Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

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Chemical Engineering Science

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ces

Plasticity in materials exposed to drying

Stefan Jan Kowalski n, Jacek Banaszak, Andrzej Rybicki
Poznań University of Technology, Institute of Technology and Chemical Engineering, Department of Process Engineering, pl. Marii Sk!odowskiej Curie 2, 60-965 Poznań, Poland

a r t i c l e in fo abstract

Article history: The theory of plasticity is put forward for wet materials subjected to drying, where the complex stress
Received 22 March 2010 pattern is developed due to material expansion and contraction. The results of experimental tensile and
Received in revised form compression tests carried out for determination of the yield stress and the failure strength of saturated
14 May 2010
materials at different moisture contents are presented. The principles of mechanics of continua along
Accepted 9 June 2010
Available online 22 June 2010
with the experimental data for materials with changeable moisture content constitute the basis for
theory development. This theory enables determination of drying-induced stresses and elastic–plastic
Keywords: deformations arisen in dried materials. An example of application of this theory for description of
Drying drying-induced stresses occurring in a kaolin-clay plate subjected to convective drying is given.
Materials processing
& 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Porous media
Mathematical modeling
Stresses
Permanent deformations

1. Introduction The constitutive laws required in a finite deformation

This paper is an attempt to develop the theory of plasticity for
saturated porous materials subjected to drying processes. It is
obvious that drying induces a complex stress pattern in dried
materials. This is due to material expansion when heat is supplied
to the material or contraction when moisture is removed from the
material. The resulting stresses may cause permanent (plastic)
strains and even cause cracks in the material when the thermal–
hydro-stresses exceed the failure strength of the material (Sherer,
1990). The stress state, arising from both temperature and
moisture content gradients, is possible to predict and quantify if
the necessary material coefficients are available (Sherer, 1998;
Banaszak et al., 2004; Kowalski, 2003; Banaszak and Musielak,
2009). Having determined the state of stress, the failure criterion
could be established, which would help to optimize the drying
conditions to prevent either the material failure or the cracks, or
the resulting permanent (plastic) deformations of a dried
material.
Hammerle (1972) has been shown how to develop the
necessary field equations for the solution of the relationship
describing the failure in a thin viscoelastic slab subjected to
temperature and moisture gradients. The utilization of the
derived relationship requires a knowledge of the material
properties to which the analysis is to be applied. Specification of
both the temperature and moisture content during the heating
and drying is thus necessary.
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: +48 61 665 3622; fax: +48 61 665 3649.
E-mail address: Stefan.J.Kowalski@put.poznan.pl (S.J. Kowalski).
plasticity theory with application to geological materials (e.g.,
soil) were discussed by Morland (1971). Green (1972) developed a
plasticity theory for a solid weakened by numerous cracks or
voids. Green’s theory is suitable whenever the voids are nearly
spherical or where the direction of cracks is completely random.
Miloskojic and Cheatham (1974) analyzed plastic deformation of
a porous medium containing moving fluid. The effective stress
principle and a general form of the yield function, including work-
hardening characteristics, and general stress–strain relations
were developed to describe the plastic deformation of the solid.
A theoretical solution for the stress state in a Maxwell
viscoelastic cylinder subjected to transient temperature and
moisture gradients was presented by Rao (1975). The Boltzman
superposition principle together with a thermo- and hydro-
rheologically simple behavior was assumed. Experiments to
determine the uniaxial modulus, temperature and moisture
distribution of a viscoelastic clay-like material were performed.
A theory of plastic flow for an elastic–perfectly plastic porous
solids with interconnected voids filled with a viscous fluid was
developed by de Boer and Kowalski (1983). The complete set of
equations for the theory and boundary conditions for the material
under consideration were given. A geometrically linear theory of
plasticity for granular soils was presented by de Boer (1988).
Kowalski (1996) presented a broad outline of the theory
describing the mechanical behavior of fluid-saturated capillary-
porous bodies with permanent deformations caused by the drying
processes. The elastic, viscoelastic and elasto-plastic variants of
deformations of the matrix material were discussed.
A modeling and numerical calculation of crack formation and
cohesion strength of saturated porous bodies during drying were

0009-2509/$ - see front matter & 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ces.2010.06.006
5106 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

Fig. 1. Experimental setup: (a) strength-measuring instrument Koegel FPG 7/18-1000; (b) one-dimensional compressive test; and (c) one-dimensional tensile test and
rectangular sample (right).

presented by Banaszak and Kowalski (2005) and Kowalski and and compressive tests on the universal strength-measuring
Rybicki (2009). The dependence on moisture content of the instrument Koegel FGP 7/18-1000 (Fig. 1). These tests were
drying-induced state of stress and the overall (reduced) stress in carried out at the constant tensile and compressive force
the elastic range as well as the admissible stresses were increments of 1 N/s.
discussed. A strength criterion was proposed, stating that a
possible cracking of the material during drying takes place in
2.2. Material
these regions where the reduced stress exceeds the critical
(admissible) value for the given moisture content. Numerical
The KOC kaolin-clay is the material investigated experimen-
calculations of the drying-induced stresses were carried out for a
tally and theoretically in this paper, and for this material the
convectively dried kaolin cylinder, and the regions prone to
characteristic data necessary to develop the plasticity theory are
material cracking within the cylinder were determined. This
determined. The KOC kaolin-clay from the Surmin-Kaolin SA
theoretical prediction of the spots in the material susceptible to
Company is widely applied in ceramic industry for manufacturing
cracking was consistent with the experimental data previously
sanitaryware and tableware (Raabe and Bobryk, 1997). It provides
presented by the authors (Kowalski and Rybicki, 2009).
the strength and plasticity during shaping of these products but
There is a lot of literature reports concerning the theory of
also secures the reduced pyroplastic deformation in the process of
plasticity for non-porous or porous non-saturated materials (e.g.,
firing.
Hill, 1971; Slater, 1977). The stresses in these materials are
The kaolin-clay is delivered in a dry state and before
generated by well determined external forces. There is shortage of
experiments it has to be wetted with given mass of water and
literature data presenting a plasticity theory where the stresses
mixed to achieve a greasy paste of initial moisture content (MC)
are induced by inhomogeneous distribution of moisture and
approximately equal to X¼ 0.45 (kg water/kg dry kaolin].1 The
material temperature that change in time, as it is common for
greasy paste was stored and homogenized in a closed box for
materials subjected to drying. The development of such a theory
48 h to level the moisture distribution in the whole material. The
is a very difficult task because of coupling of the thermo-hydro-
obtained in this way a soft kaolin-clay mass was used to mold
mechanical fields during drying. A concept of the plasticity theory
cylindrical samples (d ¼0.027 m, h¼0.027 m) subjected to com-
where the plastic deformations are caused by thermal stresses
pressive tests. The cylindrical samples were extruded using a
(see e.g., Boley and Weiner, 1960), may be somehow helpful by
special die to preserve their regular shape (Fig. 1b).
the development of the plasticity theory for materials subjected to
The samples subjected to tensile tests were bars of rectangular
drying.
cross-section of dimensions 10  16 mm2 (b  h) and 80 mm long.
In this paper, the starting point for the development of the
They were manufactured through casting in a gypsum mould.
plasticity theory for dried materials constituted the experiments
Because of a wide range of MC, ca. 0–45%, the samples were
carried out on a kaolin-clay material, where the uniaxial yield
tested in three different modes. Namely, the samples with MC
stress and other mechanical and hydro-thermal coefficients
above 30% were tested just after molding because of their creep
appearing in the theory were determined. The theory is developed
during longer storage. In the next mode, a number of samples
based on the principles of mechanics of continua and on the
were molded at MC c.a. 30%, then dried to different MC between
thermodynamics of irreversible processes. An example of applica-
3% and 30%, and stored for 24 h to unify distribution of moisture.
tion of this theory to a thin kaolin plate exposed to convective
Such prepared samples of different MC were next used to tests. In
drying is presented, and the temporal stress distribution in this
the third mode, the samples were molded at 30% MC, and next
elastic–plastic plate is determined.
dried in an open air, then dried in the laboratory oven to get MC
below 3%, and then stored for 24 h before using in tests.
2. Experimental To determine the actual MC of the tested samples, each one
was weighted just after the tension or compression test, and then
2.1. Experimental setup dried until its mass did not change, and then weighted again.

The yield stress and the failure strength of a kaolin clay with 1
X denotes the mass of water in a body referred to the dry mass of this body,
various moisture content were examined through tensile and is expressed both dimensionless or in percentage.
 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116
Fig. 2. Stress–strain relations obtained by tensile tests for kaolin-clay at different
MC.
2.3. Tensile test
The one-dimensional tensile tests are the most important ones
because the tensional stresses induced by drying have the
greatest influence on plastic deformations and failure of dried
materials (Banaszak and Musielak, 2009). Fig. 2 presents the most
representative tensile stress–strain relation for kaolin-clay,
dependent on different moisture contents.
The stress on vertical axis denotes the tension force referred to
the rectangular cross-section of the bar. The strain on horizontal
axis denotes the increment of bar elongation referred to the
length of the bar.
The tensile stress–strain relation for kaolin-clay of MC greater
than 30% mostly do not show an explicit yield limit. They simply
flow. Those below 30% MC reveal the explicit yield limit, and
reaching this limit they start to flow plasticaly and next they
expirience plastic hardening, as that with 25.5% MC. The samples
with MC less than 20% reveal the yield limit and then they
expirience at once the plastic hardening. The hardening increases
when the MC decreases, and the samples with MC less than 3%
became finaly elastic-brittle.
The tensile tests give more information on plastic behavior of
clay-like materials than the compressive ones. As it is visible in
Fig. 2, the yield stress and plastic flow are well-marked on the
stress–strain curve for the samples with MC less than 25.5%.
Generaly, one can acquire more precise data from tensile tests
then from compressive ones, however, there are some problems
to overcome in tensile tests. First of all, it is difficult to mold well
the long samples without deformations, in paricular, for a broad
range of MC. The manufactured bars were not perfectly shaped.
An attempt to make samples of more sophisticated shape, e.g.,
with broader gripping part, have failed. Another problem
appeared with proper placing of samples in the grips. The
gripping force has to be set very precisely to avoid local
destruction of the tested specimen. The last problem is the time.
The examination of 84 tensile tests takes aproximateley the same
or even more time than 221 compesive tests.
2.4. Yield stress and material strength
The yield stress by tension of a kaolin-clay samples (Fig. 2) is
clearly visible for the moisture contents in the range from 10 to
30%. Fig. 3 presents the data of series measurements of the yield
stress and the failure tensile strength for the kaolin-clay
dependent on moisture content. Each test was repeated at least
5107
Fig. 3. The yield stress and the failure tensile strength of kaolin-clay as a function
of MC.
three times and the spread of measurements is very big.
Therefore, the lines of tends are drown to visualize the tendency
of the measurements as a function of moisture content.
The characteristic feature of kaolin-clay is that the greatest
yield stress occurs for MC of about 20% and the greatest failure
tensile strength for MC of about 25%. The lowest strength of the
kaolin-clay occurs between 30 and 45% MC as it becomes fluid-
like, and below 10% MC, when it becomes brittle and powder-like.
More information about experiments concerning determina-
tion of mechanical coefficients appearing in the thermo-mechan-
ical theory of drying is given by Ketelaars et al. (1994), Augier
et al. (2002), Kowalski (2003), and Banaszak and Musielak (2009).
3. Modeling approach
One can differentiate several kinds of strain components in
materials exposed to drying such as, instantaneous, creep,
shrinkage, and mechano-sorptive strains. Instantaneous strains
denote elastic or plastic strains that are formed immediately after
application of mechanical loading (stresses). In critical conditions,
the stresses may destroy the material structure. Creep is the time-
dependent increment of total deformation due to imposed stress
history. It is an irreversible strain. The free shrinkage strain is
assumed to be proportional to the moisture content change and is
independent of the state of stress. Some authors introduce an
extra mechano-sorptive/desorptive strain that results from the
interaction between stress and moisture content change. Namely,
a different body deformation was found when changes of
moisture content and loading are consecutive, and different when
they are simultaneous (Milota and Qinglin, 1994). In our opinion,
this effect is possible to describe expressing the material
coefficients as a function of moisture content.
In the present considerations the shrinkage strains are taken
into account, which mostly are the largest strain components in
drying, and the instantaneous elastic and plastic strains, which
are activated by the drying-induced stresses. The plastic strains
arise when the state of stress reaches the yield condition.
The theory of drying that describes fully the coupled multi-
phase transport in deformable unsaturated porous media is
presented by Kowalski (2003). This theory combines mechanical
effects with heat and mass transfer phenomena. It was con-
structed using the principles of mechanics of continua and the
balances of mass, momentum, moment of momentum, energy,
entropy as well as the laws of irreversible thermodynamics.
In this paper we apply the outlines of the aforementioned
thermo-hydro-mechanical drying theory to develop the theory of
5108 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

plasticity for dried materials, for which the following assumptions
are incorporated:
 The drying material consists of a solid skeleton and moisture
held in pores.
 The skeleton is a deformable body. The deformations can
be both reversible (elastic) or irreversible (viscoelastic,
plastic).
 The theory excludes thermal shocks and therefore some
dynamic terms (accelerations, inertia forces, kinetic energy,
etc.) are neglected in the balance equations.
 The stress deviator in moisture is neglected as much smaller
than the stress deviator of the solid skeleton.
 The basic assumption of isotropy, continuity and homogeneity
is made by the solution and analysis of the stress–strain
problem.
 There is local thermal equilibrium between moisture and the
skeleton, so that the temperatures of both constituents at a
given point are the same.
The stress patterns in dried materials result from transient
temperature and moisture gradients due to non-uniform
expansion when heat is supplied, or non-uniform shrinkage when
the moisture is removed from the material. The expansion or
shrinkage strains are assumed to be proportional to increments
of temperature W ¼T Tr and moisture content y ¼X Xr, where
Tr and Xr are the temperature and moisture content of a reference
state, at which the expansion or shrinkage strains are zero,
that is:
eTX ¼ 3ðkT W þ kX yÞ
where kT and kX are the respective coefficients of linear thermal
and humid expansion.
The physical relation between stresses and elastic strains is of
the form
sij ¼ 2Geeij , s ¼ Kðee eTX Þ ð2Þ
 
where sij ¼ sij  sdij is the stress deviator, eeij ¼ eeij  eekk =3 dij is the
elastic strain deviator, s ¼ sii =3 is the spherical stress, ee ¼ eeii is the
elastic volumetric strain, G and K are the elastic shear and bulk
moduli, respectively.
The irreversible strains have to fulfill the constraint following
from the thermodynamic inequality (Kowalski, 2003):
sij e_ irij ¼ sij Ue_ irij þ sUe_ ir Z 0
ir
where e ij is
the irreversible strain tensor, and dot over the symbol
denotes the time derivative.
The constraint (3) implies specific form for the irreversible
strain rate, namely
e_ irij ¼ Cijkl skl with Cijkl sij skl Z 0
 
where eij ¼ eeij þeirij ¼ eij  e=3 dij and e ¼ ee + eir denote the total
strain deviator and the total volumetric strain. The superscript ir
refers here to the viscoelastic (creep) strain, which is an
irreversible one. The new parameters in this relation are Zv and
kv, which denote the viscoelastic shear and bulk moduli,
respectively. The appearance of viscoelastic bulk modulus
assumes the existence of viscoelastic volumetric deformation,
which seems to be justified for porous media.
3.1. Plasticity with work-hardening
In the theory of plasticity for non-porous materials it is
assumed that plastic strains are generated by the stress deviator
only. The plastic strains of cubical dilatation are considered as
insignificant and therefore neglected. In soils or in porous
materials the plastic deformations can be also accompanied by
volumetric dilatation.
The plastic behavior of the material exposed to drying is
reflected in the physical relation between stresses and strains, in
which the moisture content and temperature enter this relation
only through the dependence of the yield function upon these
quantities. The yield function F expresses a relation between
stresses sij, irreversible (plastic) strains eirij  epij , moisture content X,
and temperature T.
As for the plastic strain, it is assumed that it can change during
drying only if at a given moment the yield condition for the
material is satisfied, that is, only if
Fðsij , epij ,X,TÞ ¼ F1 ðsij ÞF2 ðepij ,X,TÞ ¼ 0 ð6Þ
and furthermore that it can change only in accordance with this
ð1Þ relation.
The yield function (6) consists of the stress function F1 and of
the yield function F2, which in general depends on plastic strains
epij , when work hardening takes place, moisture content X and
temperature T.
The states for which F is greater than zero cannot occur, and in
accordance with this theory, such states are termed inadmissible.
The only admissible states are those for which the yield function
is less than zero or equals zero.
Let one to consider a material element at a state ðsij , epij ,X,TÞ
which corresponds to a generic point of a yield surface expressed
by the yield function (6). Let a change in stress, moisture content
and temperature occur. By the postulate previously stated, changes
with e_ pij 40 are possible only if they are consistent with the yield
ð3Þ condition (6) and with the equation of consistency of the form
!
@F1 @F2 _ @F2 _ @F2 p
F_ ¼ s_ ij  Xþ T þ p e_ ij ¼ 0 ð7Þ
@sij @X @T @eij
There are possible three categories into which changes of state
ð4Þ
with imposed rates s_ ij , X_ and T_ may fall:

The above rate equation constitutes sufficient condition (not  Neutral change with the plastic strain constant is possible for
necessary) to satisfy the thermodynamic constraint. The tensorial the stress components, moisture content and temperature,
coefficient Cijkl is, in general, a function of state variables. which change in such a way that the point remains on the
Relations (4) describe viscous or plastic flows of the skeleton, yield surface (6), for it
dependent on the interpretation and specification of the tensor  
@F1 @F2 _ @F2 _
Cijkl. F_ ¼ s_ ij  Xþ T ¼0 ð8Þ
@sij @X @T
In the case of viscoelasticity Cijkl consists of material constants.
An equivalent physical relation for an isotropic viscoelastic
material (Maxwell model) reads (Kowalski and Rajewska, 2002;  Unloading change with the plastic strain constant occurs when
Kowalski, 2003) the function F decreases, that is
 
G K @F1 @F2 _ @F2 _
s_ ij þ sij ¼ 2Ge_ ij , s_ þ s ¼ Kðe_ e_ TX Þ ð5Þ F_ ¼ s_ ij  Xþ T o0 ð9Þ
Zv kv @sij @X @T
 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116 5109

 Plastic loading is when the point remains on the yield surface, By substituting of relation (16) into (14) and combining
and the latter with the equation of consistency (7), one can find that
 
@F1 @F @F @F2 @F1
F_ ¼ s_ ij  2 X_ þ 2 T_ 4 0 ð10Þ L¼ 40 if F ¼0 ð17Þ
@sij @X @T @epij @sij
It is then assumed that only under the last condition the
changes in plastic strain can occur.
The condition of irreversibility (3) imposes a second requirement
Two requirements are imposed by physical considerations on
upon permissible form of the yield function (6). It follows from
the nature of plastic behavior of a material. The first one, called
inequality (3) and relation (14) in the case of the constant hydro-
the condition of irreversibility, is equivalent to that already implied
thermal state, that is:
by Eq. (3), which states that the change in plastic strain is a
dissipative process. This event occurs when the stress state @F1
sij 40 if F ¼0 ð18Þ
remains on the yield surface expressed by the function (6), and @sij
the increase of plastic strain proceeds along a path in the direction
shown by inequality (10). An attempt to change the stress state of
The stress–strain laws relating stresses and strains as just
the material to proceed in the opposite direction results in
derived can be summarized as follows:
unloading with no change in the plastic strains.
 
A second requirement, called the condition of stability, is that a @F1 @F2 _ @F2 _
e_ pij ¼ 0 if F o 0 or if F ¼ 0 and F_ ¼ s_ ij  Xþ T o0
change in stress rate and plastic strain rate should be expressed @sij @X @T
by the relation ð19aÞ
_ ij _ pij
s e ¼ s_ ij e_ pij þ p
s_ e_ Z0 ð11Þ   
1 @F1 @F1 @F2 _ @F2 _
e_ pij ¼ s_ kl  Xþ T if F ¼0 and
with the stress state still remaining on the yield surface (6). L @sij @skl @X @T
 
If this requirement were violated then the test specimen @F1 @F 2 _ @F 2 _
F_ ¼ s_  Xþ T Z0 ð19bÞ
would not attain a stable configuration under a fixed imposed @sij ij @X @T
load.
The stress–strain law relating sij , epij , X and T has to satisfy
the aforementioned two requirements. If the stress–strain where L is defined by Eq. (17) and the form of the yield function F
relation is conformed to the requirement that any results must satisfy Eqs. (15) and (18). Eqs. (19a) and (19b) are termed
based upon it are independent of the time scale employed, the plastic flow rules with the yield condition (6).
then the stress–strain law must be homogeneous in the
quantities s_ ij , e_ pij , X_ and T_ . A simple relation which fulfils this 3.2. Stress–strain laws for perfectly plastic material
condition is

e_ pij ¼ Aijkl s_ kl þBij X_ þCij T_ ð12Þ The stress–strain laws (19a) and (19b) include work hard-
ening, that is, the effect of the plastic strain upon the yield
where the tensor components Aijkl, Bij and Cij are not the condition. In some cases the material can be idealized by
material properties, however, they depend on the state of the assumption that the yield condition is independent of the plastic
material, that is on sij , epij , X, T. strain. Such an idealized material is termed perfectly plastic.
The general relation (12) should yield the result e_ pij ¼ 0 for a In this section the stress–strain relations for the elastic–
perfectly plastic material are determined. It is convenient to
neutral change of stress, moisture content and temperature, that
obtain the form of such relations regarding them as the limiting
is, one for which Eq. (8) applies. A simple way of achieving this
case of a work-hardening material with the yield function of the
result is to set
form
@F1 @F2 @F2
Aijkl ¼ Lij , Bij ¼ Lij , Cij ¼ Lij ð13Þ Fðsij ,cepij ,X,TÞ ¼ F1 ðsij ÞF2 ðcepij ,X,TÞ ¼ 0 with c-0 ð20Þ
@skl @X @T
where the tensor components Lij depend upon the state of the
material. Employing the notation
With expressions (13) relation (12) reduces to
bij ¼ cepij ð21Þ
  
@F1 @F2 _ @F2 _
e_ pij ¼ Lij s_ kl  Xþ T ð14Þ and applying it in the equation of consistency (7) gives
@skl @X @T
 
@F2 p @F @F @F
c e_ ij ¼ 1 s_ ij  2 X_ þ 2 T_ ð22Þ
This relation satisfies the neutral state, and also the loading @bij @sij @X @T
process (10) provided that the tensor Lij satisfies the condition of
stability (11) in each case, also in the constant hydro-thermal Expression (17) now reads
state, that is at X ¼const and T¼const, namely
@F2 @F1
@F1 @F1 L¼c ð23Þ
s_ ij e_ pij ¼ Lij s_ ij s_ 40 if F ¼0 and s_ 4 0 ð15Þ @bij @sij
@skl kl @skl kl

The associated plastic flow rules (19a) and (19b) can now be
It is easy to notice that this condition will be satisfied if
rewritten as follows:
1 @F1  
Lij ¼ ð16Þ
e_ pij ¼ 0 if F o 0 or if F ¼ 0 and F_ ¼
@F1
s_ 
@F2 _ @F2 _
Xþ T o0
L @sij @sij ij @X @T
where L is a positive scalar function of the parameters sij , epij , X, T. ð24aÞ
5110 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

 
@F1 @F1 @F2 _ @F2 _ The second integral in (29) results from Gauss theorem and
e_ pij ¼ l if F ¼0 and F_ ¼ s_ ij  Xþ T ¼0
@sij @sij @X @T hypothesis 2. By decomposition of the stress and strain-rate
ð24bÞ tensors into their spherical and deviatoric parts, the integrand of
(29) may be rewritten as follows:
with
  ðs_ *ij s_ ij Þðe_ *ij e_ ij Þ ¼ ðs_ *ij s_ ij Þðe_ *p _p _ * _ _ *e _ e _ * _ _ *e _ e
ij e ij Þ þ ðs ij s ij Þðe ij e ij Þ þðs s Þðe e Þ

 ð@F2 =@bij Þe_ pij 

l¼  and Fðsij ,X,TÞ ¼ F1 ðsij ÞF2 ðX,TÞ ¼ 0  
ð@F2 =@bij Þð@F1 =@sij Þ * @F1 @F1 1 * 1
c¼0 ¼ ðs_ *ij s_ ij Þ l l þ ðs_ s_ Þðs_ * s_ Þ þ ðs_ * s_ Þ2 ¼ 0
@sij @sij 2G ij ij ij ij K
ð25Þ
ð30Þ
where l is a positive function that may depend on the state of The last two terms of (30) are greater or equal to zero. Therefore,
stress as well as on the strain rate and the history of loading. it remains only to consider the first term on the right-hand side of
this equation. On the basis of unloading and loading conditions
3.3. Uniqueness theorem for perfectly plastic material (24a) and (24b) one can state that it has to be zero,
that is
As might be expected from the fact that for a perfectly plastic  
@F1 * * @F1 * @F1
material the plastic strains are not determined uniquely by the ðs_ ij s_ ij Þðl lÞ ¼ s_ ij  s_ ij ðl* lÞ ¼ 0 ð31Þ
@sij @sij @sij
applied stresses, it is important to have a uniqueness theorem to
serve as a guide for a proper formulation of boundary-value
problems utilizing this theory. Since the stress–strain relations In an elastic region this term is zero since both l and ln are zero.
involve strain rates, it is possible to prove the uniqueness of the In the plastic region, on the other hand, the term in brackets is
stress rates. Then, the stress distribution in a point P at instant t0 zero what results from the loading condition (24b). Therefore as it
for a given loading process starting at t ¼0 is determined in terms follows from (30), it has to be s_ *ij ¼ s_ ij and s_ * ¼ s_ in both elastic
of the stress rates in the time period 0 ot ot0, and by the initial and plastic regions. Thus in what follows s_ *ij ¼ s_ ij in B +S and the
stress state at point P, that is theorem is proven. Then, the uniqueness theorem states that only
Z t0 one state of stress is consistent with the statement of the
sij ðP,t0 Þ ¼ sij ðP,0Þ þ s_ ij ðP,tÞ dt ð26Þ problem.
0

3.4. Yield condition for perfectly plastic material

A uniqueness theorem which accomplishes this purpose is
stated and proven below. The yield function is assumed to be a smooth surface of second
Uniqueness theorem: At any particular instant t0, the values of order in the stress space, dependent on both the stress deviator
sij, X, T, y_ , T_ are given throughout a body occupying the regular and the spherical part of the stress tensor (de Boer and Kowalski,
region B+ S, along with the values of the traction-rates t_ i at each 1983; Kowalski, 2003)
point of the bounding surface S. It is assumed that F(sij, X, T) r0 h i
throughout the body. Then there exists at most one set of functions Fðsij ,X,TÞ ¼ 12 sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 ½LðX,TÞ2 ¼ 0 ð32Þ
s_ ij , defined throughout B+ S at t ¼t0, which satisfies the following where a is a positive constant expressing the share of the
conditions: spherical stress in plastic deformations (a ¼0 for solid materials),
and L(X, T) is the yield stress of the material as a function of
1. s_ ij are in class C(1) (with respect to spatial variables) throughout moisture content X and temperature T.
B+ S. The relation between stress, strain, moisture content and
2. s_ ij,j ¼ 0 throughout B. temperature in the elastic region is given by Eq. (2). In the plastic
3. s_ ij nj ¼ t_ i at each point of S. region the moisture content X and temperature T enter the stress–
4. F_ ¼ ð@F1 =@sij Þs_ ij ðð@F2 =@XÞX_ þ ð@F2 =@TÞT_ Þ r0 throughout the strain relation only through the yield condition. Hence, the
plastic region defined by F(sij, X, T)¼0. appropriate plastic flow rule according to (24b) being compatible
5. There exist displacement rates u_ i in class C(1) (with respect to with (32) becomes
spatial variables) such that the corresponding strain rates
1h i
e_ pij ¼ 0 if sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 o½LðX,TÞ2 or if
e_ ij ¼ 12ðu_ i,j þ u_ j,i Þ ¼ e_ eij þ e_ pij ð27Þ 2
1h i

together with sij and s_ ij satisfy the general stress–strain laws given sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 ¼ ½LðX,TÞ2 and sij s_ ij þ askk s_ kk
2  
by Eqs. (24a), (24b) and (2) for a perfectly plastic material with non- @L _ @L _
o 2L Xþ T ð33aÞ
negative function l. @X @T

Proof. Consider two possible sets of functions ½s_ *ij , e_ *ij , u_ *i  and e_ pij ¼ l
@F
¼ lðsij þ askk dij Þ with l 40 if
½s_ ij , e_ ij , u_ ij  which satisfy all the hypothesis of the theorem. The goal @sij
is to show that s_ *ij  s_ ij throughout B +S. To this aim we write 1h i

s s þ aðskk Þ2 ¼ ½LðX,TÞ2 and sij s_ ij þ askk s_ kk

down the rate of mechanical power done by the external traction- 2 ij ij 
@L _ @L _
rates on the difference of displacement rates ¼ 2L Xþ T ð33bÞ
Z Z Z @X @T
t_ i ðu_ *i u_ i Þ dS ¼ s_ ij nj ðu_ *i u_ i Þ dS ¼ s_ *ij nj ðu_ *i u_ i Þ dS ð28Þ
S S S

From the condition of irreversibility (3), it follows that:

Combining the two last integrals in (28) we obtain "
Z Z h i 1  2 #
1 e_ p
I ¼ ðs_ *ij s_ ij Þðu_ *i u_ i Þnj dS ¼ ðs_ *ij s_ ij Þðe_ *ij e_ ij Þ dB ¼ 0 ð29Þ sij e_ pij ¼ l sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 ¼ e_ pij e_ pij þ ¼ 2lL2 Z0 ð34Þ
S B
l a 3
 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116 5111

so that formulation of such an example is motivated by the plastic

sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi behavior of clay-like material under loading, what is evidenced in
 2
1 1 p p 1 e_ p Fig. 2 when performing one-dimensional tension tests at different
l¼ e_ ij e_ ij þ ð35Þ
L 2 2a 3 moisture contents, and in particular that of 25.5% MC.
where e_ pij ¼ e_ pij þðe_ p =3Þdij and e_ pij ¼ lsij , e_ p ¼ 3alskk . As it is seen in Fig. 2, the moisture content influences the yield
The plastic flow rules (33a) and (33b) associated with the yield stress insignificantly, and the temperature of clay under drying is
condition (32) are not convenient for stress calculations since the rather too low to change significantly the clay physical properties.
choice between equations (33a) and (33b) depends upon In view of this, the volumetric strain rate is given by
the stress rate s_ ij , the quantity being sought at a generic instant s_
e_ ¼ þ3kX X_ ð39Þ
of the calculation. Therefore, the requirement of positive plastic K
power discriminating between the two equations is now utilized The deviatoric strain rate expresses the relation
to put the flow rules in an equivalent, more convenient form.
s_ ij
It is convenient to use relations (2) and calculate the positive e_ ij ¼ þ lsij ð40Þ
plastic power (3) in the form 2G
where
2Gsij e_ pij ¼ 2Gsij ðe_ ij e_ ðeÞ _E _
ij Þ ¼ ðsij s ij sij s ij Þ Z0 ð36aÞ
1 1
l ¼ 0 if s s o L2 or if s s ¼ L2 and sij s_ Eij r 0 ð41aÞ
K se_ p ¼ K s½ðe_ e_ ðTXÞ Þðe_ ðeÞ e_ ðTXÞ Þ ¼ ðss_ E ss_ Þ Z 0 ð36bÞ 2 ij ij 2 ij ij

where s_ Eij ¼ 2Ge_ ij and s_ E ¼ Kðe_ e_ ðTXÞ Þ express the actual stress sij e_ ij 1
l¼ and sij s_ ij ¼ 0 if s s ¼ L2 and sij s_ Eij Z 0 ð41bÞ
rates in the elastic regions, i.e. when e_ pij ¼ 0, and fictitious stress 2L2 2 ij ij
rates in the plastic region when e_ pij a 0. and where s_ Eij
¼ 2Ge_ ij .
Since a is a positive constant and s ¼ skk =3, one can multiply In these relations L is the yield stress of clay in pure shear. The
(36b) by 9a and combine inequalities (36a) and (36b) as follows: definition of l given above is obtained from Eq. (40) by
ðsij s_ Eij þ askk s_ Ekk Þðsij s_ ij þ askk s_ kk Þ Z 0 ð37Þ multiplication it through sij and using both the yield condition
and the time derivative of the yield condition.
Taking into consideration that s_ Eij _ pij
¼ s_ ij when e ¼ 0, and using the Instead of (39) and (40) a single stress–strain relation may be
last condition in the flow rule (33b) for e_ pij a0, the flow rules (33a) written in the form
and (33b) may, therefore, be restated in the following form  
1 s_
1h i e_ ij ¼ ðs_ ij s_ dij Þ þ lðsij sdij Þ þ þ kX X_ dij ð42Þ
e_ pij ¼ 0 if sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 o ½LðX,TÞ2 or 2G 3K
2
1h i where s ¼ sii =3, 2G ¼E/(1 + n), 3K¼E/(1 2n), and E denotes the
if sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 ¼ ½LðX,TÞ2 and Young’s modulus and n is the Poisson’s ratio.
2  
h i @L _ @L _ The problem considered is a plate of thickness 2h and arbitrary
sij s_ Eij þ askk s_ Ekk o 2L Xþ T ð38aÞ
@X @T shape. Rectangular Cartesian coordinate axes x, y, and z are
employed with the origin in the central plane of the plate and the
z-axis perpendicular to its faces (Fig. 4).
@F The faces z¼ 7h are free of traction, and the tractions on the
e_ pij ¼ l ¼ lðsij þ askk dij Þ with l 4 0
@sij edges have zero resultant and zero moment. Attention is confined
1 h i
if sij sij þ aðskk Þ2 ¼ ½LðX,TÞ2 and to a portion of the plate at a sufficient distance from its edges so
2   that all quantities may be considered as functions of distance z
h i @L _ @L _
sij s_ Eij þ askk s_ Ekk Z 2L Xþ T ð38bÞ and time t. Initially, the moisture is distributed uniformly through
@X @T the plate, so the plate is initially free of stress. The stress
components during drying are functions of the prescribed
The flow rules (38a) and (38b) and are more convenient for stress moisture content distributions at a given instant t.
calculations since the criterion for choice between (38a) and (38b) It is convenient to introduce a function of identification g(z, t),
depends upon the strain rates e_ ij and e_ kk through the fictitious which assumes zero when the plate is in the plastic state in point
stresses s_ Eij and s_ Ekk . The strain rates e_ ij and e_ kk are continuous z and time t, and equals to one in the elastic state. With this
functions of time, in contrast to the stress components whose notation, Eq. (42) may be rewritten as
time derivatives at a given point become discontinuous when the  
1 s_
material behavior at that point changes from elastic to plastic in e_ ij ¼ ðs_ ij s_ dij Þ þ ð1gÞlðsij sdij Þ þ þ kX X_ dij ð43Þ
2G 3K
loading or unloading. The continuity of the function in this
criterion is particularly important in numerical computations.

4. Example

4.1. Elastic–perfectly plastic plate

A simple example of stress analysis employing the plasticity

theory outlined above is presented in this section. A plate made of
clay-like material subjected to convective drying is considered
under the assumption that the material is elastic–perfectly plastic
and obeys the moisture and temperature-independent yield
condition, and that the volumetric plastic deformation is
negligible (a ¼0) in comparison to the deviatoric one. The Fig. 4. Plate under drying supported on an impermeable foundation.
5112 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

The state of stress in the plate is described by the following After integrating, we obtain
components:
Zh
szz ¼ sxz ¼ syz ¼ sxy ¼ 0 and sxx ðz,tÞ ¼ syy ðz,tÞ ¼ pðz,tÞ ð44Þ h1 ðtÞf_ 1 ðtÞ þ h2 ðtÞf_ 2 ðtÞ ¼ gðz,tÞkX X_ dz ð53aÞ
h

For this state of stress, the yield condition takes the form
Zh
1
¼ 13p2 ¼ L2 or p2 ¼ 3L2 ¼ Y 2
2 sij sij ð45Þ
pffiffiffi h2 ðtÞf_ 1 ðtÞ þ h3 ðtÞf_ 2 ðtÞ ¼ zgðz,tÞkX X_ dz ð53bÞ
where Y ¼ 3L is the yield stress in tension. h
It follows from the stress–strain relation that for the state of
stress expressed by (44) the only nonzero strain components are: where
ezz, exx ¼ eyy. From (43) we find that Zh Zh Zh
1n p h1 ðtÞ ¼ gðz,tÞ dz, h2 ðtÞ ¼ zgðz,tÞ dz, h3 ðtÞ ¼ z2 gðz,tÞ dz
e_ xx ¼ e_ yy ¼ p_ þð1gÞl þ kX X_ ð46aÞ
E 3 h h h

2n 2p ð54Þ
e_ zz ¼  pð1gÞ
_ l þ kðX Þ X_ ð46bÞ
E 3
Eqs. (53a) and (53b) constitute a pair of linear algebraic
The only nontrivial equation of compatibility for strains is equations whose solution gives f_ 1 ðtÞ and f_ 2 ðtÞ. Having determined
(Nowacki, 1970) these functions we may express the equation for stresses in terms
of the prescribed changes of moisture content X_ ðz,tÞ and function
@2 exx @2 eyy
¼ ¼0 ð47Þ g(z, t).
@z2 @z2
Similarly to (36a) and (36b), the specific stress rate p_ E
expresses the actual stress rate in the elastic region, and a
From (47) it follows that: fictitious stress rate in the plastic region. This specific stress rate is
exx ¼ eyy ¼ f1 ðtÞ þzf2 ðtÞ ð48Þ given by Eq. (51a) for any value of g, that is

where f1 and f2 are the arbitrary functions of time. E h_ i

p_ E ðz,tÞ ¼ f 1 ðtÞ þzf_ 2 ðtÞkX X_ ð55Þ
Substituting (48) into (46a) we obtain 1n
1n p
p_ þ ð1gÞl þ kX X_ ¼ f_ 1 ðtÞ þ zf_ 2 ðtÞ ð49Þ
E 3 From the yield criterion p2 ¼ Y2 (Eq. (45)), it follows that pp_ ¼ 0.
In order to determinate the stresses, it is still necessary to define
The functions f_ 1 ðtÞ and f_ 2 ðtÞare evaluated by use of the conditions s_ Eij analogously to s_ Eij , that is
that the plate edge tractions must have zero resultant and zero 1 4
moment. These conditions, in terms p(z, t), are sij s_ Eij ¼ sij s_ Eij þ skk s_ ll or sij s_ Eij ¼ 2pp_ E  pp_ ð56Þ
3 3
Zh Zh
pðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0, zpðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0 ð50aÞ In Eq. (56) it is set that s_ Ell ¼ s_ ll , since the relation between
h h spherical stress, volumetric strain and moisture content is the
so that same whether there is plastic flow or not. On the basis of relation
(55) we conclude that loading criterion in the form sij s_ Eij Z 0 (see
Zh Zh Eq. (41b)) is equivalent to pp_ E Z 0.
_
pðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0, _
zpðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0 ð50bÞ The stress state in the elastic–plastic plate for prescribed rate
h h of moisture content X_ ðz,tÞ reads
Z t
On the basis of Eq. (49) we state that pðz,tÞ ¼ gðz,tÞp_ E ðz,tÞ dt ð57Þ
0
E h_ i
_
pðz,tÞ ¼ f ðtÞ þ zf_ 2 ðtÞkX X_ for gðz,tÞ ¼ 1 ð51aÞ E
where p_ is given by (55), and
1n 1
and 1 2
gðz,tÞ ¼ 1 for p2=3 o L2 or for p ¼ L2 and pp_ E o 0
3h i 3
pðz,tÞ ¼ f_ 1 ðtÞ þzf_ 2 ðtÞk X_
X
for gðz,tÞ ¼ 0 ð51bÞ ð58aÞ
l
as from the yield condition (45) it results that
gðz,tÞ ¼ 0 for p2=3 ¼ L2 and pp_ E 4 0 ð58bÞ
_
pðz,tÞ ¼0 for gðz,tÞ ¼ 0 ð51cÞ

Functions f_ 1 ðtÞ and f_ 2 ðtÞ present in (55) are determined from

Thus, with the use of (51a) and (51b), Eqs. (50a) and (50b) may be
the simultaneous solution of the equations
rewritten as
Zh Zh
Zh
gðz,tÞp_ E ðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0 and zgðz,tÞp_ E ðz,tÞ dz ¼ 0 ð59Þ
gðz,tÞ½f_ 1 ðtÞ þ zf_ 2 ðtÞkX X_  dz ¼ 0 ð52aÞ
h h
h

Zh Explicit formulas for f_ 1 ðtÞ and f_ 2 ðtÞare determined in the next

zgðz,tÞ½f_ 1 ðtÞ þ zf_ 2 ðtÞkX X_  dz ¼ 0 ð52bÞ section for an example of elastic–plastic plate analysis dried by
h convection from hot air.
 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116 5113

4.2. Drying-induced stresses Fig. 5 presents distribution of moisture content along the plate
thickness in several instants of time.
The equations presented in the preceding section are applied It is seen that the distribution of moisture along the plate
here to elastic–plastic analysis of a kaolin plate supported on an thickness is nonlinear. The open upper surface of the plate is dried
impermeable foundation and exposed to convective drying first, and the bottom surface, which is placed on the impermeable
(Fig. 4). It was stated, (Banaszak and Kowalski, 1999; Kowalski foundation, is dried much later. The nonlinear moisture distribu-
and Rajewska, 2002), that clay-like materials shrink mainly tion leads to non-uniform shrinkage and thus to stress generation
during the so-called constant drying rate period (CDRP). There- (Kowalski et al., 1992).
fore, the distribution and time evolution of the liquid content in With the use of (56) and (59) we obtain
the plate is analyzed in the CDRP only, for which the temperature Zh
of the plate is constant and equal to the wet bulb temperature. h3 h2 z
f_ 1 ðtÞ ¼ kX gðz,tÞX_ ðz,tÞ dz ð64aÞ
During CDRP the moisture is transported from the body interior h1 h3 h22
h
towards the plate surface where it evaporates to the surround-
ings. The amount of liquid transferred into vapor inside the plate
Zh
due to phase transitions is very small and ignored in this analysis. h1 zh2
f_ 2 ðtÞ ¼ kX gðz,tÞX_ ðz,tÞ dz ð64bÞ
The distribution and time evolution of the liquid content in the h1 h3 h22
h
plate is described by the equation of diffusion type
where h1, h2 and h3 are given by (54). With the use of (55) (64a)
@Xðz,tÞ @2 Xðz,tÞ and (64b) we can write
¼D ð60Þ
@t @z2 2 h
Z
where D is termed the effective moisture transport coefficient. EkX 4 h3 h2 z
_p E ðz,tÞ ¼ gðz,tÞX_ ðz,tÞ dz
The boundary and initial conditions for moisture transfer are 1n h1 h3 h22
h
taken in the form 3
Zh
 h1 zh2
@Xðz,tÞ  @Xðz,tÞ  þz gðz,tÞX_ ðz,tÞ dzX_ ðz,tÞ5 ð65Þ
¼ 0, D z ¼ h ¼ kXðz,tÞ9z ¼ h , Xðz,tÞ9t ¼ 0 ¼ X0 h1 h3 h22
@z z ¼ h @z h
ð61Þ

where X0 is the initial moisture content, k is the coefficient of

convective moisture transfer. Let us consider first the elastic state of the plate, that is, g(z, t)¼1
The boundary conditions express the impermeable foundation for  hrz rh and 0 rtrte. In the elastic region h1 ¼2h, h2 ¼0,
surface at the bottom of the plate (z¼ h) and the convection of h3 ¼2h3/3, and Eq. (65) reduces to
moisture to the upper surface of the plate (z¼h). The initial 2 h 3
Z Zh
EkX 1 4 z EkX _
condition expresses uniform distribution of the moisture at the _p E ðz,tÞ ¼ _
X ðz,tÞ dz þ 3 2 _
zX ðz,tÞ dz5 X ðz,tÞ
beginning of drying. 1n 2h h 1n
h h
Using the method of variable separation for solution of the ð66Þ
above initial boundary-value problem, one obtains the solution in
the form of eigenfunction series
  Applying formula (57) we get after integration with respect to
X1
sin 2on  z t time the following formula for stresses in elastic plate:
Xðz,tÞ ¼ 4X0 cos on 1 þ exp o2n ð62Þ
4on þsin 4on h tR 2 h
n¼0 Z t Z
E EkX 1 4
pðz,tÞ ¼ _
p ðz,tÞ dz ¼ ðXðz,tÞX0 Þ dz
where tR ¼h2/D is a reference time, ‘‘cos on(1+ z/h)’’ denotes the 0 1n 2h
eigenfunction, and on is the eigenvalue determined from the 3
h

characteristic equation Zh X
z Ek
þ3 zðXðz,tÞX0 Þ dz5 ðXðz,tÞX0 Þ ð67Þ
B h2 1n
tan 2on ¼ ð63Þ h
on

Parameter B ¼kh/D in this equation expresses the ratio of Substituting into (67) the function X(z, t) expressed by
convective moisture transfer at the boundary to the diffusive Eq. (62) we find the distribution of stress p(z, t) along the plate
transport of moisture inside the plate (a kind of Biot number for height
mass transfer). X1  
EkX sin 2on t
pðz,tÞ ¼ 4X0 exp o2n
1n n¼0
4on þsin 4on tR
    
sin 2on cos 2on 1 sin 2on z
 þ3z þ cos o n 1 þ
2on o2n on h
ð68Þ

Using formula (68) we look for the maximal stress p(z, t) in

point z ranging from h to h, and check whether 9pmax9¼Y.
Integrals (65) and (68) were computed numerically using the
following constants:

E ¼ 800 MPa, n ¼ 0:4, B ¼ 1:2, D ¼ 10-9 m2 =s

X -7
Fig. 5. Distribution of MC in several instants of time (X0 ¼ 0.4). k ¼ 1:2  10 1=s, h ¼ 0:01 m, X0 ¼ 0:4, Y ¼ 130 kPa
5114 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116

Fig. 6a presents the distribution of stresses in the elastic and

elastic–plastic plate along its thickness after 50 min drying time,
and the same in Fig. 6b after 7 h of drying.
As it is seen the plate is in tension at the upper and at the
bottom surfaces, and in compression in the middle part of the
plate. The greatest tensile stresses arise at the upper surface, and
there the stresses reach the yield criterion first (Fig. 6a). The
difference in stress magnitude in elastic and elastic–plastic plate
is significant. As it can be noticed, the plastic zone extends further
in the course of drying from the upper surface towards the plate
interior and new plastic zones arise at the bottom surface and
inside the plate when the compressive stresses reach the yield
stress (Fig. 6b).
Fig. 7 presents the stress distributions in elastic–plastic plate
in different instants of time and illustrates the displacement and
widening of the plastic zones in a dried plate.
Furthermore, Fig. 7 illustrates the stress reverse phenomenon
at the upper surface, that is, a change of the tensile stresses
present at the beginning of drying into compressive stresses in the
final period of drying. This phenomenon can be explained as
follows: when the plate dries, the more dry surface attempts to
shrink but is restrained by the wet core. The surface is stressed in
tension and the core in compression and the plastic strains occur
at the surface. Later, under a surface with reduced shrinkage, the

Fig. 8. Time evolution of the stress in elastic and elastic–plastic plate: (a) at z ¼ h,
(b) at z ¼0, and (c) at z¼  h.

core dries and attempts to shrink causing the stress state to

Fig. 6. Distribution of stresses in elastic and elastic–plastic plate: (a) after 50 min
and (b) after 7 h of drying.
Fig. 7. Distribution of stresses in elastic–plastic plate in different instants of time.
reverse (Milota and Qinglin, 1994).
Fig. 8 presents the stresses as a function of time in elastic and
elastic–plastic plates at the upper surface (Fig. 8a), in the middle
surface (Fig. 8b) and at the bottom surface of the plate (Fig. 8c).
The characteristic feature of the stress development is that the
stress magnitude increases from zero at the beginning to
maximum at some moment and next starts to decrease as the
moisture distribution becomes more and more uniform. Finally,
the stresses disappear at the end of drying, with the exception of
some residual stresses that may left in the elastic–plastic plate
after drying (see Kowalski and Rybicki, 2007).
Fig. 8a, referring to the upper surface, presents a rapid increase
of tensile stresses at the beginning of drying. The stresses in the
elastic plate reach maximum at some instant of time and then
tend to zero as the drying advances. The stresses in the elastic–
plastic plate on the other hand reach the yield stress and remain
constant for a certain period, next start to decrease and to change
their sign at some moment (stress reversal) and finally may a
portion of stress stay forever as the residual stresses.
Fig. 8b presents the stresses in the middle plane of the plate,
which are of compressive nature. They reach a maximum in an
elastic plate and the yield stress in an elastic–plastic plate for a
certain period and then decrease to zero. The stress reverse
phenomenon is not revealed in this case.
The stresses at the bottom surface (Fig. 8c) are similar at the
beginning to those at the upper surface (Fig. 8a) but they are of
 S. J. Kowalski et al. / Chemical Engineering Science 65 (2010) 5105–5116
smaller value. The tensile character of these stresses comes from
the bending effect involved by the strong shrinkage of the upper
surface. The stress reversal effect does not appear at the bottom
surface, similarly as in the middle plane.
5. Summary
The theory of plasticity developed in this paper is able to
describe stresses and permanent deformations in materials
exposed to drying process. A necessity of construction of such a
theory follows from drying science and practice, which reveal that
many materials subjected to drying suffer permanent deforma-
tions, warp, stress reversal, material fracture, etc. Mathematical
modeling and numerical treatment of most these mechanical
phenomena occurring in dried materials is possible on the basis of
the theory of plasticity as presented in this paper.
The experimental material used to develop and validate the
present theory is of clay origin. However, the outline of the
presented here theory is general enough to describe the stresses
and permanent deformations also in other materials subjected to
drying than clay or kaolin, namely, it may be applied to such
materials like gels, polymers, foams, wood, and many others. The
utilization of the derived relationships requires a knowledge of
the properties of the material to which the analysis will be
applied. The essence of the matter lies in determination of the
suitable material coefficients that are involved in the theory.
The solution of the equations describing the drying-induced
stresses and plastic deformations in elastic–plastic materials
subjected to drying requires also specification of both tempera-
ture and moisture content concentration during heating and
drying. An example solution for the stress state in a kaolin plate
subjected to convective drying was worked here using the
experimentally determined coefficients to illustrate the metho-
dology for solving similar problems with other materials.
The conclusion which follows from the example presented in
this paper is that the elastic model applied to description of
drying-induced stresses reveals much greater stresses than the
elastic–plastic model. Another important issue is that the elastic–
plastic model enables description of such phenomena as stress
reverse and residual stresses, what is not possible with much
simpler elastic model.
Nomenclature
Cijkl tensor of material coefficients (Pa s)
D coefficient of effective moisture transport (m2/s)
k coefficient of convective moisture transfer (m/s)
eij strain deviator (dimensionless)
E Young modulus (MPa)
F yield function ((kPa)2)
g(z, t) function of identification (g ¼0 in plastic, g¼1 in
elastic state) (dimensionless)
G elastic shear modulus (MPa)
2h thickness of the plate (m)
h1(t) thickness of elastic zone (m)
h2(t) static moment (m2)
h3(t) inertia moment (m3)
K elastic bulk modulus (MPa)
L yield stress in simple shear (kPa)
p stress in the plate (kPa)
sij stress deviator (kPa)
t time (s)
T temperature (K)
x, y, z Cartesian coordinates (m)
5115
X moisture content (dry basis) (dimensionless)
Y yield stress in tension (kPa)
Greek symbols
a constant in yield condition (dimensionless)
Zv, kv viscous shear and bulk modulus (Pa s)
kT coefficient of thermal expansion (1/K)
kX coefficient of humid expansion (dimensionless)
l parameter of plasticity (Eq. (25)) (1/kPa s)
L positive defined scalar (Eq. (17)) ((kPa)3)
eij strain tensor (dimensionless)
eTX expansion/shrinkage strain (dimensionless)
on nth eigenvalue (dimensionless)
sij stress tensor (kPa)
t traction (kPa)
W ¼T Tr temperature increment (1C)
y ¼X Xr moisture content increment (dimensionless)
Superscripts
e, E elastic
ir irreversible
p plastic
T thermal
X moisture
Acknowledgment
This work was carried out as a part of the research project no.
NN 208020434, sponsored by the Polish Ministry of Education
and Science.
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