections that have
The Modern Language Journal, 96, Focus Issue, (2012)
DOI: 1 0.1 111 /j .1540-478 1.20 12. 01 299.x addressed the relationship between IT and LSP
0026-7902/ 1 1 /89-1 04 $1.50/0 from different angles, such as a special issue
©2012 The Modern Language Journal
of the journal Ibérica on how the Internet has
90 The Modern Language Journal 96 (2012)
affected specialized communication and LSP
relevant to students and, therefore, fosters mo-
teaching (Posteguillo, 2005), as 1991,
tivation. Since well as edited
technology has greatly con-
books on the role of IT in different areas of LSP tributed to incorporating situational practice into
research and pedagogy (Arno, Soler, & Rueda,LSP teaching, for example, by facilitating the
2006a) and on the design and implementation recording of events such as lectures or meetings -
of online LSP materials (González-Pueyo, which
Foz, can be made available online - and by in-
Jaime, & Luzon, 2009). In addition, the annual
creasing the exposure to authentic materials, via
the vast number of resources available on the
conference of the European Association of Lan-
Internet.
guages for Specific Purposes (AELFE) also has a
specific panel devoted to IT in LSP teaching and
In LSP courses, context, authenticity, and mo-
research. tivation are closely related to the concept of need.
Analysis of the role of IT should start withGrosse and Voght (1991) situated needs analysis
a definition of the term "languages for specific
at the center of LSP teaching, "since by defini-
purposes," which, in applied linguistics, referstion LSP courses are designed around the spe-
cific language needs of the learner" (p. 186).
to an approach to language teaching based on
the learner's need to participate effectively inThus, as a key step in course design, needs anal-
the target academic or professional community. ysis should involve gathering information about
LSP courses are thus cost-effective and rooted in learners' profiles, the learning situation, and the
the texts and practices of the target disciplines demands of the target situation (e.g., through
(e.g., Dudley-Evans 8c St John, 1998). Some discipline-related
cen- texts, the views of professionals
tral issues underlying this definition were raisedin the field) . LSP methodology makes important
by Grosse and Voght (1991) in their reviewdemands ar- on the teacher, whose role has evolved
ticle, including (a) context, (b) authentic mate- from the general language and literature pro-
rials and situations, (c) needs analysis, (d) the file described by Grosse and Voght (1991) to a
LSP teacher profile, and (e) cross-cultural andmore in- sophisticated and specialized one. Dudley-
terdisciplinary dimensions of specialized commu- Evans and St John (1998) defined the multiple
nication. Each of these issues will be dealt with roles for the LSP instructor: teacher, materials
in turn in the remainder of this section, with provider, researcher, collaborator, and evaluator.
special emphasis on the profound changes that In the new millennium, IT has broadened the
LSP teaching has undergone in the past 20 years, scope of these roles. Computer networks allow
largely due to the impact of technology. Given this collaboration with fellow LSP teachers and sub-
impact, Grosse and Voght (2012) have included ject matter specialists in remote locations, while
technology in the revisited agenda for LSP. This the Internet and multimedia resources provide
article will take these central issues as the point endless possibilities for designing materials suited
of departure to analyze the role of technology in to learners' needs.
teaching and learning LSP. Another key concept stressed by Grosse and
Grosse and Voght (1991) referred to context Voght (1991) was the integration of cross-cultural
as one of the distinguishing features of LSP, us- issues in LSP teaching. Among the prospects for
ing the term to mean the use of texts, situations, the 21st century, Grosse and Voght envisaged
and methodology drawn from the students' dis- specialized communication as interdisciplinary
ciplines. Thus, LSP makes use of authentic mate- and cross-cultural, driven by economic motiva-
rials and simulations to familiarize learners with tions and a global economy. In this sense, tech-
genuine target situations. Twenty years ago, nology em- has contributed to a shrinking world in
phasis was placed on written - and, to a lesser ways that were completely unexpected in 1991.
extent, spoken - texts, while simulations involved Nowadays, with increased mobility and interna-
role plays, with the video and language labora- tional exchange, academic and professional com-
tory as technological resources. This scenariomunication
has is mostly intercultural in nature. Belz
changed completely, given that the LSP curricu- and Thorne (2006) noted the terminological shift
lum today must include electronic communica- from cross-cultural to intercultural , which is a term
tion and digital genres (with the new commu- that captures the dynamic processes produced
nicative situations they generate), as well asboth the in target settings and in teaching situations,
possibilities that technology offers for accessing with the powerful impact of IT on facilitating in-
teraction across borders.
authentic materials and engaging in realistic sim-
ulations. According to Grosse and Voght (1991), This article provides an overview of the role
two characteristics of LSP teaching methodology of IT in LSP, taking into account the profiles
are the use of authentic materials and the creation of teachers and learners, the different settings
of opportunities for situational practice , whichin is which LSP courses are taught, and the
Elisabet Arnó-Macià 91
characteristics of the target situations in which ing on culture and social discourses. Even the
students need to communicate. After tracing the very concept of CALL can be extended to em-
historical developments in the field, it explores brace other technologies apart from the com-
the main areas in which IT is applied in LSP so puter
as (e.g., mobile devices that can run games,
to identify the main opportunities and challenges.such as Mentira [Holden 8c Sykes, 2011], for
Different types of programs are presented with place-based
a language learning) that now form
look at their conditions for implementation and part of our everyday life (Kern, 2006). Accord-
the roles of LSP teachers and learners. Specialing to Bax (2003), the integration of technol-
emphasis is placed on the social and collaborativeogy should aim toward normalization , reaching
dimensions of IT in LSP, given that technology inconspicuousness.
allows teachers and learners to engage in part- The applications of IT have turned out to be
nerships with different stakeholders worldwide especially appropriate for LSP, given its focus
on clearly defined learner needs, materials cre-
(other learners/ teachers, discipline experts, pro-
ation/adaptation, and a methodology that draws
fessionals, potential employers, etc.). Taking into
account the fast-paced evolution of technological on target activities and disciplines. For example,
applications that are attracting growing interest it is quite significant that in a collection of arti-
cles specifically devoted to LSP pedagogy (Orr,
in the educational arena, this article will identify
areas of current concern and topics for further 1995), special emphasis was placed on the role
research on the integration of IT in LSP. of IT (then, "new technologies"). One of the ar-
ticles, by Bowers (1995), identified the potential
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW of the Web to provide tuition for students who
had specific needs or who could not attend reg-
The relationship between IT and LSP ular classes due to their study and work situa-
is heav-
ily influenced by the evolution of CALL tions. In another article, Shilhavy (1995) pointed
along-
side developments in applied linguistics to the and
benefits of multimedia packages for in-
language teaching. CALL is a vast area tegrating
thatEnglish for academic purposes (EAP)
has evolved dramatically in the last 20 skills, years,in terms of immediate feedback, interac-
as attested, for example, by The Modern tion,Lan-
and navigation. A third contributor, Vilmi
guage Journal Focus Issue devoted to CALL. (1995), reported on a pioneering international
From that issue, it is important to consider exchange among English for science and technol-
Garrett's (2009) definition of CALL as "the ogy students
full through email. As technology made
its way into language classes, LSP teachers used
integration of technology into language learning"
(p. 719). Going beyond the mere use multimedia of tech- packages, Web resources, and author-
nology to teach languages, Garrett (2009) ing stated
tools to create specialized materials and pro-
that CALL should be based on the interrelation mote learners' engagement with relevant target
of its different elements: pedagogy, theory,situations.
and
technology. The evolution of CALL has also beenThe Internet has given rise to important
changes in language learning, which Warschauer,
analyzed from the perspective of its underly-
Shetzer, and Meloni (2000) summarized in the
ing learning theories and available technology,
with distinctions established by Warschaueracronym
and ALIVE, which stands for the concepts
Healey (1998) for the different CALL stages,
of authenticity , literacy , interaction , vitality , and
empowerment. These concepts are especially rel-
namely: the behaviorist stage (in which the com-
evant to LSP learners, who aspire to enter a
puter had a central role as the provider of con-
certain discourse community. Internet resources
trolled activities focusing on accuracy); the com-
municative stage (which focused on meaningprovide
and a wealth of authentic materials as well as
process); and the integrative stage (in whichopportunities
the to engage in meaningful communi-
computer served as a tool for online communication with members of the discourse community
cation, learning, and information management (through forums, blogs, etc.). The idea of em-
powerment
purposes, within a paradigm of learning as a so- for language learners is of particular
cial activity) . importance, given that students can publish and
Developments in technology and language disseminate their own texts - even more so today
teaching have brought about concepts such with Web 2.0 applications. Similarly, because of
as network-based language teaching (Warschauer the presence of IT in our everyday life, language
& Kern, 2000), which involves communication teaching needs to consider computer-mediated
communication skills in addition to traditional
and collaboration, and a second wave of on-
line learning (Kern, Ware, 8c Warschauer, 2004), writing and speaking skills (e.g., Chapelle, 2003;
which goes beyond language learning by focus- Garrett, 2009). Thus, expanded notions of
literacy and communicative competence should (Strubell 8c Torres, 2003). Other resources specif-
now include online communication, collaborative ically geared to language learning, such as
writing, and dealing with hypertext and multime- the e-Tandem project (http://www.slf.ruhr-uni-
dia (Shetzer & Warschauer, 2000). This concern bochum.de/index.html) with its online learner
with new literacies is reflected, for example, in a partnerships, make it possible for virtually any
special issue of Language Learning & Technology speaker to become a teacher of his or her own
(Kern, 2000). The growth of the Internet has also language in a globalized learning environment.
called for a reappraisal of traditional EAP skills
so as to incorporate issues of critical literacy as- APPLICATIONS OF TECHNOLOGY IN
sociated with the use of the Web for study and LANGUAGES FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES
research (Slaouti, 2002; Stapleton & Helms-Park, PEDAGOGY
2006).
With the proliferation of resources for online Technology has provided invaluable tools for
learning, together with the increase of techno- LSP, to help us learn about the academic or work
logical resources used in education, LSP teach- situations relevant to students and to provide re-
ing can facilitate real-life interaction and engage-
alistic experience from a socially situated perspec-
ment with genuine situations, as attested by the tive. The affordances of technology facilitate LSP
examples cited by Belcher (2004). For exam- research, "aimed at deeper knowledge of texts
ple, she reported on medical English courses in and contexts" (Belcher, 2004, p. 178). Technology
which students recorded real hospital interactions provides access to authentic texts, tools for their
that were then used as the basis for LSP teach- analysis, and online communication resources. It
ing. The insights offered by IT have led us hastoalso become a powerful tool to facilitate stu-
reconsider some key concepts in LSP, such as
dents' immersion in the discourse community. For
example, Warschauer (2002a) showed that the
needs, authenticity, specificity, and cost effective-
ness (e.g., Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Grosse
Internet can provide a gateway for students to
8c Voght, 1991). For example, apart from"network"
us- into the academic discourse commu-
ing authentic resources and individualizing nity

learn-through gradual apprenticeship (i.e., using
ing, course designers may complement face-to- computer-mediated communication for collabo-
face instruction with online resources to develop
ration in the classroom and for further participa-
cost-effective LSP courses. In this sense, Garrett
tion in authentic networks within the broader dis-
(2009) noted the potential of technology to ad- community) . Thus, the Internet becomes
course
dress large numbers of students through collab- not only a teaching tool, but also a learning goal,
oration between institutions and to offer both given the pervasive use of online communication
support to existing LSP courses and online in ma-
academic and professional communities (see
terials for independent learners - thereby Warschauer,
cater- 2002b).
ing to very specific needs and diverse languages The- Internet has also added a new dimension
which may be difficult to address through to questions of authenticity and specificity of LSP
traditional courses. materials. It provides unlimited access to all types
In relation to the use and teaching of dif- of texts of varied degrees of specialization, which
ferent languages, not only has the Internet re- is now accentuated by the current trend toward
inforced the presence of English as a lingua sharing open access resources. LSP students can
franca , but it has also contributed to the visibil-
therefore engage with online resources related to
their discipline, such as authentic academic and
ity and revitalization of minority languages, pre-
cisely because of the relatively low cost of set-
professional forums. However, as Garrett (2009)
ting up online resources in different languages,reminded us that the mere use of authentic Web-
based resources does not constitute CALL; rather,
and because of the possibility of connecting users
through cyberspace (Warschauer, 2001). In Eu- the true integration of technology involves the
rope, Internet-based projects related to linguis-
challenge of designing appropriate tasks to work
tic diversity include Euromosaic,1 a collection with those resources. For example, the EAP text-
of resources and information on different lan- book by Barahona and Arnó (2001) provided ex-
guages, and the ATLANTIS project (academic amples of tasks that involved critical skills and
training, language acquisition, and new language tech- awareness, as students were encouraged
nologies in the information society), which is
to explore discipline-specific resources and evalu-
devoted to the analysis and classification of ateon-
them from a disciplinary/ educational point of
line learning resources and cultural informa- view, while reflecting explicitly on language and
tion about minority languages, such as Catalan genre features.
From the perspective of LSP and learner and Candlin (2007) reported on the use of a spe-
characteristics, Arno, Soler, and Rueda (2006b)cialized professional corpus by law students work-
identified different areas for the integration ing of on their writing assignments.
technology: (a) in analyzing specialized language Although most of these corpora involve written
and genres, (b) in online communication, (c) in texts, greater attention is being paid to spoken
CALL applications, (d) in distance and blendedgenres, especially with resources such as the Michi-
learning, and (e) in learner autonomy. Based on gan Corpus of Academic Spoken English , or MICASE
these areas, the remainder of this section dis- (Swales, 2006) - which provides access to a wide
cusses specific IT applications in different LSP range of academic speech events - at the disposal
contexts, considering some central LSP concerns, of teachers and researchers. Swales also showed
such as authenticity (of materials and tasks), spe- how this corpus can be used to engage EAP stu-
cialized resources, induction in relevant discourse dents in discourse analysis. Given that technology
communities, and intercultural communication, has transformed the way people communicate,
which are, in turn, interrelated with the main pro- questions may arise as to whether electronic dis-
files involved in the field, namely, learners, teach- course constitutes an evolution from traditional
ers, researchers, institutions, and members of the genres or if it has given rise to a set of new genres.
target discourse communities. Drawing on genre theory, Huckin (2007) argued
for the consideration of electronic genres as new
Analyzing Specialized Language and Genres genres and for their inclusion in LSP teaching by
combining explicit instruction with students' own
Technology has provided new insights into experience in their use.
the language and genres of different disciplines,
thanks to the development of corpora and tools Online Communication
for their analysis. The studies in Arno et al.
(2006a) focused on small specialized corpora Earlier in this article, online communication
for their relevance to particular genres in LSP. was identified as part of everyday communica-
In relation to specialized corpora, Flowerdew tion in academic and professional situations. As
(1998) compared a corpus of expert texts with such, it has become not only a means for lan-
learner-produced texts, analyzing how cause- guage learning but also a goal for LSP students,
effect relationships are expressed. She suggested who must learn to cope with new genres, or cyber-
that this type of analysis can inform materials de- genres (Shepherd & Watters, 1998). Thus, through
signers not only about the features used in target participation in online forums, email, Facebook,
texts, but also about the characteristics of learn- Twitter, and other digital media, LSP students can
ers' production (i.e., overuse of certain structures, engage in authentic discursive practices related
inappropriate markers, etc.). In fact, comparisons to their disciplines in unprecedented ways. In the
between native speaker and learner corpora are LSP literature (e.g., Dudley-Evans 8c St John, 1998;
attracting interest by developers of EAP writing Grosse & Voght, 1991; Hutchinson 8c Waters,
materials (Guilquin, Granger, & Paquot, 2007). 1987), emphasis is placed on authentic commu-
Flowerdew (1998) also suggested that, apart from nication and student engagement through mean-
providing information to materials writers and ingful tasks and projects that involve interaction
teachers, corpora can also be incorporated in the and simulations of real situations. The possibil-
classroom as learning tools, provided that they ity of interacting with other users worldwide on
are accompanied by appropriate activities. Sev- topics that are relevant to students' disciplines in-
eral studies have looked specifically at students' creases motivation and can help students become
use of corpora in the classroom. In the field of part of the discourse community (Warschauer,
EAP, Charles (2007) reported on the use of cor- 2002a).
pora of theses to develop students' awareness of Attention has been paid to the impact of on-
constructing arguments in academic writing, fo- line communication on general language teach-
cusing on the level of discourse. Also in academic ing (see, e.g., the review by Chapelle, 2003) as well
writing, Yoon (2008) looked at students' use of as on learners' use of new genres (e.g., Abraham
a general corpus to develop awareness and au- 8c Williams, 2009) . Research on online communi-
tonomy. In addition, Varley (2009) kept track of cation within LSP is still scarce but has received in-
students' work on projects involving the analysis creased attention in the past few years, especially
of general and specialized corpora and provided as Web 2.0 applications open up new possibili-
suggestions for the implementation of corpus use ties for users to write, collaborate, and publish. As
in the classroom. Beyond academic texts, Hafner these new forms of communication have brought
about new genres, new literacies have emerged eryday lives) , the frontier between the face-to-face
(Kern, 2006) . Focusing specifically on these new classroom and CALL becomes more and more
literacies, and drawing on the experiences of blurred (e.g., Neumeier, 2005; van Lier, 2002).
online EAP students, Rueda, Arnó, and Soler Among the areas for the application of technol-
(2007) proposed an explicit focus on electronic ogy in LSP, Arno et al. (2006b) pointed at the
EAP literacy skills in order to help students potential of CALL not only to improve students'
make the most of the Internet for both academic language and literacy skills but also to incorpo-
work and language learning, through activities rate sociocultural and collaborative dimensions,
of exploration, reflection, analysis, and interac- in the context of the second wave of online learn-
tion (both inside and outside the classroom). For ing (Kern et al., 2004).
these activities, students use a variety of tools for Within a framework of integrative CALL, the
communication and collaboration, such as class- development of computer-based materials has re-
room forums, external Internet forums, and wikis, inforced and expanded the traditional role of the
within a paradigm based on the notion of elec- LSP teacher as a materials designer and provider
tronic literacy mentioned previously (Shetzer 8c who deals with authentic, discipline-specific con-
Warschauer, 2000) , and they use the Internet as tents and tasks - with the issues of authenticity and
both a learning tool and a target communicative specificity being part of the ongoing debates in
context (see Posteguillo, 2003, for a discussion of LSP (e.g., Belcher, 2006; Dudley-Evans & St John,
English for Internet Purposes) . 1998; Hyland, 2002) . There are many examples of
With regard to students' interaction in asyn- computer-based LSP materials to suit a variety of
chronous EAP forums, some studies have identi- purposes and learner needs. Materials range from
fied its particular traits, which are distinct from those dealing with common-core interdisciplinary
those of face-to-face discussion and academic EAP contents, such as the Web-based learning
writing but share some characteristics of both environment Quantum LEAP : Learning English
(Hopkins, 2005; Kol & Schcolnik, 2008). On the for Academic Purposes (Arnó, Rueda, & Soler,
2009), to discipline-specific materials that recre-
one hand, while participating in the forums, stu-
dents have time to plan their writing and pro- ate students' target academic or professional con-
vide support for their assertions. On the other texts, such as the Web-based environment MarEng
hand, this writing reflects the dialogic nature(English
of for Maritime Studies) . Developed by dif-
ferent European universities with the collabo-
forum interaction, with references to other inter-
locutors' contributions, questions, or expressedration of maritime experts (López de Vergara,
opinions on controversial topics, for example.2006), MarEng reproduces authentic work situ-
Research has also focused on online collabo- ations. Other examples of these materials include
ration through wikis. In her study of collabora-the online workshops for nursing and academic
writing developed by Hussin (2006) in Australia,
tive EAP writing, Kuteeva (2011) found that using
wikis contributes to students' heightened aware-or the online game It's a Deal , which focuses on
ness of audience and genre and greater attentionintercultural communication through business
English simulations (Guillén-Nieto, 2009). Such
to text organization and form. These findings res-
resources exemplify how LSP materials de-
onate with interactionist theories applied to on-
line communication, namely, that text-based in- sign takes into account both the stakeholders
teraction offers the potential to focus on form involved - learners, teachers, discipline experts,
and content (Kern, 2006). Regarding focus onpotential employers, and, in general, members of
form versus focus on meaning in wiki-based writ-the target discourse communities - and the inter-
ing, a study by Kessler (2009), with nonnative cultural dimension of specialized communication
pre-service teachers of English, showed that stu-global contexts.
in
dents tend to focus on content, at the expense ofThus, technology provides new opportuni-
form. Furthermore, students engage in collabora-ties for immersion in real situations, which are
becoming more and more realistic in the
tion, which develops their autonomy as they work
communities that are emerging in virtual en-
jointly on the texts, gaining ownership and adapt-
vironments. Thorne, Black, and Sykes (2009)
ing the wiki space to their own purposes (Kessler
8c Bikowski, 2010). classified these environments into social virtu-
alities (e.g., Second Life), massively multiplayer
CALL online games (e.g., World of Warcraft), and syn-
thetic immersive environments (SIE) especially de-
signed for language learners, such as Croque-
As technology is increasingly integrated in lan-
landia, which focuses on Spanish pragmatics. In
guage teaching and learning (as well as in our ev-
their extensive review of the potential of these fessional knowledge. This project, the blended
environments for language learning, Thorne course e-Support4U (Griffith & Nicolis, 2010), ad-
et al. pointed out the opportunities that suchdressed practicing nurses in the United Kingdom
communities provide for socialization and real with the goal of developing their academic writing
communication practice. Due to their immer-skills, while encouraging them to reflect on and
sive, multimodal, and realistic nature, these en- learn from their professional practice. Technol-
vironments can facilitate language learning bene- ogy is thus used to encourage professional reflec-
fits such as greater motivation, participation in tion, while providing support in academic writing
real-life tasks, collaboration and negotiation of and digital literacy (with tools such as wikis) .
meaning, and intercultural and pragmatic com- Universities specialized in distance education
petence, as well as the development of speaking also offer a variety of courses in different
skills (Deutschmann 8c Panichi, 2009; Peterson,languages (e.g., the Open University in the
2010; Thorne et al., 2009). Such authentic scenar-United Kingdom and the Universität Oberta de
ios have great potential for LSP teaching because Catalunya, in Catalonia, Spain).2 Online plat-
forms for distance courses often result from col-
they enable students to participate in highly real-
istic settings (e.g., business, medical, educational
laboration among institutions, extending beyond
contexts) or to engage in authentic online com- a single campus (Garrett, 2009). Apart from such
munities. For example, the Second Life destina- advantages as reaching larger numbers of stu-
tion guide (http://secondlife.com/destinations) dents, availability, and flexibility, these courses
provides links to selected business, educational also help students develop their electronic litera-
(e.g., university campuses), or science and tech- cies and learner autonomy. These aims, for exam-
nology resources that are present in the virtual ple, fostered the creation of the online course,
world.
English for Academic Purposes: Learning English
Through the Web (Arnó, Rueda, Soler, 8c
Distance and Blended Learning Barahona, 2003), in Catalonia (Spain), through
the Intercampus Programme, which, as a result
The development of programs and materials of collaboration among different Catalan univer-
for distance learning, to overcome geographical sities, provides jointly offered elective distance
distance and time constraints, has spurred the cre- courses.3 The design of online courses and ma-
ation of a variety of LSP courses and materials. terials at relatively low cost also offers the possi-
Online learning - whether in distance or blended bility of tailoring materials to very specific needs,
programs - seems to be especially appropriate for as shown by Lankamp (2008), who, rather than
LSP, given that it allows for the customization of using or adapting existing online academic writ-
learning to suit students' needs, as well as for the ing resources, decided to create a specific online
provision of highly specialized courses that would learning environment to help language and liter-
not be feasible in traditional classes (see discus- ature students write their master's theses.
sion by Garrett, 2009). Interest in online learning Blended courses, which combine classroom-
for LSP is attested by the different projects pre- based and online tuition, have long been used
sented by González-Pueyo et al. (2009), including and seem to be especially appropriate for LSP
both standard learning management systems and by providing teaching tailored to students with
dedicated environments. There is a long tradition timetable constraints. Research into optimal con-
in the development of online learning materials ditions for the design and implementation of
for LSP (see review by Luzon, 2009), probably blended learning in LSP contexts has emphasized
out of the need to create materials adapted to the idea that both components - face-to-face and
specific needs and to offer ample learning op- computer-based interactions - need to be care-
portunities to students who have time and place fully planned and integrated. Attention needs to
constraints. Examples of these materials can be be paid to how the multiple possible combinations
found in two projects within the field of health sci- can be optimized for effective teaching and learn-
ences. Mungra's (2009) blended course for med- ing, a task that entails a reappraisal of the roles
ical students in Italy related writing skills to sim- of teachers and learners, who must adopt flexible,
ulated practice, thus providing a relevant context shifting roles as experts, tutors, collaborators, and
for meaningful work to students who had to fit so on (Neumeier, 2005). Using Neumeier's char-
their courses to their clinical practice. The sec- acterization of blended learning, Trinder (2009)
ond project showed how technology can be used evaluated a business English course, analyzing
for LSP courses in workplace situations that lend how the different components are used to en-
themselves to connecting language skills and pro- hance different contents and skills. On the basis of
different parameters applied to the classroom as long as appropriate conditions are met, such
and
as providing choices, relevant materials, learner
the online environment (interaction, authenticity
training, reflection, scaffolding, and support.
of tasks, variety of input sources, learner auton-
omy, anxiety, feedback, and cognition), she foundThe relationship between IT and learner auton-
that combining both modes, with different con-omy from an LSP perspective has been discussed
tents and aims assigned to each, can maximize further
the by Arno et al. (2006b) and Luzon (2009).
It can be related to constructivist approaches,
learning potential of a course and cater to a wide
range of learner profiles. With regard to thegiven
ef- that learners can choose appropriate mate-
fectiveness of online LSP courses, Chen, Belkada,
rials at their own pace, thereby building up their
and Okamoto (2004) showed how, by drawing own learning routes. In this sense, the hypertex-
on second language acquisition research, a Web- tual structure of the Web is in line with these
based EAP course can incorporate both tasks approaches

and because it provides connectivity (i.e.,
different modes of interaction together with interaction,
the creativity, collaboration, information
exchange) rather than predetermined content
possibility of offering learning paths with varying
(Felix, 2002). Along the lines of connectivity, and
degrees of flexibility. On the evaluative compar-
ison of a distance versus a blended EAP course, taking advantage of the wealth of materials avail-
Harker and Koutsantoni (2005) concluded that able on the Internet, Luzon and González (2006)
both modes result in similar degrees of student proposed a set of criteria for developing materi-
achievement and high levels of satisfaction, al- als for learner autonomy in LSP that are based
though there was a higher dropout rate in the on authenticity, motivation, collaboration, inte-
distance course. From the lessons learned, gration in the curriculum, learner-centeredness,
they proposed increasing student support and strategy development. They suggested that
and teacher-student interaction in distance the Webquest4 is a particularly appropriate for-
courses. mat, both for its relationship to students' intrinsic
motivation in discipline-related topics and for the
challenge of engaging in authentic open-ended
Learner Autonomy
tasks that involve collaboration and problem solv-
Learner autonomy has been described ing, while providing a scaffolded environment to
throughout this article with regard to the po- encourage learning.
tential of technology for the development of Being able to interact with others and con-
LSP courses and materials that are adapted tribute to a collective effort is an important aspect
to specific needs and that, at the same time, of autonomy (White, 2003) , which can be referred
allow the learner to make choices and create to as collaborative autonomy (Ding, 2005; Kessler &
alternative learning routes. ConsideringBikowski,
that 2010). For example, Ding (2005) de-
the LSP learner is characterized by a high scribes
level one British university's virtual self-access
of motivation, technology can help provide center for EAP learners that exploits the potential
appropriate materials and resources to of the Internet to help students find appropriate
carry
learning resources and use computer-mediated
out meaningful activities related to specific
communication for interaction with other learn-
disciplines. Learner autonomy involves assuming
control over one's own learning (Holec, ers and tutors. As Ding suggested, encouraging
1981)
and is based on the central notions of learner collaborative autonomy is difficult in a virtual self-
choice and responsibility (van Lier, 1996). access
Au- center, and the challenge that remains is to
raise students' awareness of the need to collabo-
tonomy has become a central issue in language
rate online.
teaching, especially since the developments
of technology have facilitated: (a) access to Thea objectives of the virtual self-access cen-
ter reported by Ding (2005) were similar to
wide range of authentic materials in different
those of an online EAP course mentioned earlier
modalities (text, audio, image, video, etc.);
(English for Academic Purposes: Learning
(b) the possibility of interaction and exchange
with partners worldwide; and (c) a greater English through the Web), namely, developing
degree of learner initiative and controllearner
over autonomy and exploiting Internet re-
sources for language learning. In the context
materials and activities. Thus, the relationship
between learner autonomy and information of this EAP course, a study was conducted to
find out whether and to what extent students
technology has aroused considerable interest in
were displaying autonomous behavior (Arnó
the literature (see, e.g., Benson, 2001; Hurd,
2005; Hurd, Beaven, & Ortega, 2001; White,et al., 2003; Soler, Rueda, Sc Arnó, 2005). Anal-
2003). Although technology per se does notof the students' performance on course tasks
ysis
showed a variety of actions and attitudes related
guarantee autonomy, it can become a facilitator,
to autonomous behavior, such as setting learningroom. From the programs discussed through-
out this article, two implications can be derived:
objectives, identifying needs, evaluating learning
materials and tasks, and reflecting on their own First, the role of the teacher involves becom-
learning process. One question that can be raiseding a course and materials designer who creates
is whether students would continue to take re- meaningful activities that should provide students
sponsibility for their own learning after the withendguidance; second, the role of the online
of the course. teacher goes beyond the design of materials and
involves active participation (monitoring and sup-
CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENTATION AND plying feedback and support). These new roles
IMPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGES FOR require the integration of multiple skills - in the
SPECIFIC PURPOSES PRACTICE technological, pedagogic, organizational, and af-
fective dimensions - which, in turn, call for fur-
The previous sections analyzed the impact of and specific training programs (e.g.,
ther research
technology on LSP teaching and learning Compton, and2009; Murphy, Shelley, & Baumann,
examined the different areas in which it can be 2010). Online teaching is becoming more and
used to provide materials and courses suited moreto common in LSP and may be perceived by
institutions as an economical solution to the need
learners' specific needs. In the following section,
there is a discussion of the opportunities and to
chal-
provide tuition to increasing numbers of stu-
lenges involved in the use of IT, which, taking
dents. However, this shifting context places impor-
into account the particular roles of LSP teachers
tant demands on teachers and may lead to contra-
and learners, will also be discussed in connection
dictory views from the institutional and teaching
with other stakeholders involved in LSP: adminis- sides - for example, there may be a large num-
trators, international partners, and disciplineber ex- of students but little teacher support and
perts, as well as audiences worldwide. In line with recognition - which may compromise the quality
the second wave of online learning mentioned of teaching (see discussions by Arno et al., 2006b;
previously, special attention will be paid to theLankamp,
so- 2008).
cial and collaborative uses of technology in LSP The projects reviewed in the preceding sec-
projects. tions illustrate the convergence of the traditional
roles of teacher and materials provider in online
Roles of LSP Teachers
LSP teaching. In addition, the Internet, with a
growing body of open-access academic and pro-
The reappraisal of the role of the LSP teacher fessional content, provides input for developing
needs to consider ideological and societal stances, tailor-made materials and engaging in project-
both in terms of the use of technology and of based learning, while enabling students to be-
the values involved in LSP teaching. Regarding come familiar with the real discourse and gen-
the integration of technology in English-language res of their discipline. These teacher roles are
teaching, Chapelle (2003) examined different integrated with those of researcher and evalua-
trends (uncritical acceptance, reluctance, and tor, which the incorporation of IT has also trans-
taking a middle view) and advocated a "criti- formed (e.g., learning about new discourses and
cal, technologically-informed pragmatism" (p. 9). genres, designing, implementing and evaluating
Similarly, within the field of LSP, Arno et al. IT courses and materials).
(2006b) identified technology as a "double-edged The role of collaborator is crucial in a mul-
sword," in that the technophile teacher may be tidisciplinary field such as LSP. Drawing on the
fascinated by the mere use of technology, whereas traditional collaborative nature of LSP teach-
the technophobe teacher may find it difficult ers, Arno et al. (2006b) identified collabora-
to keep pace with these transforming changes tion both among LSP teachers and between the
and with the new generations of digital natives teachers and subject-matter specialists as one of
(Prensky, 2001) - those individuals who have al- the driving forces for the integration of IT in
ways been surrounded by technology so that it is LSP in order to advance and adapt to a chang-
fully integrated in their everyday lives. ing context. Butler-Pascoe (2009) also empha-
The application of IT in LSP practice has af- sized the potential of collaboration with dis-
fected the multiple roles of the LSP teacher men- cipline experts and reported on the potential
tioned previously: teacher, materials provider, of technology for authentic projects involving
researcher, collaborator, and evaluator (Dudley- learners' interaction with discipline experts. Most
Evans 8c St John, 1998). The increase of dis- of the technology-based projects reviewed previ-
ously are based on collaboration, both among
tance and blended courses has extended the role
teachers and between the teachers and discipline
of the LSP teacher beyond the traditional class-
experts who can advise on specialist knowledge. allow them to become active agents of innovation
Furthermore, within the paradigm of content ver- in their own contexts.
sus connectivity discussed earlier, the role of LSP Computer networks, and the Internet in par-
students as providers of content cannot be dis- ticular, allow LSP students to engage in gen-
missed. uine intercultural experience through exchange
with other participants worldwide in order to de-
velop the necessary awareness and competences
Roles of LSP Learners
for academic and professional communication in
Throughout this article, emphasis has been international settings. Xing, Wang, and Spencer
placed on the profile of LSP learners in terms of (2008) reported on the use of e-learning for
needs and motivation, as well as on their role as the development of Chinese students' awareness
independent and autonomous learners. As it is for of cross-cultural rhetorical patterns in academic
teachers, online learning is not exempt from chal- writing, through peer- and self-reflection encour-
lenges for learners, for whom self-direction is both aged by their electronic collaboration with na-
a requisite for participation in such courses and tive speakers of English. Electronic exchange
and collaboration offer LSP teachers and stu-
a learning goal, for which they need training and
support (White, 2003). Apart from the character- dents the opportunity to engage in real-life activ-
istics of distance learners in general (e.g., self-ities similar to those found in today's globalized
discipline and commitment), distance language workplace, which includes electronic communi-
learners show certain characteristics that relate to cation across borders and with multiple stake-
the added difficulty of learning a language with- holders. For example, in the field of techni-
out face-to-face contact with a teacher or partners, cal communication, Starke-Meyering, Duin, and
which is why affective factors become key (Hurd, Palvetzian (2007) advocated a method to adapt
2007). In her study on students' reflections, Hurd teaching to this reality, through the design of
found that distance language students possessed globally networked learning environments. Explic-
high levels of commitment and self-awareness and itly ascribed to this trend, two technology-based
used different types of strategies to manage learn- projects have promoted exchange and collabora-
ing, in spite of their low use of affective strate-tion between students in Europe and the United
gies. She further suggested that distance language States. In the first project, technical communica-
learners should be provided with support, clear in- tion students collaborated on the online peer edit-
structions and feedback, and structured guidance. ing of their texts (Anderson, Bergman, Bradley,
In fact, the notions of guidance and structure turn Gustafsson, 8c Matzke, 2010) and, in the second
out to be crucial in the effectiveness of online tasks project, the Trans-Atlantic Project, there was col-
laboration between students of translation and
at a distance. For example, in their study of a col-
laborative e-tandem exchange with LSP students students of technical writing, with a focus on cross-
of Spanish and English (in Ireland and Spain) , Ap- linguistic issues (Maylath, Vandepitte, & Mousten,
pel and Gilabert (2006) found that achievement 2008).
and progress depended on a clearly designed task Apart from enabling students to access informa-
structured around a meaningful goal, in the con- tion and collaborate with partners at remote loca-
text of a task-based approach. tions, technology can also be used to challenge
and modify students' views of learning. Devaux,
Otterbach, and Cheng (2006) used Internet re-
Social and Collaborative Dimensions of Information
sources with Asian students of English for specific
Technology in Language for Specific Purposes
purposes to instill in them a view of the language
In this context of international partnership and learner as an active participant who takes respon-
collaboration through technology, some projects sibility for the learning process, thus responding
have been developed to promote the use of IT to one of the main challenges in current LSP
resources to bridge the digital divide (i.e., the teaching: to prepare students for work and study
gap between those who have access to technology in a rapidly changing globalized society. From a
and those who do not) , with technology as a tool similar perspective, Thang and Bidmeshki (2010)
for promoting development. Warschauer (2002b) also stressed the potential of online courses
and Healey (2006) reported on two projects that for learner training and support. From their
focused on international collaboration for lan- analysis of Asian students' perceptions of an on-
guage teacher education in Egypt and Tunisia, line English for science and technology course,
respectively, with a specific LSP focus in thethey
lat- pointed out the importance of adopting a
ter. The underlying premise was to equip lan- notion of autonomy that is flexible enough to
beto
guage teachers with the necessary resources embraced by students from different cultures
and that promotes the development of skills for CURRENT NEEDS AND PRIORITIES
progressive autonomous behavior, while taking

into account the preferences of some students forBecause of the pervasive influence of IT as a tool
direct teacher guidance. for learning and for actual academic and profes-
In addition, in relation to the social dimension sional communication practices, the integration
of technology use, it is important to consider the of technology in LSP deserves special attention.
potential of the Internet for increasing the visibil- Taking into account both the definition of LSP,
ity of different languages, as mentioned earlier in as teaching based on clearly identified needs, and
this article. On this topic, Garrett (2009) pointed the affordances and challenges that technology
out that technology may allow the development brings into the teaching/learning context, it is
of teaching materials and resources for less com- necessary to identify priority areas that should
monly taught languages (LCTLs) and for heritage be specifically addressed. These areas include the
speakers (i.e., speakers whose family language is following: (a) incorporating emerging technolo-
different from that used in their environment, gies, (b) developing IT-based teaching projects
and who may have varying degrees of proficiency grounded on a clear rationale, (c) training LSP
in it) . Garrett further established some parallels teachers and learners, (d) designing courses and
between heritage language speakers and LSP stu- materials rooted in socially situated international
dents: (a) some heritage speakers may have needs practices, and (e) setting a research agenda linked
similar to those of certain LSP students, especially to current LSP teaching.
those who need to develop academic skills; and One of the challenges for LSP teachers is the
(b) because of the relatively small numbers of need to keep pace with students' technologi-
students, it may not be feasible to set up regular cal skills (Arno et al., 2006b), especially in the
courses for some highly specific LSP groups, her- case of younger students who are digital natives
itage learners, and learners of an LCTL. There- (Prensky, 2001). However, rather than regarding
fore, technology may help provide online learn- themselves as digital immigrants (i.e., newcomers
ing environments and collections of multimodal to the latest technologies) , LSP teachers can help
texts (audio, visual, textual) for learners to access, students make the most of the emerging tech-
as well as shared resources extending beyond sin- nologies at which students are already adept, as a
gle institutions. Examples of IT resources in the point of departure to maximize their opportuni-
United States for LCTLs and heritage speakers ties for language learning, especially now that the
can be found in Garrett (2009). digital divide goes beyond mere access to tech-
Blake and Zyzic (2003) studied online commu- nology. In this sense, Vie (2008) proposed the
nication exchanges between learners of Spanish concept of digital divide 2.0 , to refer to the fact
and heritage speakers of Spanish. They suggested that despite their familiarity with such technolo-
that because of their specific characteristics, her- gies, young students may lack critical literacy skills
itage speakers can provide a useful resource from for their effective use. She suggested that teach-
the perspective of language acquisition, bringing ers should integrate these technologies into their
together, on the one hand, the benefits of na- classes for critical literacy development. Similarly,
tive speaker-nonnative speaker interaction and Murray, Hourigan, andjeanneau (2007) showed
learner-learner interaction and, on the other how blogging can be used to develop students'
hand, the affordances of online communication academic writing skills, and the previously men-
in terms of availability, planning, and reduced tioned study by Kuteeva (2011) related the use
anxiety. Further research on the use of technol- of wikis to academic writing concerns. Although
ogy with heritage speakers has shown, for exam- Web 2.0 applications and social networking are
ple, how heritage Korean learners - proficient in relatively new in mainstream language teaching,
conversation, but not in formal registers - use the in the field of LSP they resonate with earlier In-
Internet to enter the discourse of Korean-based ternet practices, given that many LSP students,
communities, engaging in authentic communica- as members of their discourse communities, al-
tion and developing their linguistic and cultural ready have experience participating in specialized
knowledge, together with their digital literacy Internet forums, discussion lists, and newsgroups
(Sook Lee, 2006). In addition, the development to exchange information about their discipline.
of dedicated Web-based environments, common New technological applications have further ex-
in mainstream LSP, can also be useful for learners panded the possibilities for learners' immersion
of LCTLs and heritage speakers, as attested, for in and authentic interaction with specialized
online communities.
example, by the work of Kourtis-Kazoullis (2008)
on an online environment for the learning of This article has reviewed a variety of technology-
academic skills in Greek. based projects for different LSP contexts. Given
the rapid advances in technology and the

of dynamic
the characteristics of the specialized communi-
nature of globalized academic and professional
cation in which students will be expected to en-
settings, one of the challenges in LSP is gage. In this sense, the main focus still remains on
to develop
IT-based projects that are effective andthe analysis of written discourse, although there
grounded
on a sound rationale. On this subject, isKennedy
an increased interest in the spoken language.
Further research should be devoted to the devel-
and Levy (2009) pointed out that approaching
long-term CALL projects may appear incompat-
opment of spoken skills and the analysis of spoken
ible with the fast-paced evolution of technology,
texts in LSP. Given the increasing use of electronic
but suggested that rather than being communication
concerned in academic and professional set-
with implementing the latest technology,tings,
it isfurther
im- research should be devoted both to
the analysis of electronic texts (see Bowles, 2012)
portant to devise projects that are technologically
robust and have a sound pedagogic and rationale.
to the development of students' electronic
These authors discussed the question of sustain-
literacy skills.
Research into IT in LSP also needs to keep
ability in CALL (i.e., they evaluated the implemen-
tation of long-term IT projects both for pace with
LSP technological advances and their social
and
general language learning) . Among theuses. keyInfac-
this sense, as mobile devices are making
tors for success they identified were (a) their way into language teaching, more research
the tailor-
ing of projects to specific learning needs; is needed on their use and effectiveness - see,
(b) the
lecturers' skills; (c) the teamwork of participants for example, Rosell-Aguilar (2007) on podcasting
involved in the project (d) the sound integration and Stockwell (2010) on mobile phones - and fur-
of a technological and pedagogic rationale; and should focus specifically on LSP con-
ther research
(e) the development of projects through texts. Because of their special relevance to LSP,
a cycli-
cal process of experimentation, evaluation, attention should also be paid to Web 2.0 applica-
and
improvement. tions, examining their relationship to some of the
Another key aspect that emerges from the use key concepts in LSP, such as discourse commu-
of technology in LSP teaching is the training nity, genre, authenticity, and the role of discipline
of teachers and learners, which involves prepar- knowledge.
ing teachers for the effective integration of the
technologies that students already use, as well as CONCLUSIONS
training learners to make the most of technol-
ogy for successful participation in the academic This article has reflected on how technology
and professional communities. In relation to this is integrated into LSP teaching by considering
point, technology provides access to authentic key notions in LSP pedagogy raised by Grosse
discipline-specific materials and opportunities for and Voght in 1991, such as context, needs anal
genuine interaction, so that now, more than ever, ysis, authenticity, teacher roles, collaboration
LSP teachers can design courses and materials tai- and specificity of materials and courses. A wide
lored to specific, realistic needs by drawing on ac- ranging approach to technological applications
tual practices in the target settings. Thus, through has been presented, based on their integration
exchanges or partnerships that extend across bor- within a sound pedagogic framework, including
ders, students can be exposed to the challenges both older and newer technologies.
they will encounter in globalized academic and In relation to LSP teaching, technology pro-
professional contexts. These approaches can help vides us with the opportunity to deal with differen
bridge the gap between the LSP classroom and languages (and across languages) and to design
workplace demands, which involve collaboration activities for a variety of learning contexts, prepar-
and communication with different types of stake- ing students to deal with specific target needs,
holders and require a special focus on intercul- thus integrating target community practices into
tural communication. the LSP classroom. Using technology as a gate-
With LSP teaching and research being closely way to the discourse community allows teach-
interrelated, it is necessary to set a research ers and learners to bridge the gap between th
agenda related to the use of technology in current learning situation and professional contexts by en
LSP teaching in order to evaluate the effectiveness gaging in genuine interaction and collaboratio
of IT-based LSP teaching projects. In this area, spe-with other learners, teachers, discipline experts
cial attention has been paid to the use of different and professionals/students worldwide.
technologies and modes (i.e., distance, blended, Interconnected courses and materials open up
face to face) for LSP teaching. Another impor- new perspectives for LSP teaching in unprece-
tant area of research relates to the investigation dented ways: sharing knowledge and views in th
open arena through networked resources and fo-

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The Role of Technology in Teaching Languages for Specific Purposes Courses

Author(s): ELISABET ARNÓ-MACIÀ

National Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations, Wiley are collaborating

ing authentic resources and individualizing nity

based EAP course can incorporate both tasks approaches

progressive autonomous behavior, while taking

the rapid advances in technology and the

open arena through networked resources and fo-

distance. López de Vergara, A. F. (2006). MarEng: A Web-

Warschauer, M. (2002a). Networking into academic dis-

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